Study On Thinking Skills

DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 332 167 CS 010 589
AUTHOR Costa, Arthur L., Ed.

TITLE Developing Minds: Programs for Teaching Thinking.
Revised Edition, Volume 2.
INSTITUTION Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, Alexandria, Va,
REPORT NO ISBN-0-87120-181-X
PUB DATE 91
NOTE 129p.; For volume 1, see CS 010 588. For previous
edition, see ED 262 968.
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DESCRIPTORS *Cognitive Processes; *Comprehension; Concept
Formation; Creative Thinking; *Critical Thinking;
Curriculum Design; Curriculum Development; Curriculum
Evaluation; Decision Making; Developmental Stages;
Elementary Secondary Education; *Problem Solving;
*Program Descriptions; Teaching Methods; *Thinking
Skills
ABSTRACT
This book contains 29 a-ticles which address topics
related to teaching thinking. The articles include: (1) "Balancing
Process and Content" (Marilyn Jager Adams); (2) "Structure of
Intellect (SOI)" (Mary N. Meeker); (3) "Instrumental Enrichment"
(Francis R. Link); (4) "Thinking to Write: Assessing Higher-Order
Cognitive Skills and Abilities" (Frances R. Link); (5) "Expand Your
Thinking" (David Hyerle); (6) "The CoRT Thinking Program" (Edward de
Bono); (7) "IMPACT" (S. Lee Winocur); (8) "Philosophy for Children"
(Matthew Lipman); (9) "The California Writing Project" (Carol Booth
Olson); (10) "Future Problem Solving" (Anne B. Crabbe); (11)
"Thinking Skills: Making a Choice" (Anne H. Nardi and Charles E.
Wales); (12) "Odyssey: A Curriculum for Thinking" (Elena Dworkin
Wright); (13) "Learning to Learn" (Marcia Heiman); (14) "Creative
Problem Solving" (Sidney J. Parnes); (15) "The Junior Great Books
Program of Interpretive Reading and Discussion" (Howard Will); (16)
"Building Thinking Skills" (John D. Baker); (17) "HOTS" (Stanley
Pogrow); (18) "Tactics for Thinking: A Program for Initiating the
Teaching of Thinking" (Robert J. Marzano); (19) "Connections" (Shari
Tishman); (20) "Talents Unlimif.ed" ;Deborah E. Hobbs and Carol L.
Schlichter); (21) "Intelligence Applied: A Triarchic Program for
Training Intellectual Skills" (Robert J. Sternberg); (22) "The
Touchstones Project: Discussion Classes for Students of All
Abilities" (Geoffrey J. Comber and others); (23) "Creative Learning
and Problem Solving" (Scott G. Isaksen and Donald J. Trefflinger;
(24) "Thinking, Reading, and Writing" (Sydney Billig Tyler); (25)
"The Thinking to Learn Series" (Educational Testing Service); (26)
"Developing Thinking Skills" (Margarita A. de Sanchez); (27)
"Cognitive Curriculum for Young Children" (H. Carl Haywood and
others); (28) "Problem-Solving Approach to Mathematics Instruction
Using an Embedded Data Videodisc" (Michael Young and others); and
(29) "How Do You Choose a Thinking Skills Program That Is Right for
You?" (Richard D. Sholseth and Diane Y. Watanabe). (PRA)
loptg
Jr.
PROGRAMS FOR TEACHING THINKING
Revised Edition, Volume 2
Edited by
Arthur L. Costa
alms
An
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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES ment do o01 odOeSSafily terfleatInt Official
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ARABLE OEM pOsition or policy
zeloptpg
PPOGRAMS FOR TEACHING THINKING
Revised Edition, Volume 2
41111111MMINIIIIII110
Edited by
Arthur L. Costa
Alwrow-
ANIENno
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
Alexandria. Virginia
Cover Photos: Phu= 5-5 Oppyrigit C by Sus le ',bluish.
Copyright C 1991 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum ASCD publications present a variety of viewpoints. The views expressed or
Development. All rights reserved. No pan of this publication may be implied in this publication are not necessarily official positions of the
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Library of Congreu Cataloging-in-Publication Information:
Ronald S. Brandt, Executive Editor
Developing minds/edited by Arthur L. Costa,
Nancy Mocirak, Managing Editor, Books
p. cm.
Julie Houtz, Senior Associate Editor
Rev. ed. of: Developing minds. 1985, published in one volume.
Ginger Miller, Associate Editor
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Carolyn Pool, Associate Editor
Contents: Vol. 1. A resource book for teaching thinkingv.
Cole Tucker, Edikrrial Assiskint
2. Programs for teaching thinking.
Gary Bloom, Manager, Design and Production Services
ISBN 0-87120-180-1 (v. 1): $24 95ISBN 0-87120-181-X (v. 2): $10.95
Stephanie Kenwoithy, ASSiStant Manager, Production Services
1. Thought and thinkingStudy and teaching. 2. Cognition in children.
Keith Demmons, Grviphic Designer
LBI590.3.D48 1991
Valerie Sprague, Desleop 7)pesetter
371.2'078dc20 91-3069
CIP
Developing Minds
Programs for Teaching Thinking
Introduction v
1. Balancing Process and Content Marilyn Jager Adams 1
2. Stmcture of Intellect (SOD Mary N. Meeker 3

3. Instrumental Enrichment Frances R. Link 9
4. Thinking to Write: Assessing Higher-Order Cognitive Skills and Abilities Frances R. Link 12
5. Expand Your Thinking David Hyerle 16
6. The CoRT Thinking Program Edward de Bono 27
7. IMPACT S. Lee Winocur 33
8. Philosophy for Children Matthew Lipman 35
9. The California Writing Project Carol Booth Olson 39
10. Future Problem Solving Anne B. Crabbe
40
11. Thinking Skills: Making a Choice Anne H. Nardi and Charles E. Wales 43
12. Odyssey: A Curriculum for Thinking Elena Dworkin Wright 48
13. Learning to Learn Marcia Heiman 51
14. Creative Problem Solving Sidneyi Parnes 54
15. The Junior Great Books Program of Interpretive Reading and Discussion Howard Will 57
16. Building Thinking Skills John D. Baker 59
17. HOTS Stanley Pogrow 62
18. Tactics for Thinking: A Program for Initiating the Teaching of Thinking Robert J. Marzano 65
19. Connections Shari Tishman 69
20. Talents Unlimited Deborah E. Hobbs and Carol L. Schlichter 73
21. Intelligence Applied: A Triarchic Program for TrairMg Intellectual Skills Robert I Sternberg 79
22. The Touchstones Project: Discussion Classes for Students of All Abilities 85
Geoffreyi. Comber, Nicholas Maistrellis, and Howard Zeiderman
23. Creative Learning and Problem Solving Scott G. Isaksen and Donald j. Treffinger 89
24, Thinking, Reading, and Writing Sydney Billig Tyler 94
25. The Thinking to Learn Series Educational Testing Service 98
26. Developing Thinking Skills Margarita A. de Sanchez 101
27, Cognitive Curriculum for Young Children H. Carl Haywood, Penelope Brooks. and Susan Burns 107
28. Problem-Solving Approach to Mathematics Instmction Using an Embedded Data Videodisc 110
Michael Young, James Van Haneghan, Linda Barron, Susan Williams, Nancy Vye, and John Bransford
29. How Do You Choose a Thinking Skills Program That Is Right for You? 114
Richard D. Sholseth and Diane Y. Watanabe
Contributing Authors 121

Index to Authors 122
Introduction
Tbe vast majority of problems, decisions and situations development. Other programs, which consider staff
which confront us daily are tbose which do not have just one development to be helpful but not essential, could be in-
answer Several solutions are usually possible. Logic suggests stalled on the basis of the power of the materials themselves,
that if one can mentally generate many possible solutions, the helpfulness of the teacher guides, or the need for only
the more likeb, it is that an optimum solution will be reacbed. minimal riservice. Still other ptograms regard staff develop-
This is a creative processtheformation of new and useful ment as critical and essential to employing the program with
relationships. elegance, integrity, and philosophical consistency. These
Richard E. Manelis programs are based on the belief, expressed by Francis R.
Link, that there can be "no curriculum development without
staff development," that there is no change without change
Educators considering the selection and installation of in teacher perception, skill, and knowledge. For some
one or more of the available cognitive curriculum schools, however, ease of installation with a minimum of staff
programs are often confused by the vast array of development may be a priority for adoption.
alternatives. Each program serves a different purpose and This volume is a companion to Developing Minds: A
audience, is lodged in a different theoretical home, and Resource Book for 7eacbing Thinking. It (1) describes many
produces different outcomes. of the major programs designed to develop the intellect,
Because of this overload of complexity, educators are (2) identifies the audience for whom each program is in-
tempted to make simplistic decisions based on cursory extended, (3) distinguishes among the several theoretical and
aminations or political urgency, financial economy, or ease philosophical assumptions on which each is based, (4)
of installation. Sometimes schools have shunned the decision provides any research or evidence of the success of the
and have chosen to develop their own programs. program in achieving its intended goals, and (5) supplies
An example of this complex decision is the need for staff names and addresses of contacts for more information. The
developmenta very costly consideration. Some programs last chapter displays how several of the programs focus on
require a massive commitment of time and money for staff similar outcomes.
1
Balancing Process and Content

Marilyn Jager Adams
world is changing rapidly. We cannot even guess the scant information we typically receive about the worid.
what
°The specific knowledge and skills will be critical to They greatly constrain our inferences and expectations, and
any one of Our students in the future. As responsible they strongly bias and even delimit the set of responses that
educators, therefore, we must give students more than we bring to each situation. If you knew nothing at all of dogs,
knowledge: we must develop in them both the acumen to the above conversation might have been quite brief. If Fido
decide, for themselves, what else they need to know and the turned out to be my son instead instead of my dog, you
abilities to acquire that information accurately and efficiently. would want to reconsider your answersas well as your
And we must arm students with more than skills: beyond opinion of me. In the same way that an appropriate schema
knowing how, they must understand how; they must be is crucially helpful, an inappropriate one is likely to be of no
prepared to think about when, why, why not, and how else. help at allor worse.
In short, students must learn to think. Can direct instruc- Just as schemas bundle together information that has
tion in thinking skills help them to do so? Research on human been related in one's experience, they also conceptually
learning and memory suggests that it may (Adams 1989; Res- segregate information that has not. In the interest of cognitive
nick 1987)depending on how it is presented and extended. coherence, this too is of crucial service. To illustrate, imagine
that you are reading about John Dean and the Watergate
--learning, Memory, and Transfer fiasco. Not once as you read along do you confuse "John"
Human memory is nothing like a piecemeal catalog of with King John, Pope John, John Cage, or John who was in
knowledge. Learning does not consist of packing away a your 4th grade class. On reading that John was a Baptist, you
simple list of whatever distinct or nameable concepts one do not take him to be John the Baptist; you do not even
deems worthy of memorization. Instead, the human mind consider the possibility.
absorbs whole situations. Using any familiar parts as its The point is that when you are thinking within any
building blocks, the mind constructs its own detailed and particular schema, your thoughts rarely wander to another,
highly structured representation of every experience. In this no matter how suggestive the cues. As it thus protects you
way, a very real part of the schema we eventually develop from spurious associations and the mental chaos that would
about any concept consists of information about its result therefrom, the partitioning of knowledge by schemas
peripheral details and the contexts in which it has occurred is clearly beneficial. In the interest of teaching for transfer,
(McClelland and Rumelhart 1986). however, it =ries a very unfortunate side effect: it inhibits
Such extended information about concepts is important you from jumping between schemas even when doing so
to our ability to understand what wc see and hear. For would give you the most productive edge on a problem.
example, if I commented on Fido's beautiful coat, you would It should not be surprising, then, that transfer effects
assume that I was talking about his furnot his Burberry tend to be weak when thinking skills are taught in conjunc-
jacket. In the same conversation, I might ask you for suggestion with some particular content area. If the thinking skills
tions on his diet, tips on getting rid of his fleas, or strategies are introduced and developed through specific content, they
for keeping him from snacking on the neighbors' garbage. If will, perforce, be remembered, understood, andimpor-
you are a dog lover, you might have ready responses to each.
tantly---accessible only in relation to that content. The result-
As the example illustrates, schemas organize and fill out ing schema will hang together as a richly interconnected
16.
1
DEVELOPING MINDS: PROGRAMS FOR TEACHING THINKING
complex of knowledge about the topic. Here and there, attack novel problems confidently, rationally, and productively.
embedded within it, will be the thinking skills that were In keeping with the first half of our dilemma, evaluations
taught alongside. From any other domain, it may be possible of efforts to teach thinking skills indicate that success is most
to access these skills through explicit and pointed analogy; often associated with those that include explicit and consis-
depending on how tightly they are encoded in terms of the tent labeling of the principles and processes along with direct
content, it also may not. In any case, their spontaneous instruction in the whens, whys, and hows of their applica-
transfer cannot be expected. tion. In keeping with the second half of our dilemma, success
This may seem a strong argument for teaching thinking is further associated with those experiments that exercise
through the abstract materials of "content-free" approaches. taught principles and processes across a diverse range of
After all, if the skills are developed in the abstract, shouldn't content and problemtypes (see Adams 1989).
they be conceptually neutral and, therefore, equally Courses on thinking skills differ significantly in the
generalizable to all applicable problem domains? extent to which such range is programmed into their se-
Although the argument sounds good, there must be quence and materials. On the other hand, the positive effects
something wrong with it. The disappointing transfer effects of thinking skills instruction are also heightened when
of the content-free curriculums are repeated in miniature teachers transport the principles, processes, and terminology
across scores of training and transfer studies in the to the other subjects (Savell, Twohig, and Rachford 1986).
psychological literature. Although this tendency is often treated as a confounding
Can a curriculum really be content-free? The answer is factor in formal evaluation efforts, theory urges that it be
no, The content of a curriculum is the medium of instruction. strongly and methodically suppe-ted wherever thinking
It is the materials to which the to-be-developed skills are skills programs are earnestly undertaken, The most impor-
applied and through which they are defined and exercised. tant consideration in establishing effective instruction in
In terms of content, the difference between content-oriented thinking skills is less likely to be which program you choose
and content-free curriculums is not whether or not they have than the convincingness with which you and your colleagues
it; it is whether the content they do have consists of traditional can extend its lessons and utility to the rest of the curriculum.
classroom matter or, say, abstract graphic designs. Most
important, and whichever the case, the content of the course Summary
defines the context within which the thinking skills will be If I have reinvented the content-process debate through
retained and through which they may be recalled. this discussion, I have also laid it bare. Process is about
interpretation and understanding. Content is about
The Dilemma and Its Solution knowledge. Knowledge without the ability to explore its
With an eye toward choosing the optimal approach to relations is useless. And cognitive theory makes clear that
teaching thinking skills, the horns of the dilemma are now understanding without knowledge is not merely impractical
clearly defined: but psychologica4 impossible.
(1) If the goal of the course is to develop a schema that Thinking skills curriculums are expressly about process.
is fundamentally about thinking, then the course should As such, they offer an iricomrarable means of providing
consistently and unambiguously be about thinking. To the direct instruction on general and powerful principles and
extent that it is instead centered on mathematics or biology modes of thought. Yet the power of a course on thinking
or the Civil War, so too will be the thinking skills that it was skills lies in extending and interlacing the processes thus
intended to develop. developed with other aspects of the students' schooling and
(2) If the goal of the course is to maximize transfer, the their daily lives.
materials or content through which the lessons are
developed should reflect as diverse and broadly useful a REFERENCES
range of problem types and content as is possible. If the Adams. M. J. (1989). "Thinking Skills Curricula: Their Promise and
course materials are divorced from real-world situations, the Progress." Educational Psychologist, 24: 25-77,
lessons they are designed to instill must also be. McClelland. J. L. and D. E. Rumelhart. (1986). Paiullel Distributed
The significance of this dilemma lies in recognizing that Processing, Vol. 2: Psychological and Biological Models.
transfer is the primary goal of a course on thinking. Indeed, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
if the processes don't transfer, they cannot even be called Resnick, L.B. (1987). Education and Learning To Think
Washington. D.C.: National Academy Press.
thinking. They can be called learning, or memory, or habit, Savell. J. M.. P. T. Twohig, and D. L. Rachford. (1986). Empirical
but not thinking. The purpose of a course on thinking is to Status of Feuerstein's "Instrumental Enrichment" (RE) as a
enhance students' abilities to face new challenges and to Method of Teaching SktILs. (Tech. Rep. No. 699), Arlington, Va.:
U.S. Army Research Institute.
2
2
Structure of Intellect (SOI)

Mary N. Meeker
Understanding one's own magical mystery is one of the By 1974 we had validated 26 (of the known 96) factored
teacher's most important assets if he is to understand that abilities necessary for successful learning. This research led
everyone is thus differently equipped. to the development of various SOI learning abilities tests. The
-Buckminster Fuller first norming (Form A) was stratified economically and eth-
nically for 2,000 students at each grade level.
Guilford's theory of intelligence, the Structure of Intel- Relationship of SOI Abilities

ect (SOI), was first applied in 1962 in Los Angeles to Higher-Level Thinldng Abilities
County as a measure of human intellectual abilities.
Many administrators have regarded SOI as a program If we are to design curriculum to develop higher-level
primarily for the gifted because its first use was to identify thinking abilities, it is necessary to differentiate between
intellectual abilities that differentiated gifted students in basic and higher-level critical thinking abilities. Just as basic
California. reading differs from advanced reading, basic thinking
But all students have intelligence. The SOI answers abilities also differ from critical thinking abilities. The
-what kind" instead of "how much." That is, the SOI-LA developmental aspects of scope and sequence are shown in
assessments determine 26 intellectual abilities in all kinds of
students. Educators and psychologists can obtain a complex
documentation of at least 96 of the 120 kinds of thinking
abilities (Meeker and Bonsall 1962, 1969; Meeker and Meeker FIGURE 1
1975), including preparation abilities that lead to higher-level
critical thinking abilities. Since 1962 SOI has been used to:
SOI-LA Test Reliabilities
Teach thinking skills and abilities to all age groups.
Test - Retest Alternate
Teach creativity (divergent production). Form-A Form-8 Form
Teach reasoning and higher-level critical thinking Overall .93 .92 .91
skills ( evaluation) and abilities. Figural-learner .79 .79 .77
Identify SOI learning abilities that are necessary for Symbolic-learner .90 .90 .89
learning academics and teach them to students who have not Semantic-learner .87 .87 .85
yet developed these abilities. General comprehension .87 .88 .85

.76 .74
In 1962, I applied the SOI theory to analyses of the Binet Memory .78
.80
Analytic problem-solving .81 .81
and WISC tests and derived a profile of intelligence by basing
.75 .75 .74
these IQ tests on a theory of intelligence (rather than on their Evaluation
.60 .66 .63
Creativity
probability-based foundation). This profile enabled
.90 .90 .88
psychologists to determine in which areas students were Reading
Ready-readiness .81 .78 .75
gifted and which of their abilities seemed underdeveloped Reading-concept use .89 .86 .85
(Meeker and Bonsall 1962). Arithmetic .85 .35 ,85
Mathematics .76 .76 .76
3
Figures 3 and 4 (R. Meeker 1983). Each shows how reasoning bal (semantic) intelligence. Figure 3 defines specific kinds of
abilities are differentiated between the two fundamental thinking abilities.
curriculums for language arts and arithmetic-math-science, Just as IQ tests are global and nonspecific, a general,
and how basic learning abilities are differentiated (and fun- unspecified critical thinking program does not provide infor-
damental) for advanced critical thinking and reasoning mation about kinds of thinking or their requisites. For this
abilities. The top portion of each figure lists the learning reason, we need a road map for teaching higher-level think-
abilities required to achieve mastery of basic reading (Figure ing abilities and an assessment method to chart diagnostically
2) and basic arithmetic (Figure 3). where students are and where we have taken them. It is
Start at the top of the chart in Figure 3, which shows the unconscionable to allow students to fail in critical thinking
sequence of foundational abilities involved in learning each programs because the teacher has not assessed whether the
discipline, which, if developed, leads to curriculum mastery students have the basic intellectual abilities to paiticipate.
for knowledge. These SOI abilities lay the basic foundation Figure 4 lists the sequence of abilities required for bring-
for sequencing the learning abilities; once mastered, they ing students to critical thinking competency, which builds on
allow the student's learning of higher-level reasoning or arithmetic and mathematics knowledge. Once students have
critical thinking abilities. The scope of critical thinking will mastered the foundational abilities necessary for learning
be determined by the knowledge of subject matter. basic arithmetic, they can perform successfully in mathe-
Figure 3 lists six reading and language arts foundation matics, provided they have also developed the intermediate
abilities. If any one is undeveloped, specific reading spatial abilities. Figure 4 lists the kinds of thinking abilities
problems occur. (The Teacher's Guide explains how to use students need for competency in computer literacy, algebra,
SOI test results.) Once these abilities are developed, students mechanical drawing, sciences, and geometry. By mastering
can develop the intermediate abilities, which lead to ac- the contents of these disciplines, students are prepared to
complishment of the critical thinking activities requiring ver- develop the abilities necessary for critical thinking: analytic
FIGURE 2
Abilities Identified as Being Necessary
For Success in Reading and Arithmetic*
READING (Foundational abilities): ARITHMETIC:

CFUVisual closure CFSConstancy of objects in space (Piaget)"
CFCVisual conceptualization CFTSpatial conservation (Piaget)"
EFUVisual discrimination CSRComprehension of abstract relations"
EFCIudging similarities and matching of concepts CSSComprehension of numerical progressions
MSU (visual)Visual attending MSU (audikry)Auditory attending
_ MSS (auditory)Auditory sequencing
_
MSS (visual)Visual concentration for sequencing
MSIInferential memory"
READING (Enabling skills): ESCjudgment of arithmetic similarities
CMUVocabulary of math and verbal concepts ESSJudgment of correctness of numerical facts
CMRComprehension of verbal relations NSSApplication of math facts
CMSAbility to comprehend extended verbal information NSIForm reasoning (logic)"
MFUVisual memory for devils "pre-math abilities
NSTSpeed of word recognition
CREATIVITY:
WRITING: DFUCreativity with things (figural-spatial)
NFUPsycho-motor readiness DSRCreativity with math facts (symbolic)
DMUCreativity with words and ideas (semantic-verbal)
'See ERIC 11-0-2822 for confirmatory studies.
4
STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT
FIGURE 3
SO! Abilities to Basic Learning Skills
Through Curriculum to Critical Thinking
READING: SOI FOUNDATIONAL ABILITIES
VISUAL CLOSURE (CFU)

VISUAL CONCEPTUALIZATION (CFC)
VISUAL DISCRIMINATION (EFU)
JUDGING SIMILARITY OF CONCEPTS (EFC)
VISUAL ATTENDING (MSU-V)
VISUAL SEQUENCING (MSS-V)
00-111-- FIGURAL METHODS

SYMBOLIC METHODS
SEMANTIC METHODS
BASIC READING
READING: SOI INTERMEDIATE ABILITIES

VOCABULARY (CMU)
COMPREHENSION OF VERBAL RELATIONS (CMR)
COMPREHENSION OF EXTENDED INFORMATION (CMS)
VISUAL MEMORY FOR DETAILS (MFU)
SPEED OF MRD RECOGNITION (NST)
READING: 501 ADVANCED ABILITIES

COMPREHENDING SEMANTIC INTERRELATIONS (CMS)
EVALUATING SEMANTIC INTERRELATIONS (EMS)
PRODUCING SEMANTIC SYSTEMS (NMS)
INVENTING SEMANTIC SYSTEMS (DMS)
COMPREHENDING VERBAL TRANSFORMATIONS (CMT)
DISCRIMINATING VERBAL TRANSFORMATIONS (EMT)
PRODUCING VERBAL TRANSFORMATIONS (NMT)
DESIGNING VERBAL TRANSFORMATIONS (DMT)
COMPREHENDING SEMANTIC IMPLICATIONS (CMI)
JUDGING SEMANTIC CONSEQUENCES (EMI)--.
PRODUCING SEMANTIC IMPLICATIONS (NMI)
DERIVING NOVEL SEMANTIC CONSEQUENCIS (DMI)
ANALYTIC REASONING (CRITICISM, TEXT ANALYSIS)

INFERENTIAL REASONING (FORENSICS)
9111111110.10
DEDUCTIVE REASONING (VERBAL LOGIC)
041/11MIMPUIIIIIIN
N1111/00001111/111
INDUCTIVE REASONING (HYPOTHESES GENERATION)
DECISION MAKING (PRACTICAL JUDGMENT)
Copyright 1962 501 Institute
5
1
FIGURE 4
SOl Abilities to Basic Learning Skills
Through Curriculum to Critical Thinking
ARITHMETIC: SO1 FOUNDATIONAL AWLITIES
COMPREHENSUN OF NUMERICAL PROGRESSIONS (CSS)

SELECTING CORRECT NUMERICAL PROCESSES (ESS)
APPLICATION OF NUMERICAL FACTS (NSS)
AUDITORY ATTENDING AND CONCENTRATION (MSU-A)
AUDITORY SEQUENCING (MSS-8)
CONCEPTUALIZING ARITHMETIC PROCESSES (ESC)
MA NIPU LATIVES
ROTE SKILLS
PAPER/PENCIL
rARITHMETIC
MATHEMATICS: SOI ABILITIES
CONSTANCY OF OBJECTS IN SPACE (CFS)

SPATIAL CONSERVATION (CFT)
COMPREHENSION OF ABSTRACT RELATIONS (CSR).
INFERENTIAL MEMORY (MSI)
FORMAL REASONING AND LOGIC (NSI)
MATHEMATICS
SOI ADVANCED SYMBOLIC ABILITIES
COMPREHENDING SYM3OLIC INTERRELATIONS (CSS)

EVALUATING SYMBOLIC INTERRELATIONS (ESS)
PROBLEM SOLUTIONS OF SYMBOLIC SYSTEMS (NSS)
INVENTING SYMBOLIC SYSTEMS (DSS)
COMPREHENDING NOTATIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS (CST)
DISCRIMINATING NOTATIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS (EST)
PRODUCING NOTATIONAL TRANSFORMATIONS (NST)
DESIGNING NOTATK)NAL TRANSFORMATK)NS (DST)
COMPREHENDING SYMBOLIC IMPLICATIONS (CSI)
JUDGING SYMBOLIC CONSEQUENCES (ESI)
PRODUCING SYMBOLIC IMPUCATIONS (NSI)
DERIVING NOVEL SYMBOLIC CONSEQUENCES (DSI)
JUDGING SYMBOLIC DETAILS (ESU)
ICRITICAL THINKING: SYMBOLIC I
ANALYTIC REASONING (SYMBOLIC TRANSLATION)

INFERENTIAL REASONING (PROBLEM SOLVING, DEBUGGING)
DEDUCTIVE REASONING (SYMBOLIC LOGIC, NOTATIONAL LANGUAGE)
DECISION MAKING (PROGRAM DESIGN) -1110--
Copyright 1962 SOI Institute
6
19
STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT
reasoning, inferential reasoning, deductive and inductive sessments are teacher-group administered, they allow ad-
reasoning and decision making. ministrators to evaluate the effectiveness of any change ir
the curriculum by providing assessment information both
before and after the change has been made.
A Plan for a Critical Thinking Curriculum The negative aspect of SOI assessments and instruc-
There are differences between critical thinking abilities tional materials usually centers around their comprehen-
and learning abilities and between the kinds of critical think- siveness. To use SOI requires two days of training and
ing abilities required for a verbal curriculum and for a quan- retraining: (1) teachers need training in diagnostic proce-
titative curriculum. ThcrP are also developmental differences dures, and (2) SOI materials require specific rather than
in the sequence and levels of difficulty of those abilities. The gc:.eral methodology.
developmental aspects of presenting critical thinking abilities The advantage of using SOI is that it defines 90 thinking
are shown in Figure 5. abilities ranging from the basic foundational level to ad-
Educators are always faced with choosing the kind of vanced higher-order thinking abilities. The greatest payoff is
program best suited to the needs of their students and their increased academic achievement as measured by stand-.
budgets. This brief description of the Structure of Intellect ardized achievement tests. The spillover into improved self-
attempts to show the complexity of critical thinking abilities concept is an affective bonus.'
and the importance of separating verbal and quantitative SOI is complex and precise. It is this precise clarity that
preparation. SOI allows us to start even our youngest stu- makes it such a powerful tool for education.
dents on the ladder of developing higher-level reasoning and
critical thinking abilities. More important, because SOI as-
FIGURE 5
Developmental Aspects of Presenting Critical Thinking Abilities
SOI TEACHING
REASONING ABILITY MODULES GRADE
SUBIECT MATTER
Language Arts/Reading Basic

Concept formation CFC Primary
Differentiating concepts EFC Primary
Comprehending verbal relations CMR Primary
Comprehending verbal systems CMS Elementary
Enrichment
Memory for implied meanings MMI Elem.-H.S.
Judging verbal implications EMI E lem .-H .S.
Problem solving NST All
Interpreting verbal meanings NMR H .S.
Using analogical ideas NMI Elem.-H.S.
Creative writing DMU All
Creative interpretation DMT High School
Creative grammatics DMS Elem.-H.S.
Arithmetic, Mathematics, Basic

Science Preparation Comprehending space CFS All
Conserving abstracts in spatial perspectives CFT All
Deduction/formal logic NSI Elem.-H .S.
Inductive reasoning ESS Elem.-H.S.
Decision making ESC All
Enrichment
Discriminating notational transformations EST High School
Producing notational transformations DST High School
Comprehending inferences CMI High School
judging symbolic results ESI High School
Producing symbolic implications NSI High School
Creative consequences DS' High School
REFERENCES Meeker, R. (1983). Report prepared for California State Superinten-

dent of Schools and presented to the Urban Task Force of
Guilford, J. P. (19n Way Beyond the IQ. Great Neck, N.Y.: Creative Superintendents, Puerto Rico, Havana.
Synergetic Associates.
Meeker, M.. and M. Bonsai!. (1962). "The NSWF." Los Angeles
County Department of Education, Research. and Guidance.
Nom
Meeker, M. (1969). The SOL Its Uses and Interpretations. Columbus,
Ohio: Charles Merrill. Other documents that may be of interest to readers include
Meeker, M., and R. Meeker. (1975). Teachers' Guide to Using SOI a sample computer analysis that charts a student's intellectual
Test Results. Vida, Oregon: SO1 Systems. profile of 26 SOl abilities and a chart that depicts the relationship
Meeker, M., R. Meeker, and G. Roid. (1984). The Basic SOI Test of SOI abilities to school curriculum programming. Both are avail-
Manual. Los Angeles: WPS. able from the SO1 Institute (see box for address and telephone).
Structure of the Intellect (S0l)

Developer: Mary Meeker (based on Guilford's S.I. Theory)
Goal: Equip students with the necessary intellectual skills to learn subject matter and critical thinking.
Sample skill: NMI: coNvergent production of

seMantic
Implications (choosing the best word)
Assumptions: Intelligence consists of 120 thinking abilities that are a combination of operations (such as comprehending, remembering,
and analyzing); contents (such as words, forms, and symbols); and products (such as single units, groups, relationships).
Twenty-six of these factors are relevant to success in school.
Individual differences in these factors can be assessed with the SOI-LA tests and improved with specifically designed 501
materials and computer games.
Intelided audience: All students and adults.
Process: Students use materials (some three-dimensional) prescribed for them based on a diagnostic test. Computer software gives
analyses and prescriptions.
Time: Varies, but can be 30-minute lessons twice a week until abilities are developed on post-assessment.
Available from: 501 Institute, P.O. Box D, Vida, OR 97488. Telephone:503-896-3936.
8
I4
3
Instrumental Enrichment
Frances R. Link
There is no curriculum development without staff plement to help students get the most out of all opportunities
to learn and grow. and to make bridges to all subject areas.
development.
Frances Link A three-year program is outlined here. A two-year program
is under production.
In the first-year curriculum, students use the following
Improving the overall cognitive performance of the low- instruments:
achieving adolescent demands a broad strategy of inter- Organization of Dotshelps sudents find the relatbn-
vention that focuses on the process of learning rather shipsshapes, figures, and other attributesamong a field
than on specific skills and subject matter. Instrumental En- of dots, much the way we pick out constellations in the night
richment is such a program: a direct and focused attack on sky, In this way, students begin developing strategies for
linking perceived events into a system yielding comprehen-
those mental processes, which, through absence, fragility, or
inefficiency, are to blame for poor intellectual or academic sible information that can be a basis for understanding and
performance. logical response.
The core of the Instrumental Enrichment program Orientation in Space /promotes the creation of
which was developed by Reuven Feuerstein, an Israeli clini- specific strategies for differentiating frames of reference in
space, such as left, right, front, and back.
cal psychologistis a three-year series of problem-solving Comparisonfosters precise perception, the ability to
tasks and exercises that are grouped in 14 areas of specific
cognitive development. They are called instruments rather discriminate by attribute (equaVunequal, similar/dissimilar),
than lessons because in themselves they are virtually free of and the judgment necessary to identify and evaluate
specific subject matter. Each instrument's true goal is not the similarities and differences.
Analytic Perceptionaddresses the ability to analyze
learner's acquisition of information but the development,
refinement, and crystallization of those functions that are component parts in order to find how they relate to each
prerequisite to effective thinking (see Figure 1). In terms of other as well as how they contribute to the overall character
behavior, Instrumental Enrichment's ultimate aim is to trans- of the whole they compose.
In the second-year curriculum, students use these instru-
form retarded performers, to alter their characteristically
passive and dependent cognitive style to that of active, ments:
Categorizationhelps students learn the underlying
self-motivated, independent thinkers.
principles and strategies for creating conceptual sets and
categories, a vital prerequisite for higher mental processing.
The Instruments Instructionsemphasizes the use of language as a sys-
The instruments provide sufficient material for one- tem for both encoding and decoding operational processes
period lessons given two to five days a week. Although a on levels of varying complexity. Exercises focus on critiquing
instruction, rewriting instructions to supply missing relevant
three-year sequence is recommended, the program may be
implemented in two years, depending on the class cur- data, and creating instructions and directions for others to
riculum and students' needs. Instrumental Enrichment is not follow.
intended to replace traditional content areas, but as a sup-
9 te
FIGURE to isolate the factors involved in evaluating or predicting

Instrumental Enrichment Cognitive Functions outcomestime, distance, velocityand to find the inter-
relationships among those factors.
GATHERING ALL THE INFORMATION WE NEED (INPUT) Numerical Progressionsnromotes the ability to per-
. Using our senses (listening, seeing, smelling, tasting, touching, ceive and understand principles and formulas manifested in
feeling) to gather clear and complete information (clear per-
ception). numerical patterns.
2. Using a system or plan so that we do not skip or miss some- Family Relationspromotes understanding of how in-
thing important or repeat ourselves (systematic exploration). dividual roles in hierarchical organizations defme the net-
3. Giving the thing we gather through our senses and our expe-
rience a name so that we can remember it more clearly and work of relationships that are encountered in daily life and
talk about it (labeling). work.
4. Describing things and events in terms of where.and when they Illustrationsencourages spontaneous awareness that
occur (temporal and spatial referents).
5. Deciding on the characteristics of a thing or event that always a problem exists, analysis of why it exists, and projection of
stays the same, even when changes take place (conservation, cause-and-effect relationships.
constancy, and object permanence). In the third-year curriculum, students are introduced to
6. Organizing the information we gather by considering more
than one thing at a time (using two sources of information). four instruments:
7. Being precise and accurate when it matters (need for preci- Transitive Relations and Syllogismfosters higher-
sion). level abstract and inferential thought. Transitive Relations
II. USING THE INFORMATION WE HAVE GATHERED deals with drawing inferences from relationships that can be
(ELABORATION) described in terms of "greater than," "equal to," or "less than."
1. Defining the problem, what we are being asked to do, and
what we must figure out (analyzing disequilibrium). Syllogisms deals with formal propositional logic and aims at
2. Using only that part of the information we have gathered that promoting inferential thinking based on local evidence. Stu-
is relevant, that is, that applies to the problem and ignoring
dents learn to critique analytic premises and propositions.
the rest (relevance).
3. Having a good picture in our mind of what we are looking for Representational Stencil Designrequires students to
or what we must do (interiorization). analyze a complex figure, identify its components, and then
4. Making a plan that will include the steps we need to take to recreate the whole mentally in color, shape, size, and
mach our goal (planning behavior).
5. Remembering and keeping in mind the various pieces of in- orientation.
formation we need (broadening our mental field). Orientation in Space IIcomplements earlier instru-
6. Looking for the relationship by which separate objects, events,
and experiences can be tied together (projecting relation-
ments by extending students' understanding of relative posi-
ships). tions from a personal orientation to the stable, external
7. Comparing objects and experiences to others to see what is system represented by the points of the compass.
similar and what is different (comparative behavior).
1r-finding the class or set to which the new object or experience
Mediated learning experience may be viewed as the
belongs (categorization). means by which nascent, elementary cognitive sets and
9. Thinking about diffe;ent possibilities and figuring out what habits are transformed into the bases for effective thinking.
would happen if we were to choose one or another (hypo-
Consequently, the earlier and the more often children are
thetical thinking).
10. Using logic to prove things and to defend our opinion (logical subjected to mediated learning experiences, the greater will
evidence). be their capacity to efficiently perceive, understand, and
III. EXPRESSING THE SOLUTION TO A PROBLEM (OUTPUT) respond to information and stimulation in and out of school.
1. Being clear and precise in our language to be sure that there
is no question as to what the answer is. Putting ourselves into
the "shoes" of the listener to be sure that our answers will be Teacher Training
understood (overcoming egocentric communication).
2. Thinking things through before we answer instead of imme- Whatever the particular focus of an instrument, its larger
diately trying to answer and making a mistake, and then trying
again (overcoming trial and error).
purpose is always the further development of students' con-
3. Counting to ten (at least) so that we do not say or do something scious thought processes and their discovery of practical
we will be sorry for later (restraining impulsive behavior). applications of those processes in and out of school. In this
4. Not fretting or panicking if for some reason we cannot answer
effort, teachers play the crucial role as mediating agents.
a question even though we "know" the answer. Leaving the
question for a little while and then, when we return to it, using Teacher training involves a minimum of 45 hours of
a strategy to help us find the answer (overcoming blocking). inservice annually, plus on-the-job use of exercises in the
classroom, if possible, while training is in process. Training
programs are custom designed to fit the inservice schedules
Temporal Relationsaddresses chronological time, of school systems.
biological time, and other temporal relations. Students learn
I NSTRUMENTAL ENRICHMENT
Instrumental Enrichment
Developer: Reuven Feuersteir.
Goal: To develop thinking and problem-solving abilities in order to become an autonomous learner.
Sample skills: Classification/comparison, orientiion in space, recognizing relationships, following directions, planning, organizing, logical
reasoning, inductive and deductive reasoning, synthesizing.
Assumptions: Intelligence is dynamic (modifiable), not static.

Cognitive development requires direct intervention over time to build the mental processes for learning to learn.
Cognitive development requires mediated learning experiences.
Research: Empirical data exist to document improvement in cognitive functions; improvement in self-concept; improvement in reading,
writing, and mathematics subjects after two years of implementation.
Intended audience: Upper elementary, middle, and secondary levels.
Process:
Students do paper-and-pencil "instruments," which are introduced by teachers and followed by discussions for insight to
bring about transfer of learning. The teacher becomes the mediating agent. The cognitive tasks in the instruction materials
are not sub'ect-specific but parallel the subject matter being taught by the teacher.
Time: Two to three hours a week (plus bridging to subject matter and life skills) over a two- to three-year period.
Available from: Curriculum Associates, Inc., 1211 Connecticut Avenue, NW, Suite 414, Washington, DC 20036. Telephone: 202-293-1760.
(For teaching training, contact Frances R. Link.)
11
4
Thinking to Write:
Assessing Higher-Order
Cognitive Skills and Abilities
Frances R. Link
Since 1956, when Jerome S. Bruner, Jacqueline J. Good- thinking. Students learn to monitor their own performance
now, and G. A. Austin published their seminal text, A and become aware of their ability to learn how to learn, thus
Study of Thinking, researchers have made significant gaining insight into their own cognitive processes. And one
progress in uncovering exactly what mental processes lie extraordinary side effect of the Work Journal has been im-
beneath the terms "thinking" and "learning." Finding proved writing and oral language skills.
strategies that provide evidence for the transfer of learning
has also been a primary goal of the research on thinking, but The Work Journal as an Evaluation Instrument
the development of these strategies and of strategies for
placing the student in control of learning how to think are Writing and speaking are powerful tools in thinking,
learning, and evaluating cognitive processes. Over the years,
still in the embryonic stage.
Much of this research has concentrated on the relation- however, there seems to be less and less class time devoted
to writing activities. The Student Work Journal is a tool that
ship between cognition and language. Although research in
this area is in a state of transition, one of the most common encourages continuous writing in all classrooms.
theories is that language and cognition have a kind of The Work Journal differs from a personal diary or un-
reciprocal relationship. The most logical place to test such a structured journal in two ways: it is intended to be shared
theory is the classroom, where practitioners have a natural orally and to produce evidence of how writing becomes a
environment in which to explore the possible relationships facilitator rather than an inhibitor of thought. This notion is
between language and cognition. as important for teachers as for students. The invention of
It's time that we encourage curriculum workers and "mediated" or guided, structured writing experiences used
teachers to swing away from elaborate statistical methods or in the Student Work Journal reduces student writing anxiety
tight experimental designs and take advantage of much more and allows teachers to assess students' understanding of
realistic studies of an individual child or "observational" concepts, principles, and strategies used in problem solving,
studies of groups of students. The teacher then becomes the and to evaluate their organizational skills, summative be-
havior, and awareness of the mental processes used in struc-
key person involved in collecting and documenting changes
tured writing experiences. Each mediated writing experience
in behavior and evidence for transfer of learning. In "Think-
has one or more cognitive demands. It may require students
ing to Write," the Student Work Journala "mediated writing
experience"is an important evaluation instrument. It to compare, to provide relevant details, or to give evidence
enables the teacher and the student to analyze narrative of planning or bridging by making connections and trans-
forming knowledge, as shown in Figure 1 (an example of a
Student Journal page).
Copyright © 1990 by Frances 11. Link.
18
12
THINKING TO WRITE
FIGURE 1
Thinking to Write
Evaluation Procedures
SEEING PATTERNS MEDIATED WRITING EXPERIENCE 13a
1. Think about a school, ;.ommunity, or national election in which the outcome might be uncertain.
2. Write a sentence describing this election, including when and where it will take place.
3. Write a sentence explaining something about either the candidates or the issues that would make predicting the outcome difficult.
4. How do you think that voter surveys or polls inform the voters?
5. Write a concluding sentence telling how you think surveys enable us to make predictions,
Title: Date:
Word List
cause
cycle
effect
election
equality
feminism
forecast
history
integration
issue
numbers
officers
opinion
optimistic
pattern
political
PovertY
predict
president
reason
secretary
AREAS OF COGNITIVE FOCUS 13a

Gathering relevant information
Conceptualizing
Engaging in critical analysis
Locating events in time and space
Making predictions
Using logical evidence
EVALUATION QUESTIONS
1. Did the student give details of event, time, and place?
2. Was evidence given for the difficulty of predicting?
3. Could the student conceptualize the effect of surveys on voting?
*1987 Curnculum Development Associates, Inc.
The links between writing tasks, strategies, and and teacher to assess understanding and the ability to "trans-
metacognitive elements may become increasingly evident to fer' strategies and understanding to new situations The
the learner and to the teacher. The journal helps the student evidence makes clear for them what is known and not
Thinking to Write
Devdoper: Frances R. Link, President, Curriculum Development Associates, Inc.
Goal: To provide a school-based evaluation system that focuses on teaching thinking, writing, and problem solving.
Sample skills: The evaluation system addresses cognitive functions and operations of higher-order thinking, such as those implicit in:
planning, strategies for problem solving, decoding and encoding information and symbols, setting priorities, logical reasoning,
and concept development.
Assumptions: The curriculum, the learner, and the teacher are the architects of school assessment and evaluation studies. Thinking abilities
and skills are the core of the curriculum. The assessment system acts as a positive force to improve teaching, to better learning,
and to inform curriculum change.
Intended audience: Nine-year-olds through college students.
Process: In "Thinking to Write," the evaluation ior the record includes documentary evidence in the form of student work journals,
teacher journals of classroom observations and case studies, classroom videotapes, pre-and post-profiles of changes in student
cognitive behavior, test essays to assess transfer of learning.
Time: journal writing once a week.
Source: Curriculum Development Associates, Inc., 1211 Connecticut Ave., NW, Suite 414, Washington, DC 20036.
Telephone: 202-293-1760.
known. It documents intellectual growth. Thus, writing The results provide feedback to students for learning
produces performance criteria in a narrative form. The and to teachers for teaching.
"mediated" writing experience demands that the learner be The process includes nine assessment instruments; five
aware of his or her feelings, self-motivation, need to plan, are essential to the success of the program for assessing
thinking processes, and strategies for knowing how to know writing as related to thinking, and four are supplemental, but
and for managing problems to be solved.
All students need to be encouraged to think reflectively.
This is an important goal of each mediated writing ex-
perience. When journal entries are read aloud in the class- FIGURE 2
room. each student is encouraged to elaborate on what has Thinking to Write
been-written. Elaboration develops and extends narrative
Evaluation Procedures
thinking and serves as both a reflective and an active self-as-
sessment experience. with the student in control. The student
is reflecting on goals, on content, on his or her own feelings,
and on the strategies used to produce the writing. This often Essential Procedures for Timing
Evaluating Writing
triggers the use of former knowledge and always seems to
Self-evaluation of essay by First 3 topics, then as
promote increased use of vocabulary to express an emotion, students needed
a concept, a strategy, or a generalization. It's a method that Self-rating of cognitive Beginning and end of
allows students, rather than just teachers. to reflect critically development by students semester
on their work. Rating of cognitive Beginning and end of
development by teacher semester
The evaluation process recommended for the "Thinking
Test essay by teacher Middle and end of semester
to Write" program integrates assessment and instruction as
Student interviews by students. Any time
the program integrates thinking and writing skills. The teachers, or others
process embodies several basic principles, regarding assess-
ment from a cognitive point of view: Timing
Additional Procedures for
The instruments document thinking and writing Documenting Cognitive Growth
ability. Teacher work journals Middle to end of semester
Student involvement is as important as teacher invol- Documentation of critical Continuing
vement. incidents
Varied procedures are available to personalize and Videotapes of classes Any time
individualize the assessment. Teacher Interviews Any time
TI-IINKING TO WRITE
strongly recommended, to assess overall cognitive develop- process, thinking and learning will result in motivation to
ment. These instruments are outlined in Figure 2. transfer strategies and knowledge to new situations. Writing,
We need to become less timid about helping students specifically student-composed narrative in the form of cog-
gain insight through their own ability to evaluate and trans- nitively oriented journal tasks, promises to become the most
form thought into language. And we need to test the assump- important and insightful method of assessing higher-order
tion that when the learner controls and directs the learning thinking.
" 21
5
Expand Your Thinking
David Hyerle
The mind of man is capable of anythingbecause symbols for communicating our thinking in the classroom.
everything is in it, all the past as well as all the future. All participants in the classroom can use practical visual
Joseph Conrad toolsgraphic organizersfor applying abstract thinking
skills to content learning and teaching. Students can learn
Applying Thinldng Skills to Content how to visually represent and connect information in linear,
holistic, and analogical patterns. Students then have the
Learning to Use Graphic Organizers
additional tools for reflecting on the pathways of their think-
Important ideas and relationships often go unseen by ing and for improving their thinking abilities. Graphic repre-
students because verbal tools alone do not clearly communi- sentations also enable teachers to see and assess students'
cate the overall patterns of how people are thinking. maps of prior knowledge, to present new content informa-
For example, I was recently working with a social tion in connected ways, and to evaluate students' content
studies teacher in a middle school classroom. The teacher learning by seeing the development of students thinking
took me aside and said, "Look, I have written everything out over the course of instruction.
on the board, even the main idea, and I have told students Expand Your Thinking(Hyerle 1989b) is a program that
over and over again what I mean. Why can't they under- introduces students to these graphic tools for applying think-
stand?"-With her permission, I went to the board and began, ing skills in content learning. Students work through the
with the class, to visually map out the relationships between program in cooperative pairs to learn how thinking maps can
concepts, using classification "trees" and other maps for be used to organize, communicate, and share their ththking.
showing the pattern of her main idea, supporting proposi- They are shown that "expanding your thinking' means both
tions, and specific details. These visual representations applying "thinking maps" to content learning and sharing
created a connected, witole picture of what the teacher had their thinking with other students. Teachers are supported by
tried to verbally communicate to students. The maps thus a guide that shows how they can expand their teaching
helped students to translate the sequence of her spoken and repertoire by using thinking maps and by practicing "teach-
written sentences into the pattern of her thinking. Students ing for thinking" strategies, which are an integrated part of
could then see what she meant. the directions for each student activity.
Over the past decade, educators have taken positive Together, students and teachers can use Expand Your
steps toward teaching for and about thinking by investigating Thinking as a starting point for using thinking maps to create
different views of thinking, defining thinking skills, focusing different mental models of the same content information.
on teacher questioning, and asking students to verbalize and They can efficiently share these differences and at the same
reflect on their thinking. Yet a core question remains: How time make connections between similar thoughts. As Jones,
can we help studentson their ownto flexibly apply Pierce, and Hunter (1988) state: "A good graphic repre-
thinking skills to content learning? sentation can show at a glance the key parts of a whole and
Let me suggest one response: Connected, graphic rep- their relations, thereby allowing a holistic understanding that
resentations can supplement the use of verbal and numeric words alone cannot convey" (p. 21).
22
16
EXPAND YOUR THINKING
Drawing the Lines: Toward a Connective (Gould 1981; Mayr 1989), psychology (Gardner 1983), cog-
nitive linguistics (Lakoff 1989; Lakoff and Johnson 1980),
View of Knowledge and Thinldng moral development (Gilligan 1982), philosophy (Putnam
Students wh:i work through the Expand Your Thinking 1988), and education (Perkins 1986) reveals that the logico-
program use thinking maps to draw the lines that represent deductive view of knowledge, though important and useful,
specific thinking skills and patterns of thought. They also is not the only view of knowing and thinking. These re-
question, in a fundamental way, how they make sense of searchers and educators point toward other ways to conceive
things by connecting and creating patterns of content infor- of knowledge and the processes of thinking.
mation. This practical use of thinking-skills maps is based on One view of knowledge may be called "connectivism"
an underlying, theoretical view of knowledge and thinking (Hyerle 1989a) and is based on a perspective that knowledge
as the active making of mental connections. it is also through is actively constructed as people represent and connect a
this connective view of knowledge that the so-called "lower variety of forms of sensory information. Through this
order" or "micro-logical" thinking skills, such as classifica- process, knowledge is "remade" between human beings and
tion, are presented to students. remains open to reinterpretation. Knowledge viewed as con-
A recent challenge for educators is trying to describe the nective is patterns of information
relationship between lower- and higher-order thinking. On linked together by unclear mental boundaries, such
one side, educators who reject the direct teaching of discrete as boundaries between categories;
lower-order thinking skills. On another side are those who constructed through communication in a social con-
cringe when higher-order content questions are asked of the text;
students who have not shown proficiency with "lower-order" represented by a range of signs, symbols, and images
thinking skills. What is the problematic line between lower- and by idealized mental models and theories; and
and higher-order thinking? The problem, as I see it, is that supported by conceptual metaphors.
the "lower-order' skills are being presented to students as Through connectivism, we attempt to see the com-
primarily rote, analytic tools for processing "given" informa- plexity of a problem in context, while honoring different
tion and not for deeply questioning how knowledge is being points of view and learning from them. Though we may draw
made through these processes. The outcome is that these on past regularities for information, we recognize that
skills are often taught in isolation as disconnected, strictly knowledge is not given: Knowledge is made. Knowledge
analytic tools for thinking, to the near exclusion of holistic viewed as connective is an interpretive process of thinking
thinking. about the mental relationships we create between things. In
One reason for the overemphasis on analysis has been a most fundamental way, it is from a connectivist view that
the influence of a traditional view of knowledge, called we begin to deeply investigate these "things" we call boun-
"logico-deductive." In this theory of knowledge, skills such daries and relations.
as labeling and classification are seen as atomistic processes. What do we mean when we say that boundaries and relations are
Words and numbers are understood as unquestioned labels things? Are not the water's edge and the land's end one and the
that correspond unambiguously to things in the world, and same? Is the shoreline a part of the land or of the sea, or is it a line
each thing represented understood as fitting into a preexist- in its own right? . . . A person must draw that line somewhat, . .
ing, "natural" category that has a clearly defined boundary. The world is really a dynamic operation; only by means of symbols
Yet, as biologist Stephen Jay Gould pointc . out, applying the can the mind deal with it "as if' it were a static structure (Upton
1961, p. 31).
skill of classification is of a higher order:
This insight, by the late Albert Upton, Professor Emeritus
Taxonomy is a fundamental and dynamic science dedicated to at Whittier College, shows that we are constantly using word
exploring the causes of relationships and similarities among or-
ganisms. Classifications are theories about the basis of natural order. symbols to represent "things," making distinctions between
not dull categories compiled only to avoid chaos (Gould 1989, p. and connecting these symbols, and thereby creating mental
98). boundary lines. An essential benefit of using graphic organ-
Despite the dynamism revealed by Gould, the processes izers as tools for improving students' thinking abilities is that
of classification and many other such analytical skills are we are asking students to draw that line, then to see and
found at the bottom of nearly all models of thinking skills. question the connections they are making between things.
Because these skills are presented as low level, the under- These lines connect things as we creatively analyze relation-
standing of the skills is not often richly developed by students ships, such as between categories, between parts of whole
objects, or between sequences in an event. The boundary
nor applied in connected, holistic ways. Research released
over the last ten years by leaders in the fields of biology lines that students establish between thingsfirst in their
17
minds and then on a pageare menial models of how they Qualification

think. Classification
What is "higher-order" and "critical" about these lower- Structure analysis
order connections is that once students begin to investigate Operation analysis
seemingly simple mental boundaries they will be more likely Seeing analogies
to see greater complexity, dissolve hardened opinions and
idealized dichotomies, and open up to different points of
Thing-Making
view. For example, if a young student attempts to draw a line
between night and day, the student may see that the lines are As a semanticist, Upton stressed the importance of
fuzzy areas we call sunrise and dusk. Similarly, another having students become aware of how we represent physical
student may see people in the world as either "good" or or mental "things" using signs, symbols, and images in con-
"bad"; but drawing the line and fully investigating each text. Most of the time we use symbols such as words or
classification may reveal a deeper understanding of numbersand, now, computer languages. Upton and his
humankind. In reality, relationships between things and colleague, Richard Samson, called this symbolizing process
people are often fuzzy and complex. In our minds, all too Thing-making. Often this process is understood as lower
often, even the most fundamental connections between order and mechanical. It is usually called "naming" or "label-
things are idealized as clear and absolute; thus, the complex ing," using nouns. Yet one of the higher order challenges that
nature of mental relationships remains hidden from sight. our students face is to develop a dynamic view of symbols
what I call symboliteracythrough which they must actively
remake and interpret things in context using symbols. Con-
A Connective Model sider how we continually ask students to "put" some "thing"
of Thinldng Skills and Maps in context, such as a vocabulary word, to find the meaning.
Expand Your Thinking builds toward a view of The Circle Map in Figure 1 , my recent addition to
knowledge as connective and is based on a practical model Upton's model, is used as a visual tool for putting things in
of thinking processes and maps described in the following context. The "thing" represented is written or drawn in the
pages. This model was initially developed by Upton, who center circle and contextual information is shown in the
viewed the cognitive act of thinking as a dynamic union of outside circle. Each circle represents how we create mental
the analytical "taking apart" and the creative "synthesis" of boundaries when we try to define something. This basic map
thingsthrough representations. His first book for students, can be expanded by drawing a frame around the outside of
Creative Analysis (Upton and Samson 1963) is based on this the two circles, to represent the frame of reference for defin-
model. By using Creative Analysis, Upton's students at Whit- ing something in context. The visual frame and the circles
tier College learned about basic patterns of thought and how provide reflective tools for asking: What is your cultural
background, and what are your life experiences and your
to verbalize and graphically organize these patterns. Though
Upton was relatively uninterested in IQ scores, all of the 280 religious, political, social, and emotional points of view that
students who went through his freshman course over an influence how you make sense of something in context?
eight-month period gained in their scores using a stand- Using this map helps students to see that how they represent
ardized intelligence test as the pre-post measure. The and define something is influenced by context and their own
average IQ score increased 10.5 points. This statistically background experiences.
significant change in IQ scores was reported in the New York
Times (Hechinger 1960) at a time when there were few Qualific ation
alternative definitions of "intelligence."
The Upton model is neither hierarchical nor process When we are trying to define and make sense of some-
oriented in its theory or application. Unlike most models, this thing, we are drawing on our sensations of the world. Upton
called this process Qualification. When describing a person,
is not a set of procedures for problem solving, but rather a
view of patterns of thinking processes that are relatedand a character in a story, or a naturally occurring element, we
draw on our five sensesand our emotionsto project or
a corresponding set of maps. Upton's model is most useful
when perceived as a set of tools for thinking and when used attribute qualities to things, and to abstract qualities from
in response to the needs and objectives of students. The things. Some qualities are more tangible, such as sensory
model, which is presented in Expand Your Thinking, qualities of hot and cold, whereas other qualities are less
includes six thinking processes:
tangible, such as the emotive quality of sculpture. The Bub-
Thing-making
ble Map in Figure 2 is used to represent the process of
18
FIGURE 1
Circle Map for Thinking-Making
thing
context
frame of reference
abstracting from and projecting qualities onto things, and to

identify sensory, logical, and emotional qualifications we are
making. Notice that the circle in the middle is the thing being
qualified. The lines extending outward each represent the
FIGURE 2
abstraction/projection process, and the outside circles are
used as abstracted place holders for adjectives and phrases. Bubble Map for Qualification
This map can be expanded for the process of comparing
and contrasting the qualities of two things using the Double-
Bubble Map (Figure 3). The middle circles are the perceived
common qualities of the two things being compared, while
the outside circles describe the unique qualities of the two
things, respectively.
Classification
Because we are constantly making sense of things in
context, we also investigate relationships between multiple
things and qualities that we perceive. We try to see the
connected mental webs, or patterns of relationships that
create "context" and support our inferences. Upton drew
from the work of those who closely study our physical
worldsuch as biologiststo identify three patterns of
thinking. These scientists create taxonomies or classifications
of things, study the anatomy or physical structures of things,
and interpret the physiology or operation of things,
19
FIGURE 3
Double-Bubble Map for

Comparing and Contrasting
common
qualities
unique unique
qualities qualities
We use the process of Classification in the classroom as Structure Analysis

a way to see the main idea and supporting details of a reading Another way of seeing patterns is by noticing the physi-
passage, to study cultural groups in the world, to organize cal boundaries between things, or part-whole relationships,
writing, to sort information in computers, and to create such as in Upton's "shoreline" example cited previously.
taxonomies in the sciences. What is interesting about this Upton called this process Structure Analysis. We use this
process is that things rarely exist in absolute categories, and process to understand spatial relationships, such as the set-
not all classification systems are hierarchical. Not all things ting of a play, the dimensions of geometric figures, the parts
in a group necessarily share all of the same qualities. There of the human body, even the geopolitical landscape. Much
are gray areas and overlapping categories. Classification in the same way that categories do not exist absolutely in the
systems7-then, are created by and between humans through world, Upton also believed that boundaries are represented
our perceptions, actions, and communication in the world. by humans when we freeze an otherwise dynamic world.
Th.2. familiar Tree Map (Figure 4), is just one of the maps The Brace Map (Figure 5) is used for looking for part-
used for applying the skill of classification. This map repre- whole relationships. On the left side, the "whole" thing is
sents a top-down pattern for sorting information, with the drawn or written above the line. The braces represent the
general tenn on the top, and specific groups and specimens physical joints between parts, and the lines are the place-
below. holders for major "parts," followed by the subparts. This map
can be expanded infinitely to smaller (atomic) or larger
FIGURE 4 (universal) parts of the whole.
Tree Map for Classification
Operation Analysis
If the world is a dynamic operation, then the process
General Group_____,
Upton called Operation Analysis is an expression of this
view. Operation Analysis is the process of interpreting chan-
ges or sequences. We ask our students to interpret such
things as directions, sequences in math or computer
programs, timelines in history, and the plot lines of literature.
Specific Group
/
,-
Specimens
The familiar Flowchart Map (Figure 6) is a useful starting
point for thinking about different kinds of operations. This
basic flowchart shows that an operation may have many
20
WAND YOUR THINKING
FIGURE 5
Brace Map for Structure Analysis
major part
subparts
whole object
stages and substages. When students draw the rectangles, Seeing Analogies
they create a juncture between one stage and another, Central to Upton's model is a process of thinking that
depending on their point of view. As the operations are seen shows connections between representing and qualifying
to be more complex, feedback loops can be added through things, as well as relationships and interactions. It is the
a "systems" approach (Roberts 1983). process of seeing similarities between relationships, what
A flowchart can be expanded into the Cause-Effect Map Upton called Seeing Analogies. Through our ability to create
(Figure 7), useful for investigating cause-effect patterns of analogies, we are able to transfer information from one
thinking. Of course, when students examine human interac- "body" of "knowledge" to another. This also enables us to
tions in the social sciences, the changes in history or of communicate abstract ideassuch as in science and
characters in a novel, and physical changes, they discover politicsby using conceptual metaphors. Metaphors are
that each discipline has different cause-effect dimensions commonly thought of as poetic tools, yet this form of analogi-
that can be thought about and displayed using different cal thinking is one of the foundations for the human concep-
forms of this basic map. tual system (Lakoff and Johnson 1980).
FIGURE 6
Flowchart Map for Operation Analysis
stages
-10
Li -0
substages
21 27
DEVELOPING MINDS: PROGRAMS FOR TEACHING ThINKING
FIGURE 7
Multi-Flow Map for Cause-Effect
event
causes effects
The Bridge Map (Figure 8) represents the pattern of to exist between two or more pairs of things. Students can
Seeing Analogies: The line of the bridge represents the expand this map to create multilevel analogies and to inves-
"relating factor" that is transferred across relationships. The tigate conceptual metaphors.
relating factor is the common relationship that a student finds
FIGURE 8
Bridge Map for Seeing Analogies
relating tactof
relationship 1 relationship 2
22 28
FDCPAND YOUR THINKING
Each line, circle, or square of these thinking maps rep- Structure the learning environment in a cooperative
resents a relationship or boundary; such graphics provide a format.
consistent visual vocabulary for creating maps and for think- The student workbook is called a resource for several
ing on a high order about fundamental acts of cognidon. In reasons. First, the text is written directly to students so that
addition, the pattern and name for each map together create they can read and reread important information without
a key image for using the skill: circles for representing things having to depend on the teacher. Second, clear definitions
in context, bubbles for intangible qualifying, trees for top- of maps and skills are highlighted within each chapter, and
down classifying, braces for structuring, flowchart arrows for a one-page summary of the six skills and maps is provided
operating, and bridges for making analogies. These visual- as a reference. Third, instructions are provided to students,
verbal maps are metacognitive tools: By drawing that line or showing how to construct each thinking map. Finally, ac-
circle between words, and questioning the type of boun- tivities showing how to apply these maps to specific content
daries being drawn, students are displaying and applying areas are clearly designated according to disciplines. Ideally,
connected ways of thinking and knowing. the workbook is used as a resource by students throughout
the year.
Expand Your Thinking The Expand Your Thinking program takes ap-
proximately 40 class periods to complete. There are eight
parts to the student workbook: introductory chapter for
A Student Resource defining and applying the model to thinking about a concrete
The purpose of the Expand Your Thinking program is object, one chapter each of the six skills and maps, and a
to introduce upper elementary and middle schools students concluding chapter for applying the model to creating a new
to the six thinking processes and corresponding maps and use for a common object. Each chapter provides about seven
then to apply this model to content learning. The program activities.
consists of a resource workbook for students and an exten- Figure 9 presents an overview of the "Qualification"
sive teacher's guide. The activities in this program help chapter, an example of a typical chapter sequence. The
teachers to: activities are usually one page in length, and range in com-
Introduce students to thinking skills using thinking pletion time from 20 minutes to two full periods of class
maps; timemuch more time if the additional applications are
Show how the skills can be applied to content learn- completed.
ing using the thinking maps; and
FIGURE 9
Overview of Sample Chapter Activities
Chapter 2: Qualification Using the Bubble Map

Activity Title Description
A What is the Skill of Introducing and defining Qualifications using the Bubble Map to describe an apple;
Qualification? students also create their own Bubble Map.
Making Sense of the Practice qualifying objects from daily life using the Bubble Map to organize sensory
World impressions.
Character Traits Applying the Bubble Map to the analysis of two character descriptions (language arts).
Comparing and Applying the Double-Bubble Map to compare and contrast two characters, followed by
Contrasting a creative writing assignment.
Qualities and Practice using the Double-Bubble Map by comparing and contrasting information
Subjects (science, geography, and mathematics).
What Are the Applying the Double-Bubble Map to thinking about personal reasons for liking and
Reasons For Your disliking things; topic: television vs. reading.
Opinions
The Science of Applying the Bubble Map to creating a nutritional snack food, followed by a writing
Snack Food assignment (science).
23
Each chapter of Expand Your Thinking has activities Teachers are also advised to frequently describe these teach-
devoted to practice using the maps across multiple dis- ing strategies to their students before, duriug, oi after use.
ciplines (as in activity E in Figure 9). Other activities focus on This repetition helps students to become conscious of
in-depth applications in one content area (as in activities C, facilitation skills that they can use with each other, and the
D, and G). Content applications from the other chapters strategies support the creation of a thinking classroom.
include: using the Circle Map for reading comprehension,
using the Tree Map for organizing information in science,
Beyond Expand Your Thinldng:
using the Brace Map for identifying geographic boundaries
between countries, creating a Flowchart Map for showing Staff Development Through
how a law is made, and using a multilevel Bridge Map to Curriculum Redesign
connect historical information. Expand Your Thinking can be implemented without a
Most activities ask students to discuss and add to their major commitment to staff development, yet with an intro-
maps while in cooperative pairs. Asking students to use ductory workshop, the foundation is set for long-term staff
visual thinking maps to think about information, and then to development based on the redesign of curriculum materials.
verbalize their thinking in pairs helps to create an environ- An introductory, half- or full-day workshop is sug-
ment in the classroom through which students are individual- gested, though not required. The focus during this introduc-
ly expanding their thinking abilities while learning from each tion is on applying thinking skills using the maps and
other. teaching strategies. Extensive training is not required; with
the detailed lesson plans and the visual support of mapping,
A Teacher's Guide to Creating a Thinking Classroom teachers are not in the position of immediately having to
create lessons that bridge between an abstract thinking-skill
There are many ways for teachers to promote the im- activity and a content application.
provement of students' thinking. The design of the teacher's
guide for Expand Your Thinking directly supports teachers
in three of these areas by showing how to: Applying Thinldng Skills
Introduce thinking skills to students through the use Beyond the Expand Your Thinking materials are staff-
of thinking maps; development opponunities at three levels. (These three
Integrate thinking skills instruction into content teach- levels, with minor modification, are also available for
ing; and teachers in schools and districts who want to learn how to
Integrate ten interactive teaching strategies into class- use thinking maps for applying thinking skills to content
room practice. learning independent of published materials.) The umbrella
ra-ch student page is reproduced in the teacher's guide, name for the staff development offerings is "Applying Think-
with suggested responses showing how each map may be ing Skills." These training sessions are structured so that
completed. For every student activity there are instructions teachers work together in small working groups to focus on
for the teacher that include a statement of purpose, directions applying thinking skills and maps in their classroomsin all
and procedures, and applications to content area teaching. three levels of Applying Thinking Skills, as follows:
The heart of this teacher's guide is a section called Tools for Thinking (1 day): This introduction can be
"Creating a Thinking Classroom." This section includes the attended by teachers who are going to implement Expand
ten "teaching for thinking" strategies that teachers can use to Your Thinking or by teaches who want a basic-level training
facilitate students' thinking, as classified using the Tree Map in the use of thinking maps. While the focus is introductory,
(Figure 10). These ten strategies are fully described, and then by the end of the day teachers have created materials for use
embedded within the teacher's guide for each student ac- in the classroom.
tivity. As an example, for an activity using a Tree Map to Thinking Skills and Content Area Teaching (3 days):
classify different types of transportation vehicles for a social By the end of this seminar, teachers in working groups have
studies report, students are asked to draw maps showing created a series of lessons for immediate use in the class-
different ways the information could be organized. The room. These lessons are based on using thinking maps and
objective of this activity is to reveal that their purpose for the ten "teaching for thinking" strategies. All of the trans-
writing influences how they may classify and therefore or- formed curriculum materials created by the groups are
ganize information. Included in the teacher's directions are reviewed, and feedback suggestions are provided.
three of the strategies for facilitating students' thinking: wait Curriculum Design for Teaching Thinking (5 days):
time, metacognitive questions, and justifying your answer. This institute is an extended version of the Seminar design.
24
30
FIGURE 1 0
Ten Teaching for Thinking Strategies
Teaching for Thinking
Suspending
Timing Thinking About Responding Judgments Ev:,luating
Wait Time Metacognitive Paraphrasing, Alternative Informative

Question Probing, and Thinking Praise
10-2 Summarizing
Modeling Point of View Justifying
Metacognition Paired Thinking Your Answer
By the last session, teachers in working groups have printed, and compiled in a Teacher's Resource Manual. This
redesigned a complete curriculum unit and some of the material can be duplicated and shared within a school and
materials have been piloted. These units integrate the use of disseminated across a district. This finished product of staff
thinking maps; teaching strategies; and, when appropriate, development is a resource that supports the long-term com-
assessment tools using maps. These rough-draft units are mitment to teaching for and about thinking, provides practi-
then reviewed and feedback suggestions provided. cal materials for use by teachers, and honors those groups of
The emphasis shifts from how to use thinking maps and teachers who have worked together to expand their teaching
teaching strategies in the classroom in the introductory train- repertoire.
ing, toward the redesign of curriculum materials, including
basals, in the 3- and 5-day sessions. A school or district can
initiate a staff development program at any of these levels,
with or without implementing Expand Your Thinkin,g. * * *
Expand Your Thinking is a program primarily used for

Teachers as Authors of Curriculum teaching students how to apply thinking skills to content
Teachers come to staff development days with the ex- learning, using thinking maps. The long-term goal is to
pectation of taking something new back to the classroom that enable students to work together as they consciously apply
they can use. As shown in the three levels of staff develop- thinking maps to learning. With the addition of staff develop-
ment, the key to each session is that teachers use the thinking ment in "Applying Thinking Skills," a second long-term goal
skills maps to renew their own curriculum materials and add is set to enable teachers to work together as they learn to use
to their teaching repertoire. In the seminar and institute thinking maps in their daily teaching by redesigning the
settings, teachers are asked to bring materials that they will materials they already use in their classrooms. Through these
be using with their students so they have the opportunity to programs. students and teachers are seeing how to connect
take renewed materials back to the classroom. As a follow-up and express their thinking, using maps and strategies; and
to the institute, an additional option is available for finalizing teachers have the opportunity to transform how uni what
the redesigned materials. The materials can be edited, they teach.
REFERENCFS Lakoff, G. (1989). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press.
Costa, A. L, and L, F. Lowery. (1989). Techniques for Teaching Lakoff, G., and M. Johnson (1980). Metaphors We Live By. Chicago:
Thinking Pacific Grove, Calif.: Midwest Publications. University of Chicago Press.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intel- Mayr, E. (1989). The Growth of Biological Thought. Cambridge:
ligences. New York: Basic books. Harvard University Press.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a Different Voice. Cambridge: Harvard Novak, J. D., and B. D. Gowin. (1984). Learning How to Learn.
University Press. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gould, S. J. (1981). The Mi:smeasure (If Matt. New York: W. W. Perkins, D. N. (1986). Knowledge as Design. Hillsdale, N.J.:
Norton. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gould, S. J. (1989). Wonderful Life. New York: W. W. Norton. Putnam, H. (1988). &presentation and Reality. Cambridge: Mas-
Hechinger, F. (June 27,1960). "Student 1.Q.'s Rise in California Test." sachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
The New York Times. Roberts, N. (1983). Computer Simulation: A Systems Dynamics
Hyerle, D., (1989a). Designs for Thinking Connectively. Un- Modeling Approach. Reading: Addison Wesley.
published Manuscript, Position Paper, University of Califor- Upton, A. (1961). Design for Thinking. Palo Alto, Calif.: Pacific
nia-Berkeley. Books.
Hyerle, D. (1989b). EVand Your Thinking. Stamford, Conn.: In- Upton, A., and R. Samson. (1963). Creative Analysis. New York: E.
novative Sciences. P. Dutton.
Jones, B., J. Pierce., and B. Hunter. (December 1988-January 1989).
"Teaching Students to Construct Graphic Representations."
Educational Leadership46, 4: 20-25.
Expand Your Thinking
Developer: David Hyerle (based on the work of Albert Upton)
Goals: Training students to use graphic organizers as tools for applying thinking skills to content learning through working in
cooperative pairs.
Sample skills: Using flowcharts for sequencing and cause/effect reasoning, classification tree maps for main idea and supporting evidence,
bubble maps for descriptions and comparison/contrast, bridge map for seeing analogies, circle map for defining things in
context, brace map for seeing structural relationships.
Assumptions: Knowledge is connected, patterned information that often is linked together by unclear mental boundaries and mental
models.
Thinking (creative and analytical) and learning are facilitated by having students use graphic organizers to visually connect
and represent information.
Communication of thinking is facilitated when students cooperatively share their thinking with others, using graphic
organizers.
Intended audience: Regular program: grades 5-7.
Process: Students work in cooperative pairs throughout most of the program. Students are introduced to an integrated model of six
fundamental thinking processes and correstponding graphic organizers for applying each process. Within each skill chapter,
students first apply each "thinking map" to common, everyday information; then to basic information from different content
areas; and, finally, in greater depth within a specific content area activity.
Resource: Expand Your Thinking, by David Hyerle (1989).
Time: Varies with individual schedules; one period per week is suggested.
Available from: Innovative Sciences, Inc., 300 Broad Street, Park Square Station, P.O. Box 15129, Stamford, CT 06901-0129.
Telelphone: 800-243-9169.
mE1011111M.
32
26
6
The CoRT Thinking Program
Edward de Bono
Creativity involves breaking out of established patterns need to move from one arrangement of knowledge to a
in order to look at things in a different way. better one. Thus, perfect knowledge makes thinking un-
Edward de Bono necessary. Nonetheless, educators often seem to believe that
we can attain such perfect knowledge. However, even if it
were possible to absorb perfect knowledge about the past,
Amajor trend may be developing in education toward we can only have a very partial knowledge about the future.
the direct teaching of thinking as a skill. I intend in Yet as soon as a youngster leaves school, he or she will be
this article to answer two basic questions related to operating in the future. Every initiative, decision, or plan will
this trend. First, what is thinking? And second, how can we be carried out in the future and thus will require thinking,
teach thinking directly? My answers spring from 16 years of not just sorting and resorting of knowledge. I have coined
experience in the field. During this time I developed an the term "operacy" to stand along literacy and numeracy as
instructional program on thinking skills that is now used by a primary goal of education. Operacy is the skill of doing
several million school children in many different countries things, of making things happen. The type of thinking that
and cultures. my program (which I will describe later) teaches is very much
Of course, some educators believe that thinking is sim- concerned with operacy.
ply a matter of innate intelligence. Two corollaries follow this In short, information is no substitute for thinking, and
belief: ( 1) we do not have to do anything specific to help thinking is no substitute for information. The dilemma is that
highly intelligent individuals learn hov to think, and there is never enough time to teach all the information that
(2) there is little we can do to help less intelligent individuals could usefully be taught. Yet we may have to reduce the time
learn how to think. Thus those who hold this belief rest we spend teaching information, in order to focus instead on
content. Yet many highly intelligent individuals often seem the direct teaching of thinking skills.
to be rather ineffective thinkers. Such people are often good The relationship between logic and thinking is likewise
at reacti re thinking and puzzle solvingbut less able to think not a linear one. The computer world has a saying, "Garbage
about topics that require a broader view. They may show in-garbage out." In other words, even if the computer is
cleverness, but not wisdom. working flawlessly, this will not validate a given outcome.
I prefer to see the relationship between intelligence and Bad logic makes for bad thinking, but good logic (like the
thinking as similar to the relationship between a car and its flawless computer) does not ensure good thinking. Every
driver. Engineering determines the innate potential of the car, logician knows that a conclusion is only as good as the
but the skill with which the car is driven must be learned and premises. Mathematics, logic (of various sorts), andin-
practiced. Thus I would define thinking as "the operating creasinglydata processing are excellent service tools. But
skill with which intelligence acts upon experience." the deeper we advance into the computer age, the greater
What, then, is the relationship of information to think- the need to emphasize the perceptual side of thinking, which
ing? It seems obvious to me that God can neither think nor these tools serve.
have a sense of humor. Perfect knowledge precludes the Meanwhile, emotions, values, and feelings influence
thinking in three stages. We may feel a strong emotion (e.g.,
Copyright C.) 1990 hy Mica Management Resources Inc. fear, anger, hatred) even before we encounter a situation.
27
DEVELOPING MINDS: PROGRAM'. FOR TEACHING THINKING
More usually, there is a brief period of undirected perception, the man is an astronaut in orbit; thus, it is perfectly natural
until we recognize the situation. This recognition triggers for the wood to remain suspended, since it is weightless.
emotion, which thereafter channels perception. The trained Behavior that seemed strange and unaccountable suddenly
thinker should be operating in the third mode: perception seems normal and logicalonce we have defined the
explores the situation as broadly as possible, and, in the end, "universe" in which it is taking place.
emotions determine the decision. There is no contradiction The traditional universe of information handling is a
at all between emotions and thinking. The purpose of think- "passive" one. We record information through marks on paper
ing is to4arrange the world so that our emotions can be or marks on magnetic tape. We can handle and process that
applied in a valuable manner. information. The marks on the surface of the paper or tape
The relationship of perception to thinking is, to my and the information itself do not alter, unless we alter them.
mind the crucial area. In the past, far too many of our An "active" system is totally different; here the informa-
approaches to thinking (e.g., mathematics, logic) have con- tion actually organizes itself into patterns. We human beings
cerned themselves with the "processing" aspect. We are have self-organizing information systems. I first wrote about
rather good at processing hut poor in the perceptual area. them in 1969 in my book, The Mechanism of Mind (de Bono
What do I mean by perception? Quite simply, the way 1969). I showed then how such systems work, and I sug-
our minds make sense of the world around us. Language is gested how the structure of a nerve network would produce
a reflection of our traditional perceptions (as distinct from such pattern-making effects. My hypothesis has since been
the moment-to-moment ones). Understanding how percep- simulated by computer, and the nerve network functions
tion works is not so easy. But this is a crucial pointone that substantially as I had suggested (Lee and Maradurajan 1982).
has a direct effect on the way we teach thinking. In the world of information handling, the concept of self-
Imagine a man holding a small block of wood. He organizing information systems is now coming to the fore
releases the wood, and it falls to the ground. When he (Hopfield 1982). Such systems are quite different from our
releases it a second time, the wood moves upward, This is usual computers.
strange and mysterious behavior. The third time he releases Once we enter the "universe" of active, self-organizing
the wood, it remains exactly where it issuspended in systems, then the behavior of such things as perception and
space. This is also mysterious behavior. If I were now to creativity becomes quite clear. The processes are no longer
reveal that, in the second instance, the man was standing at mysterious. Just as happened with the block of wood,
the bottom of a swimming pool, then it seems perfectly phenomena that seemed to be unaccountable are suddenly
natural for the a ood to float upward. In the third instance seen to be explicableonce we have identified the ap-
CoRT (Cognitive Research Trust)
Developer: Edward de Bono
Goal: Teach thinking skills useful to everyone in and out of school.
Sample skills: PNIPositive, Negative, Interesting

CAFConsider All Factors
Assumptions: Lateral thinking, unlike vertical thinking, is not necesssarily sequential, is unpredictable, and is not constrained
by convention.
H is not necessay to be right at every stage of the thought process or to have everyting rigidly defined.
Intelligent people are not necessarily skillful thinkers.
Intended audience: Ages 8 to 22, all ability levels.
Process: Students practice "operations" following "lesson notes." Teachers present and monitor the exercises.
Time: One lesson 35 minutes or longer per week for 3 years.
Comments: Evaluation results suggest that the program leads students to take a broader view of formally posed problems.
Published by: Science Research Associates (SRA), A Division of the Macmillan/McGraw-Hill School Publishing Company,
155 N. Wacker Drive, Chicage, IL 60606-1780.
Training available through: Science Research Associates, 2030 Addison St., Suite 400, Berkeley, CA 94704. Telephone: 415-841-7715.
FAX:415-841-6311
34
28
THE CoRT THINKING PROGRAM
propriate universe. China, and Bulgariaas well as in Catholic Ireland.

The function of a self-organizing system is to allow My point is that, in terms of perception, we need to
incoming experience to organize itself into patterns. We achieve two things: (I) the ability to see things more clearly
could loosely compare these patterns to the streets in a town. and more broadly, and (2) the ability to see things differently
The self-organizing system is immensely efficient; it allows (i.e., creativity or "lateral thinking" (de Bono 1970). As I have
us to get up in the morning, cross a road, recognize friends, said, perception takes place in an "active" information sys-
read and write. Without such a pattern-making and pattern- tem. Such systems allow experience to organize itself into
using system, we would spend about a month just in crossing immensely useful patterns, without which life would be
a road. impossible. But, as I said above, the very advantages of the
However, the advantages of a patterning system are also patterning system are also its disadvantages. We must over-
its disadvantages. "Point-to-point thinking" is a good ex- come these disadvantages and improve perception in two
ample. In this kind of thinking, we follow a pattern from one ways: in breadth and in creativity or lateral thinking (both of
point to the nextand then follow the dominant pattern from which fall under the heading of "change").
the next point onward. In an experiment that I conducted Let me turn now to the second question that I posed at
jointly with the Inner London Education Authority (un- the beginning of this article. How can we teach thinking as
published material Cognitive Research Trust), I asked 24 a skill? Such teaching is not tomorrow's dream. In Venezuela,
groups of 11-year-olds to discuss the suggestion that "bread, for example, 106,000 teachers have been trained to use my
fish, and milk should be free." Although many of the children program. My program is also in use in many other
came from deprived backgrounds, 23 of the 24 groups op.. countriesincluding Australia, the United States, and Israel,
posed the idea of free bread, fish, and milk. The point-to-point as well as those nations I have mentioned previously.
thinking that led to this stand went as follows: (1) the shops The program of which I speak is called CoRT. (The
would be crowded; (2) the buses going to the shops would acronym stands for Cognitive Research Trust, located in
be crowded; (3) the bus drivers would demand more money; Cambridge, England). I have already outlined the theoretical
(4) the drivers would not get more money, and they would foundation for the design of this program. The lessons them-
go on strike; (5) other people would go on strike as well; and selves focus on the perceptual aspect of thinking. The design
(6) there would be chaosso giving away bread, fish, and of the tools takes into account the behavior of self-organizing
milk is a bad idea. Thus, point-to-point thinking can lead us patterning systems.
astray, as we miss the forest while fixating on the trees. The design criteria for a practical instructional program
However, direct teaching of thinking can offset the should include the following elements:
disadvantage of a patterning system. At the end of a pilot The program should be usable by teachers who rep-
project on the teaching of thinking in Venezuelan schools, resent a wide range of teaching talents, not just by the highly
for example, we held a press conference. A journalist attend- gifted or the highly qualified, (The 106,000 Venezuelan
ing that conference claimed that all attempts to teach thinking teachers were not all geniuses.)
are really a form of brainwashing in western capitalist values. The program should not require complicated teacher
The journalist happened to be wearing spectacles. So I training, since it is difficult to generalize such programs. (The
removed her spectacles and asked wbat she used them for. CoRT program can be used by teachers with no special
She told me that she used the spectacles in order to see things training or with only simple training.)
more clearly. I then explained that the perceptual tools we The program should be robust enough to resist
were teaching in the lessons on thinking served the same damage as it is passed along from trainer to trainerand
purpose. The tools enable youngsters to scan their experi- thence from new trainer to teachers and, finally, to pupils.
ences so that they can see things more clearly and more The program should employ parallel design so that if
broadly. A better map of the world is the result. These some parts of the program are badly taught and other parts
thinkers can still retain their original values and choices, are skipped or later forgotten, what remains is usable and
however. Giving spectacles to nearsighted individuals valuable in its own right. (This contrasts with hierarchical
enables them to see three glasses on a table - containing design, in which a student must grasp a basic concept before
wine, orange juice, and milk. The individuals still exercise moving on to the next concept layer; failure at any concept
choice as to which drink each prefers. In the same way, our layer in a program on this type makes the whole system
instructional program cuts across cultures and ideologies. unworkable.)
The program is used in industrialized nations, such as The program should be enjoyable for both teachers
Canada and Great Britain, and in developing nations, such and youngsters.
as Venezuela and Malaysia; it will soon be used in Cuba,
The program should focus on thinking skills that help attention is not focused on the metacognitive level; that is,
a learner to function better in his or her life outside of school, participants are not thinking about the thinking that they are
not merely to become more proficient at solving puzzles or using to discuss the subject. Moreover, it is very difficult to
playing games. transfer a complex action sequence from one situation to
Before considering ways of teaching thinking, we must another. That is why the CoRT program deliberately focuses
confront a prior question: Should thinking be taught in its own on "tools" that can be transferred.
right? Certain practical considerations affect the answer to this I have noticed among U.S. educators a tendency to try
question. For example, there are no gaps in the school to teach thinking through content materials. This approach
schedule as it now exists. Thus, it seems to make more sense seemsto its proponentsto have two merits. First, this
to insert thinking skills into an existing subject area. English approach makes it easier to introduce thinking into the
makes a good home, because a natural synergy exists be- curriculum, because the material must be covered anyway
tween thinking and the expression of thought in language. In (and it is already familiar to the teacher). Second, this ap-
addition, the teaching style is often more open-ended in proach seems to be killing two kinds of birds with one stone:
English classes than in some other subject areas. However, the teaching thinking and teaching content. But this approach is
CoRT program has been used effectively by science teachers, not effective. I am afraid that the nettle must be grasped.
by music teachers, and even by physical education teachers. Either one wishes to teach thinking effectively or merely to
Despite these practical considerations, I believe that we make a token gesture. Attending to content distracts from
should have a specific place in the curriculum that is set aside attending to the thinking tools being used. Theory predicts
for the teaching of thinking skills. This formal recognition is this outcome: you cannot build meta-patterns on one level
essential so that pupils, teachers, and parents all recognize and experience patterns on another level at the same time.
that thinking skills are being taught directly. In time I would Experience backs up this expectation. Wherever there has
certainly hope that the skills taught in the "thinking lessons" been an attempt to teach thinking skills and content together,
would find their ways into such subject areas as geography, the training in thinking seems to be weaker than when those
history, social studies, and science. However, the first step is skills are taught in isolation.
to establish "thinking" as a subject in its own right. So what is the CoRT method? It is best to illustrate this
This brings me to the central problem: transfer and method with an example.
content. Does a generalizable skill of thinking exist? Many I was teaching a class of 30 boys, all 11 years of age, in
theorists think not. They believe instead that there is thinking Sydney, Australia. I asked if they would each like to be given
in mathematics, thinking in science, and thinking in history $5 a week for coming to school. AU 30 thought this was a fine
but that in each case the rules are different, just as the rules idea. "We could buy sweets or chewing gum. . . . We could
for Monopoly differ from those in chess. I do not see this as buy comics. . We could get toys without having to ask Mum
.
a point of view with which I must either agree or disagree or Dad."

totally. Clearly, subject idioms exist. Nevertheless, it is pos- I then introduced and explained a simple tool called the
sible to establish both habits of mind and specific thinking PMI (which I will describe later). The explanation took about
techniques that can be applied in any subject area. For four minutes. In groups of five, the boys applied the PMI tool
example, the willingness to look for alternatives is a to the suggestion that they should be given $5 a week for
generalizable thinking habit. And deliberate provocation is coming to school. For three to four minutes they talked and
a technique that can be applied to generate ideas in any thought on their own. At no time did I interfere. I never
situation. discussed the $5 suggestion, other than to state it. I did not
Because we cannot succeed in teaching generalizable suggest that the youngsters consider this, think of that, and
thinking skills through the use of specific content materials, so forth. At the end of their thinking time, the groups reported
some theorists believe that such skills cannot exist. But there back to me: "The bigger boys would beat us up and take the
is another way of looking at the situation: the view that money. . . . The school would raise its charges for meals. . . .
generalizable thinking skills exist but cannot be taught using Our parents would not buy us presents. . . Who would
.
specific content. My experience has led me to the latter view. decide how much money different ages received? . . . There
As I have already noted with regard to the "discussion would be less money for a school minibus,"
method" of teaching thinking skills, little transfer of such When they finished their report, I again asked the boys
skills seems to take place from one situation to another. to express their views on the suggestion of pay for attending
Given the mechanics of perception and attention, this is school. This time 29 of the 30 haci completely reversed their
hardly surprising. If the subject of a discussion is interesting, opinion and thought it a bad idea. We subsequently learned
then, by definition, attention follows this interest. But this that the one holdout received no pocket money at home. The
THE CoRT THINKING PROGRAM
important point is that my contribution was minimal. I did tion does not stick. One teacher told me how he used the
not interact with the boys. I simply explained the PMI tool, term "PMI" and how his colleague was soon convinced of
and the boys then used it for their ownas their tool. My the value of the term "PMI."
"superior" intelligence and broader experiences were not One girl said that she initially thought the PMI a rather
influences. The boys did their own thinking. silly device, since she knew how she felt about a subject. But
The PMI is a simple scanning tool designed to avoid the she noted that, as she wrote things down under each letter
point-to-point thinking that I mentioned earlier. The thinker (she was doing a written exercise instead of the usual oral
looks first in the Plus direction ( good points), and then in the approach), she became less certain. In the end, the points
Minus direction (bad points), and finally in the interesting she had written down did cause her to change her mind. Yet,
direction (interesting things that might arise or are worth she had written down the points. That is precisely the pur-
noting, even if they are neither good nor bad). Each direction pose of a scanning tool.
is scanned formally, one after another. This formal scan It is important that the description of thinking and the
produces a better and broader map. Thinking is used to design of tools are rwo totally different things. It is possible
explore, not merely to back up a snap judgement. The to describe the process of thinking and to break it into
thinker then applies judgement to the better map. The PMI components. But then one is tempted to tum each com-
is the first of the 60 CoRT lessons. ponent into a tool, on the premise that, if the components
For the rest of this particular lesson on thinking, I might are taught, thinking skills must surely be enhanced. How-
have asked the boys to apply the PMI in various ways (e.g., ever, teaching someone how to describe a flower does not
one group doing only "Plus" or "Minus" or "Interesting") to teach him or her how to grow a flower. The purpose of
a number of thinking items, such as: Should all cars be analysis and the purpose of an operating tool are separate
colored yellow? Would it be a good idea for everyone to wear and distinct.
a badge showing his or her mood at the moment? Is The CoRT tools are designed specifically as operating
homework a good idea? Note that the items are not related. tools. Such a design has two components: (1) the tool must
Moreover, the group would be allowed to spend only two or be easy to use, and (2) it must have a useful effect. Abstract
three minutes on each. This is quite deliberate and essential analyses and subdivisions of the thinking process may be
to the method. intellectually neat, but this does not guarantee usability or
The items are switched rapidly so that attention stays on effectiveness. My many years of experience, working with
the PMI tool and not on the content. Once skill in the use of thousands of executives and organizations in different
tool is developed, students can apply the PMI to other countries, have given me some insight into those aspects of
situations in other settings. One girl told us how she used the thinking that have practical value. I have also worked with
PMI at home to decide whether or not to have her long hair scientists, designers, lawyers, and many others who are
cut. Some children report that they have used the PMI with involved in the "action world" of thinking, as distinct from
their parents, in discussing such major decisions as moving the "contemplative world."
to a new town or buying a car. This is the sort of transfer that The CoRT program has 6 sections, each consisting of 10
the CoRT program aims to achieve. lessons: CoRT I (breadth), CoRT II (organization), CoRT III
The PMI is a scanning tool, not a judgment tool. If a (interaction), CoRT IV (creativity), CoRT V (information and
thinker spots 10 "Plus" points and only two "Minus" points, feeling), and CoRT VI (action). All teachers who use the
this does not necessarily mean that the idea is a good one. program should teach CoRT I. (Some teachers use only the
Like all scanning, the PMI is subjective, depending on the 10 lessons of CoRT I.) Thereafter, the sections can be used in
thinker's perspective. One boy said, as a "Plus" point, that any order. For example, a teacher might use CoRT I, CoRT
yellow cars would be kept cleaner. Another boy stated this IV, and CoRT V. The last section (CoRT VI) is somewhat
as a "Minus" pointbecause he had to clean his dad's car different from the other sections, in that it provides a
and would therefore have to perform this chore more often. framework for a staged approach to thinking.
Both were right. I believe that thinking is best taught to 9-, 10-, and
The PMI is designed to be artificial, memorable, and 11-year-olds. Youngsters in the middle grades really enjoy
easy to pronounce. At first, some teachers rejected "PMI" as thinking and motivation is very high. They have sufficient
pointless jargon. They preferred to encourage or exhort the verbal fluency and experience to operate the thinking tools.
youngsters to look at the good points and the bad points in The curriculum is more easit, modified in the middle grades
any situation. The youngsters probably did soat that to include thinking as a basic subject. But the CoRT materials
moment. However, without the artificial term "PMI" to crys- have also been used with children younger than 9 and with
talize the process and to create a meta-pattern, the exhorta- students ranging in age from 12 to adult.
t 4j 31 37
So basic is thinking as a skill that the same CoRT lessons factors as "maturity," in commenting about those children
have been used by children in the jungles of South America who come to their classroom after some training in thinking.
and by top executives of the Ford Motor Company, United I would expect four levels of achievement in the acquisi-
Kingdom. The lessons have been taught to students ranging tion of thinking skills through the use of CoRT program:
in I.Q. from below 80 to above 140. The lessons have also Level 1. A general awareness of thinking as a skill. A
been used with groups of mixed ability. willingness to "think" about something. A willingness to
David Lane, at the Hungerford Guidance Centre in explore around a subject. A willingness to listen to others.
London, found that the teaching of thinking to delinquent No recollection of any specific thinking tools.
and violent youngste rs brought about an improvement in Level 2. A more structured approach to thinking, in-
behavior, as measured by a sharp fall in the number of cluding better balance, looking at the consequences of an
disciplinary encounters these youngsters had with super- action or choice (taking other people's views into account),
visors (personal communication from David Lane). William and a search for alternatives. Perhaps a mention of a few of
Cooley and Edna Cooley, in preliminary work at an institu- the CoRT tools.
tion for young offenders, found similar changes (Cooley and Level 3. Focused and deliberate use of some of the
Cooley forthcoming). They recounted how one youth, on the CoRT tools. The organization of thinking as a series of steps.
verge of attacking an officer with a hammer, brought to mind A sense of purpose in thinking.
a thinking lesson concerned with consequencesa quietly Level 4. Fluent and appropriate use of many CoRT
put the hammer down. I mention these changes in behavior tools. Definite consciousness of the metacognitive level of
for two reasons. First, I believe that the true test of teaching thinking. Observation of and comment on the thinker's own
thinking is the effect of such teaching on behavior. Second, thinking. The designing of thinking tasks and strategies,
we do not really have any adequate way of measuring followed by the carrying out of these tasks.
thinking performance. Standardized tests are largely ir- In most situations, I would expect average attainment to
relevant, because they do not allow us to observe the fall somewhere between levels 1 and 2. With a more definite
thinker's composite performance. emphasis on "thinking", this would rise to a point between
John Edwards taught the CoRT program in lieu of a levels 2 and 3. Only in exceptional groups with thorough
portion of the science syllabus to a class in Australia. Using training would I expect to find average attainment at level 4.
an analysis-of-discourse approach to measurement, he Perhaps the most important aspect of the direct teaching
found that the trained students did significantly better at of thinking as a skill is the self-image of a youngster as a
thinking than untrained peers; the trained students even "thinker," however. This is an operational image. Thinking
seemed to do better in science, although they had less becomes a skill at which the youngster can improve. Such a
instructional time devoted to that subject (Edwards). It is not self-image is different from the more usual "value" images: "I
difficult-to show that pupils who have had training in think- am intelligent" or "I am not intelligent" (I do not get on well
ing produce a wider scan when they are asked to consider at school, and school is a bore). Value images are self-rein-
some subject. In Ireland, Liam Staunton found that, before forcing. So are operational imagesbut the reinforcement
CoRT training, individuals produced an average of four sen- goes in the opposite directions at the other end. In other
tences on a topic, whereas after CoRT training, they words, the less intelligent students find repeated evidence of
produced an average of 4'i (personal communication from their lack of intelligence, but they also notice those occasions
Liam Staunton). We are currently analyzing data from the when they do manage to come up with good ideas.
Schools Council project in England.
I prefer that CoRT users carry out their own tests and REFERENCES
pilot projects. Tests carried out by designers of a program are Copley, W., and E. Copley. (Forthcoming). Practical Teaching of
of limited value for two reasons; (1) the conditions of teach- Thinking.
ing are ideal (and often far removed from those prevailing in de Bono, E. (1969). The Mechanksm ofMind. New York: Simon and
schools where the program will be used), and (2) such Schuster.
studies always contain an element of bias. de Bono, E. (1970). Lateral Thinking, New York: Harper & Row.
Edwards, J. Unpublished paper. Queensland, Australia: James
It is impossible, however, to measure the soft data: the Cook University.
confidence of those who have had training in thinking, the flopfield, J. (September 1982). "Brain, Computer, and Memory."
focus of their thinking, their willingness to think about things, Engineering and Science.
the effectiveness of their thinking, their structured approach Lee, M. H., and A. R. Maradurajan. (1982). "A Computer Package of
and breadth of consideration. Teachers often sum up these the Evaluation of Neuron Models Involving Large Uniform
Networks." International Journal of Man-Machine Studies
189-210.
32
38
IMPACT
S. Lee Winocur
The IMPACT (Improving Minimal Proficiencies by Ac- cooperative instruction are emphasized, but large-group and
tivating Critical Thinking) program seeks to improve individual instruction are also used. To provide appropriate
student performance in basic skill subjects by infusing learning experiences for students who have varying educa-
critical thinking instruction into the content areas. In addition tional backgrounds, interests, and skill achievement levels,
to the major goal of improved student achievement on district
the study sheets that accompany each lesson use diverse
tests of basic competency, project objectives include im- instructional methodologies and are written at several dif-
proved performance of tasks that require critical thinking and ferent levels of vocabulary and task difficulty. Learning ac-
independent judgment and, on standardized measures of tivities include group discussion, oral and written reports,
reading and mathematics, improved instruction through staff team research projects, artwork, and dramatic presentations.
inservice education and trained coordination of program
installation. Program Training
Teachers attend an intensive 18-hour training session
Program Components that focuses on the Universe of Critical Thinking Skills, the
The IMPACT curriculum includes three essential fea- theoretical base for implementing critical thinking, the IM-
PACT lesson design, teaching behaviors, and social interac-
tures of effective instruction:
Skills are clearly identified and placed in a hierarchical tions that reinforce critical thinking in the classroom.
sequence of cognitive development. Teachers receive the IMPACT materials only if they success-
Skills are presented in a lesson-plan format designed fully complete the training.
Level I training is followed by peer coaching. Teachers
to provide modeling and practice and to systematically iden-
tify reinforcement of the thinking processes that are integral practice identified teaching strategies, teach the IMPACT
thinking skills. observe one another in the classroom, record
to and essential for subject area mastery.
Ten teacher behaviors that promote critical thinking the use of each teaching behavior, and review feedback on
are identified, practiced, and coached by peers. observation findings.
Although originally designed as an alternative approach At Level II, one or more representatives from each
to remedial reading and math in junior and senior high district are eligible for training as district-site coordinators,
schools. IMPACT can be used in a variety of subject areas certified to conduct training for other teachers. Regional
with students of varying ability levels in all grades. The trainers certified by the project are contracted by the Hunt-
learning activities accommodate individual development ington Beach Union High School District to train in each
and differing learning styles and allow all students to ex- state. The IMPACT program is sponsored by the National
perience success as they actively participate in tasks that Diffusion Network as a model staff development program
move from the concrete to the abstract. and by Phi Delta Kappa. IMPACT's strengths lie in its clear
Students receive classroom instruction using the IM- theoretical base, its validated effectiveness, its ease of im-
PACT program two to three hours per week. Small-group and plementation, and its synthesis of theory.
33 3j
IMPACT
Developer: S. Lee Winocur
Goals: To improve students' performance in content areas by facilitating their acquisition of higher-level thinking skills.
Sample skills: Classifying and categorizing, ordering, identifying retevant and irrelevant information, formulating valid inductive and
deductive arguments, rendering judgments.
Assumptions: All students are capable of higher-leyel thinking.

Thinking skills can be taught.
Thinking skills can be learned.
Thinking skills are basic to the learning process.
Thinking is best introduced in a social context.
Thinking skills must be related to the curriculum.
Intended audience: All students.
Process: Students' basic skills improve through learning activities that include a critical thinking component infused into content area
lessons through (1) a sequential and cumulative Universe of Critical Thinking Skills designed to help students reason, (2) a
model lesson format, and (3) ten teaching behaviors that label and reinforce students' thinking in an interactive environment.
lime: Two to three hours per week.
Source: S. Lee Winocur, National Director, IMPACT, Huntington Beach Union High School District, 21412 Magnolia St.,
Huntington Beach, CA 92646.
Program Materials difficult for students to grasp. These self-paced packets are
sent home with students as supplementary materials. Packet
The Curriculum Materials Kit provides a language arts topics include Reliable/Unreliable Sources, Cause and Effect,
handbook and a mathematics curriculum handbook. Each Relationships, Meaning of Statements, Assumptions, and
contains 60 teacher-developed lessons focusing on critical Point of View.
thinking skills that directly affect reading, comprehension, The IMPACT Training Manual explores the program's
and mathematical problem solving. A filmstrip provides theoretical base, provides sample lessons and exercises in
motivational experiences and information related to the implementation, examines ten teaching behaviors, and ex-
learning and transfer of logical reasoning to school and plains the Universe of Critical Thinking Skills. Materials are
everyday life. Home Enrichment Learning Packets reinforce available to IMPACT graduates through Phi Delta Kappa.
selected skills in critical thinking identified as being the most
34 40
8
Philosophy for Children
Matthew Lipman
The aim of Philosophy for Children is to promote it's flat. Tom infers that it's flat. Bruce wonden if it's flat, Edna
excellent thinking: thinking that is creative as well as supposes it to be flat, and so on? In forming a model of
critical, imaginative as well as logical, inventive as thinking children, it does make a difference, and this is one
well as analytical. But to make children think well, we must objective of Philosophy for Children.
first make them think. This involves an intellectual awaken-
ing, a strengthening of their ability to discriminate the Program Materials and Goals
relationships among thingsto draw appropriate distinc-
The following passage is from Kio and Gus, a novel for
tions and make connections.
Unfortunately, the models of children available on children in grades K-4:
television and in most children's stories do not offer much There usually aren't many cars on the road that runs by the corral.
evidence that children do in fact reflect, consider, deliberate, Something's coming now, although it's still a long way off. Now I
infer, seek out underlying assumptions, define, or hear the siren! It's an ambulance, and it's speeding very fast. There
hypothesize. to name a few of the mental activities charac- must have been an accident somewhere.
teristic of people who think (see Figure 1). Editors of Just as the ambulance gets near the corral. I hear Brad trying to quiet
children's readers evidently prefer story characters who have Tt. elaikovsky down. The siren terrifies him. Suddenly Tchaikovsky
real s up on his hind legs and Kio is thrown on the grass! Facedown.
feelings,engage in physical actions. and note facts; refer-
BraJ and I bend over him. But he just lies there.
ences to thinking are considered superfluous. If the stone is
flat, it's flat. What difference does it make that Jane imagines
FIGURE 1
Thinking Skills: A Philosophical Foundation
Inquiry Concept Translation Critical

Reasoning
Skills Formation Skills Dispositions
Skills
Skills
(Observation, (Definition, (Comprehension, (Wondering, asking

(Inductive, (or reasons, judging
description, classification) listening,
deductive. with critiera,
narration) writing)
analogical) questioning)
Philosophy
35 41
The ambulance stops and backs up. Two people hurry out, scoop ment. Another K-4 program, Pixie, stresses language and
Kio up, put him in the ambulance and drive off. Tchaikovsky stands reasoning, particularly analogical thinking. Children in
around nibbling at some grass. It all seems so stniAge, that an grades 5-6 who read and discuss Ham Stotdemeier's Dis-
ambulance on its way to the hospital should cause an accident!
covery learn the principles of reasoning. The remainder of
Gus, the narrator, is blind. Apparently she has never the curriculum requires students to apply the tools of intel-
seen. How much of what she told us could she have per- lectual inquiry acquired in the first three programs to specific
ceived directly through her other senses? What could she subject areas. The Lisa programfor grades 7-8applies
have inferred? What could she not have observed? What them to ethical reasoning. The other two programs are for
might she have learned from the testimony of others? What secondary school students; Suki stresses the unification of
might she have inferred from such testimony? How much of thinking and writing, and Mark takes a reflective approach
her story is description, and how much is explanation? These to the social sciences.
questions, reworded for young children, are the subject of Thus, the early elementary portion of the Philosophy for
lively classroom discussion. While the readers cannot per- Children curriculum provides children with a broad array of
ceive what Gus perceived, they can reenact her inferences. situations that challenge them to practice their reasoning and
This is an example of how children in early elementaiy inquiry skills; the middle school portion introduces them to
school can learn what inferring ("Figuring things out") is and the principles underlying such practices; and the later por-
practice it at the same time. Inferring, in turn, is fundamental tion enables them to apply their cognitive skills, now shar-
to a child's ability to acquire meanings. And that ability, in pened and better understood, to 'a variety of academic and
turn, is essential to academic success. life situations (see Figure 2). Whatever the grade level,
Kio and Gus is one of six novels currently available as Philosophy for Children is generally taught about two and
part of the Philosophy for Children curriculum; it emphasizes one-quarter hnurs weekly for an entire year. It is not unusual
reasoning about nature, especially animals and the environ-
FIGURE 2
Application of Thinking Skills in the Curriculum
Language Arts Mathematics Science Physical Education Social Studies
Critical Thinking
Skills and Dispositions
F.3stered by Philosophy
PHILOSOPHY FOR CHILDREN
Philosophy for Children
Developer: Matthew Lipman
Goal: Improve children's reasoning abilities and judgment by having them think about thinking as they discuss concepts of
importance to them.
Sample skills: Drawing inferences, making analogies, forming hypotheses, classification.
Assumptions:
Children are by nature interested in philosophical issues such as truth, fairness, and personal identity.
Children should learn to think for themselves, to explore alternatives to their own points of view, to consider evidence, to
make careful distinctions, and to become aware of the objectives of the educational process.
Intended audience: Children, kindergarten through high school.
Process:
Students read special novels with inquisitive children as characters, followed by teacher-led discussion using structured
discussion plans, exercises, and games.
Time: Three 40-minute periods per week.
Available from: Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for Children, Montclair State College, Upper Montclair, NJ 07043,
Telephone: 201-893-4277.
for each program to extend over two years since much class late. Whether or not the children who do these things know
time must be devoted to discussions and exercises. the names of the skills they employ is relatively unimportant;
Characters in the Philosophy for Children novels are what matters is that thinking becomes something they enjoy
shown discussing ideas. When, for example, the practice of doing and do well.
taking turns comes up, they look for the underlying principle,
which they may identify as sharing or reciprocity. When the Program Training and Effectiveness
question of what someone's "real name" is arises, they insist
on examining what is meant by "real" as carefully as what is Not every teacher is cut out to teach Philosophy for
meant by "name." In other words, these fictional children Childrea, including some teachers who, by other standards,
display intellectual curiosity about concepts, principles, and are highly effective. Philosophical issues are generally
ideals. The practice that elementary school children receive problematic and have to be approached with an open mind
and a readiness to admit that one doesn't know the answers.
in discussing the general concepts philosophy deals with
(such as truth, justice. person, right, and education) prepares A teacher of philosophy must be self-effacing with regard to
them to understand the more specific concepts they will personal views and exercise patience with students' efforts
encounter in the secondary school curriculum. To students to think for themselves. The teaching of philosophy demands
who are aware that truth is important but unsure just what mutual rather than unilateral respect.
truth is. the opportunity to discuss the concept is welcomed. Training in the use of the curriculum materials is indis-
Likewise, students who want to be treated "as persons" and pensable for most teachers. On-site teacher training
who want to know how to treat others that way appreciate programs may extend as long as two years. .4ore intensive
workshops are also available, including a three-day introduc-
an opportunity to discuss what a person is.
Indeed, discussion of the readings is of crucial impor- tory seminar, which covers one-half of a program.
Evidence supporting the effectiveness of Philosophy for
tance. Philosophical discussions differ from more conven-
tional conversations in that the dialogues seek to conform to Children has been derived from a series of Educational
Testing Service (ETS)-conducted experiments, as far back as
the rules of logic and inquiry as the children have learned
1976, and involving as many as 5,000 students over a one-
them, Dialogues disciplined by logical considerations
promote better thinking, because logic consists of the criteria year period (see Iorio, Weinstein, and Martin 1984; Shipman
through which better and worse thinking are distinguished. 1983; Weinstein 1982). Results indicate that 5th, Gth, and 7th
Philosophy for Children aims at producing scrupulous grade students in experimental classes gained 80 percent
readers and reasonable discussants. It also aims at producing more in reasoning proficiency than did comparable students
children disposed to wonder, inquire, deliberate, and specu- in control classes. There was also an academic spinoff: ex-
1.10.1=1
37
perimental students showed a 66 percent greater gain in which children respond to the opportunity to discuss ideas
reading and a 36 percent greater gain in mathematics than that matter greatly to them and to think cooperatively in a
control students. community of inquiry. By promoting children's questioning
Since it is generally conceded that reasoning is the and inquiry skills, Philosophy for Children enables them to
common ingredient in all academic pursuits, we may infer discover the connections among the apparently fragmentary
that improved reasoning ability is the most promising avenue cuniculums that make up the school thy. In addition to this
to improved academic performance, Since there is little being much-needed unifying function, the program sharpens the
done in the way of diagnosing children's reasoning deficien- reasoning and concept-formation skills that students sorely
cies with consequent remediation, it's not surprising that need in later years. Indeed, there is no better way of ensuring
student performance on reasoning tests seems to reach a that schools produce reasonable citizens than to introduce
plateau between 4th and 5th grades and remains there at least reasoning skills at the beginning of the child's education and
until college. Given simple but fundamental reasoning tasks, to reinforce such skills throughout the remainder of the
students tend to answer correctly fewer than 75 percent of schooling process.
the questions. Nevertheless, as the 1980-81 ETS experiment
( Shipman 1983) demonstrated, a one-year intervention with
Philosophy for Children can cut the experimental students' REFERENCES
deficiency by a third. It would be wrong to infer that lorio, J., M. L. Weinstein, and J. F. Martin. (1984). "A Review of
children's creativity is not stimulated by the emphasis on District 24's Philosophy for Children Program." Thinking: The
reasoning; a 1984 ETS experiment (lorio et al. 1984) with 3rd Journal of Philosop0 Jbr Children 5, 2: 28-35.
graders showed that the control group's level of appropriate Shipman, V. C. ( 1983). "Evaluation Replication of the Philosophy
responses diminished over a year's time, while experimental for Children ProgramFinal Report." Thinking: The Journal
students registered gains of 63 percent and 46 percent on the qf Philosophy for Children 5, 1: 45-47.
Weinstein, M. L., and J. F. Martin. (1982), "Philosophy for Children
two test instruments. and the Improvement of Thinking Skills in Queens, New York."
A visit to a classroom where Philosophy for Children is Thinking: The Journal of Philosophy for Children 4, 2: 36.
being taught competently will reveal the exuberance with
44
38
9
The California Writing Project
Carol Booth Olson
The UCI Thinking/Writing Project integrates basic prin-

An explanation of how to create thinking/writing
ciples of learning theory, current research on the lessons.
composing process, and practical strategies of the A summary of interviews with university faculty
National Writing Project in a developmental approach to regarding their expectations of the thinking/writing abilities
fostering critical thinking skills through writing. It is based on entering freshmen should possess.
the premise that since writing is a complex, critical thinking A thinking/writing bibliography.
activity, a training program consisting of lessons that gradu- 2. Teacher Training. The Thinking/Writing Project of-
ally increase in intellectual difficulty and lead students fers a variety of staff development programs, which run from
through the levels of thinking will make the "what" in a paper three hours to six days and can be tailored to specific teacher
and student populations. A typical workshop combines one-
more accessible and allow students to focus on the "how" of
composing. Overall, helping students to become better third theory with two-thirds practice. Participants are intro-
duced to the thinking/writing model and then experience a
thinkers will enable them to become better writers, and vice
demonstration lesson by participating in each stage of the
versa.
writing process. The project also has sample syllabi available
for the following courses: Writing and Critical Thinking,
Project Activities and Services Young Writers' Workshop, the UCI Thinking/Writing Project
The Thinking/Writing Project involves three main for Entering Freshmen, the Training of Trainers Project in
activities: Thinking and Writing, and Thinking/Writing/Computing.
I. Curriculum Development. Teacher/Consultants from 3. Evaluation. In order to evaluate the project's impact
the project have created a 300-page notebook, Think- on students, several instruments have been developed. The
ing/Writing: Fostering Critical Thinking Skills Through Writ- evaluation data and the evaluation design itself are available
ing, which contains: from the project.
A rationale for why writing can and should be used as
a tool for promoting cognitive growth. Project Directors
A thinking/writing taxonomy.
A description of the sensory/descriptive, imagin- The UCI Thinking/Writing Project is directed by Carol
Booth Olson, Co-Director of the UCI Writing Project and
ative/narrative, practical/informative, and analytical/ Coordinator of Project Radius; it is co-directed by Owen
expository domains of writing.
Thirty demonstration lessons ( for primary, elemen- Thomas, Professor of English. Linguistics, and Teacher
each level Education; and John Hollowell, Campus Writing Director.
tary, intermediate, high school, and college and for Twenty-seven Teacher/Consultants from the UCI Writing
of Bloom's Taxonomyknowledge, comprehension ap- Project, representing all grade levels, are involved in the
plication, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) that provide
curriculum development, teacher training, and evaluation
explicit strategies for teaching each stage of the composing
components of the project.
processprewriting, precomposing, writing, sharing, revis-
For more information write: Carol Booth Olson, UCI
ing, editing, and evaluation.
Consideration of how the affective domain relates to Writing Project, Office of Teacher Education, University of
California at Irvine, Irvine, CA 92717.
the thinking/writing process.
4.15161.0110..0111.111/11.V.11/
39
10
Future Problem Solving
Anne B. Crabbe
Me trouble with our times is that the jiaure is not what Program Participants
it used to be,
Paul Valery The regular program has three grade-level divisions:
Juniors, grades 4-6; Intermediates, grades 7-9; and Seniors,
grades 10-12. A noncompetitive Primary Division is open to
The Future Problem-Solving Program offers students a students in any grade, although it is designed for students in
chance to compete with their peers as they learn to grades K-3.
think creatively about solutions to predicted problems The program appeals primarily to gifted students, but
of the future. The program, which is based on the work of the materials and processes are appropriate for children at
Alex Osbom and Sidney Parnes, was developed in 1974 by all ability levels. In fact, Parnes has reported success in using
E. Paul Torrance, an internationally known expert in the process with mentally retarded childrm.
creativity. The plan has since expanded from a curricular unit
for high school sti.idents to an international program that Program Components
reaches an estimated 200,000 students each year.
Practice Problems
Program Objectives
Early in the school year, teams of four students receive
When Torrance created the Future Problem-Solving a set of practice problems, which are the heart of the pro-
Program, his primary motives were to encourage youngsters gram. Each problem begins with a "fuzzy situation" and
to think creatively and to help them develop richer images instructions for steps to be followed. The first practice prob-
of the future. In addition to using the logical and sequential lem directs students to complete the first four steps of the
parts of their intellects, Torrance wanted students to develop, problem-solving process. The second and third problems
exercise, and use their intuition and imagination. add more steps, so that by the third problem students are
Since its earliest days, the program's objectives, like its negotiating the full process developed by Osborn (1963) and
scope and audience, have grown. The Future Problem Solv- Parnes (1967). To complete the process, students must:
ing Program now embraces several other objectives, which 1. Research the general topic by reading books and
include helping students (1) increase their written and verbal magazines, reviewing audiovisual materials, interviewing
communication skills, (2) become better team members, experts, visiting agencies, or using other sources of informa-
(3) develop and improve their research skills, (4) integrate a tion.
problem-solving process into their daily lives, and (5) im- 2. Brainstorm possible problems related to the fuzzy
prove their analytical and critical thinking skills. Evidence situation.
indicates that the program is fulfilling its objectives.
46
40
FUTURE PROBLEM SOLVING
3. Identify from the above list one underlying problem competitive problem solving, social activities, and educa-
they feel is central to the situation. tional presentations. Winning teams, one from each grade-
4. Brainstorm alternative solutions for the underlying level division, advance to the International FPS Conference,
problem as a focus. where they represent their state.
5. Develop five criteria for evaluating their alternative
solutions. International FPS Conference
6. Rank their ten most promising alternative solutions
according to all fi ve criteria. A four-day international competition is held each June
7. Total the scores to identify the best solution and write for the best problem-solving teams from around the world;
the winners of the 40 State FPS Bowls, teams from the other
a few paragraphs describing it.
Team members record the results of these efforts in 10 states (eligible through the Open Division, which is run
booklets, which they then mail to trained volunteers for by the National FPS Office), and teams from foreign
review and scoring; the booklets are returned to the team countries. This international event offers a full schedule of
with comments and suggestions. Teams that have submitted activities, including competitive problem solving, as well as
the best work on the third practice problem are invited to lots of social and educational experiences.
compete in State FPS Bowls.
Topics for the three practice problems, as well as the Scenario Writing Contest
state and national problems, are voted on by the participating
students. The topics they select are as varied as they are The Scenario Writing Contest challenges students to
complex; for instance, ocean communities, robotics, nuclear develop their creative writing talents. Asked to project them-
selves 25 years into the future, students create short stories
war, prisons, lasers, nuclear waste, genetic engineering, the
greenhouse effect, drunk driving, education, and the related to one or more of the FPS topics of the year. In the
militarization and industrialization of space. year-long program, students may submit three scenarios;
each one is evaluated and returned to the author with sug-
gestions for improvement.% but only the third scenario is
State FPS Bowls competitive. Or students may opt to submit just one scenario,
Competitions are held each spring in the 40 states for the competition. Many of the students who have par-
having sanctioned FPS Programs. Teams of students come ticipated in this activity have shown exceptional writing
together. most often on a college campus. to participate in talent.
Future Problem Solving
Developer: E. Paul Torrance (based on the work of Alex Osborn and Sidney Parnes)
Develop creative problem-solving skills while learning about the future.
Goals:
Sample skills: Creative problem-solving process. verbal and written communication, teamwork, research techniques, critical and analytical
thinking.
Problem-solving skills are necessary to function effectively.
Assumptions:
In order to prepare for the future, young people need to consider issues related to the future.
Students can and should be taught to think more creatively.
Intended audience: Regular program: grades 4-12. Primary division: K-3.
Process:
Students in teams of four follow a multiple-step problem-solving process: gathering information, brainstorming problems
from a given situation, identifying the major underlying problem, brainstorming solutions, selecting criteria for evaluating
solutions, and evaluating solutions to determine the best one.
Time: Varies; one hour per week is typical.
Available from: Future Problem Solving Program, St. Andlews College, Laurinburg, NC 28352.
41
Community Problem-Solving Division * * *
Irt the Community Problem-Solving Division, students The Future Problem-Solving Program is a novel teaching
identify real problems in their own communities, use their approach. Its procedures are formal, and teacher-coaches are
problem-solving skills to create solutions to those problems,
required to receive specific training (either in training ses-
and implement their solutions. Being able to apply their sions or from written self-study materials), as are the student
problem-solving skills to real problems is exciting for stu-
participants. After training, teams of students are registered
dents. Their efforts have ranged from stocking a children's with either the state or national program office. Funding,
library in Fiji to developing (and seeing enacted) a state law
teacher schedules, parent involvement, transportation, ad-
for disposing hazardous waste in Utah. Some very creative vanced training, and so on are handled according to local
and very helpful solutions have become reality across the
district guidelines. The program encourages flexibility in
country, thanks to the students in this division. The winning these matters and is a refreshing departure from classroom
teams at each of the three grade-level divisions receive instruction.
invitations to participate in the International FPS Conference.
Primary Division
The Primary Division, begun in 1984, is a noncompeti-
tive, instructional program for children in grades K-3. Just REFERENCES
like the older students, these youngsters tackle three practice
Osborn. Alex F. (1963). Applied Imagination. 3rd ed. New York:
problems for which they create solutions. They send their Charles Scriber's Sons.
work to trained evaluators who score their work and return Pames, Sidney. (1967). Creative Guidebook, New York: Charles
it with suggestions for improvement, Scriber's Sons.
... 42
48
Thinking Skills:
Making a Choice
Anne H. Nardi and Charles E. Wales
A problem well slated is a problem half solved. What to Teach

Charles Kettering Our research shows that the basic decision-making
process that all people use includes five thinking operations.
Successful decision makers:
Schools that plan to teach thinking skills must carefully Define the Situation
consider both what to teach and how to teach it. The State the Goal
choice of what to teach should be based on the kind Generate Ideas
of skills graduates will be expected to use when they go to Prepare the Plan
work in business, industry, or government. Whatever career Take Action
is pursued, one skill crucially affects success after graduation: Teachers can determine what to teach about each of
that skill is decision making. Other skills that support these operations by carefully examining the thinking process
people's decision-making performance, such as creative a person uses when solving a simple problem such as, "What
thinking, critical thinking, and dialectical reasoning, should shall I wear today?" The following example shows what
also be taught, but the process of decision making should be needs to be considered. The process begins with the
the focal point of what students learn. situation.
Guided Design
Developer: Charles E. Wales with Robert A. Stager and Anne H. Nardi

learning.
To teach students how to use the process of decision making as they apply the subject matter they are
Goal:
of problems;
Sample skills: Identify and solve open-ended problems; think critically; generate, classify, and explore alternatives; find causes
anticipate potential problems and consequences; and deal with issues of truth, fairness, and differing viewpoints.
apply
Knowledge is a means, not an end; a necessary but not a sufficient tool for success after graduation. It is the ability to
Assumptions; making that is crucial.
knowledge in the process of decision
Elementary through college, as well as adult, learners.
Intended audience:
printed instruction-feed-
Process: The "complete" decision-making process is modeled step-by-step in slow motion, verbally or with
back materials. Students use current subject matter as they make decisions. The teacher is a facilitator, mediator, and manager.
Varies. There should be regular practice in at least one course at every level each term.
Time:
26506-6101.
Available from: The Center for Guided Design, Engineering Sciences Building, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV
43 A0
FIGURE 1
A 3rd Grade Problem:

The Car Wreck
Define the Situation

"I hope you have your thinking cap on today because we are going to be detectives. The case involves a car wreck. To find out more, you'll have
to ask me some questions. By now you should know how to use the 5WH words to generate those questions. Ask away!"
Actors "Who wa., in the car when it wrecked?"
Props "What kind of car was involved? Were any other things involved?"
Action "What happened before, during, and after the wreck?"
Scene "When did the accident happen?"

"Where did it happen?" "What is that area like?"
Cause "Why did the wreck occur?"
Consequences "How serious was the accident?"
''Those are good questions. Let me tell you what we know. The car was discovered by someone just like you who was riding a bike down a country
road where there were both fields and woods. The car had gone off the road and into a ditch, but did not appear to be badly damaged. The engine
was still warm and the driver's door was open, but no one was in sight. We don't know why the accident happened or how serious it might be for
whoever was in the car."
State the Goal

"That's all we know. Rememberyou are going to play detective. What is the goal of a detective?"
"The goal of a detective is to find out what happened and to explain why it happened."
Generate Ideas
"Very good! Our goal is to find out what happened and to explain why it happened. To do that we must first guess why it happened. We must
generate some ideas that might explain why the car went off the road. These ideas are educated guesses about what might have happened. You know
these guesses are called hypotheses. What explanations can you offer? Why do you think this car might have wrecked? What happened to the
occupants?"
r
Hypotheses
"The car had a flat tire and went off the road. Another car came along and took the driver, who was sick or hurt, to a hospital."
"The car hit or just missed a deer or a cow and wrecked. The driver went for help."
"A space ship landed in the road and the driver !..ft with the ship."
"This was the getaway car for a robber who was arrested and taken to jail."
L
Experiment/Prediction
"Those are very good hypotheses. Now we must generate the idea for an experiment that will test each hypothesis and predict what we expect
to find,"
11500 1==111..=.
44
THINKING SKILLS: MAKING A CHOICE
sophistication learners bring to each operation and the sub-

Situation. In the first operation the decision maker uses
ject matter base they draw upon. In kindergarten a problem
questions based on the five "WH" words (Who, What, When,
might be how to get into a car safely. A 1st grader might be
Where, Why, and How) to define the situation. What I wear
asked to consider the process involved in mailing a message
today depends on the situation. Are we painting posters? Is
to someone who lives far away. The result might be a
it the day for school pictures? The answers to these questions
flowchart that describes the process. In the 3rd grade, stu-
affect each of the operations that follow.
Goal. Good decision makers know that stating the goal dents might learn how these flve decision-making operations
are used to conduct an investigation of a car wreck. Part of
is a critical step. A goal not only sets the direction for all
succeeding operations, but it is also used to judge both the the dialogue that might take place in that class is shown in
worth of a plan as it is being prepared and the result of the Figure 1.
Decision making is a complex process so teachers must
actions. The goal of today's clothes might be merely to avoid
prepare appropriate materials before they enter the class-
what was worn yesterday, but it could also be to blend in or
room. The first task is to select an open-ended problem
stand out, to influence others, or to feel very comfortable.
situation that grows from the subject matter and calls for
Ideas. Skilled decision makers search for all available
students to use some of the major concepts they are studying.
options. In our example, the options include all the clothes
The second task is to prepare an outline of the solution. Since
and shoes a person owns or can borrow.
there are no right answers in decision making, the teacher's
Plan. Even a relatively simple problem such as this
outline may not include all of the responses the students will
requires a plan. Good decision makers develop a detailed
make. This is no problem as long as all of the operations are
plan for the chosen option. The plan includes a combination
included in the teacher's outline. Without an outline, teachers
of questions, answers, and an evaluation. Some of the ques-
tions might be: Are the chosen clothes clean? Torn? Pressed?
are likely to omit operations from the process. Experienced
decision makers appear to omit steps because much of their
Do they fit? Do zippers work? Are buttons missing? Skilled
thinking is subconscious. It occurs so rapidly inside their
decision makers answer these questions, develop a plan, and
heads that they are unaware of everything they consider.
test that plan mentally to ensure that the goal will be
Thus, while experienced people actually use all five opera-
achieved.
tions, they are likely to be poor models for those who want
Action. The completed plan is translated into action: the
to learn the process. A carefully prepared outline helps to
decision maker gets dressed. As events unfold, revisions of
solve that problem.
the plan may, of course, be necessary. And when the day is
In the first few primary grades, students should learn
over, the results are checked to be sure the goal was
achieved: Was the outfit just right? This information is stored how to use the five operations both to change the conse-
quences of a situation and to explain why a situation exists.
for use in future decision-making situations.
The problems they face should be simple, the decision
making verbal. The teacher should visibly record both the
How to Teach operations and the students' responses so that everyone can
Because of the way schools are organized, educators see the process. When their writing skills are sufficiently
developed, students should do the recording, either on the
tend to think in terms of subjects and some will want to treat
chalkboard or at their seats.
decision making in that way. They may decide to offer
Eventually, students should work in small groups and
"thinking" in a new, required course, just as they did with
produce their own outlines. The focus on the process of
values clarification when it was a popular topic. Decision
decision making and the five operations provides an ap-
making cannot be treated that way because it is not just
another subject, it is a process. Decision making transcends propriate structure for collaborative learning activities. At the
different subject end of such an activity, if time permits, students may be asked
course and discipline boundaries; it relates
to write a report on the class exercise or some parallel
matter fields and makes them useful. That's why decision
making must be directly and explicitly taught at all levels and
problem.
More complex problems that involve all of the opera-
integrated throughout the curriculum. Practice over time is a
tions should he introduced in later grades and used
critical dimensionstudents need time to understand and throughout the secondary program. A proven teaching
internalize the process.
strategy that provides the needed step-by-step guidance at
Our research shows that the process of decision making
any level is called Guided Design (Wales, Nardi, and Stager
can be taught at any level of education, from kindergarten to
1987). This approach is based on printed instruction-feed-
graduate school, in any subject. The difference between
back pages prepared in advance by the teacher. These pages
these levels is not in the process being taught, but in tliL
45
go beyond an outline and actually model the decision

making of a fictitious group.
FIGURE 2
The first instruction in a set of Guided Design materials
presents the problem situation and asks students to list the A Sample Guided Design Instruction
five "WH" questions they want answered. Students work in
groups of five or six so they have to deal with the alternatives Instruction 2 STATF THF COM
that come from different values and divergent viewpoints. Holmes stroked his chin and paced as he contemplated what the
When each group has agreed on its questions, the teacher young woman told him. Was she telling the truth or was she lying? Why
would she lie? Holmes' thinking was interrupted by Watson who said,
checks the work to be sure it goes in an appropriate direction. "You did the right thing my dear, coming here. I'm sure we can get your
If the response is reasonable, the teacher gives each student light back on."
a feedback page that includes a list of the questions that "Eventually I hope to do that, Watson, but that's not my goal at the
moment."
might have been asked and some of the needed information.
Alternately, the students may be asked to get the answers What is the glut detective's goal?
from their textbook, other people, or the library.
After the students consider a new viewpoint, they move This pattern continues as the students think their way
on to the next instruction, which asks them to state the goal through thH complete decision-making process. As they
they hope to achieve. An example of that instmction is shown work, they learn how to think critically, draw inferences,
in Figure 2. In this secondary school module Sherlock Hol- devise analogies, explore alternatives, and make value judg-
mes and Dr. Watson are conducting an investigation that they ments. Students also learn the crucial role that facts and
hope will explain why a young lady's electric light suddenly concepts play in decision making and why everyone must
went out. When the students complete their goal statement continue to learn throughout life.
the teacher gives each person the next page, which includes These are important gains, but perhaps the most sig-
both the feedback and the new instruction shown in Figure nificant reasons to integrate subject matter and decision
3. The students' new task is to Generate Ideas, to generate making are (1) that students gain a renewed respect for facts
hypotheses that might explain why the light went out. Their and concepts, and (2) that students' motivation to learn and
responses might include a burned-out bulb, a lightning the amount they remember increases. Information is no
strike, an intruder, or. . . . . After the most likely hypothesis is longer just something to be remembered until the next test,
selected, the experiment that will confirm or deny it is but one of the tools that can be used to solve present and
planned. future problems. The potential gain was clearly
FIGURE 3
A Sample Guided Design Page
feedback/ GENERAILIDEAS
"My goal," Holmes said, "is the goal of every researcher, my goal is to 'explain' something by finding a cause-and-effect relationship."
Successful decision makers know there are two roles they might play: Researcher or Practitioner.
The Practitioner wants to change the consequences of the situation. If the problem is darkness, the practitioner wants the opposite, the
mirror image of that, the goal is to have light. Watson plays that role here.
The Researcher wants to answer the why question. If the problem is that we don't know why the light went out, the researcher's goal is
the mirror image of that, to find a cause-and-effect relationship that explains why it went out. That's Holmes' goal.
Instruction 3.1 GENERAILIDEAS

"Very good, Holmes," Watson said, "but I'd still like to get the light back on for this young lady."
"In due time, Watson. But first we must generate some hypotheses, we must make some educated guesses as to why the light might have disappeared."
If you were working with Holmes and Watson, what hypotheses would you suggest?
46 52
THINIUNG SKILLS: MAKING A CHOICE
REFERENCES
demonstrated by one research study that compared the per-
formance of college students during the five years before and wales, C. E., A. H. Nardi, and R. A. Stager. (1987). Thinking Skills:
the five years after a two-semester "thinking" course was Making A Choice. Morgantown: West Virginia University Cen-
added during the freshman year (Wales 1979). The number ter for Guided Design.
Wales, C. E. (February 1979). "Does How You Teach Make A
of students who graduated increased by 32 percent and the
Difference?" Engineering Education 69, 5: 394-398.
grade point average at graduation increased by 25 percent.
Could similar gains be made at your school? We won't know
until schools begin to teach the process of decision making.
47
12
Odyssey:
A Curriculum for Thinking
Elena Dworkin Wright
Odyssey: A Curriculum for Thinking combines Scope of Materials

knowledge from current cognitive research with the
methods of direct instruction. The overall goal of the Odyssey materials include five teacher guides, each with
its own student book. The entire program is also available in
program, which is intended for regular heterogeneously
grouped classes in elementary and middle schools, is to blackline master format as Teacher Resource Books. The
books are listed below in the recommended order of use.
enhance students' ability to perform a wide variety of intel-
1. Foundations of Reasoning introduces students to the
lectually demanding tasks. These include careful observation
processes of gathering, organizing, and interpreting informa-
and classification, deductive and inductive reasoning, the
tion in systematic and critical ways. The processes intro-
precise use of language, the inferential use of information,
duced lead to analyzing and synthesizing information that
hypothesis generation and testing, problem solving, inven-
students then use to formulate and verify hypotheses.
tiveness, and decision making.
2. Understanding language extends analytical skills to
Some lessons concentrate on increasing students' ability
the domain of vocabulary. Just as the Foundations ofReason-
to use the knowledge they already have, whereas other ing lessons helped students learn to analyze and describe
lessons teach ways to acquire knowledge, including conven-
tional classroom content. In either case, the lesson objectives
objects in terms of configurations and characteristics, these
lessons help students learn to analyze and describe dimen-
are achieved through the application of such strategies as sions of meaning and the impact of written text. This analysis
making classification hierarchies and generating alternative
and description involves choice, organization, and sequenc-
points of view. Applying these strategies across diverse prob-
ing of words, sentences, and paragraphs.
lem domains is a critical part of internalizing the mental
3. In Problem Solving, students learn to visualize
structures. These applications also reinforce transfer of the problems with the help of drawings, graphs, diagrams,
formal, abstract procedures to the sorts of personal and
tables, simulation, and enactment. They also learn systematic
classroom challenges students will face beyond the program.
use of trial and error and how to extract the clues from a
The Odyssey approach to the teaching of thinking is
problem statement.
deliberately eclectic. Program materials reflect the more per-
4. Decision Making begins with activities designed to
suasive aspects of a number of theories of epistemology and
create an awareness of the opport aides for decisions and
cognitive development. Some lessons involve a Socratic in-
their importance every day. f.:Idents learn to predict logical
quiry approach, while others are based on a Piagetian-like
outcomes of alternatives and te dather and sort information
analysis of cognitive activities. Still others emphasize ex- for relevance, consistency, and credibility. Ultimately, stu-
ploration and discovery in a way reminiscent of Bruner. The
dents learn to use a preference analysis strategy and to
overall design reflects the multi-faceted nature of intellectual
weight dimensions of complex decision situations.
performance and a focus on long-term effects that will trans-
5. Inventive Thinking introduces the concept of design
fer to content area subjects as well as activities beyond and teaches three strategies for understanding a design:
school.
""t54
48
ODYSSEY
description. comparison, and experimentation. Students Test hypotheses about the essential characteristics of
evaluate. improve, and invent designs. They also learn to a class.
apply the three strategies to more abstract designs involving Generate negative antonyms by adding or subtracting
procedures and theories. the appropriate prefix.
Evaluate a procedure.
Analyze a decision situation to determine what alter-
Lesson Design natives exist.
Each of the lessons has four sections: 4. CLASSROOM PROCEDUREa detailed plan for con-
1. RA11ONALEwhy the lesson is included in the ducting classes, which teachers can use without additional
training. Plans for conducting the class include suggested
course.
2. OBJEC11VES what the lesson is intended to ac- teacher questions and possible student responses. Teaching
complish. Examples are: lessons model how to elicit information from students so that
To increase skills in spatial orientation. the students discover for themselves efficient and inefficient
To make students aware of the power of a strategic ways of using the strategies. Most important, the model
apploach to problem solving. lessons convey how to achieve active student participation
To introduce the relationships of contradiction and throughout the course. The models use different teaching
strategies to teach the processes of divergent, synthetic, and
implication.
To teach the rules of antonymy. inductive thinking, as well as convergent, analytic, and
To show the importance of both negative and positive deductive thinking.
instances in testing hypotheses.
To introduce a systematic procedure for choosing
*
among options whose preferability differs along several * *
dimensions.
To teach a general strategy for analyzing any design. The Odyssey materials were developed by Harvard
3. TARGET ABILITIESa list of things the student University and Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc. for
should be able to do after completing the lesson, such as: Venezuela's Project Intelligence.' Odyssey has been widely
Use a diagram to understand the meaning of a state- used in upper elementary and middle school classrooms. A
ment. 1981-82 evaluation found that gains made by classes using
Interpret a story from different characters' points of the experimental materials ranged from 1.15 (Cattell Test) to
view. about 2 (Target Abilities Test) times those achieved by con-
__identify pairs of assertions in which one assertion
trol classes.
implies another.
Odyssey
Developers: A team of educators and researchers from Harvard University, Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc., and the Venezuelan Ministry
of Education
Goal: To teach 3 broad range of generalizable thinking skills.

Careful observation, classification, precise use of language, analogical reasoning, hypothesis generation and testing; linear
Sample skills:
and tabular representation for problem solving; and evaluation of reliability, consistency, and relevance of data.
The performance of intellectually demanding tasks is influenced by various types of factors: abilities, stratzgies, knowledge,
Assumptions:
and attitudes.
Some, perhaps all, of these factors are modifiable.
The teaching approach should ensure student participation and intellectual involvement.
Intended audience:
Upper elementary through middle school students.
Process:
The emphasis is on discussion and student engagement in problem solving, reasoning, decision making, creative activities.
Some paperand-pencil exercises. Student introspection on own thought processes.
Three to four 30-minute lessons per week.

Time:
Charlesbridge Publishing, 85 Main Street, Watertown, MA 02172.
Available from:
NOTE Harvard University. (October 1983). Project Intelligence: The

Development of Procedures to Enhance Thinking Skills. Final
!For further details about Project Intelligence, see the Project's Report. Submined to the Minister for the Development of
Final Report (Harvard University 1983); Adams 1984; Nickerson, Human Intelligence, Republic of Venezuela.
Herrnstein, de Sanchez, and Swets 1986; and Nickerson, Perkins, Nickerson, R. S., R. J. Hermstein, M. de Sanchez, and J. A. Swets.
and Smith 1985. (November 1986). "Teaching Thinking Skills." Journal of tbe
American PsycbologicalAssociation 41, 11.
Nickerson, R. S., D. Perkins, and E. E. Smith. (1985). Teaching
REFERENCES Thinking. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Adams, M. J. (Winter 1984). "Project Intelligence." Human Intel-

ligence International Newsletter 8.
13
Learning to Learn
Marcia Heiman
The pleasures arising from thinking and learning will aspects of these skills: one looks for feedback, engages in a
make us think and learn all the more. covert dialogue about the possibilities of crossing against the
Aristotle light, breaks up the task into parts, and has a goalgetting
across the street. These skills, however, are generally not
explicitly developed, or the transfer demonstrated, when
Laearning to Learn (LTL) is a system of critical thinking children come to school. Emphasis on memorizing facts and
skills that students apply directly to their work in answering the teacher's, rather than their own, questions
cademic courses. It was originally designed for use reinforces students' sense that "book learning" h somehow
fundamentally different from other kinds of learning. Learn-
with educationally disadvantaged college students. External-
ly validated studies have shown that rn. results in significant,
ing to Learn bridges the gap between students' out-of-school
long-term improvements in academic performance across learning skills and those needed for school. The developers
of the system believe that it is effective because it teaches
the curriculum and retention in school for college students
reading as low as the 6th grade level. As a result of these students to harness skills they have long been using in
studies, LTL has been approved for national dissemination informal learning situations.
by the U.S. Department of Education's Joint Dissemination
Review Panel. LTL vs. Study Skills
LTL has recently been adapted for use in junior and Since in applies a set of strategies directly to academic
senior high schools. work, it has a superficial relation to traditional "study skills,"
such as oueining or time management. However, when
History and Theory students stop actively using most study skills, they stop
Learning to Learn has a 20-year history of research and benefiting from them. In contrast, after students master um,
practice. Its genesis was in the work of a group of researchers
they can stop overtly using the skills and still perform well
academically; the process of learning how to learn becomes
at the University of Michigan in the 1960s. This group at-
externalized. All of the LTL skills are taught in relation to each
tempted to identify critical thinking skills common to suc-
cessful learners by asking good students to talk aloud their other, and to the four basic learning principles mentioned
above. Students become more active learners because they
thinking while they were engaged in a variety of academic
continually generate questions about their workincreas-
tasks. The group found that successful learners could "pro-
ingly more complex questions that reflect the field under
gram" their learning, breaking up large tasks and complex
study. Learning becomes a kind of game in which students
ideas into components; engage in a covert dialogue with
"play" with the material, devising their own strategies for
author or lecturer, reading or listening for confirmation;
learning material from different academic disciplines.
devise informal means of obtaining ongoing feedback in
their learning progress; and focus on instructional objectives,
directing their learning toward those objectives. Objectives
The group theorized that variations of these skills are
fundamental to all learning, both academic and non- LTL is initially presented to students as separate but
academic. For example, the act of crossing a street involves interrelated skills related to identifiable objectives. A. stu-
dents use the system. un. becomes less a set of discrete 3. Scheduling. Students perform weekly homework
"techniques" than variations on means of question generat- analysis. Using an un Task Checklist, they convert assign-
ing and talking aloud the thinking process. ments into a series of small tasks.
LTL is taught in three stagesinput, organization, and
outputand includes both general and subject-specific skill
Output Stage
areas. Students who fully implement the system achieve the
following objectives: 1. Writing to answer questions. Students learn to write
papers as a series of answers to student-generated questions,
rather than following rigid outline formats.
Input Stage 2. Systematic problem solving. Given math-based
1. Generating questions from lecture notes. Using notes problems, students use step-by-step procedures for working
taken in class or discussion groups, students create questions through the problems. They solve problems by answering a
that are increasingly like the ones the instructor will include series of questions.
on examinations. 3. Analyzing exams. Students examine and categorize
2. Reading to answer questions I: Nontechnical the types of questions asked on their midterms; they modify
textbooks. Students learn to read to answer their own ques- their questions accordingly for the remainder of the Vain.
tions, break up chapters into learning units, and assess their 4. Writing mock exams. Students generate and take
mastery of chapter content. mock exams prior to the official, in-class exams. Given
Reading to answer questions II: Reading without
3. short-answer or essay questions, students write brief, key-
headings and subheadings. Students learn to adjust the word diagrams, outlining their answers.
comprehensiveness of their questions relative to each course As students work, they learn to recognize two basic
and its instructional objectives. skills: generating questions and breaking down complex
4. Reading as problem solving. Students learn to direct ideas and tasks into manageable elements. Their learning
their reading toward finding solutions to mathematically becomes more goal-directed, and they are able to assess their
based problems, to discriminate textual information that own progress. They come to see the skills as to( s that
facilitates problem solving, and to assess their short- and become automatic and are integral to learning. In addition,
long-term mastery of the material. they begin to see the relationships between the kinds of
5. Reading graphs, tables, and diagrams. Students learning that occur in school and out of school.
generate questions about illustrations, translate the illustra-
tions into a series of statements, and use imaginary data to
Instructional Settings
draw variations of the illustrations.
6. Reading for examples. Students learn to identify ex- Learning to Learn is incorporated directly into content-
amples of general principles and ideas in their textbooks and area classrooms of junior and senior high schools. For ex-
use their own examples to construct definitions of these ample, a 9th grade social studies teacher might give a brief
terms. lecture on the main points of a chapter in the textbook, and
7. Developing editing checklists. Students learn to edit ask students to take notes and then generate questions from
their own grammatical writing errors rather than completing those notes. The questions might then form the basis of
textbook exercises. Students build and use their own error discussions or more complex question building, or provide
checklists. A similar exercise helps students find idiosyncratic direction for students in reading the chapter itself. In
math errors. chemistry class, students might work in pairs, using sys-
tematic problem-solving methods on assigned problems; in
English, students might use individually derived checklists to
Organization Stage edit their grammatical errors in writing.
1. Flowcharting. Given complex assignments, such as On the senior high school level, Learning to Learn
research papers or biology laboratory reports, students con- instruction is reinforced through a year-long course in which
struct flowcharts to sequence their work activities. students apply the skills to all their content area courses. LTL
2. Question charts. Given two.or more items that can be is generally offered for credit in psychology and includes
compared and contrasted, students construct question related readings on the psychology of learning. Students
charts. They compare items with respect to questions taking the course come to understand the skills in terms of
generated from notes and readings, and insert key words the learning principles they derive from, and they become
( indicating answers to questions) in the charts.
52
("1
,0
LEARNING TO LEARN
Learning to Learn
Developers: Marcia Heiman and Joshua Slomianko

To improve students' academic performance in content areas across the curriculum; and to improve students' skills in
Goals:
reasoning, reading, writing, and listening.
Sample Skills: Generating questions from notes, books, handouts; constructing information maps and flowcharts; reading for examples;
reading to solve problems; using an editing checklist for math problem solving and written composition; systematic problem
solving.
Assumptions: All successful learning has the following elements. The learner is:
Generating question% raising and testing hypotheses.
Breaking down complex tasks and ideas into manageable components.
Devising informal feedback mechanisms to assess progress toward goals.
Directed toward achieving specific goals.
Intended audience: Junior and senior high school students.
Process: In junior and senior high school, content area teachers incorporate Lit activities into classroom and homework assignments.
the
In senior high, students take a year-long course in which they adapt the LTL skills to all their content area courses, learn
principles underlying LTL, and devise LTL exercises based on these principles.
Time: No extra time when Ill. is part of classroom instruction since the method helps students master the content material in an
efficient way. A year-long course at senior high level.
Available from: Learning to Learn, Inc., 28 Penniman Rd., Allston, MA 02134
Improved student motivation, reflected by higher stu-

more independent learners, able to readily adjust the LTL
dent attendance and retention in school through graduation.
skills to their future content courses.
Improved student performance in academic course's.
Higher scores on basic skills test in the areas of read-
Anticipated Results ing, writing, and listening.
Schools fully adopting the Learning to Learn system can Increased rates of student admission to post-secon-
anticipate several positive effects. These include: dary institutions.
14
Creative Problem Solving
Sidney J. Parnes
It appears that some people have eaperiences that dents are taught to analyze problems by asking questions,
develop theirfacility in intellectual processes associated with such as; How might we simplify? What combinations might
creativity and intellsgence. Research seems to demonstrate be used? What adaptations might be made?
that we can design educational programs for many of these Forced relationship techniques are also applied in the
experiences, rather than merely waiting and hopingfor them course. For example, students produce a list of tentative
to happen. solutions to a problem. Each of these ideas is the,3 related to
Sidney J. Parnes each of the other ideas on the list in order to force new
combinations. Sometimes a somewhat ridiculous idea is used
as a starting point. By associating the idea with the problem,
perceptual, emotional, and cultural blocks to creative a series of associations is produced that often leads to a
thinking are demonstrated and discussed in Creative solution for the problem.
Problem Solving (CPS). Perceptual blocks include The course emphasizes the importance of taking notes
matters such as difficulty in isolating problems, difficulty in (recording ideas at all times, rather than just when trying to
narrowing problems, inability to define or isolate attributes, solve problems), setting deadlines and quotas for producing
and failure to use all the senses in observing. Cultural and ideas, and allotting time for deliberate idea production.
emotional blocks are evidenced by conformity; overem- Informal procedures are also used throughout the
phasis WI competition or cooperation; excessive faith in course. Students are placed in small groups to provide prac-
reason or logic; fear of mistakes, failure, or looking foolish; tice in collaboration, and are given opportunities to lead
self-satisfaction; perfectionism; negative outlooks; and these grou ps.
reliance on authority.
Early in the course, students are taught the deferred-
judgment principle (artificially separating imaginative from
Problem-Solving Practice
judicial thinking in each of the steps) as applied to individual Students are provided many opportunities to practice
thinking and group brainstorming. Deferred judgment al- solving problems, with emphasis given to problems from
lows students more freedom to apply other techniques that their personal lives and studies. They are taught to sense
are introduced. Students are taught to use their imagination problems, challenges, and opportunities, and to effectively
first and judge afterwards. define them for creative attack.
Within the freewheeling atmosphere that the principle During problem analysis, students are taught to list
of deferred judgment provides, students learn to look at every fact that could conceivably relate to the problem. They
issues from a variety of viewpoints. When considering other then apply their judgments to select the most important data.
uses for a piece of paper, for example, students are taught to Next, students list the longest possible group of questions
look at each attribute of paperits whiteness, its four and sources of additional data that might help solve the
corners, its straight edges, and so on. Each of these attributes problem; they then return to the process of selecting the most
then suggests a number of possible uses. important questions and sources of data. This alternating
Checklist procedures are encouraged, such as Osborn's procedure continues throughout the final stages of evaluat-
checklist of idea-spurring questions. In this procedure stu- ing and presenting ideas.
111111111111WEIY
54
60
I
CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING
Creative Problem Solving (CPS)
Developer: Sidney j. Parnes (based on the work of Alex F. Osborn)
Goals: Develop abilities and attitudes necessary for creative learning, problem sensing, and problem solving.
Setting goals and objectives; sensing problems,

challenges, and opportunities; searching out data; defining and analyzing
Sample skills:
problems; generating ideas; discerning criteria for effective evaluating; developing and implementing solutions; developing
feedback systems; planning and gaining acceptance; anticipating new challenges from actions taken.
problem
Assumptions: Creativity involves the application of knowledge, imagination, and judgment to learning, problem sensing, and
solving. and
Everyone has the capacity, at his or her own mental level, for using creative approaches to learning, problem sensing,
problem solving.
Continued practice in using these approaches leads to ever-increasing proficiency, whether the person is mentally retarded,
average, or gifted.
all subject
CPS processes should be taught deliberately, both as general thinking skills and as applications to learning within
matter areas.
D.O.K.
Intended audience: Middle (especially for the gifted) and secondary levels (all). (Lower level materials based on CPS available from
Publishers, Buffalo, N.Y.)
Process:
Students use activities sheets for practice exercises to strengthen CPS processes under direction of the teacher using an
instructor's guidebook. This guidebook offers additional exercises, readings, films, and bibliographic sources. Alternatively,
emphasized in
students do independent self- or group-study and practice with specially designed text. Transfer of learning is
all materials.
Flexible time patterns are suggested in the teacher's guide. Material is programmed for instructional blocks of
approximately
Time:
one hour. Programs are based on extensive research and field testing.
Available from: Creative Education Foundation, 1050 Union Road, Buffalo, NY 14224.
Refine unusual ideas into useful ones.

Objectives Evaluate the consequences of one's proposed ac-
tionstaking into account all relevant criteria.
The major objectives of the Creative Problem Solving Develop and present ideas for maximum accept-
program are to assist students in developing: ability.
1. Awareness of the importance of creative effortsin Develop action plans and implement ideas and
learning, the professions, scientific and artistic pursuits, and solutions.
personal living. Check the effectiveness of actions and take correc-
2. Motivation to use their creative potential. tive measures when advisable.
3. Self-confidence in their creative abilities. The teacher of any subject may wish to emphasize a
4. Heightened sensitivity to the problems that surround particular mental ability or attitude, using sessions specially
theman attitude of "constructive discontent." designed for the specific objectives listed above. The pro-
5. An open mind toward the ideas of others. gram covers all of the objectives while teaching a methodical
6. Greater curiosityan awareness of the many challen- yet creative approach to problem solving. It has been scien-
ges and opportunities in life. tifically evaluated in numerous research investigations.
7. Improved abilities associated with creativity, enabling In one literature review, 20 of 22 research studies of the
them IO: specific Osborn-Parnes CPS program showed consistent
Sense problems, challenges,and opportunities. positive effects (Torrance 1972). Rose and Lin (1984) used a
Observe, discover, and analyze relevant facts. new statistical technique, meta-analysis, on the creativity
See problems from different viewpoints and research literature. This procedure compiles data from a wide
redefine them productively. range of studies. The study concluded, "The substantial
Defer judgment and break away from habit-bound impact of Osborn and Parnes' CPS on verbal creativity,
thinking. combined with the conclusions from both Torrance's and
Discover new relationships. Parnes and Brunelle's reviews, provide strong evidence to
Use checklists to discover new ideas, support the effectiveness of this program."
REFEAENCES Torrance, E.P. (1972). "Can We Teach Children to Think Creatively?"

Journal of Creative Bebavior6,2.
Osborn. A. F. (1963). Applied Imagination. New York, N.Y.: Rose, L.M., and Lin, M.T. (1984). "A Meta-Analysis of Long-Term
Scribners. Creativity Training Programs."Journa/ of °voice Bebavior18, 1.
Parnes. S.J.(1981). The Magic of Your Mind, Buffalo, N.Y.: Bear ly
Limited Publishers.
56
RP
15
The Junior Great
Books Program of
Interpretive Reading
and Discussion
Howard Will
To say that all buman thinking is essentially of two genuinely interested in exploring with the group.
kindsreasoning on the one hand, and narrative, descrip- As students begin to respond, the leader follows up by
tive, contemplative on the otheris to say only wbat every
asking how their comments relate to the initial interpretive
reader's everience will corroborate. question, to other ideas put forward by the group, and to the
William James text. Throughout shared inquiry, the leader provides
guidance only by careful questioning, intended to broaden
students' understanding of a subtle and complex piece of
Since 1962, theJunior Great Books program of interpre- literature. Because the leader does not provide answers,
tive reading and discussion has given elementary and participants are challenged to think for themselves. By trying
secondary school students the opportunity to discuss out ideas and exchanging opinions, they build their own
high-quality works of literature under the guidance of answers to the interpretive question under discussion, and
teachers and parents trained by the Great Books Foundation. develop their own ways of understanding the work.
The aim of the program is to provide all students with the Only serious literature can sustain the kind of thoughtful
experience of reading a text closely and purposefully in analysis practiced in shared inquiry discussion. A Junior
smirk of its meaning. In Junior Great Books, students read Great Books selection is challenging not because of unusual
for full comprehension of a storyfor ideas and content, not
vocabulary or advanced sentence structure, but because its
merely for plot. Such highly motivated reading is made texture of ideas and depth of characterization demand inter-
pretation. Students must build upon their initial thoughts and
possible through the shared inquity method of preparation
reactions to piece together a coherent understanding of the
and discussion.
whole work.
In addition to improving their reading comprehension,
The Great Books Discussion Method students in Junior Great Books gain repeated exposure to a
the leader poses sustained, orderly process of rational inquiry. As they work
At the start of shared inquiry discussion,
together to build their answers to the leadees questions, they
an interpretive question, that is, an open-ended question
about the meaning of the work the group has read. This develop self-respect, a heightened sense of responsibility for
opening question is one for which the leader does not yet their own ideas, and an increasing openness to the ideas of
have a satisfactory answera question that he or she is others, Over time, students gain confidence in approaching
57 63
original and challenging works of literature, and acquire the The Readings
habits of independent reading and reflective thinking.
Selections in all Great Books Foundation reading series
have been carefully chosen for their abi:ity to support in-
The Junior Great Books Curriculum depth preparation and discussion that will sustain student,
Although Junior Great Books focuses on higher-level as well as teacher, interest. Providing selections that have as
reading and thinking skills, it is not a program exclusively for
much meaning for adults as for children helps ensure that
discussion will be a collaborative effort in which all parties
the gifted. The Great Books Foundation has developed new
curriculum materials that will make the Junior Great Books are genuinely involved in reaching a fuller understanding of
a work. The Read-Aloud series and the Junior Great Books
program easier to carry out with students of varying reading
series for grades two through nine are collections of out-
ability.
The new Junior Great Books curriculum materials pro-
standing traditional and modern literature, including
children's classics, folk and fairy tales, and modern short
vide a schedule of activities that is followed, in its fundamen-
stories from cultures around the world. Introduction to Great
tals, at every grade level of the program. Each unit of
activitiesapproximately a week of language arts work Books (recommended for high school and junior college)
focuses on a single story in the Junior Great Books series. includes short selections from great works of philosophy,
political science, psychology, and economics, as well as
Work on a unit is built around two readings of the story, and
discussion; for younger participants, the fust reading is done
classical drama and modem fiction.
orally by the teacher. Other activities are designed to prepare
students to connect with the ideas and situations they are Training for Teachers
about to encounter in their reading; to help them become
In shared inquiry discussion, the experience and ability
more aware of their reactions as they read, organize their
of the teacher is central to success. Leadership is not a passive
ideas, and take useful notes; to lead students through the
analysis of meaningful words and dense passages; and to role in which the teacher merely acts as "monitor" or
"facilitator." The leader helps students explore, support, and
guide them in synthesizing and exploring new ideas about
dewlap insights that originate with them, and serves as a
the story through post-discussion writing.
Each activity in the new program is "story specific"that
model of a person whose mind has been stimulated by an
intellectual problem.
is, designed in response to the interpretive problems and
To help prepare teachers and school volunteers to be
issues presented by a particular story. By maintaining an
emphasis on interpretation and discussion, these activities
effective discussion leaders, the Foundation provides an
intensive two-day, inservice training course. The Basic Lead-
preserve the unique, open-ended quality of the Junior Great
ing Training Course is required for all leaders of Read-Aloud,
Books experience.
Junior, and Introduction to Great Books groups. The Great
Books Foundation conducts Basic Leader Training Courses
The Junior Great Books in any district or school that has decided to adopt its
Read-Aloud Program programs. Foundation instructors train more than 20,000
leaders a year in more than 700 courses conducted coast-to-
In fall 1990, the Great Books Foundation will introduce coast.
the first of its Read-Aloud series for kindergarten through 2nd
grade. This program will serve as a bridge to the Junior For additional information, please contact:
program by providing young children with an opportunity The Great Books Foundation
to share their thoughts about high-quality stories and poems. 40 E. Huron Street
Like the Junior Great Books curriculum, the Read-Aloud Chicago, Illinois 60611-2782
program will offer children a variety of interpretive activities, Telephone: 1-800-222-5870
including dictating their own questions and original stories In Illinois: 312-332-5870
in response to the selections, and holding discussions based Established in 1947, the Great Books Foundation is an inde-
on their own questions, dramatizations, and artwork. A dis- pendent, nonprofit, educational corporation.
tinctive feature of the Read-Aloud program is the role parents
will play in complementing classroom work at home. Parents
will do one of the readings of a selection, and guide their
child through a simple, interpretive activity.
mil
0 58
16
Building Thinking Skills®
John D. Baker
The Midwest Publications Analytic and Critical Think- diagrams, branching diagrams, and matrices) to organize
ing Program offers a sequential plan for instruction in figural forms and later to organize words and ideas for clear
analysis skills at the elementary and secondary levels comprehension. Verbal classification is primarily useful in
and critical thinking skills at the middle and high school learning and remembering new words and perceiving cor-
levels. The analysis skills developed in the Building Thinking rect word relationships and inferences. A more complex
Skills° series prepares learners for the formal and informal form involves classifying concepts and abstract ideas, a form
logic concepts in the Critical Thinking series (see Figure 1). of classification commonly used in science and social studies
These supplementary activities are approached through use curriculums.
of the overhead projector and involvement of the students in Analogy involves relational thinking and drawing
cooperative and open learning exchanges. proper comparisons. Figural analogies give the learner con-
crete practice in relational and proportional reasoning. Ver-
bal analogies involve the correct interpretation of word
Building Thinking Skills relationships. Analogies promote vocabulary development
This series provides supplementary activities for cogni- and test-taking skills. Analogous reasoning forms the basis
tive skill development and analytical reasoning instruction in for using and interpreting figurative language (simile,
a carefully sequenced instructional plan. A variety of thinking metaphor, and personification).
skills required for better academic performance have been The Primary Book uses concrete manipulatives for
organized into four basic types: similarity and difference, hands-on figural activities and group discussion of analytic
sequence, classification, and analogy.
thinking strategies. These are followed by the use of
Each skill is developed in figural and verbal form, paper/pencil/crayon drawings for visual verification of ap-
Figural Similarities and differences take the form of visual propriate responses and teacher evaluation. It is recom-
discrimination, similarity, congruence, extrapolation (enlarg- mended for primary grades or for older students who need
ing or reducing), and symmetry. Verbal similarities and dif- to begin with concrete exercises.
ferences include synonyms, antonyms, denotation, and Book 1 uses a vocabulary level of the first thousand
words of functional reading and is recommended for middle
connotation.
Figural sequences include arranging by size, color, elementary or secondary students with limited vocabularies.
marking, or shape. More elaborate versions include paths, Book 2 employs vocabulary not exceeding the second
rotations, folding, and reflection. Verbal sequences include thousand words and is recommended for middle school or
degree of meaning, comprehending the meaning of transi- secondary students in need of vocabulary and concept
tive or negative statements, following sequential directions, development.
putting statements in order of occurrence, recognizing cause Book 3 Figural features complex figural and spatial
perception exercises and is recommended for advanced
and effect, and comprehending implicational statements.
Classification involves grouping by common charac- middle school or high school students.
teristics. Figural classification allows the learner to practice Book 3 Verbal uses vocabulary appropriate for junior
observation and categorization skills regardless of high and high school students. It prepares students for formal
vocabulary development. The learner uses graphics (Venn logical thinking by introducing inferential statements using
59 65
FIGURE 1
MIDWEST PUBLICATIONS ANALYTIC AND CRITICAL THINKING PROGRAM
Building
Thinking Skills®
BOOK 3
FICURAL
Building Building Building CRITICAL

Thinking Skills® Thinking Skills® Thinking Skills® milra.111. THINKING
PRIMARY BOOK I BOOK 2 BOOKS 1 & 2
Building
Grades 2-4 Grades 4-8 Thinking Skills® Grades 8-14
Grades K-12
BOOK 3
VERBAL
Grades 7-12
BUILDING THINKING SKILLS® CRITICAL THINKING BOOKS 1 & 2

Figural Similarities Basic concepts
Figural Sequences Misuse of words
Figural Classifications Propaganda and advertising schemes
Figural Analogies Common errors in reasoning
Formal and informal logic
Verbal Similarities Probabilit l. of truth 7.nd falsity
Verbal Sequences Characterktics of arguments
Verbal Classifications
Verbal Analogies
the logic connectives "and," "or," "not," and "if . . then."

. Developing Cognitive Abilities Test (American
Since complex thinking skills activities are presented at a Testronics)
relatively low vocabulary level, the items are more difficult Ross Test of Higher Cognitive Processes (for use with
than the vocabulary level suggests. Book 3 Verbal only, Academic Therapy Publications).
The books contain paper-and-pencil exercises or think-
ing skills basic to content objectives. These exercises are Critical Thinking Series
followed by class discussions during which the thinking
process is examined, clarified, and refined. Follow-up exer- This series (grades 8-14) is a course in formal and
cises provide practice and reinforcement. informal logic, written at the 5th grade reading level. The
Accompanying each book is a teacher's lesson plan objectives are discernment in reading and listening and
manual that provides the rationale for teaching a skill, in- clarity in speaking and writing. Students consider a variety of
struction dialogue for introducing and modeling the lesson, situations by performing exercises that draw on newspaper
suggestions for group discussion, and detailed answers. Ex- articles, letters to editors, advice columns, commentaries,
amples of skill application to many content areas and life newscasts, advertisements, political speeches, everyday con-
experiences are also given. versations, and government regulations. The material is
Objective tests used to evaluate the Building Thinking relevant and appealing to young adults because the fun-
Skills series include: damental teaching approach is class discussion. The books
Cognitive Abilities Test (Riverside Publishing) make a good mini-course or semester course and can be
60
66
BUILDING MINKING SKILLS
taught in one or more disciplines. The texts explain: ment; after two years, 26 percent of the students were
Basic concepts in critical thinkingdiscussions, dis- selected for gifted programs.
agreements, and arguments; general statements and Stanford Achievement Test; grades 2-3, 800+ stu-
counterexamples; dents; pre- and post-test results showed improvement sig-
Misuses of wordsconnotation and denotation, im- nificant to the .0001 level.
plications and inferences, and ambiguity; Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test; grades 2-3, 800+
Inconsistent, contradictory, and misleading state- students; pre- and post-test results showed improvement
ments; significant to the .0001 level.
Propaganda and advertising schemes; (Copies of the official Dade County detailed test results
Logical reasoning fallacies; may be obtained by telephoning Midwest Publications, 800-
Formal logic with and without quantified statements; ,158-4849.)
Probability of truth and falsity; Sylvia Autry, Principal, Poplar Springs Elemen-
Characteristics of arguments; tary, 4101 27th Ave., Meridian, MS 39305. Telephone:
Applied logicdebate and problem solving. 601-482.0123.
For the past 12 years, the Critical Thinking series has Building Thinking Skills seriesResults of the pilot pro-
been used widely in junior high school gifted programs or as gram were so impressive (95 percent of all students tested at
a supplement to high school or junior college English, social or above grade level) that the series has been instituted as
studies, and mathematics. The Watson-Glaser Test of Critical part of the regular curriculum at ail grade levels except
Thinking (published by the Psychological Corporation) or kindergarten.
the Cornell Test of Critical Thinking (Midwest Publications) Stanford Achievement Test; grade 2, all students (90),
can be used to evaluate the series. 78 percent in top quartile, 18 percent in second quartile, 0
The Building Thinking Skills series has proven effective percent in bottom quartile (Complete Bat Total); grade 4, all
when used with students from all socioeconomic and ability students (112), 64 percent in top quartile, 31 percent in
levels. Teachers are impressed with the increase in thinking second qualtile, 0 percent in bottom quartile (Basic Bat
ability and content test scores and the visually apparent Total).
changes in their students' approaches to problem solving.
Teachers also appreciate the fact that the series can be used Additional Thinking Skills Materials
without extensive teacher training. The lessons can be ex-
plored and extended on many levels of difficulty according Additional help for teachers and administrators can be
to individual group needs and teacher time and ability. All found in the following books, which are available through
activities are nongrade identifiable. Use of these materials Midwest Publications/Critical Thinking Press, P.O. Box 448,
has also served as an effective tool for mainstreaming non- Pacific Grove, CA 93950 (Telephone: 800-458-4849):
English-speaking students and identifying gifted minority The Practitioners' Guide to Teaching Thinking Series
students. (three books):
Teaching Thinking: Issues and Approaches by Robert
Swartz and D. N. Perkins
Specific Test Results Evaluating Critical Thinking by Stephen Norris and
Marla De Armas, Dade County Schools, Room 534, Robert Ennis
1450 N.E. 2nd Ave., Miami, FL 33132. Telephone: 305. Techniques for Teaching Thinking by Arthur Costa
376-1993, and Lawrence Lowery
Building Thinking Skills series--Results from the Dade Thinking and Learning: Matching Developmental
County Office of Educational Accountability with under- Stages with Curriculum and Instruction by Lawrence
achieving, average-ability minority students in five-year Lowery
"Team Project"; 26 schools participating (one classroom per Organizing Thinking (Graphic Organizers) by
school funded by district); Midwest activities sole extra treat- Howard and Sandra Black
61
67
17
HOTS
Stanley Pogrow
Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) program was thinking skills. In addition, the same thinking activities can
designed
The specifically for at-risk students in Chapter 1 simultaneously produce large gains in both reading and
and Learning Disabilities (LD) programs in grades math, eliminating the need for separate programs.
4-7. The thinking activities replace all the supplemental HOTS also turns students into sophisticated learners. In
remedial education for these students. For the fall of 1990, several schools, some Chapter 1 students were moved to
more than 800 schools in over 35 states adopted HOTS as gifted programs after one year in HOTS. Other HMS sites
either their Chapter 1 or LD program. HOTS has also started have reported that Chapter 1 students outperformed gifted
to be used with gifted students in grades K-1 and as a tool students. At one site, 36 of the Chapter 1 students made the
for early identification of minority gifted students in grades honor roll. Another indicator of the growth of cognitive
1-2. HOTS is one of the few thinking skills programs that has abilityas well as self-confidenceis the growth in the
been validated by the National Diffusion Network. amount and sophistication of students' articulation.
Results Why is HOTS Successful?

The thinking activities in HOTS have been designed to Remedial students often have trouble retaining content
produce gains in standardized test scores without sup- after the 3rd grade. This is a symptom of a much larger
plemental remediation or content instruction. Indeed, HOTS problemtheir inability to understand "understanding."
students improve in reading and math at twice the rate of They are unable to construct the types of relationships
Chapter 1 students nationally. As the program has been needed to retain contentor even to know that they are
refined, test scores have improved even more. Some sites are supposed to. They do not know how to work with the
now reporting reading gains of more than five years' growth simplest ideas or to construct meaning around any of the
in the first year. more integrated content presented after the 3rd grade.
HOTS is a tremendously robust program. It can function Reteaching content makes this problem worse. The lack of
within the real-world limitations of most schools with a high content knowledge is not the problemrather, it is students'
percentage of disadvantaged students. The program has lack of understanding of how to work with ideas.
been validated on a large scale, with populations as diverse This problem derives from a lack of adult conversation,
as children of migrant workers, low-income rural families, either in the home or school, which models basic thinking
and white-collar professionals. It has worked in school set- processes. Indeed, in most cases, it appears that the students
tings ranging from Barrio schools in Arizona and largely have never had an adult give them the opportunity to con-
African-American urban schools in Detroit, to one-school struct their own meaning about an idea, and then converse
rural districts and affluent suburbs. In the fall of 1990 HOTS with an adult about their conclusions. Instead of helping
has been adopted in 35 urban districts. students learn how to make inferences, many teachers as-
HOTS meets the new mandates of Chapter 1 to provide sume that students already have internalized such skills and
advanced skills and provides greater standardized test score focus on judging their ideas.
gains. HOTS has demonstrated that a higher-order thinking HOTS is effective as a Chapter 1 program because it
approach can develop basic skills even while enhancing provides the type of conversations that model key thinking
62
0
HOTS
Higher-Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
Developer: Stanley Pogrow (based on cognitive psychology theories of organization of information in the brain)
Goal: Develop higher-order thinking skills to improve basic skill achievement, pr6U1s-m-solving ability, and social confidence.
Sample skills: Developing and testing strategies for the solution of problems.
Interpreting computer-generated feedback to determine quality of problem-solving strategy.
Integrating and synthesizing Information from a variety of sources for the solutions to problems.
Generalizing information across content areas and computer environments.
Assumptions: Most compensatory students are really quite bright and should be challenged intellectually.
Compensatory students are unable to construct the types of relationships needed to retain content because they do not
understand "understanding."
The key to improving problem-solving ability is to get students to internalize general thinking strategies.
Intended audience: Chapter 1 and leaming-disabled students in grades 4-7; gifted and near-gifted students in grades K-1.
Process: The program uses computers, together with specially designed curricular materials and Socratic teaching strategies. A Socratic
environment is developed by training teachers to probe student answers and act as coaches who guide students to construct
and test their own understanding in solving problems nosed by the teacher. The computers provide a continuous flow of
information for the students to process as they develop irategies.
Time: The program requires 35 minutes per day, four days a week, for two years. Gifted students may require less time.
Available from: Stanley Pogrow, Room 109, College of Education, University of Arizona, Tucson. Arizona 85721. Telephone: 602-621-1305.
processes in a sufficiently intensive way to help students The thinking conversations are specified in a detailed
internalize an understanding of how to work with ideas. curriculum. The activities are designed to develop the think-
Students then spontaneously apply these processes to the ing skills of (a) metacognition, (b) inference from context,
learning of all contentthe first time it is taught. (c) decon textual ization, and (d) information synthesis. These
thinking skills are critical to the learning of all content.
The Socratic conversations are conducted around com-
A Socratic General-Thinking Approach puter-use activities. Computers are used because of their
Chapter 1 students' lack of understanding of how to ability to enhance motivation and respond immediately to
work with ideas is so profound that it is impractical to try to student's ideas. The feedback generated by the computer
solve it with thinking-in-content activities. (For example, in provides a continuous flow of information for the student to
the HOTS program, it is usually four months before students process, which leads to improvements in comprehension
understand the difference between guessing and using and problem solving.
strategies, six months before they put reasons in their A new approach to using computers, specifically
answers, and 8-11 months before they can acticulate a designed for at-risk students and called "Learning Dramas,"
change of strategy and the reasons for the change.) Putting was developed for the HOTS program (see Pogrow 1991 and
such students who do not understand "understanding" into Pogrow 1990 a, h, c). Learning drama techniques are the
opposite of computer-assisted instruction. Instead of using
a thinking-in-content approach will ensure that they neither
learn the content nor learn how to think. Instead, HOTS uses the software to teach concepts, learning dramas use the
computer to allow students to test their ideas and strategies.
a general thinking approach to develop the concept of "un-
derstanding," with only occasional linkage to content. The actual learning results from the conversation between
The HOTS program requires 35 minutes per day, four student and teachernot from the computer. The more
days a week, for two years. The program uses computers, sophisticated the conversation and .he more skillful the
together with specially designed curricular materials and teachers' probing and reactions to student answers, the
Socratic teaching strategies. A Socratic environment is greater the cognitive growth.
developed by training teachers to probe student answers and The thinking skills and strategies are not taught. They
are discovered by the students and internalized as a result of
act as coaches who guide students to construct and test their
own understandings. (The training takes a week and is using them consistently in interesting social settings. Thb
provided in small group settings around the country in the students learn to think much as they learned to talkby
imitation and having adults react to their initial attempts.
summer.)
63
HOTS curricular and pedagogical techniques can proach to mathematics. Research will be conducted to
coexist with any classroom curriculum. The techniques demonstrate (a) that students who are first provided with
develop the problem-solving skills students need to integrate general thinking activities, such as those in HOTS, do better
and retain new content the first time it is taught. There are in sophisticated thinking-in-content curriculums and (b) that
also occasional linkages to classroom contem, wherein stu- it is possible to design thinking skills approaches that in-
dents enter questions and answers about content into the crease the learning of specific content objectives.
computer and generate quizzes and puzzles to be shared
with the whole class.
REFERENCES
Future Directions Pogrow, S. (1991). "Learning Dramas: An Alternative Curricular

Approach to Using Computers with At-Risk Students." In
Future plans are to continue to expand the use of HOTS Developing Minds: ProgramsforTeaching Thinking, edited by
with Chapter 1 studentsparticularly at the middle school A.L. Costa.
leveland to extend general thinking techniques to middle Pogrow, S. ( January 1990a). "Challenging At-Risk Students: Find-
ings from the HOTS Program." Phi Delta Kappan 71, 5; 389-
school math. A follow-up "thinking in mathematics" course 397.
for middle school students is currently being developed. This Pogrow, S. (February 1990b). "A Socratic Approach to Using Com-
two-year course will cover math objectives for grades 6-8. puters With At-Risk Students." Educational Leadetthip 47, 5:
The course, however, will present mathematics in an innova- 61-66.
Pogrow, S. (1990c). HOTS: A Validated Thinking Skills Approach to
tive way. Students will infer most of the rules and will then
Using Computets with At-Risk Students. New York: Scholastic,
apply them to problem-solving situations. The emphasis will Inc.
be on a language-comprehension, problem-solving ap-
64
18
Tactics for Thinking:
A Program for Initiating
the Teaching of Thinking
Robert J. Marzano
The advantage of a bad memory is that one enjoys Content Thinking

several times the same good things for the first time. The content thinking tactics are designed to help stu-
Friedrich Nietzsche
dents comprehend and more deeply process information
presented by the teacher or the textbook. Tactics in this
category deal with both declarative and procedural informa-
Tactics for Thinking (Marzano and Arredondo 1986; tion. Declarative information can be characterized as a
Marzano and Paynter 1989) is a program that includes knowledge of what--concepts, principles, and various types
strategies for increasing competency in 22 cognitive of schema within a given content area. The tactics of Concept
skills (see figure 1). The 22 strategies within the program are Attainment and Concept Development help students initially
arranged into three broad categories: learning-to-learn acquire and then ultimately make fine distinctions about
strategies, content thinking strategies, and reasoning important concepts. The Pattern Recognition tactic helps
strategies. students organize and process principles as well as informa-
Learning to Learn tion that conforms to such organizational schemata as time
sequences and causal networks.
The tactics within the learning-to-learn section of the Procedural information is more process orientedit can
program provide students with strategies for regulating their be characterized as knowledge of how to. The tactic of
own learning and processing information in a way that is Proceduralizing is designed to help students identify and
personally meaningful and easily accessible. The tactic of articulate the important steps in content-related processes. In
Attention Control makes students aware of their respon- addition, it helps students set up a practice schedule so that
sibility to pay attention (even in situations in which they do they can develop the process under study until it becomes
not find it easy) and provides them with specific techniques automatic to them.
for doing so. Similarly, the tactic of Power Thinking makes
students aware of the need to monitor and control their Reasoning
attitudes about completing specific classroom tasks and The reasoning tactics are designed to help students use
provides techniques for doing so. The tactics of Deep information in way ; that expand and restructure their under-
Processing and Memory Frameworks help students use standing of the con_ent. For example, the Extrapolation tactic
various aspects of imagery (e.g., mental pictures, physical
helps students understand how the abstractions underlying
sensations, and emotions) to integrate information into their
one piece of information also underlie another piece of
existing knowledge base in such a way that it is easily information. The Evaluation of Evidence tactic helps students
retrieved and used.
65 71
FIGURE 1
Tactics for Thinking
Learnintto-Learn Strategies
Attention ControlStrengthens concentration and lengthens attention span.

Deep Prom. ingRaises memory potential and depth of information processing.
Memory FrameworksHelps students recall key information.
Power ThinkingCultivates better student attitudes toward their own capabilities.
Goal SettingHelps students create a vision for their own success.
The Responsibility FrameBoosts students' ability to learn independently.
Content Thinking Strategies
Concept AttainmentIntroduces a method for understanding new concepts.

Concept DevelopmentProvides a way to study new concepts in depth.
Pattern RecognitionImproves ability to organize and comprehend spoken or written information.
Macro-Pattern RecognitionExpands comprehension of large bodies of information.
SynthesizingTeaches a method for integrating large amounts of new knowledge.
ProceduralizingShows students how to learn new skills.
Reasoning Strategies
Analogical ReasoningPrepares students for aptitude tests and helps them see relationships.
ExtrapolationHelps students see relationships between information at an abstract level.
Evaluation of EvidenceDevelops ability to analyze information for accuracy and relevance.
Examination of ValueShows how to objectively analyze differing views on a controversial topic.
Decision MakingHelps students select from among alternatives.
Non-Linguistic PatternsIdentifies numeric, spatial, and recursive patterns.
ElaborationDemonstrates how to infer from reading.
Solving Everyday ProblemsProvides a framework for analytical problem solving.
Solving Academic ProblemsEquips students with tactics for solving school-related problems.
InventionStiinulates creative thinking and development of unique but meaningful products.
analyze information for its validity and relevancy. The Inven- teacher might begin a class by reminding students of the
tion tactic helps students use information to create unique Attention Control tactic and guiding them through its use to
but meaningful products. increase their instructional focus. The teacher might then
present a new concept using the Concept Attainment or
Concept Development tactics. Finally, the teacher might help
implementation students see how the new concept relates to other concepts
The Tactics program is not meant to be used as a by guiding students through the Extrapolation tactic. When
"pull-out" program. That is, the strategies are not designed students have internalized the tactics, however, they then can
to be taught in a separate course isolated from content. They use them without aid or cueing from the teacher. For ex-
should be taught and then used in a regular classroom ample, a student might notice that she is not focused on the
situation to enhance students' learning of important content. lesson and then use the Attention Control tactic to enhance
At first the strategies must be cued by the teacher once her readiness for learning. As the teacher presents the lesson,
students become familiar with them, however, they are used the student might decide to use aspects of the Concept
as needed to enhance learning. For example, initially a Development tactic to help her understand an important
66
I.
TACTICS FOR THINKING
concept that has been presented. Finally, she might decide

to use aspects of the Extrapolation tactic to make connections FIGURE 2
not explicit in the lesson with other information she has Placement of Selected Tactics in Curriculum
learned.
Ultimately, the Tactics program is a way for individual Grade Level/Content
teachers, schools, or districts to begin exploring the teaching Area in whidt Tactic
of thinking. In effect, it is not meant to be implemented as a Tactic is introduced
complete program, since individual teachers, schools, or Attention Control 2nd grade: classroom rules and
districts select those tactics that they rind most useful for their procedures
particular content area or classrooms. Additionally, teachers
3rd grade: language ans
are encouraged to adapt the strategies to meet their specific Deep Processing
needs. For example, teachers who use the program com- Power Thinking 3rd grade: classroom rules and
monly collapse aspects of the Concept Attainment tactic and procedures
the Concept Development tactic into a single strategy that
guides students through the initial introduction of a concept Concept Attainment 3rd grade: science
to its mature development. Pattern Recognition 4th grade: reading

At a more formal level, some schools and districts
embed selected tactics into their curriculum objectives. That Extrapolation Sth grade: social studies
is, they select specific tactics from the list of 22 to be taught
Evaluation of Evidence 6th grade: social studies
at specific grade levels or in specific content areas. For
example, Figure 2 shows eight tactics selected by a school: Everyday Problem Solving 7th grade: health
Attention Control, Deep Processing, Power Thinking, Con-
cept Attainment, Pattern Recognition, Extrapolation, Evalua-
tion of Evidence, and Everyday Problem Solving. The school
To constnict a theoretical base for the program, the literature
has determined that Attention Control will be taught at the
2nd grade level as an aspect of classroom rules and proce- in cognitive psychology, philosophy, and self-efficacy was
dures. Deep Processing will be taught at the 3rd grade level
reviewed. From that review a theoretical framework was
developed and reported in Teaching Thinking: A Concep-
as part of language arts, and so on. In this way, various tactics
tual Framework (Marzano and Hutchins 1985), Strategies
are systematically introduced into the curriculum without
burdening teachers or students. were then developed (where none existed) or adapted from
The list in Figure 2 doesn't mean that tactics can't be existing programs for the various areas of cognition impor-
taught prior to their designated times, For example, a 3rd tant to learning suggested by the theoretical framework.
grade teacher might decide to introduce Pattern Recognition These strategies were field-tested for their feasibility by over
100 classroom teachers. As a result of this "first-level testing,"
as part of her reading class even though that tactic is not
slated to be taught until the 4th grade. Specifying where a number of strategies were dropped from the model be-
selected tactics should be taught in the curriculum simply cause of their apparent lack of classroom utility. Other
strategies were changed to reflect the formative evaluations
ensures that students will be introduced to them sometime
in their school experience. Thus, teachers can safely know by classroom teachers.
which tactics students have been exposed to and not waste The sttategies that remained were then field-tested a
valuable class time introducing those tactics. For example, second time in four major sites, involving 77 teachers and
knowing that Extrapolation has been taught at the 5th grade more than 1.900 students. Data were gathered on the effects
level as part of social studies instruction, the 6th grade of the strategies on student performance, as perceived by
science teacher can use the tactic without having to teach it. both students and teachers, The results of that phase of field
Of course, some review and reteaching might be necessary; testing were published in An Evaluation of the McREL Think-
however, with very little review the tactic can probably be ing Skills Program (Marzano 1986). Since that time, a series
used to help students better understand science content. of more rigorous experimentaVcontrol studies have been
conducted on each of the strategies. Additionally, studies
were conducted on the effects of the tactics strategies on
History and Program Evaluation standardized tests. The results of these studies were reported
The Tactics program was developed at the Mid-con- in the Summary Report of Evaluations of the Tactics for
Thinking Program (Marzano 1989). Briefly, in this latter set
tinent Regional Educational Laboratory in Aurora, Colorado.
Tadics for Thinking

Developers: R.). Marzano, D. E. Arredondo, D. E. Paynter
Goal: Infusing specific learning strategies into content area instruction.
Skills: Learning-to-Learn Skills provide students with strategies to take responsibility for their own learning and communicate the
need to do so. Content Thinking Skills provide students with strategies for understanding and processing content area
information. Reasoning Skills provide students with strategies for processing information in more critical and creative ways.
Assumptions: The teaching of thinking should be overt, teacher-directed, and part of regular classroom instruction.
To a large extent, successful students have acquired the essential cognitive skills outside of regular classroom instruction.
The direct teaching of thinking within formal education will necessitate a change in or restructuring of curriculum,
instruction, and assessment techniques.
Intended audience: K-12.
Process: Students are taught cognitive strategies selected by the teacher as appropriate for the content and students. The strategies are
then used to learn classroom content more effectively and efficiently.
Time: Each skill takes from 30 to 60 minutes to teach. Once taught, skills are used by teachers and students as necessary to enhance
learning.
Available from: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1250 N. Pitt Street, Alexandria, Virginia 22314-1403. Telephone:
703-549-9110.
of studies it was found that: (1) students perform better in the and used by students to enhance their control over and
tactics when they receive explicit instruction in the tactics, facility with the learning process. Once a few selected tactics
and (2) instruction in the tactics has the greatest effect on the have been introduced by the teacher and internalized by
standardized test scores of students who are not performing students, teachers and students both move on to more com-
well academically. plex, and more self-initiated, learning strategies.
The first finding is not surprising, given that explicit
attention to the various components of any new cognitive
process being learned will generally increase proficiency in REFERENCES
the process. The second finding is also not surprising if we

Marzano, R. J. (1986). An Etaluation of the McREL Thinking Skills
assume that the students who are doing well academically Program (Technical Report). Aurora, Col.: Mid-continent
probably are already proficient in the strategies within the Regional Educational Laboratory, ERIC Document Reproduc-
Tactics program. In fact, they are probably using cognitive tion Service No. ED267907.
strategies of their own design (albeit similar to those in the Marzano, R. J. (1989). Summary Report of Evaluations of the Tactics
for Thinking Program (Technical Report). Alexandria, Va.:
Tactics program) that aid them in learning and using Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
academic content. Low-achieving students usually have not Marzano, R. J., and D. E. Arredondo, (1986). Tactics for Thinking:
developed their own learning strategies, so direct instruction Teacher's Manual. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Super-
in the Tactics gives them strategies similar to those that vision and Curriculum Development.
high-achieving students are already employing to learn and Marzano. R. J., and C. L. Hutchins. (1985). Thinking Skills: A
Conceptual Framework Aurora, Col.: Mid-continent Regional
use content. Educational Laboratory.
Marzano, R. J., and D. E. Paynter. (1989). Tactics for Thinking:
* * * Classroom Blackline Masters. Alexandria, Va.: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Tactics for Thinking is ultimately a place to start. It is
simply a set of cognitive strategies to be taught by teachers
74
41mM. =111111...,
68
19
Connections
Shari Tishman
Goa,: thinking is a matter of making connectionsand How Do Connections Strategies

knowing what kinds of connections to try to make. Fit into the Curriculum?
David Perkins
There are many opportunities for strategic thinking in
most school subjects. Consider understanding. Gaining deep
understanding is a thinking task that students encounter in
Connections is a program that helps teachers infuse the
virtually all subjects. How to understand fractions? How to
teaching of thinking into the subjects and topics they understand different types of governments? The structure of
regularly teach. The leading idea behind Connec-
a poem? How a microscope works? The rules of grammar?
tions is that teaching thinking need not be an "add-on" to an While the information relevant to the understanding task
already overcrowded curriculum. There are already plenty varies from topic to topic, the basic structure of the problem
existing school
of opportunities for higher-order thinking in remains the samehow to achieve deep understanding. The
teachers
subjects. Connections provides a systematic way for Connections Understanding Strategy teaches students a step-
develop their criti-
to restructure instruction so that students by-step way of looking at all sides of the object of under-
their
cal and creative thinking abilities while deepening standing in order to "unpack" its deeper meanings.
understanding of content. Or consider decision making. Students encounter many
decision points both in and out of school. In their day-to-clay
The Connections Approach lives they must decide how to spend their time, what to
Connections takes a "natural problem type" approach believe, what to buy. In history, they are exposed to
to teaching thinking. This means that
higher-order thinking decisions historical figures have made: in reading, they en-
is taught in the context of real problem situations in standard counter the decisions of fictional charactem. The Connec-
decisions, and tions Decision Making Strategy helps students think through
school subjects. Solving problems, making
gaining deep understanding are all examples
of natural prob- decision points such as these systematically, critically, and
lem types. They are higher-order thinking "tasks" that creatively.
naturally occur in a variety of contexts, in and out of school. These are just a sample of the many opportunities to use
Connections reflects the belief that the challenge of Connections strategies. Because the strategies are designed
natural problem types is best met by the use of thinking to address broad thinking goals, they can be used on a variety
strategies. A thinking strategy is a constellation of thinking of topics, and can be infused into virtually any curriculum.
skills organized in a goal-directed way. In its present version,
strategies to deal with How Do the Strategies Work?
Connections teaches three thinking
Making, Deep Under-
three natural problem types: Decision Connections strategies consist of several steps, or-
standing, and Inventive Thinking. ganized somewhat like a sandwich. The inner steps, or
things.
The Connections materials do two important "filling" of the strategies. consist of what are called "powerful
opportunities in the
First, they help teachers identify thinking questions." Each strategy has a daerent set of powerful
strategies in
curriculum. Second. they help students learn the questions. For example, the three powerful questions at the
the context of topics teachers already teach. core of the Decision Making Strategy tell students exactly
69
7 a°
what to do in order to make a careful decision. The powerful The three powerful questions of the Understanding
questions in the Understanding Strategy ask students to Strategy are:
examine the purposes and the features of something, in order 1. What are the purposes of the object of understanding?
to understand how, and how well, it works. 2. What are its features and the reasons connecting the
The outer steps of the strategies are the first step and the features to the purposes?
final two steps. These come before, and after, the powerful 3. How well does it work?
questions, and they are the same for every strategy, regard- Each powerful question is accompanied by standards
less of its goal. The reason they are always the same is that to help guide students thinking. The standards are based on
they are mental management (metacognitive)steps, and the findings in current research that indicate where the typical
skills involved in good mental management remain the same shortcomings in thinking at each strategy step are likely to
no matter which strategy is being used. These steps help occur. For instance, research shows that when faced with a
students put themselves in the best frame of mthd for think- decision point, people tend to see it as an either/or choice
ing strategically, and help them integrate and summarize and tend not to look beyond the obvious choices for creative
what they have learned. Figure 1 shows in more detail how or unusual options. Accordingly, the standards for the first
the inner and outer steps work. powerful question in the Decision Making Strategy direct
students to look for many options and press them to look
beyond the obvious options for creative, unusual, and hid-
The Powerful Que. ,ons den options.
These are at the core of each strategy. They lead students The point of the standards is to help students learn to
along an effective, creative, and thorough path toward the take responsibility for their own thinking. The standards
thinking goal in question. For example, the three powerful teach students to monitor and assess their own thinking as
questions of the Decision Making Strategy are: they proceed through each step of a strategy. In this way,
1. What are the options? students not only learn which thinking skills to use, they
2. What are the complete reasons, pro and con, for the learn how to use them as well.
most promising options?
3. What is your careful choice?
FIGURE 1
Connections Strategy Design
outer
step GET READY
Powerful Questions with Standards
1. inner
steps
2.
3.
outer MAKE CONNECTIONS

steps
ri:HINK ABOUT THINKING
70
76
CONNEMONS
Connections
Educational
Developers: David N. Perkins, Shari Tishman, and jill Mirman Owen, with support from The Regional Laboratory for
Improvement of the Northeast and Islands
Goal: To infuse the teaching of higher-order thinking strategies into the regular curriculum.
Sample skills: Decision making, deep understanding, inventive thinking, and metacognition.
problem
Assumptions: The challenge of teaching higher-orderthinking is effectively met by teaching thinking strategies to deal with "natural
types" in the existing curriculum.
grade level.
Intended audience: Connections materials are written for grades 3-6. However, the strategies themselves are appropriate for any
Each strategy is presented in a

10-lesson module. Teachers infuse the strategies into their regular curriculum and students
Process:
practice them in the context of regular subject matters.
takes
Varies. Each lesson takes between 15 and 45 minutes. At least two Connections lessons should be taught each week. It
Time:
about two months to complete a module.
Available from: fill Mirman, The Regional Lab, 290 S. Main Street, Andover, mA 01810. Telephone: 508-470-1080
"web of knowledge." Make Connections guides them in

The Mental Management Steps generalizing about the new ideas they've had and helps them
No matter what its goal, effective strategic thinking has see how the topic they've worked on relates to other topics
three unportant "generic" elements. These three elements in the curriculum.
correspond to the first step and last two steps of the Connec- The Think About Thinking step concludes all Connec-
tions strategies. tions strategies. It is a metacognitive step that asks students
The first step of every strategy is called Get Ready. It asks to review their thinking process to see how well they've
students to prepare themselves to do their best thinking by done. It helps them to identify what parts of their thinking
frame of mind. Get went well, what parts were difficult, and how they can
putting themselves in the appropriate
Ready asks students to do three specific things. First, it asks improve their use of the strategy next time. Think About
them to pause and take a moment to focus their thoughts. Thinking is incorporated into the Get Ready step the next
This means taking a moment of quiet time to pull their time around: when Get Ready asks students to remember
"thinking energies" together. Second, it asks them to remem- improvements from last time, they recall the improvements
used the strategy
ber the difficulties they had last time they they devised during the previous Think About Thinking step,
of it this
and the improvements they might make in their use The overall message of the three "generic" strategy steps
Decision Making is that thinking is something one can control. By observing
time. For example, if last time they used the
Strategy they had difficulty finding lots of creative options, and evaluating their own thinking processes, students learn
themselves to use more how to shape. direct, and chart their own course of intellec-
this time around they might remind
brainstorming tricks. Third, Get Ready asks students to im- tual progress.
For example, if the
agine the topic of the strategy in action.
decision making strategy is being used on a historical Connections Materials
decision point, students try to visualize
that moment in
Connections currently consists of three modules:
historywho is there, what the landscape looks like, and so
Ready, students plunge into the Decision Making, Understanding, and Inventive Thinking,
on. Once they've done Get Additional modules are in draft. Each module takes about
powerful questions. two months tG complete, presuming one to two lessons are
The last two steps of all Connections strategies are: Make
These steps come taught per week. The modules ConSiSt of approximately ten
Connections and Think About Thinking. lessons. In the first iesson, the basic strategy is introduced to
the powerful ques-
after students have finished answering students. The rem iinder of the lessons take anywhere from
"transfer" step. It asks students
tions. Make Connections is the
done while using the strategy 15 to 45 minutes. The lesson formats are varied: students
to connect the thinking they've work on paper, in small groups, and as a whole class. When
Connections is to help
to other topics. The point of Make considering lesson times it is important to remember that
they've gained
students integrate the new understanding Connections lessons do not really take time away from the
during a particular strategy application into their general
curriculum because they're used on topics that students are 1. Straightforward explanations of each strategy,
already studying. 2. Plenty of concrete examples of how the strategies
The bulk of Connections materials are mainly for work in the classroom,
teachers, A strategy poster is provided for students; the rest 3. Classroom lesson guides,
of the materials help teachers identify opportunities to infuse 4. Guides for assessing student performance, and
the strategy in their regular lessons and guide them through 5. Troubleshooting guides for trouble spots.
the infusion process. Included in the teacher materials are:
78
111=b,
72
20
Talents Unlimited
Deborah E. Hobbs and Carol L. Schlichter
Far out thinking is a means to an endTo him whose work. attr butes its great popularity to the fact that TALENTS
uNumrn:D is a thinking skills model that works.
elastic and vigorous thought keeps pace with the sun, the day
is a peipetual morning.
Henry David Thoreau Theoredcal Base
Based on Calvin Taylor's (1967) theory of a multiple
p t"cture this . .. 25 first graders cluster excitedly around

heir teacher as she prepares to launch a balloon with
a message attached. This launching ceremony is the
product of an instructional activity in which children use
planning skills to apply concepts they have learned in a
talent approach to teaching, TALENTS UNLIMITED aims at
helping teachers give students six ways to express their
smarts: productive thinking, communication, forecasting,
decision making, planning, and the traditional academic
talent. It is Taylor's belief that if children in a heterogeneously
mixed classroom are given six ways to be smart, 9 out of 10
science unit on air.
The final step of their launch plan calls for the identifica-
children will experience success in at least one way (Taylor
tion of problems that could inhibit the success of their 1968).
Underlying the multiple talent approach is the belief that
project. One problem cited by this group of six-year-olds is
people have abilities or talents in a variety of areas not
that thtir balloon might not lift off because the message might
measured by traditional school tests. Research on multiple
be too heavy.
intelligences attests to the power of training for enhancing,
The balloon is launched and 25 childrer and their
and fostering, positive feelings about self.
teacher watch it bobble across the ground. Instead of being
dejected, one child looks up at her teacher and says, "Well.
we were right. Now we'll have to use our
productive thinking TALENTS UNLIMITED Project Objectives
talent and think of ways to solve this problem." The teacher
their In the original research project. the research team
smiles at her TALENTS kids as she guides them in using
varied, and developed a three-faceted multiple talent model that in-
productive thinking talent to generate many,
cluded the following components: (1) training teachers to
unusual strategies to solve the problem of the "unlaunch-
recognize and nurture students' multiple abilities; (2)
able" balloon. developing materials to support the integration of the talent
This bright-eyed six-year-old and her classmates are
processes into regular classroom instruction: and (3) evaluat-
TALENTS kids in Mobile, Alabama. They have been in-
ing student performance.
structed in a thinking skills model called TALENTS UN-
In the dissemination of the model, two additional objec-
LIMITED (TU), which was originally researched and
tives have been added: providing technical assistance for
developed in the Mobile County Public School System from
implementation and providing training for trainers. Through
1971-1974 under the Elementary and Secondary Education
model, which has been the dissemination process, the project staff has discovered
Act of 1965 Title III grant. This that the real growth in the teaching of the TALENTS UN-
disseminated throughout the world since 1974 as an ex- LIMITED model occurs when a teacher first begins working
National Diffusion Net-
emplary educational program of the
"--119 73
with children; the initial inservice workshop for teachers is In a technical report on the research findings of the
only their academic beginning. TALENTS UNLIMITED program, Chissom and McLean (1980)
From its inception, the TU project was intended to focus discussed the impact of the use of the multiple talent model
on teacher training, since the teacher was perceived to be the on student performance during the second and third years
key person in developing student talent. In the TU inservice of the project. Measures of creativity and self-esteem were
model, teachers develop skills in writing and critiquing talent reported for the second year only.
activities, in implementing and evaluating talent instruction Analyses comparing the experimental and control
with students, and in evaluating student response to instruc- groups over the four dimensions of the Torrance tests (i.e.,
tional activities. Teachers receive structured observational fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration) showed sig-
feedback and use both peer feedback and self-evaluation nificant differences (p < .05), favoring the experimental
techniques. group for all measures. Of the three grade levels (3-5)
The TALENTS UNLIMITED inservice model was assessed on the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, ex-
originally designed as a competency-based training program perimental groups in grades 4 and 5 performed simificantly
for the development of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes better (p < .05) than the control groups; results at grade 3
necessary to implement the multiple talent approach to were nonsignificant.
teaching. A hierarchy of skills was identified to guide the Notable differences between experimental and control
implementation and evaluation of training activities, Four groups occurred between the second and third years on
major categories of activities and strategies are employed in measures of academic achievement and talent development.
the training: (1) input sessions on multiple talent theory and At the end of the second year (after approximately 14 months
talent skills definitions; (2) modeling and demonstration: of talent training), results on the Stanford Achievement Test
(3) classroom practice sessions; and (4) one-to-one and for grades 2 through 5 indicated great variation within the
small-group planning sessions. These four categories of battery of subtests, as well as among the grade levels, for both
training activities demonstrate the emphasis on coaching experimental and control groups; no definite pattern in
teachers in the use of new concepts and strategies in talent achievement was suggested by the data. At the end of the
development (Schlichter 1986a). third year (after approximately 22 months of talent training),
the results revealed significant achievement (p< .05) in favor
of the talent group. Results on 14 of 35 subtests indicated
Initial Research significant improvement on only 3 of the subtests. Results
In 1971 four experimental and four control schools, from 18 subtests were not significant.
matched for socioeconomic level and racial composition and On the 10 measures of talent development (CRT) ad-
representative of the highly diverse population of Mobile ministered to grades 2 through 5, student performance at the
County, were used in the experimental research design. end of the second year of the talent program revealed sig-
Thirty-seven classroom teachers from grades 1 through 6, nificant differences (p < .05) in gain scores in favor of the
representing a cross-section of the teaching population of experimental group. Results on 18 of 40 measures favored
Mobile County, were trained and then participz..ed as the talent group, while only 1 measure of 40 favored the
"talents" teachers for the entire three years of the research control group. Twenty-one of the measures were nonsig-
project. The students in both the experimental and control nificant. CRT results at the end of the third year indicated that
schools represented a wide range of intellectual ability and experimental students continued to exhibit significant gains
achievement. Each was pre- and post-tested in the following: over the control group.
(1) Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, (2) Coopersmith Taylor (1968) postulated that 90 percent of the children
Self-Esteem Inventory, (3) the Stanford Achievement Test, in school can be identified as above average in at least one
and (4) TALENTS UNLIMITED Criterion Referenced Tests of the six talent areas, provided these talents have an oppor-
(CRT). The CRT (1974) battery of 10 measures was tunity to develop through the total instructional program.
developed by the project staff and a university research team This hypothesis was tested in the TALENTS UNLIMITED
to assess changes exhibited by students in each of the talent research, and the findings on the CRT showed that ap-
areas. These tests formed the basis for comparing students proximately 85 percent of the students at each grade level
who participated in the TALENTS UNLIMITED program (ex- (grades 1-6) achieved "above average" scores in at least one
perimentals) with students who did not participate (controls) talent area (Chissom and McLean 1980), although the
in the project research and in many adoptions of TALENTS academic talent area was not one of these areas.
UNLIMITED (Chissom and McLean 1980).
74
0
TALENTS UNLIMITED
math, language, social studies, and so on. they are also

Validation and Diffusion practicing the kinds of thinking that are highly related to
The success of the TALENTS UNLIMITED program in success in the career world.
identifying and developing individual student talents For example, a group of 4th graders is becoming familiar
resulted in national validation of the project by the Joint with the way interdependent members of the food chain
in
Dissemination Review Panel (PRP) and its membership cycle materials and energy through the ecosystem. The
developer-
the National Diffusion Network (NDN) as a teacher sks how many of the students have heard of the
demonstrator project. This and other innovative programs artificial turf used on sports fields and in commercial
Ideas that Work
are described in Education in Action, 50 landscapes. After briefly discussing their experiences with
(Park 1978) and Education Programs that Work(1978), both artificial turf and examining a sample, students are asked this
published by the United States Office of Education. question: What if people were so pleased with the fact that
In the past 15 years. TALENTS UNLIMITED has been this type. of grass is always green, doesn't die, and doesn't
adopted in 49 states. the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico. and haw to be watered and mowed, tbat all gmss in our neigh-
this project,
15 foreign countries. In an impact study of borhwd Imre replaced by artificial tuff Predict the many,
McLean and Chissom (1980) summarized experimental
varied effects of sucb a situation.
results from a sample of the adoption sites. The results The responses students offer reflect some scientific con-
support the validity of the TALENTS UNUMITED program. nection making; for example, they predict that cows and
model, and
All results favored the use of the multiple talent other animals would have to find something else that's green
most achieved statistical significance (p .05). Data were
to eat and that erosion would be a major problem because
included from all talent areas. grades 1 through 6, and from artificial turf provides no roots to hold soil. In addition, some
Alaska. In the
all areas of the continental United States and students make connections of another order by suggesting
most recent reporting year. 1987-1988, 113 had 1,364 adop- that people wouldn't enjoy going barefoot and that there
tions (a school site implementing the modeDmore than wouldn't be the odor of freshly mown grass anymore. It is
any NDN program that year. apparent from the responses of these 4th graders that 113
teaching enhances the academic program.
The TALENTS UNLIMITED Model
As Figure 1 indicates, each talent has designated be-
haviors targeted for the teaching of certain thinking abilities.
In the TALENTS UNLIMITED Model, there are six The productive thinking talent is the mind-stretching talent.
talents--the academic or the base talent plus productive
Based on Torrance's definition of creative thinking (fluency,
thinking, communication, forecasting, decision making, and flexibility, originality, and elaboration), productive thinking
the traditional
planning. The academic talent is viewed as asks students to think of many, varied, and unusual solutions
talent that children use to acquire information. This talent
because it focuses on to a problem and add to their ideas to make them better.
might be called the status quo talent
knowledge in its present state without There are many activities that encourage students to do this.
acquisition of For example, in a 2nd grade class lesson on the study of
manipulation. Memorization of information and rote practice geometric shapes. each child is given a green triangle to
academic
of skills are typical behaviors associated with the transform; the children's ideas reveal that these seven-year-
talent, and the gone right answer" is characteristic of the
olds see where geometric shapes have a place in their world.
instructional outcome.
Although one right answer might yield a good score on In a 7th grade social studies class, midway in the study of the
real world of work demands a Revolutionary War, students are asked for many, varied, and
a school test, success in the unusual strategies that the patriots could have used to show
variety of abilities, including skills in generating numerous
their dislike of "taxation without representation"other
solutions to a problem, analyzing and evaluating alterna-
of action, predict- than tossing tea into Boston's harbor.
tives. organizing and implementing plans Decision making is defined by four observable student
communicating ideas and
ing causes and effects, and behaviors: (1) identification of many different alternatives to
in a world
feelings. Maintaining the status quo is incongruous solving a problem; (2) the use of criteria to evaluate edch
escalating at
in which new information and technology are alternative; (3) the selection of the best alternative; and
mind-boggling rates.
of (4) the formulation and statement of many different reasons
The TU model is designed to enhance the acquisition
stwients to use their for the final choice. The sequence of skills in this definition
basic knowledge and skills by training is notable, since it differs from the standard textbook order
knowledge to create new solutions to problems. As students
thinking skills to of skills in which the generation of solutions (alternatives)
learn to use a variety of creative and critical
objectives in science, comes after the development of criteria. In TU, ideation is
help them accomplish the academic
75
FIGURE 1
The TALENTS UNLIMITED Model
Definition Sample Activity

Talent Areas
To generate many, varied, and unusual ideas or Students working in a math unit on surveying and graph-
Productive Thinking
solutions and to add detail to the ideas to improve ing are asked to think of a variety of unusual topics for a
them or make them more interesting. survey they will conduct and graph.
To outline, weigh, make final judgments, and Students who are preparing to order materials through the
Decision Making
defend a decision on the many alternatives to a Scholastic Books campaign make final selections by con-
problem. sidering such criteria as cost, interest, and reading level.
To design a means for implementing an idea by Students who are studying the unusual characteristics of
Planning
describing what is to be done, identifying the slime mold are asked to design experiments to answer
resources needed, outlining a sequence of steps to questions they have generated about the behavior of the
take, and pinpointing possible problems in the mold.
plan.
To make a variety of predictions about the possible Students who are conducting a parent poll on their
F oreca st ing
causes and/or effects of various phenomena, school's dress code are encouraged to generate predic-
tions about the possible causes for low returns on the
survey.
To use and interpret both verbal and nonverbal In an attempt to describe the emotions of different groups
Communication of colonists, 5th graders studying the American Revolu-
forms of communication to express ideas, feelings,
and needs to others. tion role-play both Loyalists and Rebels as they hear a
reading of the Declaration of Independence.
To develop a base of knowledge and/or skill about Students read from a variety of resources to gain informa-
Academic tion about the impressionist period and then share the
a topic or issue through acquisition of information
and concepts. information in a discussion of a painting by Monet.
Forecasting is defined by the TALENTS UNLIMITED

placed before evaluation.
For example, in a 3rd grade class students may decide model as having one basic goal: the generation of many,
varied predictions about a situation or event. The term
on the best project for a culminating activity in their .5tudy of
dinosaurs. Some of the questions they might ask themselves "forecast" suggests looking ahead, imaging the future, and
about the decision are: Do I have enough time? Is this many questions that call for forecasting are stated in the
something that I'm really interested in? Are the resour- future mode (e.g., What might happen if all plants were
ces/materials available? Is this transportable? elkninated from earth? What could happen next in this
story?). Cast in these ways, forecasting deals with the predic.
The decision-making talent empowers children and
teaches them that they aredecision makers, but that with that tion of consequences, effects, or outcomes. But in spite of
right comes the responsibility of being accountable for their
the future orientation of the talent name, the forecasting
decisions and the consequences of those decisions. talent has been defined to include many, varied predictions
The major goal of the planning talent is organizing for about the causes of some event or situation (e.g., What
caused the extinction of the dinosaur? Why was George
the implementation of a project or the solution of a problem.
Washington willing to become the leader of the Continental
For example, a 1st grade class may plan their first field trip;
Army?). Forecasting, then, as defined by TALENTS UN-
a Gth grader may plan the presentation of a vocabulary word
LIMITED, includes prediction of both causes end effects.
for a language arts class so that the class will never forget its
meaning; or an 11th grader may plan the production of a Finally, in the communication talent students are taught
model rocket for a class in aerospace studies. In each of these to romance their languagethe world's greatest dis-
criminator. The goal of the communication talent is to in-
plans, the students must (1) state their objective; (2) identify
the resources needed for implementation; (3) state and crease students facility in using verbal and nonverbal
organize the steps or procedures for implementation; and language to share their thoughts, ideas, and feelings; specifi-
cally, the objective is to increase the richness of expression
(4) consider potential problems that might inhibit the im-
plementation of the plan. and move students away from cliche-ridden expression, The
76
^
TALENTS UNUMITED
TALENTS UNLIMITED
Carol L. Schlichter (based on the work of Calvin W. Taylor)

Developer:
To identify and nurture a broad range of student talent.
Goal:
Productive thinking (ideating); decision making (evaluating); planning (organizing); forecasting (predicting); communication
Sample skills:
(writing, speaking, acting)
People have abilities or talents in a variety of areas.
Assumptions: foster
Training in the use of these thinking processes can enhance potential in various areas of talent and at the same time
positive feelings about self.
Training in particular talent processes can be integrated with knowledge or content in any subject area.
The multiple talents are linked to success in the world of work.
Intended audience: K-12, all ability levels.

forecasting, planning,
Students are taught systematically the skills of the talent clusters: productive thinking, decision making,
Process: teachers who
and communication: and talents instruction is integrated into general curriculum and into all subject areas by
are trained in specific instructional strategies.
of at least two years.
There should be at least two talents activities a week integrated into the content over a period
Time:
TALENTS UNLIMITED, Dr. Deborah E, Hobbs, Director, Mobile County Public Schools, 1107 Adington St., Mobile, AL 36605.
Available from:
Telephone: 205-690-8060.
of thinking with all subject matter; and (3) providing regular

specific definition of the communication talent includes six
guided practice of skills over a sustained period of time.
skills (see Figure 1). According to the operational definition
Details on instructional strategies used at different grade
developti by the TU project staff, each skill may function
independently (i.e., each may be the focus of an entire levels and with students in regular classroom programs and
special programs for the gifted are provided in other sources
activity) even though it is acknowledged that the skills are
For example, the (Schlichter 1986b; Schlichter, Hobbs, and Crump 1988;
not mutually exclusive in general practice.
be used Schlichter 1989).
describing words generated with the first skill may
students
in the development of a descriptive paragraph as
the skills of
focus on the fifth skill. On closer examination, Adoption and Implementation
hierarchy of
communication suggest that there is an implied In order for students to become "talents kids." an adop-
complexity, ranging from the generation of
single words
phrases (skill three) to a network of tion of TALENTS UNLIMITED must occur. An adoption is the
(skills one and two) to
reflect the use of owning of the model through training and then implemen-
ideas (skills four, five, and six). The skills tation in the classroom, school site, or district. In order for a
and skill six draws
the coppitive and affective abilities, successful adoption of TALENTS UNLIMITED to occur, the
specifically on psychomotor ability.
independently oc- following must be in place:
An example of a skill functioning A nucleus of teachers in the school must commit to a
curred in a TALENTS 3rd grade science class. The children
examining a specimen minimum of 12-18 hours of training and must have the
were studying the butterfly, and upon attitude to work at implementing such an innovative pro-
of the students
the teacher had provided for the class, one gram. These teachers should represent contiguous grades
commented that the butterfly 's wings were very fragile. So
for the con- because successful implementation of TALENTS UNLIMITED
that children would have a better appreciation is based on at least a two-year commitment to implementa-
her students to think of
cept of "fragile." the teacher asked
butterfly wings. tion.
other things in their world that are fragile like
fragile like my There must be commiunent from the building instnic-
One student said, "A butterfly's wings are tional leader and the administration. This commitment
feelings." means attending and participating in the teachers' inservice
The success of the TU model as a tool for teachLig workshop or in one designed solely for administrators. In
thinking is reflected in its attention to at least three factors
thinking skills in- addition, the project's implementation should be monitored.
that researchers associate with effective There must be support in the central administrative
structioir (1) teaching students the procedura! components office of the school district in which the adopting school resides.
of the thinking skills in the model; (2) integrating the teaching
There must be enough financial support for the basic REFERENCES
inservice workshop, follow-up to the workshop, technical

Chissom, B. S., and McLean, J. E. (1980). Talents Unlimited Pro-
assistance, and any materials or supplies that teachers need m: Technical Report Summarizing Research Findings.
to aid implementation. Nobile, Ala: Mobile County Public St;hools. ERIC Document
There must be parental and community support. Reproduction Service No. ED 179 556
The project staff has developed multiple strategies cor CRT. (1974). Criterion Referenced Tests of Talents. Mobile, Ala:
assisting in the implementation and assuring longevity of the Mobile County Public Schools.
Educational Programs Mat Work. (1978). 5th ed. Washington,
TALENTS UNLIMITED model at an adopting site. D.C.: United States Office of Education.
McLean, J. E., and B. S. Chissom. (1980). Talents Unlimited Pro-
gram: Summary rjResearrh Findingsfor 1979-1980. Mobile,
Ala.: Mobile County Public Schools. ERIC Document
TALENTS UNLIMITED is a process model for the teach- Rerroduction Service No. ED 198 660
Park, J. S., ed. (1978). Education in Action: 50 Ideas That Work.
ing of critical and creative thinking. The activities are always Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Health, Educa-
tied to the curriculum, are enhancers to the academic pro- tion, and Welfare.
gram, and are highly motivational because students have an Schlichter, C. L. (1986a). "Talents Unlimited: An Inservice Education
opportunity to shine and thereby feel good about themsel- Model for Teaching Thinking Skills." Gifted Child Quarterly
ves. Used with many diverse populations, TU serves as a 30, 3: 119-123.
Schlichter, C. L. (1986b). "Talents Unlimited: Applying the Multiple
model that mil iches the learning experience for each popula- Talent Approach in Mainstream and Gifted Programs. In Sys-
tion it servesregular classroom, ESL, EMR, "learning dif- tems and Models for Developing Programs for the Gifted and
ferently" kids, and gifted students involved in independent Talented, edited by J. S. Renzulli. Mansfield Center, Conn.:
research projects. Although the activities look like "just good Creative Learning Press, Inc.
teaching," they are essentially different from "just any inter- Schlichter, C. L., D. Hobbs, and W. D. Crump. (April 1988). "Extend-
ing Talents Unlimited to Secondary Schools." Educational
esting activity." In a TALENTS activity, the objective is the Leadersl* 45, 7: 36-40.
teaching of thinking. A TALENTS activity does more than Schlichter, C. L. (April 1989) "More than a Passing Thought."
offer learners the opportunity to perform; it challenges them Teaching K-819, 7: 55-57.
to engage in and identify thinking tasks and to transfer their Taylor, C. W. (1967). "Questioning and Creating: A Model for
newfound knowledge to other areas. TALENTS UNLIMITED Curriculum Reform. Journal of Creative Behavior 1, 1: 22-23.
Taylor, C. W. (December 1968). "Be Talent Developers as Well as
enhances the academic while teaching work and life-related Knowledge Dispensers.'' Today's Education 14, 8: 67-69.
skills. Thus, it prepares students for the basic of the future
thinking.
1111111.1.
84
fommi11.01
78
21
Intelligence Applied:
A Triarchic Program for
Training Intellectual Skills
Robert J. Sternberg
The whole of science is nothing more than a mfinement

cusses other attempts at increasing intelligence. The goal of
the chapter is to set the historical and theoretical stage for the
of everyday thinking. introduction of the triarchic theory of intelligence, which
Alben Einstein
underlies and motivates the training program. The text em-
phasizes that the conventional approaches to understanding
intelligence are largely complementary, emphasizing as they
The triarchic program contains two basic elements for
developing the intellectual skills of secondary and do different aspects of intelligent thought and behavior. A
college-level students: a student's text, which contains
comprehensive theory, and a training program built on this
complete, and theory, would join the best elements of these theories,
narrative material and exercises for students to
material tr.lchers can use regardless of the particular experimental paradigms or
a teacher's guide. which contains methods that gave rise to the theories, and add to them the
to maximize the effectiveness of the program. ingredients that are needed to construct a systematic and
comprehensive theory thal does justice to the full range of
The Student's Text thought and behavior thAt constitutes intelligence. The triar-
chic theory will later be presented as a step in this direction.
At the hean of the triarchic program is the student's text,
In order to understand and appreciate the background
Intelligence Applied: Understanding and Increasing Your
Intellectual Skills. The text is suitable for a semester or of a program for training intellectual skills, we must under-
stand not only early conceptions of how intelligence can be
year-long course at the secondary or college level and is
taught, but also contemporary examples. Three exemplary
divided into five parts.
programs are described hereFeuerstein's Instrumental En-
richment. Lipman's Philosophy for Children, and Jones'
Part Background Chicago Mastery Learning Programin order to show the
main features of existing programs and discuss how these
Part I contains two chapters that provide a brief, but not
of intelligence and of programs are similar to and different from each other.
cursory. introduction to the nature Chapter 2.. The Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence.
attempts to train it.
This chapter introduces the triarchic theory of intelligence as
Chapter I : Views of Intelligence. The first chapter
an approach to understanding thtelligence in terms of (a) the
describes, at an elementary level, the major approaches to
internal world of the individual (i.e., the cognitive
understanding intelligence: the definitional approach, the
mechanisms underlying intelligent performance), (b) the
learning-theory approach, the psychometric approach, the
also dis- external world of the individual (i.e., the environmental
Piagetian approach. and the cognitive approach. It
contexts on which intelligence operates), and (c) the ex- performance components, which are nonexecutive
perience of the individual in the world (i.e., the interface processes used to carry out the instructions of the metacom-
between the internal and external worlds of the individual). ponents for solving problems; and
The first, componential part of the triarchic theory knowledge-acquisition components, which are non-
specifies three basic kinds of information-processing com- executive processes used to learn how to solve the problems
ponents: in the first place.
metacomponents, which are executive processes The contextual part of the triarchic theory specifies the
used to plan, monitor, and evaluate one's strategy for solving functions to which components are applied in coping with
problems; the external world. These functions are:
adapting to existing environments, which involves
changing yourself to better fit into these environments;
shaping existing environments, which involves
FIGURE 1 changing the environments in order to better fit these en-
vironments to yourself; and
Main Elements of Triarchic Program selection of new environments, which involves
for Training Intellectual Skills replacing one or more current environments with one or
more new ones that seem to have more favorable charac-
TRAINING PROGRAM teristics.
Part I. Background
The experiential aspect of the triarchic theory specifies
Chapter 1: Views of Intelligence the regions in the continuum of experiencefrom the totally
Chapter 2: The Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence unfamiliar to the thoroughly familiarthat most directly tap
the components as they function "intelligently." There are
Part II. The Internal World of the Individual Components
of Human Intelligence
two of these regions: (1) relative novelty and (2) automat-
Chapter 3: Metacomponents (executive processes used to
ization of information processing. Relative novelty refers to
plan, monitor, and evaluate problem-solving performance). the region of experience in which a task or situation is fairly,
Chapter 4: Performance Components (nonexecutive but not totally, new. Adapting to the mores of a foreign
processes used to carry out the instructions of metacom-
ponents).
country that you are visiting for the first time would be an
Chapter 5: Knowledge-Acquisition Components (nonex- example of relative novelty; you have some relevant ex-
ecutive processes used to learn how to solve the problems perience to bring to bear on the situation, but not a great deal.
controlled by metacomponents and solved by performance
components).
Automatization of information processing refers to the tran-
sition between conscious, controlled information processing
Part III. The Experience of the Individual: Facets of Human and subconscious, automatic information processing. Ex-
Intelligence
amples are learning to read or learning to drive. Initially,
Chapter 6: Coping with Novelty
Chapter 7: Automatizing Information Processing
reading and driving are very deliberate, purposeful, and
resource consuming. Eventually, though, reading and driv-
Part IV. The External World of the Individual: Functions of ing become essentially automatic, so that you scarcely think
Human Intelligence
about how you do them while you do them; in fact, you can
Chapter 8: Practical Intelligence
Adaptation to environmental contexts perform these "actions" without even consciously realizing
Shaping of environmental contexts that you are doing so.
Selection of environmental contexts The triarchic theory does not contradict most previous
Personality, Motivation, and intelligence theories of intelligence; instead, it integrates some of their
Part V.
Chapter 9: Why Intelligent People Fail (Too Often) most critical aspects, while dispensing with aspects that are
idiosyncratic or simply wrong. Its intent is to highlight what
TEACHER'S GUIDE is right, not reveal what is wrong. The theory seeks to
1. Purpose of Chapter represent the best of previous theories, while incorporating
2. Chapter Outline new elements, including new elements of integration among
3. Main Ideas the aspects of intelligence.
4. Questions for Class Discussion
5. Suggested Paper Topics
6. Supplementary Activities
7. Suggested Readings
8. Suggested Time Allocation
86
80
INTELLIGENCE APPUED: A TRIARCHIC PROGRAM
Finaikly, three problems that involve the metacomponent

Part 11: The Internal World of the Individual:
Components of Human Intelligence of defining the problem are presented.
Cbapter 4: Performance Components. The perfor-
Part II consists of three chapters, one on each of the mance components of intelligence implement the plans that
three kinds of information-processing components of intel- the metacomponents formulate. The number of performance
ligence: metacomponents, performance components, and components in an individual's repertoire is very large. For-
knowledge-acquisition components. tunately, for both theoretical and practical purposes, the
Chapter 3: Metacomponents. This chapter specifies the number of performance components that is critical for intel-
metacomponents of intelligence and contains material that lectual performance is relatively small. The reason for this is
helps students develop skill in using these metacomponents. that a few performance components crop up again and again
Each metacomponent section opens with some real-world in intellectual tasks. These general performance components
examples of the metacomponent in action or inaction, and are those that are of greatest interest from both a theoretical
the consequences of this action or inaction. The introductory and a practical point of view.
section illuminates the material that follows and shows how Some of the most important performance components
the metacomponents are important in everyday life, as well are:
as in "academic" life. inferring relations between stimuli.
The next section provides several tips on how to use the applying previously inferred relations to new stimuli.
metacomponents more effectively. These tips provide con- mapping higher-order relations between relations, and
crete suggestions for improvement, rather than leaving the comparing attributes of stimuli.
learner to figure out just what changes in thought or behavior These are four of the six or so performance components
might produce more effective intellectual functioning. A set that form the core of inductive reasoning tasks, such as
the
of problems follows, each of which requires use of analogies, series extrapolations, and classifications. Chapter
metacomponential skill under consideration. Students are 4 shows how to apply these and other performance com-
generally asked first to try to solve each problem on their ponents to a variety of different kinds of problems, from the
own. They are then given the answer and shown how the academic to the practical.
problem.
metacomponent applies to the solution of the The section opens with a practical exarkiple of an in-
The metacomponents addressed are: ference. The first major subsection details the kinds of verbal
defining the nature of a problem, inferences most frequently encountered. Next, students are
selecting the components or steps needed to solve a shown how inferences can serve either constructive or
problem. destructive purposes. Inferences are destructive when they
selecting a strategy for ordering the components of reflect inferential fallacies. Nineteen kinds of inferential fal-
probVm solving lacies are described, Later problems build on the information
selecting a mental representation for information. contained in the inference section. After other components
allocating mental resources, and ate introduced, problems that require exercise of the in-
monitoring solutions. ference performance component are presented (e.g., verbal
The section on defming the nature of a problem is and nonverbal analogies, classifications, and series extra-
typical of the approach to each metacomponent. It opens polations). Later, more complex problems that require in-
with concrete examples of inadequate definitions of ference in more ecologically relevant settings are presented.
problems. Three suggestions are given for improving your For example, in one type of problem, students must infer
definition of problems. The first is to reread or reconsider the which of two legal principles is relevant to solving a par-
question; often, a problem seems unsolvable simply because ticular case. In a second type of problem, students must infer
suggestion is to
it has been misconstrued. The second which of two principles for interpreting Rorschach Ink Blot
redefine your goals; if an initial problem is not solvable, a protocols is relevant for making a diagnosis in a particular
more modest attempt to solve a series of subproblems can case. (Of course, imaginary principles are used in both the
often lead to the whole solution or to at least a part of this legal and clinical inference items, and students are informed
solution. The third suggestion is to ask whether the defined of this fact.)
goal is the true goal. In some instances, an alternative goal The goal in these problems, as in all the problems, is for
method of attack
can be found, perhaps through a different students to use the various performance components in a
results that are satisfac- wide variety of problems and to recognize when the various
on a different problem, that will yield
from those originally kinds of components need to be used, regardless of surface-
tory, even though they are different
sought. structural differences between problem types that may mask
the deep-structural similarities in the performance com- theory as they go along. The training is incremental: rather
ponents of solution. than learning the theory all at once, students learn bits at a
Chapter 5: Knowledge-Acquisition Components. This time, and are asked to apply what they learn as they learn it.
chapter deals with the topic of knowledge acquisition, in
general, and of vocabulary acquisition, in particular. The
Part Ills The Experience of the Individuah
training material is based on a theory of verbal comprehen-
Facets of Human Intelligence
sion which postulates that there are three basic ingredients
involved in learning vocabulary from context: The triarchic training program deals with both facets of
the processes used to figure out meanings of words intellectual experience that are proposed (by the triarchic
from context; theory) to relate the experience of the individual to the
the kinds of informationor cuesto which these individual's intelligence: coping with novelty and the auto-
processes are applied; and matization of information processing.
textual variables that mediate how well the processes Chapter 6: Coping with Novelty. This chapter extends
can be applied to the cues. the theory of the processes of knowledge acquisition to
The three processes are those mentioned earlier: learning in unfamiliar domains. The chapter opens with an
selective encoding, selective combination, and selective overview of alternative views of insight. It then quickly
comparison. Selective encoding is used to decide what infor- proceeds to the triarchic view of insight, according to which
mation in a passage is relevant for figuring out the meaning insights can involve one or more of the three processes of
of an unknown word. Selective combination is used to put selective encoding, selective combination, and selective
these informational cues together into a unified definition. comparison. Selective encoding insights involve discerning
Selective comparison is used to relate the new word and its between relevant and irrelevant information in unusual
definition to information you already have, both about words ways. Selective combination is important when someone has
in particular and the world in general. to put together clucs. Selective comparison involves seeing
It is not enough, however, just to be able to draw upon analogies. As the processes are explained to the students,
these three processes. We have to apply them to the par- examples of insights involving these processes are given in
ticular content of a given passage. We do this through the use order to concrete the processes, and in order to motivate the
of contextual cues of different kinds. For example, setting students to use the three processes of insight in their own
cues specify the time, place, or situation in which a given thinking. Students are then given tips about how to use the
concept appears. Class membership cues specify a class of insights in their own thinking.
which the unknown concept is a member. Value/affect cues Finally, several kinds of problems that challenge stu-
describe evaluative connotations associated with the con- dents to apply these three forms of insightful thinking are
cept. Active-property cues specify actions performed by or to presented. They include:
the concept. These and other cues serve as "objects" for the arithmetical/logical word problems,
knowledge-acquisition processes: They are the stuff to information-evaluation problems,
which the processes are applied so that the meanings of new mystery problems,
words can be inferred. conceptual projection problems (using limited infor-
It is not always equally easy to apply the processes of mation to predict future states of the world),
knowledge-acquisition to the contextual cues. The passages novel analogies (like ordinary analogies, except that
contain mediating variables that make application of the students must sometimes consider an altered state of the
processes either easier or harder. For example, the distance world), and
of the cue from the unknown word is one such mediating scientific insight problems (practical and theoretical).
variable. It is easier to apply the processes to the cues if the Chapter 7: Automatizing Information Processing. This
cues are in close proximity to the unknown word. A second chapter opens with a description of the difference between
mediating variable is the number of different contexts in controlled and automatic information nrocessing and discus-
which the word to be learned appears. It is easier to learn the ses examples of each, as well as the relation between the two
meaning of the word if it appears in a few contexts. More kinds of information processing. The chapter then proceeds
than one context is needed to get a fix on the word's mean- to an explication of ten principles for expediting the auto-
ing, but too many contexts can be confusing and can actually matization of processing. For example, one principle is that
impede learning the word's meaning. it helps to learn the task you wish to automatize under
Students are trained in all three aspects of the theory and moderate speed stress. Another principle is that automat-
are given concrete examples of each of the aspects of the ization is likely to be more rapid if you are able to devote
your full attentional resources to the task at hand. Students
82
INTELLIGENCE APPLIED: A TRIARCHIC PROGRAM
individuals posing as though they were romantically in-

are encouraged to apply these principles to their own infor- volved. For the second kind of photograph, the students task
mation processing to facilitate its automatization.
is to guess which of the two individuals is the other's super-
Students are then presented with several relatively
they can use visor. In each case, students are invited to try the task either
simple information processing tasks in which with or without reading about the nonverbal cues that
the principle to speed automatization of their functioning.
pairs facilitate these decisions.
The first task, Letter Comparison, involves comparing
A third task involves reading a vignette of an everyday
of letters and indicating whether they have the same name. situation and selecting a course of action to pursue in that
The second task, Visual Search, involves determining situation. One course of action stresses adapting to the en-
whether a target letter appears in a subsequent string of
vironment, one stresses shaping the environment, and one
letters. The third task, Digit-Symbol, is similar to a task that
stresses selecting another environment. Students are en-
appears on many intelligence tests. Students are presented
couraged to ask themselves certain questions to help decide
with an initial pairing of digits and symbolsfor example,
then presented with a set which course of action is most appropriate.
"A, 1, , 2, + 3, % 4." Students are A fourth kind of exercise involves the display of tacit
them as rapidly as
of 120 symbols and must match digits to knowledge. Students are asked to put themselves in the roles
possible. The fourth and last task is Complex Letter Scanning.
of two individuals, a business manager and a professor of
This task is a more complex version of the Visual Search task.
letters. psychology. Their task is to answer a series of questions the
Students are initially presented with one to four target
of those way a successful executive or psychologist would. The ques-
They must indicate, for each problem. whether any tions assess a person's knowledge of what it takes to get
letters appears in a two-dimensional array of letters. The
two-dimensional array is unsystematic. so that students must
ahead in a particular life course. The answer key provides
the responses made by experts.
scan their entire visual field in order to find the letters. The last kind of exercise involves a series of situations
calling for resolution of conflicts. Some of these situations
Part IV: The External World of the Individual: involve interpersonal conflicts, some involve organizational
Functions of Human Intelligence conflicts, and some involve international conflicts. The
contains just a students' task is to read each conflict and then rate the
Part IV of the training program contains
chapter includes suitability of each of a series of possible modes of conflict
single chapter on practical intelligence. The resolution for its appropriateness for resolving each of the
several kinds of material for the development of practical
given conflicts.
intellectual skills. The chapter closes with a description of the Janis-Mann
Chapter 8: Practical Intelligence. The chapter opens
with a defini- balance sheet technique, which is a decision-maldng aid that
with four motivating vignettes and continues is useful for people who need to make difficult decisions.
that operates on
tion of practical intelligence: intelligence The balance sheet takes into account favorable and un-
adaptation to,
real-world contexts through efforts to achieve favorable potential outcomes of a decision for both the
shaping of, and selection of real-world environments. It then
person making the decision and others and weighs these
proceeds to a discussion of alternative means that have been
There are then several outcomes in terms of their positivity or negativity, as well as
used to assess practical intelligence. in terms of their importance.
practical aspects of intel-
kinds of exercises to develop
behavioral checklist. Stu-
ligence. The first kind involves a
which each of a
dents rate on a scale of 1 to 9 the extent to Part V: Personality, Motivation, and Intelligence
behavior. The check-
set of behaviors characterizes their own Chapter 9: Why Intelligent People Fail (Too Often). This
be used to measure
list contains a set of behaviors that can final chapter discusses 20 impediments to the full realization
alike agree are
three factors that laypersons and experts of intelligence. Although these impediments are not, strictly
ability, ver-
central to intelligence: practical problem-solving speaking, intellectual, they interfere with the use of intel-
bal ability, and social competence. ligence, and hence are quite relevant to a course for training
of exercise involves
A second and quite different type intellectual skills. Each impediment is defined and discussed,
decoding nonverbal cues. Students are shown two kinds of and examples of each are given.
involved in
photographs: pictures of couples ostensibly
and pictures of pairs of workers, one
romantic relationships Teacher's Guide
For the first kind of
of whom is the other's supervisor.
photograph, the students' task is to guess which pictures The Teacher's Guide helps the teticher implement the
couples and which represent pans of triarchic program for training intellectual skills. It contains
represent genuine
83
Intelligence Applied
Developer: Robert I. Sternberg
Goal: To develop the intellectual skills of secondary and college-level students.
Sample skills: Using the metacomponents of intelligence (e.g.,defining nature of a problem, selecting steps needed to solve the problem,
monitoring solutions).
Using the perfotmance components of intelligence (e.g., inferring relations between stimuli, applying previously inferred
relations to new stimuli, comparing attributes of stimuli).
Using the knowledge-acquisition components of intelligence (e.g., deciding what inkmnation in a passage is relevant for
figuring out the meaning of a new word; putting cues together to form a definition).
Assumptions: Intelligence can be understood in terms of tal the internal world of the individual, (b) the external world of the individual,
and (c) the experience of the individual in the world).
Intended audience: Secondary and college-level students.
Process: Combines class discussion, written exercises, papers, projects, quizzes, group work.
Time: Two or three 40-minute periods per week for one school year.
Available from: Harcourt Brace iovanovich, College Division, 1250 Sixth Ave., San Diego, CA 92101. Telephone: 619-699-6238.
chapters that correspond to those in the student text and each dents can undertake in order to improve their understanding
chapter is divided into the following eight sections: and use of the content of the course.
Purpose of Chapter This section simply describes Suggested Readings. This annotated bibliography sug-
what the chapter seeks to accomplish. gests readings relevant to the topic of each chapter. These
Chapter Outline. This section outlines the chapter, readings are appropriate for both students and teachers. The
using two levels of headings. readings are important; a comprehensive course will go
Main Ideas. This section summarizes the main ideas beyond the main text to other related readings that reinforce
of the chapter and varies widely in length, according to the and elaborate on points made in the main (ext.
subject and function of the particular chapter. Suggested Time Allocation. This section suggests the
Questions for Class Discussion. These questions are amount of time that should be allocated to each chapter for
intended to help students better understand the material, both a year-long course and a semester course.
primarily by helping them apply the material in formulating
and evaluating answers to the questions themselves. * * *
Suggested Paper Topics. This section presents topics
for papers. It is strongly recommended that teachers require Intelligence Applied: Understandin,g and Increasing
at least several short papers during the term in order to Your Intellectual Skills provides a new and, I i,ope, exciting
stimulate thinking about the skills taught in the program. option for the development of intellectual skills in secondary
Supplementer), Activities. These are projects that stu- and college-level programs.
90
.1111111111114.
84
22
The Touchstones Project:
Discussion Classes for
Students of All Abilities
Geoffrey J. Comber, Nicholas Maistrellis, and Howard Zeiderman
Communication is a process of sharing experience till sion is open-ended, and students often continue it in cor-
disposition ridors and in the cafeteria. Although the text remains central,
it becomes a common possession. It modifies the
students may offer personal experiences when these il-
of both parties who partake in it.
John Dewey luminate some aspect of the text. In this way, students learn
to take texts seriously because they recognize the continuity
between their work in school and their outside experiences.
prouchstones discussion classes are implemented as a
They also develop the ability to make matters that are private
required weekly class. The class lasts 30-45 minutes
and personal available and useful to others.
and is for students of all ability and skill levels from
The project is implemented in urban, rural, and subur-
grades 6-12. The skills of listening, cooperating, question- ban areas throughout the country, and more than 80,000
ing,und thinking for oneself, which emerge in the students are now involved. They range from the highly gifted
Touchstones discussion format. transfer readily to regular
reflec- to special-education and at-risk students. Class sizes are
classes. In addition, motivated students become more 25-30 students, though in some areas the protect has been
tive, and passive students become motivated. Touchstones used in classes of 38 students. Private and parochial schools
from one of the four
discussion groups always use a selection
and readable as well as public schools use the project.
Touchstones volumes. The selections are short The major change for middle and high school students
required,
and require no preparation. If preparation were who regularly participate in discussions occurs in their dis-
would be block-
those students not in the habit of preparing position to learn. Students become less passive and begin to
of the project is
ed from participation. Yet a central purpose take responsibility for their own learning, often rethinking
to change such behavior. their perceptions of their academic strengths and weak-
Participants sit in a circle, the teacher among them. The
of infor- nesses. In particular. students' fears about all sublect areas,
teacher is the discussion leader but not the source including mathematics and science, often diminish. Perhaps
mation or the authority on content. All participants must take
most important, the diversity of students' abilities, skills, and
responsibility for the success of the activity. The text is read
nonreaders can talents, which often leads to a rigid hierarchy within the
aloud and silently, so that both readers and student population, leads instead to respect for differences.
participate. from the teacher. The ways in which different student groups tointly par-
The discussion begins with a question ticipate in Touchstones discussions can be appreciated by
necessarily the
The question opens discussion but is not examining the two crucial elements of such classes: the text
lasts until the bell
theme of the discussion. The discussion
and the teacher-leader,
rings. There is no closure, summary, or conclusion; discus-
85 CI
11
The Discussion Texts Touchstones discussions enables lower-functioning students

A number of the texts are selections from classic works, to realize that their realm of expertisetheir own ex-
but the project does not seek traditional forms of intellectual perienceis appropriate in an academic setting. Higher-per-
enrichment, such as accumulated facts. Rather, the discus- forming students need encouragement and practice in
sions develop particular skills that will enable all students to situations where definite answers are not available and
work more effectively in their regular classesthe ability, for where candor, rather than subtlety of interpretation, is re-
example, to teach oneself, to cooperate with others of dif- quired. But should the text be given too much prominence
ferent backgrounds and abilities, and to feel comfortable and in the beginning, the higher-performing students will
be able to think in situations of great uncertainty. dominate the class as usual, and the discussion group will
For the first year of the project, the texts are short (1 to not achieve its purpose.
11/2 pages), do not require preparation, and are characterized This opportunity for students to present their own ex-
by a blend of familiarity and strangeness. These stipulations periences should not be viewed as just an opportunity: it
downplay the role of intellectual mastery, which is both the must be seen as a necessitvin the first year or so of the project,
virtue and the vice of the higher-functioning student, and which is when students learn how to cooperate with one
make it possible for all students to begin the discussion on another and depend less on the teacher as an authority. In
an equal footing. Touchstones classes, the emerging independence of young
Whether the text is Homer's Iliad. Bacon's essay "About people becomes a strength rather than a weakness.
Revenge," or Newton's Principia, all the works in Volume I In order to reconnect lower-performing students with
defy the familiar classifications that stronger students so academic enterprises later, their experiences must be deper-
easily grasp and so often use to advantage. The use of sonalized and shared with others v.ho will comment on and
Euclid's definitions of geometry illustrates how the text can analyze the presuppositions involved. For example, in
set the stage for true discussion. This selection is recognizab- Volume I there is an excerpt from Francis Bacon's essay
ly mathematical; thus, it invites participation from the more "About Revenge." Students usually have no lack of ex-
able mathematical students. Yet it is radically different from perience with revenge and generally, the less-skilled stu-
textbook mathematics; thus, it affords room for the less- dents are much more forthcoming about their thoughts,
skilled students to join the discussion. feelings, experiences, and attitudes on this subject than the
As the group begins its work, the text itself plays a academically oriented students. Bacon's essay, while touch-
subordinate role; it is used to evoke student responses. The ing on an attitude familiar to our culture, does so with quite
classics contain concepts and structures that are embedded unusual forms of reasoning, partially because it is noncon-
in many of our own experiences today, and their use in temporary. It is this aspect of the workthe blend of the
The Touchstones Projed
Developers: G. Comber, H. Zeiderman, and N. Maistrell is
Goals: To create dispositions to learn in students and a willingness to take responsibility for their own education.
Sample skills! Teaching oneself, active listening, intellectual cooperation, thinking in contexts where models and paradigms are inapplic-
able, questioning, inferring, evaluating evidence, verbal skills.
Assumptions: All students have strengths and weaknesses that a discussion format can engage.
A properly conceived discussion format enables students to use the strengths of others first to compensate for and then to
modify their own weaknesses.
Skills developed in the discussion format translate readily to improvements in regularly taught classes.
Intended audience: Students of all abilities and levels of skills, grades 6-12.
Process: A specially prepared, noncontemporary text from one of the Touchstones volumes is read aloud at the start of class. Students
first work in groups of four to five students to devise questions and approaches to the reading. The groups are then brought
together into a large discussion circle where either a teacher or student initiates discussion by asking a question. The teacher
is the discussion leader and not a source of information.
Time: One 30- to 45-minute session per week.
Available from: The Touchstones Project, 6 N. Cherry Grove Ave., Annapolis, MD 21401. Telephone: 301-263-2121.
86
92
THE TOUCHSTONES PROJECT
In the first few weeks of implementation, "good" stu-

familiar and the strange ihat invites the participation of the
dents often encounter difficulty. They may speak and listen
more skilled students, who push the discussion more toward
well to teachers but have little skill in speaking and listening
the text.
to other students. And they may be uncomfortable becaust
In Touchstones discussions, high-performing students
they are not receiving approval for their comments from the
learn to be more teflective and less dependent on teacher
approval. For these students, the result of discussing texts is traditional authority.
For poor students, once they realize that the teacher's
an increased thoughtfulness about, and understanding of,
role has changed, quite the opposite occurs. Some of their
what they have previously taken for granted. Less-skilled
students, by experiencing the recognition of their classmates
defects as studentstheir inability or unwillingness to
depend on the teachernow become strengths. They often
and teachers, gain confidence in their ability to contribute to
feel comfortable addressing remarks to other students and
and learn from academic activities.
Thr strengths of each groupthe experiential and the listening to them; in fact, their speaking and listening skills
intellectualare equally necessary for true discussion, and are frequently remarkable. Indeed, the class usually begins
the skills of one group enable the other to overcome its to become a discussion group because the "problem" stu-
characteristic weakness and lack of skill. But for this to occur. dents possess discussion sidlls.
The content of their comments, however, is usually
the texts must eventually be employed as texts. If they are
bereft of application to subfect matter. This is not to say that
used as examples of problems, as cultural enrichment, or
they talk about trivial issues; in fact, much of what they talk
merely as ways to explore a concept or a theme, then,
about is thoughtful and serious. Rather, they concentrate on
although certain gains will be made, they will not be the skills
the concerns of the streets and playgroundspower, honor,
that are most desirable in a discussion format.
friendship, love, desire.
Once the discussion group begins to take form, the task
The Teacher-Leader of the teacher-leader is to reengage the generally high-per-
forming students in the discussion. One way to do this is to
In Touchstones discussions, the teacher is neither a
deliberately move away front the reports of direct experience
source of information nor a source of clarification. On the
other hand, the teacher never becomes merely a passive and back toward the text. Better students tend to respect
what is written in texts. At this stage, a teacher can reengage
observer. Teacher-leaders must constantly make decisions
them with references to the text, questions about meaning,
about whether to intervene, whether to move the discussion
closer to or funher away from the text, how to encourage or remarks suggesting a connection between a student's
experience and something in the text that everyone has read.
silent students to speak, and how to get talkative students to
This action is a strategic move to widen participation in
listen. Teachers can learn these skills by participating in a
the discussion group. In making this move toward the text,
training workshop, watching a video training tape, and using
the teacher must not allow the better students to direct their
and reading the Guide for Texhing Discussions Using
Touchstones Volume 1.
remarks to the teacher or to dominate the discussion. Once
these students are reengaged, other goals will give the group
Ultimately, as students become more skilled, they will
the latitude to depart from the text again.
assume most of these tasks themselves. In fact, the long-
motivate students to take
range goals of the project are to
responsibility for their education and to encourage them to Toward a Community of Learners
cooperate with others during learning.
As all the students in class begin to listen to and speak
The main barriers to achieving these goals are the habits
built up in with one another, the distinction between textual and non-
and expectations that have been continually textual discussions starts to atrophy. Discussions center on
school: that teachers are the only source of knowledge and
matters of real concern to all students, yet these discussions
that students are passive recipients. Students respond in one
of two ways to this traditional incidental training. They either
are increasingly mediated by a text. For low-performing
students, this means that a text and a formal classroom
accept it and become "good" students whose learning is
activity become less alien to their interests. The barrier be-
mediated by. and dependent on, the teacher, or they reject it
tween in-school and outside-of-school begins to break
and become "unmotivated" students or "behavioral down, and frequently their experiences in the Touchstones
problems." In Touchstones classes, students are able to
modify these role extremes, but they find they need one cla&ses act as a bridge for their reentry into their regular
classes as more motivated members. For the high-paforming
another's strengths to do so.
87
students, participation in Touchstones discussions often more sensitive to the spoken and written word.
leads to greater thoughtfulness about what they are learning For all students in Touchstones classes, the gains are
and less reticence about acknowledging mistakes and con- both intellectual and social. And these outcomes are increas-
fusion. Both groups of students become less adversarial ingly important in a society where the scars of racial and
toward teachers and each other; they also ask more relevant sexual discrimination may be replaced by !he equally in-
questions in regular classes. In addition, and perhaps most sidious wounds of discrimination based on educational
important, all students learn how to become active listeners, achievement.
94
88
23
Creative Learning
and Problem Solving
Scott G. Isaksen and Donald J. Treffinger
Everyday life at school, home or on any job presents Isaksen 1987). CPS methods and techniques can Fe used in
the classroom, as elsewhere, to increase the effectiveness
many opportunities for problem solving. Too often,
peopleadults as well as youngstersthink of a with which students use their creativity to generate many
varied and unusual ideas, and their critical thinking to make
"problem" only as something that's wrong, an unpleasant or
difficult concern or a troublesome situation that needs "fixing better choices and decisions.
The Creative Learning Model provides a conceptual
up." Our definition is much broader and more inclusive: A
framework for organizing our approach to instruction in
problem is any situation in which you need and want new
thinking skills and problem solving. Two fundamental prin-
ideas and a plan to put those ideas into action. Creative
ciples, along with the CPS model, Figure 2, provide the
Learning and Problem Solving is an approach that students,
dispositions and structure supporting the specific problem-
teacners, and administrators can learn and apply in dealing
solving techniques and strategies.
with any Jf these problems. It uses a set of "tools" or strategies
that aia be applied deliberately, using creative thinking or
imagination as well as critical thinking or judgment in better Two FuncLimental Principles
harmony for greater success.
Two important principles serve as the foundation for
creative learning and problem solving:
Becoming a Better Problem Solver Deferred Judgment. When students attempt to use
their creative imagination to generate many ideas, it is impor-
To increase creative productivity, we follow a three-
involves learn- tant that they, and their teacher, defer Or suspend judgment
level approach (Treffinger 1988). Level One or evaluation of their ideas in order co give themselves
ing many "tools" or techniques for creative thinking permission to let flow as many ideas as possible. Evaluation
(analyzing,
(generating many ideas) and critical thinking in the form of praise or criticism can inhibit or stifle produc-
refining, and evaluating). Level Two involves learning how
Creative Prob- tivity during the idea generation process. Criticism of ideas
to incorporate those "tools" into a systematic can lead to defensiveness, giving up, or "shutting down" the
lem Solving (CPS) process, which we based on more than production of new possibilities. Even praise can have a
(Isaksen and
three decades of research and development negative effect by leading to premature closure ("We like that
Treffinger 1985). Level Three provides opportunities to apply
three levels are idea, so why think of any more?") or unnecessarily narrowing
CPS to real problems and challenges. These
or limiting the search for ideas. Whenever students are in a
illustrated in Figure 1. "brainstorming" mode in which the goal is to produce many
CPS has been studied carefully in a number of ex- varied or unusual ideas, they need to let all ideas flow freely,
psychological
perimental investigations by educational and to stretch their thoughts to produce some novel or unusual
researchers, and its effectiveness has been evaluated in prac-
studies, we know that ideas, and to be alert for opportunities to combine ideas or
tice by many organizations. From these make new connections.
solvers (Treffinger 1986;
people can become better problem
89
;:.;
FIGURE 1
Creative Learning Model
Begin with direct instruction in thinking "tools,"

I Level Orint: then incorporate those thinking skills into
existing course content.
Learn and Use
Basic Thinking Examples of Level I Skills: Brainstorming, Attribute
Listing, Idea Checklists, "What if... " or "Just suppose"
"Tools" Questions, Forced Relationships, Morphological
Analysis, Analogies, Judging Relevant Data, Making
Inferences, Comparing/Contrasting, Evaluating
Statements or Conclusions... ... [and many more]
Students need to learn the tools; direct instruction
is both appropriate and necessary at Level One!
Continue by providing opportunities for

I Level Two: I students to learn and practice systematic steps
Learn and or processes for effectimproblem solving.
Practice A Level Two uses and extends the usefulness of the
Systematic "tools" from Level One, providing a structure or
stem for their application in solving problems/
P/S Process Examples: Case Studies, Simulations, Role Playing or
Socio-drama, Future Study Scenarios, Group Work
on (contrived) Practice Problems...
Increased competence and commitment of students

calls for varied use of appropriate Leadership Styles.
The goals of instruction or training in thinking

I Level Three: I skills lead towards effectiveness in dealing with
Working With real problems and challenges, not just doing
"exercises" and "activities."
Real Problems
In a "Real" problem, we need and want new ideas.
They are characterized by strong "ownership" or
investment. Examples include: personal or group
concerns; community needs or issues; new products,
programs, or actions; individual/organizational
needs or opportunities; special projects...
In working with others at this stage, you need to

be able to serve as a Facilitator.
© 1988, Center for Creative Learning

CREATIVE LEARNING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
FIGURE 2
Creative Problem Solving

Three Main Components and Six Specific Stages
1
Component I: Understanding the Problem
0: Seeking opportunities for problem solving.
Mess.
Finding
C: Establishing a broad, general goal for problem solving.
D: Examining many details, looking at the Mess from

many viewpoints.
Data.
Finding
C: Determining the most important data, to guide
problem development.
D: Considering many possible problem statements.

Problem.
Finding C: Constructing or selecting a specific problem statement
(stating the challenge).
Lamm. mom. Immo
Component II: Generating Ideas
Idea. D: Producing many, varied, and unusual ideas.

Finding C: Identifying promising possibilities
alternatives or options having interesting potentials.
Component III: Planning for Action

D: Developing criteria for analyzing and refining
Solution. promising possibilities.
Finding
C: Choosing criteria, and applying them to select,
strengthen, and support promising solutions.
I/ Considering possible sources of Assistance/Resistance

Acceptance- and possible actions for implementation.
Finding
C: Formulating a specific Plan of Action.
0 1987 Scott G. leakeen & Donaki J. Treffinger
I --
91
Affirmative judr, went Once students have generated Data-Finding. Any "Messy" situation may i.iesent
many ideas, they must be able to analyze them carefully and many possible problem-solving opportunities, not just one,
refine them. Examining ideas critically is not just a matter of If you're a sey lent, for example, "earning better grades"
criticizing them or finding out what's wrong with each one. might involve changing your study habits, convincing your
Effective idea development and decision making comes from teachers that your attitude has improved, attending class
being able to examine possibilities thoroughly but construc- more often, finding a quiet place to study each day, cutting
tively. Students need to deliberately consider the advantages, back on your social life, or many other specific issues.
limitations, and potentials of new ideas, and use specific Data-Finding provides students with methods for looking
methods to analyze their ideas from several perspectives. more closely at a Mess, to understand better what aspects of
They need to look for ways to get the most out of ideas, rather that Mess are really the major challenges or directions to
than searching only for "the one perfect idea," investigate. Data-Finding helps students determine what
parts of the Mess represent the principal areas of opportunity,
or to locate specific obstacles or concerns, by considering
CPS: Methods and Techniques for key questions about the Mess (for instance, Who? What?
Deliberate Problem Solving When? Where? Why? and How) and by investigating not
only the "facts" about the situation, but the students' feelings,
The Creative Problem Solving model includes three
impressions, attitudes, and questions as well. The major
components: Getting the Problem Ready, Generating Ideas,
purpose of Data-Finding is to establish a clearer, sharper, or
and Planning for Action.
more refined focus for developing a specific problem state-
ment from the Mess.
Getting the Problem Ready .Probletn-Rnding. During this stage, students seek a
Most people are in such a hurry to solve a problem that
specific question to use in guiding and directing their prob-
lem-solving efforts. Too often people express problems in
they frequently overlook the importance of asking the right
negative, depressing ways. (wThe problem is . . I have too
questions to begin with. As a result, it is not uncommon for
many chores and not enough time to study.") It is more
a group to invest a great deal of time and energy in trying to
effective to state the problem in ways that invite the develop-
solve a problem, only to discover that they haven't succeeded
ment of ideas. To do so, students might begin their problem
because they have been working on the wrong question! It
statements with an "invitational stem," such as "In what ways
doesn't do much good to brainstorm 50 or 100 possibilities
might I . ?" or "How might we . . ?" A good problem
if they are all concerned with a question that no one really
statement is also concise, expressing the major focus of the
wanted to ask. We need to keep in mind that, as Albert
Mess, and free of any criteria that might inhibit the flow of
Einstein once said, "a problem well-stated is more than half
ideas.
solved." Thus, the first component of CPS (which involves
Beginning with the Mess of "earning better grades," for
three of the six specific "stages" in the CPS process) serves
example, a student might discover in Data-Finding a major
the major goal of helping to carefully define the real problem
area of concern: that her time is divided among too many
to be solved. activities and, as a result, her study time is limited. Her
The three CPS "stages" that help students define and
Problem-Finding efforts might include such specific problem
focus a problem are: statements as, "How might I schedule my time better?" or
Mess-Finding. Problem solving does not usually begin
"How might I expand my study time?" or even "How might I
with a well-defined, carefully prepared statement of the
problem. Instead, most of us usually start by struggling with work more study time into my busy schedule?"
When students have progressed from a broad, general
a very broad, ill-defined challenge or concern, which we call
Mess to a focused, invitingly worded problem statement,
a "Mess." During the Mess-Finding stage, the problem solver they will be ready to move along to the second major com-
searches for or tries to recognize many possible broad op-
ponent of CPS.
portunities, needs, or concerns that might become the
primary focus or goals of' the CPS effort and then determines
which of those "Messes" warrants immediate attention Mess Generating Ideas
statements have three general characteristics: they are broad, This component involves using the final problem state-
brief, and beneficial. That is, they are expressed in general
ment art was selected (or constructed) at the close of Prob-
terms (e.g., "We want to reach ra re new customers," or "I'd
lem-Finding as the starting point for searching for new ideas
like to earn better grades"). They are worded concisely, in a and possibilities. The specific CPS stage in this component is
"headline" format, and focus on positive results or goals.
92
CREATIVE LEARNING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
Creative Learning and Problem Solving
Developer: Scott G. Isaksen and Donald I. Treffinger (based on the work of Osborn, Parnes, No lier, and others)
Goal: Development of effective strategies for problem solving, integrating both creative and critical thinking.
Sample skills Three levels (learning basic "tools," learning and practicing a systematic problem-solving process, and dealing with real
problems and challenges).
Three components in problem solving: understanding the problem, generating ideas, and planning for action.
Six specific stages within these components (Mess-F I nding, Data-Finding, Problem-Finding, Idea-Finding, Solution-Finding,
and Acceptance-Finding).
Assumptinns: Creative productivity is natural for all people and important to personal and vocational success. All learners are capable of
using creative and critical thinking to solve problems productively. All people can improve their creative productivity through
deliberate means.
Intended audience: Young children through adults.
Process: Students are taught guidelines and thinking "tools" or techniques for generating and analyzing ideas. Next, these tools are
applied as part of a systema%:r process for dealing with open-ended or Ill-structured challenges, and the students are guided
in applying that process in many structured situations. Finally, students work autonomously (independently or in groups) to
identify and deal effectively with real problems and challenges.
Time: Varies, Extensive research supports the effectiveness of the program from several hours of training through extended training
of a year or more.
Sources: Buffalo State College, Center for Studies in Creativity, Chase Hall, 1300 Elmwood, Buffalo NY 14222,
Telephone: 716-878-6223. FAX: 716-878-4040,
Center for Creative Learning, 4152 Independence Court, Suite C-7, Sarasota, FL 34234, Telephone: 813-351-8862.
FAX: 813-351-9061.
Idea-Finding. Idea-Finding invites students to generate ideas they focus on taking interesting or intriguing possibilities and
that might become parts of an effective solution. Some of the improving them, shaping them into solutions for the Mess.
ideas they generate may be adaptivethat is, extensions, This might involve screening the ideas, setting priorities
modifications, or enhancements of existing ideas or prac- among them, selecting the ideas that are most appealing, and
tices, taking what they're already doing and building on it to strengthening attractive possibilities to maximize the
make it more effective. Other ideas may be more innovative, likelihood of success.
representing new possibilities, a way of doing something Acceptance-Finding. No matter how good a possible
differently than it's been done before. Both types of ideas can solution might be, the chances are that successful implemen-
lead to effective solutions; neither should be overlooked. tation will depend on the cooperation and support (or per-
The more possibilities students can find, the more likely that haps the lack of opposition) of other people. A successful
at least some of them will be useful, Problem solvers should solution also requires attention to many other concerns:
be flexible enough to think about new "angles" or directions timing or scheduling, materials, and places. In Acceptance-
and to try to generate some ideas that are unique or unusual. Finding, the student's task is to consider many possible
"assisters," and how they can best be used to implement the
solution, as well as many possible "resisters," and how they
Planning for Action might be avoided or overcome. Finally, students need to
Students often believe that problem solving is finished develop a specific Plan of Action for carrying out the solution.
when they have generated some new and interesting ideas.
Unfortunately, they may discover that there is quite a dif-
ference between a good idea and a useful idea, The third REFERENCES
component of CPS, Planning for Action, is concerned with 1saksen, S. G. (1987). Frontiers of °wavily Research. Buffalo, N.Y.:
how to give good ideas the best possible chance to become Bearly Limited.
lsaksen, S. G., and D.J.Treffinger. (1985). Creative Ptvbletn Solving:
useful solutions for the problem. In this component, there
The Basic Course. Buffalo, N.Y.: Beady Limited.
are two specific CPS stages. Treffinger, D. J. (1986). "Research on Creativity," Gifted Child
Solution-Finding. During this stage, students try to Quarterly 30: 15-19.
analyze and refine the ideas that seemed most promising Treffinger, D. J. (May-June 1988). "A Model for Creative Learning:
during the Idea-Finding stage. With specific criteria in mind, 1988 Update." Creative Learning 7bday 2, 3: 4-6.
93
99
24
Thinking, Reading,
and Writing
Sydney llig Tyler
Everyone can think, This attribute, common to all Children may not walk through the door able to print
human beings but distinct and unique within each, their names, but they can tell you a story ancLwatch you write
means that all children come to school ready to invent, it down. For example, the concept of pronouns may be
explore, create, imagine, and work innovatively across all murky at best, but the design of a snow-clearing machine can
learning areas. For this reason, the learning environment that capture the interest of a nonreading 7-year-old, and seeing
her explanations printed on paper, as in Figure 1, will en-
our students experience upon arrival and from then on
should mirror and support this readiness. Thinking should courage far more interest in words than all the pre-primers
ever printed,
be encouraged and taught in order to enrich students' writ-
ing, innovative expression, and oral language abilities,
FIGURE 1
mactoe sucics up sliow

Design a machine to clear away snow. 64.46
wi o'vr oncl +be ShovJ
14 41091$ +0 wa+er
reft +tte
avid rolls coh
drives of
Nictilne, -61;s Ybiochine
Ate15,
Source: Stretch ThinkaD Program One

Kindergarten/Grade One Copyright © Sydney Billig Tyler
Teacher Mrs. Lee H.T. Argabrite. Ithaca, New York.
41.1,,_......11010.6111,11.,
94 10
ThINKING, READING, AND WRITING
To go a bit further, arriving ready to learn and being Um a thinking program and give each child an active,
given the opportunity to learn can be two quite different participatory opportunity to hunt for, identify, and count
experiences, but such disparities do not need to be per- topic areas, which couple these skills with language develop-
petuated. By the simple expedient, for example, of teaching ment.
primary numeral recognition, formation, and amount What about reading? How we go about teaching reading
equivalencies as whole-group writing and thinking lessons, can be one of our problems. Young children naturally create,
with color recognition as an added bonus, you can turn invent, play with pencils and crayons, and try to form pic-
tiresome practice sheets into fun, time-saving, action lessons. tures and words to express their ideas. Instead of teaching
Here are two examples: reading by helping students develop rich variations in their
Hand each child a piece of writing paper and a box of own thoughts, observations, and life experiences, which
crayons. Ask the class to listen as you write in green chalk, means supporting and assisting them in the cohesive
Four green circles." Count the circles and read development of these creative images and initial practicesa
"4 00 00
the words together. Then ask the class to copy it, using a method that not so incidentalltremoves comprehension
green crayon, while you walk around the room. Help each problems--we force children into artificial schemes and the
child work to the best of his or her ability. Presto! Your stilted ideas of others. When you invent or create and then
students have learned the concepts of "green," "4/four," and explain something, irrespective of the particular language in
"circles," and practiced reading and forming lettersall in which ideas are expressed, you by definition understand. If
less than ten minutes with no comprehension problems. Do you did not, you would not have drawn or created it in the
this with appropriate variations for 20 minutes a day until first place. All people, including:children, start from what
colors, numerals, and so on are mastered. Figure 2 shows they know.
another example of this kind of activity. Content expansion and process skills (factor considera-
tion, decision making, etc.) need attention too, however. A
descriptive "this is my house" activity done once or twice is
fine, but without additional detail it loses kinithing as a
content base for developing language and thinking abilities.
FIGURE 2
Instead, tell students something like "Today I would like you
to show me how you would put a giraffe into a helicopter,
Put a purple circle and a puppy into one picture. so you can take it to the zoo" (Tyler 1982). Figure 3 shows
Explain or tell a story about your picture.
one student's response to this activity. And Figure 4 shows a
similar activity.
Drawing, writing, discussing, and imaginative invention
are brought together in a thinking lesson. The whole class
has an opportunity to talk about and push around an inter-
esting idea and then participate in an interactive drawing
session, all the while having a marvelous time.
A discussion of the old food in grocery stores (Tyler
1983), during which the alternatives, possibilities, and
choices (process skills) would be explored before a decision
(process skill) is made, would follow a similar pattern. Once
the issue has been explored with the whole class, students
would be asked to write, with help as required, a short
description of how they would deal with the old food,
followed by the design of a system for transporting food to
hungry people.
What is it that everyone is enjoying? First, each child's
thinking forms the base for a picture and story or explana-
Cabrillo, USD, California Source: Young ThinknA Program Two tion. Experientially, this makes a powerful, positive state-
Kindergarten
Copyright 0 Sydney BillIg Tyler ment about the value of ideas, work efforts, and abilities.
Second, even very young children have the importance of
thinking impressed upon them:
Copyright C 1990 by Sydney Billig Tyler.

FIGURE 3
Draw a picture to show

how you would put a
giraffe into a helicopter,
so you can take it to the zoo.
I
t
foga sismi(P3 op is So 1440,4e. tia" is 4, 4,44

la 04 net of foe lothapow *P.4 oinaa Polls kes
64.A 401,43k ilojo la a trail bosh 414 411.6pir 0.
tor W. 4 01 gym 114 *dm is kw.. Mash%
so 41.4 cio Pt 44 f 4.
Source: Just Think® Program Five
Copyright C Sydney Billig Tyler
"Your work's a bit messy. Did you stop to tbink about what you
vivre doing?"
"You should think about what might happen before you say mean FIGURE 4
things to your friend." ,
Thinking is seen, in consequence, as an important and Put a wolf, soap, and wave into one picture. Explain or tell a
grown-up activity. Third, and finally, in this context all stu- story about your picture. Be sure that all three dissimilar
dents can participate, whether they read grade-level basal elements are related to each other in some kind of logical way,
,
texts or excel on the spelling team. This tells children that however imaginary.
everyone's thinking is valued by the teacher.
Experiential learning also far outweighs other activity
modes in developmental terms. This means, as amply proven
by medical research, that what is learned in this mode speeds
up the acquisition of skill and knowledge. Children who
learn experientially learn more in less time than children
plodding through basal readers and the companion seatwork
assignments. Why, at the simplest level, use less efficient
methods and modes when happier, more exciting, more
interesting, and more efficient ones lie close at hand?
Creating your own books, writing your own stories,
explaining your ideas, and discussing your thoughts about
an issue, problem, or situation are experiential learning
activities. Movies, workbooks, basal texts, and television are
v..10(c- 91ipa4 Anci Crvib
not, Experiential means that you do something and that you
l'Ativol \note.. All het$ 4t4r ot 14 4.1
r
learn as a result of the action. Hot is not hot until you
experience it. 40,5e.ther. 4e 400 ts t2.4r ci
Finally, much has been made of the work and time e lPrzw.4A and waShed c5(4" 44ele
required for the teaching of writing and, by extension, think- MIA I -the VAke5' Source: Just Think® Program Five
ing. No one trumpets the fun, the joy, the excitement, the Copyright 0 Sydney Billig TYler
THINKING, READING, AND WRITING
FIGURE 5
Design a factory to clean coconuts, package the coconut meat, and put the coconut milk into cartons or jars.
Label/explain each part. .044f geirit;p414, 64"
Teacher: Mrs. Lee H. T. Argabrite. Ithaca, New York.

Process Skill: INPUT = CONVERSION si EXPORT/OUTPUT PROCESS
eiKsvt, raprolLy
Note: This pnxess underlies all productive work, whether it
Source: Just Think® Program Five
be a think tank and ideas or a production factory, as shown here.
Copyright C Sydney Bi Big Tyler
Each program includes lessons specifically designed to teach students this process.
Young Thingem, lust Think®, and Stretch Think® Programs
Developer: Sydney Billing Tyler
Goal; Teaching thinking, Pre-school through Grade 8.
Sample skills: Process skills, problem and issue analysis, synthesis, oral and written language development.
Intended audience: Teachers and parents.
Process: Curriculum to teach thinking. Each program is a reusable, year-long curriculum, which includes everything the teacher needs
for implementation,
Time: 30 to 90 minutes per week.
Source;
Thomas Geale Publications, Inc., P.O. Box 370540, Montara, CA 94037, Telephone: 415-728-5219
beauty, and the professional rewards inherent to this way of luminous learning environment do exist. Figure 5 shows the
working. The Gesell Institute talks about the internal results of one teacher's creativity. All you need is paper,
development pace of each person, which differs from age to writing implements, a minimal lesson outline, and your own
age and from child to child. If you listen to, watch for, and instructional talents.
work with this natural clock, you maximize each student's
learning rate. Force-feeding runs counter to every natural REFERENCES
growth and learning principle. This is no different in a Tyler, S. B. (1984). Stretch Think® Progrum TWO. Montara,
classroom than in a nursery, and it means that learning Thomas Geale Publications,
programs that are convergent with the natural pace of Tyler, S. B. (1983). Just Think® Program Moe. Montara, Calif.:
childhood will enjoy far greater success rates. Thomas Geale Publications.
Tyler, S. B. (1982). Just Think® Program Three. Montara, Calif.:
Think about it! War to maximize learning and create a Thomas Geale Publications,
...101.10 immodY11Maiet.,
.1.
97 .103
25
The Thinking to Learn Series
Educational Testing Service
Strategies was developed under the following assump-

At ETS, the focus will be on new assessments that
promote the improvement of learning and of educational tions:
opportunities. These changes are not dreams. They are in- Thinking skills are basic.
itiatives already begun that will yield significant resue7 in
Thinking skills are best taught in the context of regular
content instruction.
the 1990s.
Gregory R. Anrig, President, Professional development should be locally control-
EducationgTesting Service, March 1, 1990 led.
Learning is experiential.
The belief that students will learn thinking skills by
The results of a variety of educational assessments in
virtue of regular content instruction has led to two miscon-
the past decade indicate that students in the United ceptions: that not all students are capable of good thinking
States possess limited skills in thinking and reasoning. and that thinking skills do not lend themselves to instruction.
Neither is true. All students are capable of careful, sound
This condition restricts their ability as individuals to make
informed decisions and take full advantage of their oppor- thinking, and thinking skills do lend themselves to instruc-
tunities in a free nation. It also threatens the position of the tion.
Strategies is designed for students of all ability levels and
United States in the world politically, economically, and
in all disciplines. It is intended to enable participants to
technologically. incorporate the teaching of thinking skills into any cur-
The Thinking to LearnTM series ca products and services
riculum and to pass their new expertise on to their colleagues
from Educational Testing Service is intended to help in their own schools and districts. As a part of the program.
educators address this problem. The series has a dual focus:
materials participants reflect on their own thinking processes and
staff development for educators and instructional
engage in intensive activities involving the very thinking
which incorporate thinking skills with instruction in a
skills to be taught to their students.
specific subject area.
Strategies consists of two courses. "The Thinking
Framework" teaches thinking skills and methods for integrat-
Part I: Staff Development ing these skills into regular classroom instruction. Par-
Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking AcrOss the
ticipants return to their classrooms at the conclusion of the
course with the newly learned concepts and redesigned
Curriculum is a two-phase staff development program that
with lesson plans. Six to nine months later, these same people
aims to provide secondary-level teachers (grades 7-12)
the teaching of thinking return for the second phase of the program, in which they
a variety of methods for integrating acquire the knowledge and skills to effectively teach "The
skills into subject area instruction. It is available both at ETS
Thinking Framework" to their colleagues and to provide
offices and as an inservice program.
ongoing suppon and follow-up as needed. If participants do
not have teaching responsibilities, it is recommended that
they "borrow" a class after the first course to gain firsthand
Copyright © 1990 by Educational Testing Service, Thinking to
LeamTM and Inside StoryTh4 are trademarks of Educational Testing
Service.
98 104
experience with student responses to the thinking skills Phase two, which is designed to equip participants to
before returning for the second course. teach "Thu Thinking Framework" to their colleagues, con-
"The Thinking Framework" is composed of eight three- sists of the following aspects:
hour moclules on six major clusters of thinking skills, which ',Detailed examination of eacb module. Participants
review the overall structure and core activity of each module,
were chosen for applicability to school curriculums:
Introduction to Thinking Skills discuss misunderstandings experienced by teachers, and
Organizing Information: Classification examine new ways of presenting the kleas.
Concept Formation *.Presentation skills. ParticIpants learn how to present
Representing Related Concepts information and lead discussions effectively, and to incor-
Finding Patterns, Making Inferences porate a variety of approaches in engaging participants in the
Formulating and Testing Hypotheses thinking skills included in the course.
Understanding and Constructing Meaning Workshop and staff devekpment design. Participants
Presentations and Summary. . learn how to structure a staff development program and how
This design enables school districts to offer the course to best fit "The Thinking Framework" into the needs of their
in a variety of configurations to fit its particular needs. For particular school or district.
example, the course might be taught one evening a week for Institutionalization ofcbang*Patticipants learn how
eight weeks or one day a week for four weeks (two modules to implement a successful, long-term staff development pro-
per day). It might also be offered as part of a summer institute gram and provide effective follow-up, support, and peer
or a continuing education program, perhaps even for univer- coaching.
sity credit.
Participants receive background material, selected read- Part 11: Instructional Units
ings, and sample lessons that illustrate different thinking
skills. Each module cuts across three major concernscur- EIS has several research and development projects un-
riculum, instruction, and assessmentand is divided into derway whose focus is student learning. To varying degrees,
these projects incorporate thinking skills, computer technol-
four parts:
An extended activity that illustrates the skill, challen- ogy, and assessments of student progress with instructional
relevance. Among these piojects is Inside Story: Dateline
ges the thinking of participants as adults, and shows the
range and power of the skill. &vizi!, which is a three-week instructional unit for 6th and
Group collaboration to meet the challenges posed by 7th graders that incorporates thinking skills with the lan-
the activity and discussion of the developmental, environ- guage arts.
mental, and instructional aspects of the skill. With Inside Story: Dateline Brazil, s,tudents learn to
Individual reflection by way of participant journals on model strategies important to critical thinkc.rs by adopting
the activity and ways of integrating the skill into their class- the role of investigative reporter. They engage in interactive
computerized activities, as well as supplemental classroom
room teaching.
Transfer to content teaching in which participants activities, to develop critical thinking skills, knowledge of a
work with others from their discipline to redesign their lesson particular genre of literaturemythology--and skills in
plans to integrate instruction of thinking skills with their reading, writing, and oral communication. Teachers gain
subject area curriculum. assessment information to guide further instruction of their
Throughout the course, participants identify the ele- students as needed.
Inside Stoty: Dateline Bnazil is based on an African-
ments of a thinking classroom and use various instructional
Brazilian myth that explains fertility brought to a barren land
models involving questioning and discussion and the con-
nection between thinking and writing. By matching specific
through seasonal floods. The events of the myth are
thinking skills with specific subjects. they learn to help their mysterious and dramatic; they call for interpretation, and the
students master subject area content as well as new skills for myth does not include information that would explain the
thinking. They also develop an array of techniques for as- motivation for the actions of the characters. The myth thus
sessing student learning of thinking skills and improving the
provides a rich context for exploring the value of evidence
in investigating events and characters, the limits of available
quality of student thinking. And by adopting the role of
evidence, the questions that the myth leaves unanswered,
students, participants rediscover the imponance of a suppor-
and the use of evidence in creating an intetpretation of events
tive environment in encouraging risk taking, the free ex-
change of ideas, and learning in general. and characters.
ergot 0110.x.....
991 0 5
The language arts objectives of Inside Story: Dateline evidence to support or refute an interpretation, and identify
Brazil are: the need for more information. Such reflection processes as
To develop students expertise in assimilating infor- summarizing, drawing conclusions, connecting one text to
mation and understanding text, developing a personal un- another, and applying resulting concepts to new settings all
derstanding, and monitoring their own reading and writing contribute to the student's integration of new learning.
process; Students work in palm on the computer, noncomputer
To develop students' ability to analyze such literary classroom activities engage students individually and in
elements as character, conflict, theme, plot, and genre; small groups. Consequently, there are affective and social, as
To teach students about myths from various cultures well as cognitive, aspects to these units. By considering
around the world. others' views and sharing their own, students enlarge their
The critical thinking objectives will enable students to perspectives and test their theories. Inside Story: Dateline
Find and support answers to questions; Brazil creates an environment that encourages cooperative
Formulate and substantiate or refute hypotheses; learning, risk taking, collaboration, consensus building, a
Effectively communicate their interpretations and tolerance for multiple questions and points of view, and an
evidence to others; open exchange of ideas. The interactive nature of the ac-
Monitor, control, and reflect upon their thought tivities gives students a sense of self-determination and em-
processes; powerment in their own learning.
Take responsibility for their own thinking. During administration of Inside Story: Dateline Bruzil,
The unit fulfills these objectives by posing a significant teachers lead classroom activities that complement the com-
question or problem for the students to resolve in the context puter activities, facilitate discussion, monitor students'
of the myth they have just read, progress, and provide enrichment activities and gui&nce as
In the process of engaging with Inside Story: Dateline needed. Instructions for taking advantage of the specific
Brazil, students learn to generate meaning by developing a opportunities for assessment integrated within the instruc-
number of cognitive skills: tion are provided. In addition, student notebooks serve to
Formulating predictions and hypotheses about what document and aid students' learning and foster their own
will happen; self-assessments. Although the materials contain many sug-
Evaluating the plausibility of hypotheses; gestions for teaching, teachers are urged to adapt them to fit
Analyzing alternative interpretations of the myths; their own teaching styles and students. The materials for
Evaluating the accuracy of evidence and information; Inside Story: Dateline Brazil include a teacher's manual,
Relating their own experiences to the myths. student notebook, and softwarealong with instructions for
They later modify hypotheses, interpret events, gather usi. the software.
Thinking To Learn'
Developer: Educational Testing Service
Assumptions: Thinking skills are basic.
Thinking skills are best taught in the context of regular content instruction.
instruction should drive assessment, and assessment should be linked to instruction.
Professional development should be locally controlled (Strategies).
Learning is experiential (Strategies).
Technology can be a useful tool for students to monitor their own thought processes (Inside Story).
Strategies staff development program Inside StoryN Instructional unit

Goals: To help teachers In grades 7-12 integrate thinking To integrate thinking skills with instruction in the language arts
skills with subiect area instruction; to give districts for students in grades 6 and 7
in-house expertise for staff development
Cognitive Skills Classify Monitor one's own reading and writing processes
Addressed: Develop concepts Find and support answers to questions
visually represent concepts Formulate, substantiate, or refute hyPotheses
Identify patterns and relationships Communicate interpretations and evidence to others
Formulate and test hypotheses Monitor, control, and reflect on one's own thought process
Construct meaning Take responsibility for one's own thinking and learning
Audience: Trainers at the school or district level as instructors; Students in grades 6 and 7 at all levels of ability
teachers in grades 7-12 for first phase
Process: Two-phase "training for trainers° model Computerized and teacher-led classroom activities
Time: 7 days 17 days
Source: Diane Wah, Project Director, Thinking to Learn", Series, Educational Testing Service, Rosedale Road, Princeton, NI 08541.
Telephone: 609-921-9000, ext. 5244.
26
Developing Thinking Skills
Margarita A. de Sanchez
The Developing Thinking Skills (DTS) program, in- with the environment, both in nonschool and academic
itiated at the Instituto Technol6gico y de Estudios situations. The program pursues the following objectives:
Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM) (Monterrey Institute 1. To teach the courses "Developing Thinking Skills IV"
of Technology and Higher Studiesl, aims to develop the in all high schools in the system (see Figure 1).
intellectual abilities of high school students so that, upon 2. To progressively incorporate the application of think-
entering college, they can demonstrate excellence in prob. ing processes into subject area teaching.
lem solving and decision making and success in the institu- 3. To train teachers in the use of DTS so as to foster
tional academic environment. It is composed of five levels of transference and infuse DTS processes into the teaching of
courses that are incorporated into the regular senior high curriculum subjects.
school curriculum. 4. To promote activities that stimulate critical and crea-
ITESM is a nonprofit, private institution dedicated to tive thinking,
fostering science, technology, and national culture; protect- 5. To advance teachers' cognitive development.
ing traditional Mexican values; and developing professionals
with a high level of preparation and a clear sense of personal Program Rationale
dignity and sodal responsibility. ITESM involves 28 univer-
sity campuses in 15 cities throughout Mexico, with 3,000 A high percentage of students entering college have
teachers and 40,000 students. deficiencies in reasoning and critical and creative thinking
In 1983, ITESM invited me to begin the DTS program at that have been shown to cause a progressive decline in
its main campus in Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico. I had academic performance (Arons 1979; de Sir chez 1983, 1987;
been the director of a program begun by Venezuela's Ministry Whimbey and Lochhead 1986). These deficiencies are due
for the Development of Human Intelligence, which was to a lack of properly based co-nitive structures for perform-
created in 1979 to develop students' thinking skills. In my ing mental processes at the formal operation level (Gardner
work with the Wnezuelar, program, I sought the participa- 1985).
tion and suppoq of Harvard and Yale universities and the Cognitive psychology has established the differences
cooperation of such well-Mown investigators as Edward de between the use of short-term and long-term memories.
Short-term memory produces limited-time retention and is of
Bono, Reuven Feuerstein, Robert Sternberg, Ray Nickerson,
David Perkins, and Richard Hermstein, who assisted in little use in permanent learning. Long-term memory is an
developing, executing, and evaluating the various thinking active system for the organization and deep processing of
skills programs that were implemented in Venezuela's information, which enables human beings to establish rela-
tions, make generalizations, and achieve long-term and
schools.
meaningful learning. The development of these cognitive
structures does not constitute a spontaneous learning
Purpose of the DTS Program process; it must be stimulated through formal training in
DTS is intended to develop in students the cognitive courses properly incorporated into the school curriculum.
structures and functions needed to improve their interactions The timely use of long-term, active memory is only possible
FIGURE 1
DTS COURSE CONTENT
DTS I: Basic Processes of Thinking DTS llb Creativity

1. Introduction: Definitions and Intelligence Development 1. Introduction to Creativity
2. Observation and Classification 2. Expansion and Contraction of Ideas
3. Ordering 3. Lateral Thinking
4. Hierarchical Classification 4. Inventive Thinking: Concrete snd Abstract rtsigns
5. Analogies DTS IV: Metacomponents, Performance and Knowledge
6. Analysis and Synthesis
Acquisition Components
7. Spar!al Reasoning 1. Introduction to The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
DTS II: Problem Solving 2. Metacornponents
1. Linear Representations
3. Performance Components for the Processing of Information
2. Table Representations 4. Knowledge Acquisition Components
3. Simulation Representation and Enactment DTS V: Novelty, Automatization, and Practical Intelligence
4. Systematic Trial . Dealing with Novel Situations
;
3. Clearing Up What is Understood 2. Automatization of the Processing of Information
Verbal Reasoning 3. Practical Intelligence
1 . Assertions 4. Intelligent Behaviors and Development of Thinking Skills
2. Arguments
if people develop the cognitive structures that act as organiz- is transformed into a strategy or procedure. Practice of the
ing and processing functions of information (Coffee 1981). procedure, under controlled conditions, generates thinking
ITESM wanted to design instructional alternatives to the skills.
traditional teaching-learning process. to include courses that Process exists in itself, independent from the person
would develop students' thinking skti. and to transfer cog- who performs it, while ability is a skill within the person.
nitive processes into the teaching o: thc disciplines at all Ability requires development through systematic and
levels (Reif 1981). deliberate learning.
Definition of the DTS Program Teaching Based on Processea and

Developing Thinldng Skills
The DTS program combines the principles of Project
Intelligence, Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, and Teaching is the application of the process approach in
the Paradigm of Processes (Proyecto Inteligencia 1983; order to stimulate thinking skills development and subject
Sternberg 1986a; de Sanchez 1986a-1986e, 1987). matter learning. Teaching exercises students' minds to im-
The Paradigm of Processes explains conceptual and prove their information-processing methods and techniques,
methodological aspects of an approach to thinking that is which in turn stimulates their ability to apply critical and
based in the operationalization of the mental act of thinking creative thinking to solving problems and making decisions.
and in the separation, at a conceptual level, of the two Such teaching involves two learning steps:
elements of thinking: (1) the processes, or cognitive func- 1. Engaging in a series of stages that mark the evolution
tions, and (2) the contents of information or knowledge of cognitive development in relation to the application of the
being handled. Knowledge is defined as "information about thinging processes
conceptual and theoretical facts, concepts, rules, and out- The systematic, gradual. guided, deliberate, Intention-
lines that make up a discipline or a field of study" or, in the al, conscious, and willing practice of the procedures that
scope of everyday life, "incidental information about the form a given thinking prqcess;
facts or events of the world around the snbject." The development of cognitive structures to allow
A process can be made up of one or more mental identification of discrepancies between what is wanted and
operations. It is a thinking operation capable of acting over what is obtained and the necessary feedback processes to
concrete stimuli or over mental representations to produce eliminate these discrepancies;
new mental representations or motor actions. The definition of criteria to allow the verification of
Concepts are the cognitive entities over which processes achieved progress and to determine what is required to
act to generate new produLts. Every process, to be applied, obtain the expected performance level.
102
108
DEVELOPING THINKING SKILLS
the processef that regulate and optimize intellectual

The basic foundations of this process model are: development and performance. The course begins with a set
Intentionality of the mental act and of the activity
of directive processes to manage information, such as plan-
through which the individual's intellectual ability is aimed,
ning, monitoring and evaluating, It provides a set of perfor-
focused, and optimized;
Awareness of the mental act involved in the process; mance processes to guide mental activity toward the
achievement of expected results, and it culminates with the
Internalization or achievement of the habit of apply-
application of an information processing model that
ing the processes naturally and spontaneously; facilitates knowledge acquisition and improves students'
Transcendence of the achieved knowledge (metacog-
ability to learn from books, from the information received in
nition);
classes, and from the environment.
The use of the systems approach as a thinking tool *,11"'
D7S V. Novelty, Automatization, and Pnictical Intel-
and as the basis of the process methodology;
ligence deals with three aspects of human behavior that
Active participation of the learner to verify his or her
contribute to managing experience and interacting with the
thinking progress; environment. The first refers to the development of skills to
The teacher as a mediator of the teaching-learning
deal with novel situations and to automatize information
process (by monitoring the processes).
processing. The second refers to managing the environment
2. Providing an appropriate psychological atmosphere.
and develops the ability to produce a variety of diverse
Such an atmosphere requires the teacher's ability to:
answers when facing everyday problems. The third develops
Stimulate the student's intellect;
positive attitudes of personal growth, self-realization, and
Provide corrective feedback;
Develop student metacognition; excellence.
i 'II.
Organize instruction according to mental acts of Input,
process, and output; Instructional Materials
a' 1,1
)
Engage active participation;
Instructional materials include a series of teacher and
Create a safe, warm climate of free expression.
student books that emphasize thinking processes, use of
knowledge, and previous experience as a starting point to
DTS Courses achieve the expected skills. Lessons center on the dialogue
between the students and the teacher and between the
The DTS program consists of 168 lessons that are individual and the team,
grouped into 5 levels of courses, which are taught in the first
The exercises are a means for students to practice
five semesters of high school (see Figure 1):
processes. They include situations ranging from the familiar
D7S I: Basic 7hinking Processes develops skills in logi-
essential for to the unfamiliar, from the concrete to the abstract, from the
cal reasoning and critical thinking, which are trivial to the controversial, and from the simple to the com-
improving students' abstract reasoning (de Sanchez 1986a- plex. The exercises aim to raise students' level of abstraction
1986e). and to prepare them to solve problems, make decisions, and
D7S II: Problem Solving and Verbal Reasoning fosters
The course perform adequately in the environment,
the development of deductive retsoning skills.
allows students to apply the basic processes of DTS I through
the application Teaching-Learning Methodology
the consolidation of new thinking styles and
problem solving
of language skills and verbal reasoning to The DTS teaching-learning methodology focuses on
and communicating. monitoring the processes; students' active participation; the
Ens III: Creativity fosters the use of new thinking styles
teacher's use of a variety of instructional strategies and trans-
through mind activation, creativity, and inventiveness.
actions; the use of questioning techniques and interaction to
Lateral thinking and divergent and convergent thinking,
simulate students' mental activity; the indirect participation
which are studied in the two previous courses, are developed
experiential of the teacher as a mediator of the teaching-learning process;
and integrated here. Students' intellectual and the collaboration between teachers and students; the
generate creative
ranges are broadened. enabling them to stimulation of students ability to develop on their own the
products and to grasp, interpret, and improve the surround-
skills for defining, validating, and applying thinking proces-
ing reality. ses; and the verification of achievements in the teaching-
D7S IV: Metacomponents. Performance and Knowledge
learning process.
Components encourages metacognitionthe awareness of
well as of
one's own knowledge of the task and strategy, as
103
Implementation Strategy the methodology. The norms of the program have been
designed and procedural manuals and follow-up instru-
ments have been elaborated. This last phase contributes to
Curricular Development Plan the strengthening of the program as a whole. Some of the
The program's curricular development plan comprises most important activities include: the teacher training pro-
seven broad aspects: gram; a process-based evaluation bank; the infusion or trans-
1. Progressive implementation of five courses fostering ference of the methodology to the teaching of biology, ethics,
systematic and deliberate development of students skills to language, and mathematics; the creation of the DTS Bulletin;
think in terms of procesLes. the creation of the CREATEC cc.. !Itest (a systemwide contest
2. Teacher training in teaching based in processes. on creativity); a research project on the impact of the
3. Design of materials for fostering interaction of con- methodology and follow-up of the high school students once
tents and processes. they entered college; and the editing of the final versions of
4. Development of an evaluation system based on the five teacher and student textbooks.
processes.
5. Encouragement of extracurricular activities to simu- Teacher Training
late critical and creative thinking.
6. Application or transference of these processes of Teacher training in the methodology for DTS courses is
teaching throughout the school curriculums. the key to the program's success. It guarantees the fidelity of
Currently, all ITSM high school students participate in the application of the methodology and, consequently, en-
the DTS program by taking one three-hour class every week. sures the adequate development of students' thinking skills.
The program was implemented in four phases: To obtain the program's goals, the teacher gains infor-
1. The formative evaluation pbase involved teaching mation on conceptual aspects of thinking development and
DTS courses to two or three groups of students in the second receives training in the appropriate techniques and proce-
semester of high school in eight schools in 1993-84. Each dures for teaching thinking, with emphasis on monitoring the
group had 25 to 30 students. teaching-learning process and centering the class on the
The evaluation involved weekly work sessions for student's learning.
professors and the director of the program to analyze the Process monitoring is the activity through which the
application of the methodology, the use of materials, the teacher encourages students to exercise their mind to bring
professors' progress, and the students' performance and out their ideas. In this way the teacher can observe each
participation. The information obtained was used to define student's progress, diagnose faults, give the required feed-
criteria for subsequent revision of the materials in order to back and appropriate stimuli, and regulate the desired intel-
more adequately bring them in line with the course objec- lectual advancement.
tives and Mexican culture. The training encompasses four different aspects:
2. The extension phase, which took place between 1984
Courses in sequence on the different DTS levels.
and 1985, involved teaching the methodology to all high Courses in depth on the processes methodology.
school groups in eight campuses of the ITESM system. Courses on transferring the processes to the teaching
During this phase the project was validated in the new of other subjects.
context, and the materials as well as the methodology were The formation of facilitator workshops.
adjusted and generalized to a larger group of students in The training consists of practical courses, each lasting
every campus of the system. approximately 80 hours and distributed over 10 working
3. The,generalization phase involved the teaching of the days. Each lesson is studied, analyzed, and practiced through
methodology to all groups in the first semester of high school simulation. One participant acts as a teacher, another as an
in 23 of the 24 campuses of the system (one campus did not observer, and a third as a lesson analyzer. The rest of the
have a senior high school). The application of the methodol- participants play the role of the students.
ogy was fully tested. This phase took place between 1985 At the end of the simulation, the "teacher" participant
and 1986.
makes comments about his or her thinking and receives
4. Me institutionalization phase has continued since performance feedback from the observer, who focuses on
1986. Its purposes are to establish the permanent function. areas in need of improvement.
evaluation, and feedback mechanisms that guarantee the The analyzer listens, and then explains the content, the
automatic operation and adjustment of the program in the structure, and the class procedure, pointing out the internal
best of conditions to preserve fidelity in the application of consistency among the different lesson components.
104
DEVELOPING THINKING SKILLS
The training at each DTS level culminates during the first 4. To encourage the sharing of interests among the
semester, when the =cher uses the methodology to teach a students and professors of the different campuses and to
strengthen relationships and identification with the ITESM.
classroom lesson.
Teachers who have become fluent in the methodology
can act as training facilitators on their own campuses, Program Research and Follow-up
Along with the materials design and DTS implementa-
The Evaluation System tion, the impact of the methodology on students' intellectual
Evaluation is one of the most important activities in the development has been studied extensively. The perfor-
teaching-learning process, Apart from being a diagnostic for mance of college students coming from the high schools that
determining what teaching objectives have been achieved, it offered DTS courses was compared with the performance of
orients search for effective feedback. students from other high schools to determine if there were
Evaluating the teaching of processes has two specific significant differences in intellectual performance both at the
purposes: to determine the quality of the product achieved beginning of schooling and throughout their academic
by the student, and to verify how the student combines the career, The ITESM students were subdivided into two
information given (using the required process or strategy) to groups, one of students who completed three DTS courses
ohtain the expected result, This separation guides evaluation in high school, the other of students who completed five DTS
and the corresponding feedback process. courses,
Evaluation Bank and Computer Data Base. Each lesson The tests used were Cattel (testing culture-free, Scale 3,
was analyzed in order to produce a description of the proce- Form A ) and Whimbey's Problem Solving. Hypotheses about
dures for developing various skills and the conditions for the average differences between the groups for the different
teaching them. Due to the diversity of the five DTS courses variables of the study and correlations among the grades in
and the great range of types of problems to be evaluated, each group were verified. The percentage of students failing
.there was a need to adequately classify the problems using one or INVO subjects was always higher for the non-ITESM
a computer data base. group. The percentage of students failing no subjects was
The data base program generates 50-minute final exams higher for the ITESM group. Total dropout was 3.32 percent,
consisting of randomly chosen problems. The problems are with 2.33 percent being non-ITESM students and only 0.99
organized according to their degree of difficulty. The hank percent being ITESM students. The percentage of meaningful
also prints a set of answers to the problems and the ,:valua- mean differences in favor of ITESM was 32,70 percent versus
lion and grading key. 1.12 percent for the non-ITESM group. And the percentage
of favorable differences for the ITESM was 46.24 percent
versus 19.94 percent favorable to the non-ITESM group. To
Extracurricular Activities summarize, the ITESM group obtained better grading and
Along with DTS classes, special activities are designed averages in 78.94 percent of the cases.
to stimulate practical application of the thinking skills in
solving both everyday and academic problems. One of the
most important is CREATEC, the creativity contest. The con-
What Has Been Achieved
test takes place in two stages: Each of the 23 campuses carries So lar the following goals have been achieved:
out a contest where all the students projects are presented. DTS was incorporated as a subject in the school cur-
The projects are classified and awards are given in the riculum. Five courses on developing thinking skills are of-
following six categories: saving resources, developing think- fered at all campuses of the system.
ing, organizing. entetttining. giving comfort, informing and A yearly creativity contest, CREATEC, has been in-
communicating. and programming. First-place projects then stituted with all the system's campuses participating.
compete at the systemwide level. The purposes of CREATEC Three transference projects are being developed to
are: ensure process-based teaching in biology, philosophy, and
1. To stimulate the creativity of students in the third level Spanish.
Of DTS, There is a permanent program to train professors in
2. To give the winners from each campus the oppor- the process methodology and in developing thinking skills.
tunity to participate in a systemwide contest. The value of the program for hoth teachers and students
3. To show the 1TESM community and the public in is evident in fundamental changes in the teaching-learning
general the usefulness of the DTS program in one of its process and in students' social behavior, although neither has
advanced phases.
105
been measured at scientific levels. Research confirms the de Sanchez, M. (19861)). "Proyecto Desarrollo de Habilidades de
Pensamiento: ResoluciOn de Problems." Impresos y Tesis,
favorable effect of DTS on the intellectual performance of the
Instituto Technol6gico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey.
students once they enter college. de Sanchez, M. (1986c). "Proyecto Desarrollo de Hahilidades de
In addition, support programs for DTS foster extracur- Pensamiento: Creatividad." Impresos y Tesis, Instituto
ricular activities that stimulate creativity and new approaches TechnolOgico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey.
to teaching subjects in the curriculum focused on reasoning de Sanchez, M. (1986d). "Proyecto Desarrollo de Habilidades de
Pensamiento: Metacomponentes, Componentes de Ejecucion
rather than memorization. y de Adquisicion de Conocimiento." Impresos y Tesis, Instituto
Finally, it is expected that ITESM students and professors Technológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey.
will do the following: de Sanchez, M. (1986e). "Proyectos Desarrollo de Habilidades de
Change their learning methods so that they are no Pensamiento: Novedad, Automatización e Intellgencla
longer centered in fact and information memorization but in Practica." Impresos y Tesis, Instituto Technologico y de Es-
tudios Superiores de Monterrey.
transformation and creation of new products.
de Sanchez, M. (1983). "Proyecto Aprender a Pensar. Estudio de Sus
Replace memorizing styles based in repetition with Efectos Sobre una Muestra de Estudiantes Venezolanos."
more dynamic and effident methods supported by the new Caracas: ME y MEDI.
thinking structures. Calfee, R. (1981). "Cognitive Psychology and Educational Practice."
Be better able to learn by themselves and regulate In Revietv of Research in Education 9. Washington, D.C.
American Educational Research Association Publishers.
their own intellectual development. Costa, A. L. ( November 1984). "Mediating the Metacognitive."
Show social sensitivity and the ability to integrate Educational Leadership 42, 3: 57-62.
knowledge, practical experiences, and intelligent behaviors Gardner, M. K. (1985). "Cognitive Psychological Approaches to
into a meaningful whole that will lead to continued personal Instructional Task Analysis." In Review of Educational Re-
growth and improvement of the environment. search 12. Washington, D.C.: American Educational Research
Association Publishers
Herrnstein, R. J., R. S. Nickerson, M. de Sanchez, and J. A. Swets.
(November 1986). "Teaching Thinking Skills." Journal of the
BIBIJOURAPI IV American Psychological Association 41, 11: 1279-1289.
Final RePutt Project httelligence: The Development of Procedures
Adams, M. J. (coordinator), (1986). Odysso: A Curriculum for 10 Enhance Thinking Skills. (1983). Cambridge, MLISS.: Harvard
7binking. Watertown, Mass.: Mastery Learning Corp. University and Bolt Beranek and Newman.
Arons, A. B. (1979). "Some Thoughts in Reasoning Capacities Proyecto Inteligencia: Series (1-VD de Lecciones para Desarrollar
Implicitly Expected of College Students," In Cognitive Process Ilabilidades de Pensamiento. (1983). Cambridge, Mass: Har-
Instruction, edited by J. Lochhead and J. Clement. Phikidel- vard University, Bolt Beranek and Newman y Ministerio de
phia: The Franklin Institute Press, EducaciOn de Venezuela.
de Sanchez, M. (In preparation). "The Panidigm of Processes and Reit'. F. (May 1981). "Teaching Problem Solving.: A Scientific Ap-
the Development of Thinking Skills." proach." The Phiwics Teacher 19, 5: 310-316.
de Sanchez. M. (1987). "Teaching Thinking Processes." In Thinking.. Sternberg, R. J. (1986a ). A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence.
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Lochlwad, and J. C. Bishop. Hillsdale, NJ.: Lawrence Swrnberg, R. J. (1986b). Intelligence Applied, Undentanding and
Erlbaum. Increasing l'our Intellectual Skills. New York; I larcourt Brace
de Sanchez, M. ( I 98(xi ). "Proyecto Desarrolio de Habilidades de joyanovich.
Pensamiento: Procesos Basicos de Pensamiento." itnpresos y Whimbey, A.. and J. Lochhead. (1986). Problem Solving and Corn-
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Monterrey.
112
106
27
Cognitive Curriculum for
Young Children
H. Carl Haywood, Penelope Brooks, and Susan Burns
The Cognitive Curriculum for Young Children (CCYC) CCYC rests on several theoretical bases dealing with the
is a systematic, theory-based educational curriculum nature and development of ability, cognitive development,
designed primarily for use with children from three to and cognitive modifiability; (a) Haywood's transactional
six years of age who are either handicapped or at high risk view of the nature and development of human ability;
of learning failure in the primary grades (based chiefly on (b) Vygotsky's concepts of social cognitive learning and the
factors related to socioeconomic level). It was developed in "zone of proximal development"; (c) Piaget's views of the
a close collaboration between developmental psychologists cognitive nature of preschool children, the hierarchical and
and preschool educators for use in conjunction with a good sequential nature of cognitive development; and (d)
content-focused curriculum. That is to say, its emphasis is on Peuerstein's concepts of structural cognitive modifiability.
helping young children to acquire and elaborate systematic Haywood considers intelligence to be multiply (basical-
processes of perceiving, thinking, learning, and problem ly genedcally) determined, multifaceted, resistant to change,
solving, rather than on teaching specific academic content. and essentially different from cognitive processes, which are
Begun in 1979, it is now used in hundreds of classes in the acquired and highly modifiable. There is a necessary and
United States, Canada, Mexico, France, Belgium, Switzer- powerful transactional relation between cognitive develop-
land, and Israel, serving several thousand disadvantaged ment and the development of intrinsic motivation.
and/or handicapped children. Vygotsky's powerful idea that important cogriitive ac-
The goals of CCYC are: quisition occurs in social contexts contributed to the defini-
tion of the role of parents and of teachers lit this curriculum.
1. To enhance and accelerate the development of basic His concept of the 'zone of proximal (next) development"
cognitive functions, especially those necessary to acquire as the difference between performance and potential helped
concrete operational thought; to define the prograni of cognitive early education (reducing
2. To identify and remediate deficient cognitive func- that discrepancy).
tions; Piaget's notions of sequential and hierarchical cognitive
3. TO developtask-intrinsic motivation; development helped to identify and sequence the lessons.
4. To develop representational thought; His emphasis on the prerequisites and functions of concrete
5. To enhance learning effectiveness and readiness for operational thought as essential to content learning in the
school learning; early grades defined part of the content of CCYC, while his
6. To prevent inappropriate special education place- emphasis on equilibration as the fuel of cognitive progress
ment, provided an important part of the teaching approach.
The heaviest single conceptual debt, liberally acknow-
ledged, is to Peuerstein's "theory of structural cognitive
Copyright (0 1990 hy I I. Carl Ilaywc)od. Penck)pe Brooks. and modifiability" and to his concepts of mediated learning ex-
Susan Burns.
DEVELOPING MINDS: PROGRAMS FOR TEACHING MINKING
Cognitive Curriculum for Young Children (CCYC)

Developers: H. Carl Haywood , Penelope Brooks, and Susan Burns
Goals: To help young children acquire, generate, and elaborate systematic processes of perceiving, thinking, learning, and problem
solving.
Sample skills: Regulating behavior, comparing, classifying, problem solving, using quantitative relations, conservation, seriation, role taking,
Identification by salient features.
Assumption(s): Mediated teaching can help students learn cognitive principles and strategies that they can later apply to unmediated
experiences.
Intended audience: Three- to six-year-olds who have handicaps (mental retardation, learning disabilities, cerebral palsy, speech and/or language
delays, emotional disturbance, deafness) or are at high risk of learning failure,
Process: Teaching and classroom activities stimulate children's thinking about their own thinking processes, and about generating,
applying, and evaluating appropriate learning and problem-solving strategies. One cognitive function is addressed each day
through these classroom events: (a) planning time, (b) a cognitive small-group lesson, (c) a content-oriented large-group
lesson, (d) a directed free-choice activity, (e) summary time.
Time: 30-40 hours teacher training: weekly class time for students can range from 8 hours to 30 hours.
Available from: Charlesbridge Publishing, 85 Main St Watertown, MA 02172.
perience and the modifiability of specific cognitive functions, 1, Planning time

Feuerstein's theoretical contributions are discussed and 2. Cognitive small-group lesson
elaborated extensively in a set of papers that accompanies 3. Content-oriented large-group lesson
the curriculum. 4. Directed free-choice activity
The curriculum has six principal components: 5. Summary time
1. A strong theoretical base, Helping children to understand the generalized mean-
2. A "mediational" teaching style, ing of their experiences, of new learning, of relationships is
3, Cognitive "small-group" units, which are daily lessons an important aspect of mediational teaching. The goal of
focused on the acquisition of specific cognitive functions, generalizability means that mediational teachers are con-
TIWse units in sequence are: Self-Regulation. Quantitative stantly looking for opportunities to demonstrate the broader
Relations, Comparison, Classification/Class Inclusion, Role applicability of principles and strategies that children might
Taking, Seriation, and Distinctive Features, need in their later (unmediated) experience, Mediational
4. "Large-group" lessons, which focus on academic con- teachers make a special effort to "bridge" cognitive concepts,
tent (colors, numbers, shapes, nature, etc.) but emphasize principles, and strategies to familiar and diverse contexts. In
the same cognitive functions that are learned in the small- doing this, teachers are trying to make children more effec-
group lessons, tive at learning how to learn by getting the children to
5. A "cognitive-mediational" system of behavior generalize the process they have usedbeyond the imme-
management. diate learning situations.
6. A parent participation program emphasizing class- CCYC differs from traditional, content-oriented cur-
room participation, parent organizations, and family/home riculums in the following ways:
activities coordinated with in-class cognitive lessons.
1. The fundamental goal is stimulating the development
Essentially metacognitive in its orientation and em- of effective processes of thinking, perceiving, learning, and
phasis, CCYC uses teaching and classroom activities problem solving, rather than imparting information or train-
designed to stimulate children's thinking about their own ing behavioral skill.
thinking processes, and about generating, applying, and 2. Teaching consists primarily of mediating the prin-
evaluating appropriate learning and problem-solving ciples and strategies of formal thought, rather than com-
strategies. municating specific content knowledge or bits of
The typical CCYC day has a "cognitive function of the information.
day" and the following classroom events:
114
108
COGNITIVE CURRICULUM FOR YOUNG CHILDREN
3, Successfully applied, CCYC improves students' Changes in students' behavior, such as more en-
processes of formal thought and their ability to develop new thusiasm for mental work, more process questions, less
processes on their own, without further mediation. "confirmation seeking";
Greater probability of placement in "regular" classes.
Evaluative research in three quite different settings has
yielded evidence of the following effects: Evaluation continues at several sites.
Significant IQ gain (an average of 10 to 12 points over The CCYC program is available in English, French, and
Spanish. Teachers are trained in intensive (30-40 hours)
one academic year versus no gain for comparison groups);
workshops, which are offered in English and French in North
Changes in teachers' behavior, such as more question-
ing, more process-oriented questioning, more optimism America, and in English, French, German, and
Dutch/Flemish in Europe.
about students' ability to learn;
11 5
109
28
A Problem-Solving Approach
to Mathematics Instruction
Using an Embedded
Data Videodisc
Michael Young, James Van Haneghan, Linda Barron,

Susan Williams, Nancy Vye, and John Bransford
During the past several years, members of Vanderbilt's that the majority of Americans are "innumerate," unable to
Learning Technology Center have been ex- understand the most fundamental concepts of numbers,
perimenting with new ways to structure the learning logic, and probability, highlights some of the most visible
experiences of students.' Our ultimate goal is to help stu- needs for an effort to improve the way middle school math-
dents develop the confidence, skills, and knowledge neces- ematics is taught. Porter (1989) suggests two reasons for the
sary to solve problems and become independent thinkers poor record of American schools: the small amount of time
and learners. We have come to believe that computer and spent on problem solving instruction and the reliance on
videodisc technologies make it easier to achieve these objec- traditional word problems.
tives than has been true in the past. Projects that focus There is also a growing awareness that students need to
primarily on literacy, history, and social studies are described experience the complexity of real-world problems and en-
elsewhere (e.g., Bransford, Kinzer, Risko, Rowe, and Vye in counter problems "situated" in realistic settings (e.g.,
press; Bransford, Sherwood. and Hasse !bring 1988; Bransford, Hasselbring, Ham)n, Kulewicz, Littlefield, and
Bransf)rd, Sherwood, Hasse !bring, Kinzer, and Williams Goin 1987: Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989; Lesh 1985;
1988; Bransford, Vye, Kinzer, and Risko in press; Cognition Simon 1980 ). Add to this the emphasis placed ot: iearning to
and Technology Group at Vanderbilt in press). In this chapter apply mathematics rather than just compute. and the consen-
we focus on attempts to improve mathematical thinking. sus seems to be that students should learn not only how to
Instruction in problem solving, a key part of mathemati- convert from fractions to percents, for example, but also
cal thinking, has long been a weakness of the mathematics when percents are useful and when to convert from fractions
curriculum and, most recently, attention has focused on the to percents or decimals. Schools have traditionally done a
middle school mathematics curriculum (Lesh 1985; good job teaching how to do these operations, but have
Thompson and Rathmell 1988; Kouba, Brown, Carpenter, failed to provide the context for when to apply such concepts
Lindquist, Silver, and Swafford 1989). Pau los' (1988) claim (e.g.. Simon 1980).
We believe that video technology can provide the rich
context-based experiences needed for practicing the ap-
An earlier version of this chapter was published under the same plication of mathematics skills. With the goal of providing a
title in Maim logy and Learnin,r4 3, ,1( 1989): 1-4.
110
MATHEMATICS INSTRUCTION USING AN EMBEDDED DATA VIDEODISC
context for problem-solving exploration and application of information presented in the story, so students can practice
middle school mathematics, our research group has identifying and recalling relevant information, and thereby
developed a videodisc-based story, enriched with data and develop the perceptual and cognitive skills they rarely have
a central distance-rate-time problem that requires more than the opportunity to use in traditional instructional settings.
15 .steps to solve. The videodisc, The Adventures (y' jasper Embedding in the video all the data necessary to solve
Woodbury: Episode One' (Tom Stu rdeva nt, writer/producer/ problems is a unique feature of this instructional video series,
director), has been designed and produced to provide a and its use is facilitated by the random-access capability of
"macro-context" for teaching planning and problem iden- the videodisc.
tification. A macro-context is a problem-solving environment 2. Videodisc Format. The videodisc enables students to
in which students must generate, as well as solve, several retrieve the appropriate video segments quickly by using the
subproblems in order to solve the larger overall problem. In random-access capability of the disc. Students are challenged
this video, the problem is intentionally complex, reflecting to watch closely and to learn to notice important information,
the nature of problems experienced in everyday settings and to look for problems, and to set up a framework for solving
the need to provide students with the opportunity to practice them. Teachers can use the search for embedded data to
working with such problems. externalize search strategies for students (Vygotsky 1978).
The video story centers around Jasper. who has bought For example, the instructor can show several segments and
an old cruiser and hopes to sail it home that day. But it's 2:30 ask students to determine which ones contain relevant infor-
p.m., the boat has no lights, and it took his little runabout mation and why. In this way, the typically internal thought
more than 80 minutes to make the trip upriver, Jasper decides processes of individual students can he made public and
to leave, and students are challenged to consider the ques- discussed by the class. The search for relevant data is often
tion "Did he make the right decision?"---a question similar to aided by students who are infrequent contributors in tradi-
many questions in real life, such as "When should I leave for tional mathematics classrooms but who have observed an
the airport?" or "What will I need to take along on vacation?" important piece of information that most of the class has
Such questions highlight metacomponents of problems, missed. This helps those individuals gain confidence in their
such as problem identification and planning, that are impor- mathematical abilities, After students 'have defined the
tant components of any problem-solving process (Bransford problems and searched out the required information, they
and Stein 1984; Sternberg 1987). Even so, these metacom- use their computation skills, which they now see as useful
ponents are rarely the focus of classroom instruction, where and purposeful, to solve the problems,
instead concepts are often abstracted from the context in 3. Realistic Goals. Traditional word problems have his-
which problems arise (Brown, Collins, and Duguid 1989; torically been one of the few opportunities for students to
Porter 1989). Macro-contexts, like the Jasper video, allow practice applying their mathematics skills and their problem-
problems to be situated in natural settings where the pur- solving strategies. Yet traditional word problems tend to have
poses of problem solving are apparent to students ( Bransford little meaning for children (Silver 1986; Van Haneghan and
et al. 1987). The Jasper video includes all the information Baker 1989). Word problems often lack realistic goals
required to solve the problems that are encountered. We call beyond finding the answer. For instance, some addition
this design principle emlvdded data design. problems ask how many of something two characters have
"altogether." But in the real world, a question would be asked
only if the characters had some mutual goal in mind; for
Design Principles for the Jasper Video example, they might want to put their money together to buy
1. Embedded Data.fasper begins his adventure by driv- a present for a friend. The video contexts we are designing
ing his small boat up the river to where he can see the big contain explicit goals for problem solving. Realistic goals
boat he eventually buys. On the way, Jasper is shown view- enhance mathematical learning by providing retrieval cues
ing his river map, listening to the weather report on the radio, for when mathematics and other problem-solving strategies
buying fuel, and paying for a minor repair to his boat. All can be used.
these items eventually become important information when Student-Generated Problems. Traditional word
.4.
he decides to bring the big boat home later. Once students problems are presented with the question already formu-
discover the need to consider the time of sunset (because of lated. In the Jasper video, many of the problems are unstated
the big boat's broken lights) and the need for money for gas and none of the problems is set up for the viewer Students
( because of the small temporary fuel tank on the big boat), must discover and define these problems to solve the central
they can search the disc for all the relevant pieces of infor- problem posed. Once student.s discover the subproblems,
mation. Of course, there is also a great deal of irrelevant they can apply their knowledge of middle school mathe-
41
matics to solve them, just as with traditional word problems. problems with incomplete information, to identify problems
The unique challenge of the Jasper video is in defining and required information, and to estimate results. They were
problems, gathering information, and developing a plan for also given an opportunity to review the videodisc to find
jasper to get his new boat home. Requiring students to define important information. In addition, students worked in small
the problems enhances their recall of the overall problem groups, which allowed their ideas to be refined through
and its solution, a process known as the generation effect group discussion. Effective teaching coupled with the video
(Anderson, Goldberg, and Hidde 1971; Slamecka and Graf context, rather than the video alone, has improved student
1978). Recalling specific problems and their solutions is one performance. The videodisc can provide a rich source of
key to the development of subject matter expertise (Chase data, a mutually shared experience, and a context for
and Simon 1973), and the ability to identify and define teacher-student interactions. But the videodisc cannot
problems is a key attribute of building problem-solving ex- replace the teacher, and it cannot be considered a panacea
pertise (Bransford and Stein 1984; Porter 1989). While con- that will teach students thinking skills without the guidance
ventional instruction often leads to knowledge that is of a skilled teacher.
available only to answer questions on a testwhat
Whitehead (1929) calls "inert'' knowledgeinstruction using Next Steps
a macro-context can make information useful and accessible
The Adventures offasper Woodbury: Episode One is the
for solving real-world problems (Sherwood, Kinzer, Has- first in a series of videos that will use the embedded data
selbring, and Bransford 1987; Bransford, Sherwood, Has- design. in order for the demonstrated gains in students'
selbring, Kinzer, and Williams 1988).
planning and problem finding to transfer beyond boating
contexts and even beyond mathematics problems, we expect
Research Findings that students will need to experience a number of these
The Jasper videodisc has been evaluated in studies of challenges across a broad range of topics and subject areas
5th and 6th graders working in groups in classroom settings, (e.g., history, geography, and science).
and in separate studies of individuals and pairs of students. At the Learning Technology Center, we are planning a
Initial studies that challenged individual students to solve the series of six to eight videos using the embedded data design
main problem posed by theAspervideo, without assistance to enhance mathematical and scientific thinking. The next
or mediation, showed that students were unprepared to video in the series involves the flight of an ultralight airplane
handle the complexity and unstructured nature of the prob- and represents a transfer task for the distance-rate-time topics
lem. Porter's (1989) report that the current elementary school raised in the boating context of the initial jasper story. Other
mathematics curriculum emphasizes computational skills videodiscs are planned that encourage the use of charts,
and not conceptual understanding reinforced our own ex- tables, calculators, and special-purpose computer programs
pectation that students would initially have trouble with the to automate the calculations required by the problem chal-
complexity and unstructured nature of the Jasper videodisc lenge. We also envision videodiscs that would conceptually
problem. An intervention study was then conducted that precede the existing Jasper videodisc, and that would focus
compared an experimental class where students practiced on planning for and discovering simpler problems.
their planning, problem finding, and problem organization Our plans for future development also include the use
skills with a control class where students rehearsed techni- of technology to supplement the information embedded on
ques for solving conventional word problems. An analysis of individual videodiscs and to help integrate the problem-solv-
problem-solving protocols and pretest-posttest results indi- ing objectives of the jasperseries into existing middle school
cated that students in the experimental class made significant curriculums. Learning Technology Center staff members are
and impressive gains in their ability to define problems and designing and evaluating computer data bases that interact
subproblems and to plan when faced with ill-defined with the video and are designed to supplement the data
problems when given an isomorphic video transfer problem embedded in the stories. We hope to encourage students and
containing all the elements of the Jasper video (Van teachers to research and submit information to these data
Haneghan, Barron, Williams, Young, Vye, and Bransford in bases, and to share the information widely using tdecom-
preparation). munications services such as Bitnet and the proposed
Our research findings are encouraging, but it is impor- Kidsnet.3 Teachers are being given preservice and inservice
tant to note that our intervention included more than simply training on the use of these materials and, with the help of
presenting the videodisc problem. We used the video as a expert teachers, model school programs are being
tool to help students see the thinking processes involved in developed.
solving a complex problem. Students attempted to solve the
118
112
MAThEMATICS INSTRUCI1ON USING AN EMBEDDED DATA VIDEODISC
NOTES Chase, \X'. G., and II. A. Simon. (1973). "The Mind's Eye in Chess."
In Visual lqormation Processing, edited by W. G. Chase. New
!This research has been supported in part by a grant from the York: Academic Press.
James S. McDonnell Foundation. Kouba, V, L., C. A. Brown, T. P. Carpenter, M. M. Lindquist, E. A.
2The research and development of the instructional videodisc Silver, and J. 0. Swafford. (1989). "Results of the Fourth NAEP
series has been funded in part by the James S. McDonnell Founda- Assessment of Mathematics: Number, Operations, and Word
tion, St. Louis, Missouri, and Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Ten- Problems." Arithmetic Teacher 35,8: 14-19.
nesseee. Lesh, R. (1985). "Processes, Abilities Needed to Use Mathematics in
3Bitnet is an electronic mail service available to colleges and Everyday Situations." Education and Urban Society 17: 330-
school systems internationally. Discussion of the development of a 336.
national/international Kidsnet is currently underway. Bitnet mem- Paulos, J. A. (1988). Innumeracy: Mathematical Illiteracy and Its
bers can participate in the discussion of the system by contacting Consequences. New York: Hill and Wang.
KIDSNETOPIITVMS.13ITNET. Porter, A. (Summer 1989). "A Curriculum Out Of Balance: The Case
of Elementary School Mathematics." Educational Researcher
9-15.
Sherwood, R., C. Kinzer, T. Hasselbring, and J. Bransford. (1987).
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Thompson, C. S., and E. C. Rathmell. (1988). "NCTM's Standards for
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113
29
How Do You Choose a
Thinking Skills Program
That Is Right for You?
Richard D. Sholseth and Diane Y. Watanabe
Man's mind, stretched to a new idea, never goes back a thorough needs assessment Is the logical place to begin. It
to its original dimensions. will provide the necessary data to guide the curriculum
Oliver Wendall Holmes leaders in determining which thinking skills and instructional
strategies are important.
One of the most thorough needs assessments is a cur-
Considering the many thinking skills programs avail- riculum alignment. This process begins with the existing
able, and the many more being published, it's no district curriculum, which is what teachers are already
wonder that educators have trouble when they go in responsible for teaching in the classrooms. The state recom-
search of "the best" thinking skills program. In order to lead mended/mandated curriculums, such as state frameworks,
the searcher to "the best" program, descriptions and data are reviewed to be sure they are a part of the district cur-
about the existing educational programs should be collected riculums. Then the various testing programs such as
to determine the thinking skills and strategies that are impor- proficiency, norm-referenced, state, and district criterion-ref-
tant and appropriate to the educational community..,Helpful erenced tests are aligned.
information would assist in answering questions such as: Analyses of student performances on the tests provide
Are any thinking skills being overlooked or taken for answers to questions such as; How well are our students
granted? doing on the skills tested? Where are they excelling? Where
Are any thinking skills being overtaught? are the weaknesses? Analyses of test data, together with the
Which thinking skills are found in the instructional alignment of curriculum and tests, help to answer questions
materials? such as: Are we testing thinking skills not covered in our
Which thinking skills are found in the tests? curriculum? Are we testing out of sequence? (e.g., 3rd grade
How are the students scoring on tests? testing of a skill that is not taught until 4th grade).
Do the classroom teachers promote a positive class- Analyses of test data may also provide other important
room climate for thinking? information. For example, school personnel may discover
Do the teachers practice question and response be- that even though main idea, analogies. and extrapolation
haviors that encourage students to think better? are important in the district curriculums, test results may
Do the teachers have a repertoire of instructional show that schools already do a wonderful job on these skills.
strategies for the thinking skills that need to he taught? The thinking skills program, therefore, should provide skill
Many people begin by looking at the published thinking maintenance and emphasize those areas where student per-
skills programs themselves: however, if one is serious about formance is low. An anecdote illustrates this point:
finding a "good match" to the existing educational program,
114
HOW DO YOU CHOOSE A PROGRAM?
Five principals and two board members went to a reading con- riculum to ensure that vaguely stat...1 objectives and am-
ference. They discovered a reading program that was foolproof? biguous learner behaviors are reworded to explicitly em-
They could be assured that their number one reading objective, phasize critical thinking. The program(s) chosen should be
understanding the main idea, would be successfully learned.
the best match for the curriculum alignment. Thinking skills
The committee went to the assistant superintendent and said that
they wanted to buy this:foolproof program. The survey of all of the
are an existing subset of the district curriculum, but often they
teachers, the principals; and district staff showed that there was 100 are taken for granted and not identified, The curriculum
percent agreement that the purchase should he made. Additionally, alignment process is the ideal first step in choosing a pro-
the assistant superintendent revitwed the district curriculum and gram. Realistically, and unfortunately, most districts do not
found understanding the main idea as pan of the continuum for
take the time or provide the resources to begin here.
every grade, 2-12. The skill was also stressed in every norm-refer-
enced test. 'Indeed, it's an important skill," he said. Who could fault
Once the thinking skills components that need to be a
the assistant superintendent for purchasing the $70,000 program? part of the program have been identified, most districts and
schools turn to published programs rather than develop a
In reality, if the assistant superintendent continued his program from scratch. Educators have tough decisions to
investigation and did an item analysis on the test results, he
make and few have the time to thoroughly investigate all the
would discover that student performance on the skill was
programs. This leads to another question: "How do programs
already outstanding. Why spend another $70,000? Moral:
differ?'
What is important may not be a priority for more spending,
because it may already he done well. How Do Programs Differ?
Instructional material, especially texts, should also be
1. Skills are presented differently. Many programs,
brought into alignment. Generally, textbooks are the major for example, include cause and effect, an important skill
vehicle for delivering the curriculum. Curriculum leaders identified in almost all norm-referenced testse.g., the Il-
should discover what is adequately covered, what is missing, linois Test of Basic Skills (ITBS), California Achievement Test
and what needs more emphasis in the match/mismatch of (CAT), Metropolitan Achievement Test (MAT), Stanford
what is taught and what is tested, making certain that all that Achievement Test (SAT), and Comprehensive Test of Basic
is tested is a subset of all that is taught. One of the purposes Skills (CTBS-4). A quick comparison of several programs
of an alignment is to ensure that local and state curriculum shows how the skill differs in each. In Project Impact, the skill
frameworks, district and state testing programs, and instruc- is called inferring causes and effects, and it is presented in
tional material fit together, and to ensure that educators can terms of multiple causality and multip!e consequences, along
identify which thinking skills need priority attention. with the chaining of causes and effects (Figure 1).
Other factors such as budgets, school climate, instruc-
tional practices, principal leadership, and staff development
FIGURE 1
should also be considered in the alignment process. (For
detailed information on this process see English 1987.) Project Impact: Inferring Causes and Effect
The curriculum alignment document, along with the Ilimmommor,
analyses of student performance data, becomes a needs

assessment that can help schools select the thinking skills C
program(s) that may best serve their school or district.
Another question that the curriculum alignment will C lob- Effect
answer is "To what degree are thinking skills already part of
the existing curriculum and testing program?" One of the
questions most frequently asked by school personnel in the
implementation of a thinking skills program has heen "How Muliple Causality Multiple effects
mio
will thinking skills fit into an already crowded curriculum?"
One answer is "They are there now." The job is to identify cause effect
them, prioritize them, and then focus (-;.-1 the appropriate
instructional strategies to bring them out and provide instruc-
tional materials that are needed. cause effect
Art Costa advocates restructuring the curriculum be-
cause it would he unlikely that texts and other instructional
materials are, or will ever be, designal that sufficiently in- cause --at. effect
clude the three areas of teachingfbr. of and about thinking. Chaining
Richard Paul ilso advocates restructuring the local cur- 0111111111011.11wYa.11..1111.11.11111/011111.111/1.111M111a.
10e1.1..
115
In Tactics, cause and effect is a subset of the tactic

FIGURE 4
elaboration (inferring meaning from what is not stated).
If an idea is suggested but not actually stated, we say it is
Similar to the skill in Project Impact, it includes multiple
implied. Here is a sentence with a stated reason, implied
causes, multiple consequences, and chaining (Figure 2). In reason, and a consequence:
addition, the identification of explicitly and implicitly stated
causes and consequences is required (Figure 3). The refrigerator was empty, so Shelly
went to a restaurant to eat.
FIGURE 2 Your mental analysis of this sentence might look like:

Causes and Consequence
CAUSE CAUSE STATED REASOM The refrigerator was empty
IMPLIED REASON: Shelly wanted to eat
Nik %Ik. CONSEQUENCE: Shelly went to a restaurant
CAUSE CAUSE CA_USE CAUSE
%`..,,a6k., Nth. Aire° Note that the implied reason is not directly stated in
the sentence, but it is suggested by (he stated reason
FN-7:12 ST1ATE and the consequence.
CONSEQUENCE CONSEQUENCE
Spatial relationships are part of many programs. The
"Cadillac" programs in this skill area are Instrumental Enrich-
CONSEQUENCE CONSEQUENCE CONSEQUENCE ment and Structure of Intellect (501). To a lesser extent.
Tactics addresses spatial relationships in the unit called
"Non-Linguistic Patterns." Spatial relationships are excluded,
by design, from CoRT and Philosophy for Children. This
FIGURE 3 omission does not negate these two programs; their power
Elaboration of Causes and Consequences can be measured in part by the rich classroom discussions
that are fostered by the materials.
Tactics' special forte lies in the "learning-to-learn" skills,
1. Identify important states or events
which include metacognitive skills such as goal setting and
attention control (paying attention and developing an inter-
2. Using your frame, identify causes and nal locus of control).
consequences that are explicitily stated. 3. Terminologies are not consistent among
--- programs. For example, synthesis in Bloom's Taxonomy
3. lustily your inferences.
usually means to use the acquired data to create something
new or original. In Tactics, synthesis is summarizing, as in
outlines, flow charts, or Venn diagrams. Most educators are
Whimbey's presentation has a built-in sequence from IIMEN..1111,
easy to difficult for this skill in Analytical Reading and FIGURE 5
Reasoning (1983): stated reason and consequence; chains of
causes; two independent reasons and a consequence; stated C&S = Consequence and Sequel
reason, implied reason, consequence; and premise con- The invention of the gasoline engine made possible automobiles.
clusion. An example of "stated reason, implied reason, con- airplanes, the oil industry, and a great deal of pollution. If all the
consequences could have been foreseen at the time, electric or
sequence" is shown in Figure 4. steam engines might have been used in cars. A new invention,
De 13ono treats cause and effect differently in his "tool" a plan, a rule, or a decision all have consequences that go on
Consequences and Sequel, where he includes the implica- for a long time. In thinking about an action, these
consequences should always be considered:
tions of time (Figure 5).
2. A program may be very strong in some areas Immediate consequence
and weak in others. For example, in one program the
presentation on deductive thinking may be strong; the same Short-term consequences (1-5 years)
program, however, may include spelling but omit analogical
Medium-term consequences (5-25 years)
reasoning.
Long-term consequences (over 25 years)
.11.1011.ma
116
familiar with evaluation as used in Bloom's Taxonomy, their meaning. Most programs place all or most of the em-
where it is the highest level on a scale used to determine the phasis on teaching of thinking. Programs that rely on
complexity of intellectual activity. In SOI, evaluation is workbooks and blackline masters and have little or no
defined as the ability to make judgments, to plan, and to teacher or group interaction generally fall into thib area. This
,-..ake decisions, and it is one of five intellectual operations does not mean that these programs should be overlooked,
that can he taught and for which lessons are provided. In but rather that teacher training should also be provided to
Tactics, evaluation is applied in evaluation of evidence, ensure that there is teachingforthinking and about thinking
examination of value, and elaboration. as well.
There are other examples of inconsistency. For ex- If teaching for thinking is weak or nonexistent, strateg-
ample. divergent thinking (S01), lateral thinking (de Bono), ies such as Whimbey's paired problem solving and coopera-
invention (Tactics), and application (Bloom) are all terms tive learning strategies should be a part of the staff
associated with creative thinking. Generalization (or in- development program. Also, if questioning strategies (a sub-
ference) and extrapolation also cross borders. Project Impact set of teaching for thinking) are not included, one may wish
refers to a skill called generalization under a broader head- to look at one of the most powerful programs in this area,
ing called inference. The inference skill in Tactics is found Philosophy for Children. Here, the use of the community of
primarily in elaboration, though it is also in evaluation of inquity teaches students to ask questions. Instrumental En-
evidence, examination of value, and extrapolation. Tactics' richment also provides an outstanding model for the transfer
extrapolation would be the closest match to Project Impact's
of learning. An excellent example in the area of teaching
generalization. about thinking, specifically in the development of metacog-
4. Programs vary in the amount of training re- nitive thinking skills, is Whimbey's method that requires
quired. Training periods vary from a number of hours to a students to think out loud. Finally, the Odyssey program
number of years. For example, Tactics requires approximate- provides a detailed script for teachers that includes questions
ly 15-20 hours of training, with an additional formal two-day to ask students and responses to student answers.
trainer-of-trainer's program. At the other end of the scale is
Instrumental Enrichment, which involves intensive training
and directed practice over a period of several years (mini- FIGURE 6
mum training for this program is two to three weeks). CoRT
requires little formal training, although eight to ten hours of Teaching FOR, OF, and ABOUT THINKING
.
training would be beneficial. Whimbey has not published a
.
training program for Problem Solving and Comprehension, 1. Teaching FOR ThinkingCreating school and class-room conditions
but the Thinking Skills institute at the Los Angeles County conducive to full cognitive development
Office of Education has developed one with input from 2. Teaching OF ThinkingInstructing students in the skills and strategies
Whimbey. The staff development component of Philosophy directly or implementing one or more programs
for Children requires about two weeks, while Project Impact 3. Teaching ABOUT ThinkingHelping students become aware of their
requires three days of training for level one and another four own and others' cognitive processes and their use In real-life situations
days of training for level two. and problems.
5. The adaptability of thinking skills content to

subject areas varies among programs. For example, in
Tactics. analogiesare easily adapted to all subject areas while
The more skillful teachers are in the teaching ofthink-
non-linguistic patternsare more applicable to science, math- ing, including task analysis of the strategies, the easier it is
ematics, and the arts. Project Impact includes the skills of for them to develop ways to teach for and about thinking. A
analyzing fact and opinion, which may he appropriate in comprehensive t hinking skills program requires teaching in
social sciences but may not be as adaptable to arithmetic or all three areas, and it is the responsibility of the school or
foreign languages. Similarly, a skill like spatial relations. district to ensure that this occurs.
which is exemplified in Structure of Intellect and Instrumen- 7. Programs differ in their intended audience.
tal Enrichment. would be more aligned to geometry or art Some programs are designed specifically for teachers to use
than to history or English. (e.g., Tactics), while others provide actual instructional
6. Most programs do not adequately consider how material for students (e.g., CoRT, Instrumental Enrichment.
to teach "of thinking, for thinking, and about thinking, SOI, Odyssey, and Project Impact). Some programs even
as defined by Ron Brandt (1984). These three areas are well have actual texts or workbooks (e.g., Midwest Publications
defined and described hy Costa (1985); Figure 6 summarizes and Philosophy for Children).
-..NYIONetwoorbrow
117
8. Not all programs have assessment instruments. port materiids in the questioning and response behavioN for
Examples of some that do are Instrumental Enrichment, teachers.
which uses sequential lessons requiring a level of mastery to
proceed, with the level of mastery becoming the assessment; What Are Some Typical Ways to Go?
Philosophy for Children, for which many districts have used
the New Jersey Test of Reasoning Skills; Whimbey's Problem Even after a careful search, rarely will a district or school
Solving and Comprehension, which includes both the pre- find just one program to do the job. It is more likely that
and post-versions of the Whimbey Analytical Skills Inventory several programs need to be included in long-range plan-
(\VASI); and Structure of Intellect, which has an alternate ning, even though some of these programs will not be used
form of the SOI Learning Abilities Test for retesting. in their entirety. Here are some brief descriptions of the
9. Not all programs are supported by research. progrsm we have touched on so far.
When choosing a program, schools should be aware of how Tactics for Thinking. Many schools that have limited
the program was validated, Has research been conducted? resources but want a program that will have broad applica-
What du the studies indicate? Robert Sternberg cautions users tion begin with Tactics. The materials are simple for teachers
that research studies of many programs lack consistent re- to understand and staff training averages less than an hour
search data, and he calls for more formal research on all each for any of the 22 tactics,
programs. Tactics was based on cognitive research and The first six tactics are "learning-to-learn" tactics, and
developmental psychology, The program that probably has they address such skills as attention control, power thinking,
the most research studies over a long period of time is and goat setting. Typically, a school begins with one or two
Instrumental Enrichment. The benefit of Whimbey's work units from this section and chooses several tactics from the
has also been studied, and reports show that students im- 14 remaining, which are divided into "content application"
proved significantly on their SAT scores (110-150 scale skills such as concept development, synthesis, and proce-
scores) even long after the project ended. It has been duralizing, and "reasoning skills" such as analogies, ex-
reported that there is a significant difference between those trapolation, and examination of values, The program
who take the training and those who do not (Carmichael represents a prudent use of funds, since the Teacher's Manual
1982). ($15) all that is required. It contains many practical sugges-
10. Programs may be used across the curriculum tions for different grade levels and subject areas.
or in specific content areas. Tactics and SOI are intended One advantage of Tactics is that it includes only tactics
to be used across the curriculum, Examples of programs that are easy for teachers to learn and that are broadly
applicable to certain subject areas are Problem Solving and applicable across the curriculum.
amprehension (reading and mathematics), CoRT (social CoRT. This program fits neatly with Tactics. Particularly
sciences and humanities), Philosophy for Children ( language suitable for humanities and social sciences, CoRT gives more
arts or philosophy), and Project Impact (reading, language detailed techniques (called "tools" ) in the areas of decision
arts, and mathematics). making and problem solving than does Tactics. Tactics is a
11. Programs may address a certain age or level or good place to begin; CoRT lessons are a fine complement:
be comprehensive K-12 programs. Tactics is a K-12 they give a fuller repertoire of skills for students to employ,
program, CoRT does not easily fit the early primary levds hut The CoRT materials have been adapted by some teachers for
has been adapted for the early grades by Sidney Tyler. primary grades, but the lessons are designed for upper
Whimbey's program can be taught in grades 5-12. elementary through high school. Students are taught from
The h m Study Skills programs published by the National lessons contained on ten teacher-used "tool" cards.
Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP) and the Hypothetical situations are given, and students learn techni-
National Association of Secondary School Principals( NASSP) ques for "considering all factors" (CAF) and developing a
are intended for grades 1-12, while Project Impact is general- "plus, minus, or interesting" (PMI) chart before they make
ly used at the middle or junior high school level and addres- decisions about the situation, Like Tactics, the program is a
ses minimum proficiency skills in reading, math, and social prudent investment. Materials cost approximately $20, and
science. the same materials are used in teacher training and in class-
12. Programs may provide a written demonstra . room work with students. No additional purchases are neces-
tion of the lesson with accompanying script. For ex- .sary. Training for teachers on all ten "tools" can be
ample, Odyssey provides a careful script along with student accomplished in less than eight hours,
responses, and Instrumental Enrichment and Philosophy for Problem Solving and Comprehension. Equally
Children have teacher's manuals that provide extensive sup- usable to supplement Tactics, espedally for the skills of
118 124
evetyday problem solving, academic problem solving, syn- Can We Implement Programs for
thesis, and analogy, is Whimbey's Problem Solving and Long-term Change, not for a Quick Fix?
Comprehension (1986). Another inexpensive investrnent
Thinking skills programs chosen to implement long-
MO, this book supplies the teacher with numerous prob.
km-solving activities to share with students. Particularly term changes are more likely to yield success. Articulation
powerful techniques are (1) the paired problem-solving ac- between and among grade levels and subjects is a major
consideration. A program dependent upon just one person
tivities that emphasize metacognitive skills and (2) the verbal
reasoning problems, each with an easy interpretation for or isolated at one grade level or subject area will be
teachers to share with students. The book is also useful for
piecemeal. A program planned over a span of years and
across subject areas is more likely to have depth and sub-
teacher training, The lessons are designed to strengthen the
stance. Such programs require staff development training
skills of all problem solvers, and they are especially adapt-
.and the involvement of many staff members in all three areas
able for grades 5-14.
of teaching thinking: teaching for thinking, teaching of
Philosophy for Children. Many districts compkment
thinking, and teaching about thinking.
their thinking skills curriculum with this program, especially
An elementary school that wants to raise student
in the areas of language arts and humanities. Materials are
achievement in the skill of identifiing the author's point of
available for grades 1-12; they consist primarily of novels
(adapted for various grade levels) that the entire class reads,
view will plan a continuum that ensures that the skill is
introduced uniformly at a grade level, and that it is reinforced
plus teacher materials to foster reasoning skills. The program
at regular intervals with appropriate degrees of difficulty.
is somewhat more costly than those previously discussed
A secondary school that wants to raise student achieve-
because student materials must be purchased. Also, teacher
ment in a reasoning skill such as extrapolation will conduct
training requires approximately two weeks in a special
staff development and introduce strategies for presenting the
workshop.
skill in various subjects. As important as the initial staff
SOL This is a program for districts that prefer a more
development or dissemination of instructional materials is
specialized program tied directly to individual student needs
the follow-through by department or grade chairpersons or
as profiled on a pretest. SOI is intended for individualized
administrators: peer coaching can also help to ensure that
instructional activities based on a student's profile of
strengths and weaknesses. The program requires two clays skills are being taught. And test-item analysis of student
achievement is one way to validate the degree of success.
of training to understand and interpret the pretest and
A program that can serve several grade levels or be
profiles. Hand scoring is possible by trained personnel, but
blended with other programs to address specific needs at
computer scoring services can be arranged with the Institute,
specific grade levels or subject areas is advantageous. Such
Tests and a master set of activities manuals must be
purchased for 501. These materials are usable only by staff
a program requires commitmentfrom the district ad-
ministration as well as the principaland is widely sup-
members trained in the program, so ongoing training must
ported by the teachers. That commitment is engendered by
he provided to ensure a knowledgeable teaching staff,
involving as many staff members as possible in choosing the
school personnel who are willing to commit staff training
program and by offering staff training in a timely, sequential
time, to purchase the tests and activities manuals, and to
manner. There is no surer way to doom a program than by
ensure that a modest amount of time is regularly devoted to
compacting the staff training into hurried sessions held late
the SOl activities can have an effective program.
in the school day and then assuming that the new materials
some of the SO1 materials are now available in Spanish
and procedures will take rootor by doing training for one
as well as English. and student ability profiles can he
or two days without subsequent follow-up or establishment
developed for career counseling and preparation.
of such supportive practices as peer coaching.
Instrumental Enrichment. This program has been
validated by numerous research studies. Rigorous training
and commitment is required for teachers. and materials can-
Ii BID RAPI IV
not be purchased without the training. Sternberg ranks In-
strumental Enrichment "among the best of the programs that Adams. M. J.. et al. (19R6). Odyssey: A Curricidum for Thinking.
emphasize thinking skills training." Schools must be willing Watertown, Mass.: Mastery Education Corp.
to commit the time, staff training, and monetary resources Black. 11. and S. Black. ( 1985). Building Thinking Skills. Pacific
Grove. California: Midwest Publications,
necessary to implement the program.
Bloom. B., and D. R. Krathwohl. 1977: reprint of 1956 (dition).
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Ilanclimok 1; Cognitive
Domain, New York: Davkl McKay Company.
119
Brandt, R. (September 1984). "Teaching of Thinking, for Thinking, National Association of Elementary School Principals. (n.d.) Me hm
About Thinking." Educational Leadership 42, 1: 3. Study Skills Program Level B. Alexandria, Va.: NAESP.
Chance, P. (1986). Thinking in the Classroom. New York: Teaches National Association of Secondary School Principals. (n.d.) The hm
College Press. Study Skills Program. Reston, Va: NASSP.
Costa, A. (1989a). "Foreword." Toward the Thinking Curriculum Nickerson, R. S., D. N. Perkins, and E. D. Smith. (1985). The
(1989 ASCD Yearbook), edited by L. B. Resnick and L. E. Teaching of Thinking. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum,
Klopfer. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Cur- Paul, R. W., A.J. A. Blinker, K. Adamson, and D. Martin. (1988),Criti-
riculum Development. cal Thinking Handbook: High School, Rohnert Park, Calif.:
Costa, A. (1989b). "Restructuring Lesson Plans to Enhance Think- Sonoma State University.
ing." Unpublished Paper. Presseisen, B. Z, ed, (1988). At-Risk Students and Thinking:
Costa, A., ed. (1985). Developing Minds. Alexandria, Va.: Associa- Perspectivesfrom Research. Philadelphia, Pa.: National Educa-
tion for Supervision and Curriculum Development. tion Association and Research for Better Schools,
de 13ono, E. (1986), CoRT Thinking Teacher's Notes, 2nd ed. New Presseisen, B. Z. (1986). Critical Thinking and Thinking Skills; State
York: Pergamon. of the Art Definitions and Practice in Public Schools. Philadel-
English, F. W. (1987). Curriculum Management for Schools, Col- phia, Pa.: Research for Better Schools.
leges, Business. Springfield, III.: Charles C. Thomas. Sternberg, R. J. (1983). How Can We Teach Intelligence?Philadel-
Feuerstein, R. (1980). Instrumental Enrichment. Baltimore: Univer- phia, Pa.: Research for Better Schools.
sity Park Press. Whimbey, A., and J, Lochhead. (1986). Problem Solving and Com-
Marzano, R. J., and D. E. Arredondo. (1986). Tactics for Thinking prehension. 4th ed, Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
?Weber's Manual. Aurora, Colo.: Mid-continent Regional Whimbey, A., and E. L. Jenkins. (1986). Analyze Organize Write: a
Educational Laboratory. Structured Program for Expository Writing. Hillsdale, N.J.:
Meeker, M. (1969). The SOI: Its Ma and Interpretation. Columbus, Lawrence Erlbaum.
Ohio: Charles Merrill, Whimbey, A. (1983). Analytical Reading and Reasoning. 2nd ed.
Meeker, M., R. Meeker, and G. Roid. (1984). 'Me Basic SOI Test Stamford, Conn.: Innovative Sciences, Inc.
Manual. Los Angeles, Calif.: WPS.
120
1
Contributing Authors
Marilyn Jager Adams, Senior Scientist, Bolt Bemnek & Newman Anne H. Nardi, Codirector, Center for Guided Design, West Vir-
Inc., BBN Systems and Technologies Corp., 10 Moulton St., ginia University, 137 Engineering Sciences Building, Box
Cambridge, MA 02238. 6101, Morgantown, WV 26506.
John D. Baker, President, Midwest Publications, Critical Thinking Carol Booth Olson, Project Director, UC1 Writing Proiect, Univer-
Press, P.O. Box 448, Pacific Grove, CA 93950. sity of California, Irvine, CA 92717.
Linda Barron, Research Assistant Professor of Mathematics Educa- Sidney]. Parnes, Professor Emeritus of Creative Studies, SUNY at
tion, Peabody College, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN Buffalo, and Trustee, Creative Education Foundation. From
37203. November 1 to June 1, send correspondence to: 8535 Via
John Bransford, Professor of Psychology, Learning Technology Mallorca, La Jolla, CA 92037; fromJune through October: 214
Center, Box 45, Peabody College, Vanderbilt University, Nash- Wedgewood Dr., Williamsville, NY 14221,
ville, TN 37203. Stanley Pogrow, Associate Professor of Educational Foundations
Penelope Brooks, Professor of Psychology, Vanderbilt Univemi.y, and Administration, College of Education, University of
P.O. Box 9, Peabody Station, Nashville, TN 37203. Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721.
Susan Burns, Assistant Professor of Education, Dept. of Education, Carol L. Schlichter, Professor and Chair, Program for Gifted
Alcee Fortier Bldg., Tulane University, New Orleans, LA and Talented, University of Alabama, Box 870231,
70118. Tuscaloosa, AL 35487.
Geoffreyi. Comber, Creator of The Touchstones Project, 48 West Richard D. Sholseth, Consultant, Thinking Skills Institutes,
St., Suite 104, Annapolis, MD 21401. Divison of Curriculum and Instructional Programs, Los An-
Arthur L. Costa, Professor, California State University, Sacramen- geles County Office of Education, 9300 E. Imperial Highway,
to, and Co-Director, the Institute for Intelligent Behavior. Send Downey, CA 90242-2890,
correspondence tot 950 Fulton Ave., Suite 245, Sacramento, Roberti. Sternberg, IBM Professor of Psychology and Education,
CA 95825.
Department of Psychology, Yale University, Box 11A Yale
Station, New Haven, CT 06520.
Anne B. Crabbe, Director, Future Problem Saving Program, St.
Andrews College, Laurinburg, NC 28352.
Shari Tishman, Associate, Project Zero, Graduate School of
Education, Harvard University, 313 Longfellow Hall, Appian
Edward de Bono, Director, International Center for the Develop-
Way, Cambridge, MA 02138-3752,
ment of Thinking Skills, L2 Albany, United Kingdom, Piccadil-
Donaldj. Trefflnger, Director, Center for Creative Learning, 4152
ly, London W.IV 9RR.
Independence Court, Suite C-7, Sarasota, FL 34234.
Margarita A. de Sanchez, Director, Developing Thinking Skills
Program, Instituto Tecnologico y de Estudios Superiores dc Sydney Billig Tyler, Author and Program Design Specialist,
Thomas Geale Publications, Inc., P.O. Box 370540, Montara,
Monterrey, Campus Eugenio Garza Sada, Dinamarca #451, Co,
del Carmen, C.P. 64710, Monterrey, N.L. Mexico. CA 94037,
James Van Haneghan, Assistant Professor of Educational
H. Carl Haywood, Professor of Psychology and of Neurology,
Vanderbilt University, P.O. Box 9, Peabody Station, Nashville, Psychology, Department of Educational Psychology, Coun-
seling and Special Education, Graham Hall, Northern Illinois
TN 37203.
Marda Heiman, Co-Director. Learning to Learn, Inc.. 28 Tenniman University, DeKalb, IL 60115.
Nancy Vye, Research Associate, Learning Technology Center, Box
Rd., Allston, MA 02134.
45, Peabody College, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN
Deborah E. Hobbs, Instructor, Elementary Education, Elementary
Education Dept., Utah State University. Logan, UT 84322. 37203.
Charles E. Wales, Co-Director, Center for Guided Design, P.O. Box
David Hyerle, Director of Curriculum and Development, 77 Pem-
berton St., Innovative Services, Inc., Cambridge, MA 02140. 6101, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506-6101.
Diane Y. Watanabe, Consultant, Thinking Skills Institutes, Divison
Scott G. lsaksen, Associate Professor and Director, Center for
of Curriculum and Instructional Programs, Los Angeles Coun-
Studies in Creativity, State University College at Buffalo, Chase
Hall, 1300 Elmwood Ave., Buffalo, NY 14222. ty Office of Education, 9300 E. Imperial Highway, Downey,
CA 90242-2890.
Frances It. Link, President, Curriculum Development Associates, Howard Will, Vice President, Great Books Foundation, 40 E.
Inc., 1211 Connecticut Ave., N.W., Suite 414, Washington, DC
Huron St., Chicago, IL 60611.
20036.
Susan Williams, Research Assistant, Learning Technology Center,
Matthew Lipman, Director, Institute for the Advancement of
Peabody College, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37203.
Philosophy for Children, Montclair State College. 210 Chapin
S. Lee Winocur, National Director, Center for the Teaching of
Hall, Upper Montclair, NJ 07043.
Thinking, 21412 Magnolia St., Huntington Beach. CA 92646.
Nicholas Maistreills, Creator. The Touchstones Project, 48 West
Elena Dworkin Wright, Managing Editor, Charlesbridge Publish-
St., Suite 104, Annapolis, MD 21401.
ing, 85 Main St., Watertown, MA 02172.
Robert J. Marzano, Senior Program Director, Mid-continent Michael Young, Assistant Professor of Educational Psychology,
Regional Educational Laboratory, 2550 S. Parker Rd., Suite
249 Glenbrook Dr., Box U-4, University of Connecticut. Storm,
500, Aurora, CO 80014.
CT 06269-2004.
Mary N. Meeker, Founder, 501 Systems, P.O. Box D, Vida. OR
Howard leiderman, Creator, The Touchstones Project, 48 West
97488.
St lite 104, Annapolis, MD 21401.
12 1
Index to Authors
Adams, Marilyn Jager, 1 Nardi, Anne H., 43
Baker, John D., 59 Olson, Carol Booth, 39
Barron, Linda, 110 Parnes, Sidney J., 54
Bransford, John, 110 Pogrow, Stanley, 62
Brooks, Penelope, 107 Schlichter, Carol L., 73
Burns, Susan, 107 Sholseth, Richard D., 114
Comber, Geoffrey, J., 85 Stemberg, Robert J., 79
Crabbe, Anne B., 40 Tishman, Shari, 69
de Bono, Edward, 27 Treffinger, Donald J., 89
de Sanchez, Margarita A., 101 Tyler, Sidney Billig, 94
Educational Testing Service, 98 Van Haneghan, James, 110
Haywood, H. Carl, 107 Vye, Nancy, 110
Heiman, Marcia, 51 Wales, Charles E., 43
Hobbs, Deborah E., 73 Watanabe, Diane Y., 114
Hyerle, David, 16 Will, Howard, 57
isaksen, Scott G., 89 Williams, Susan, 110
Link, Frances R., 9, 12 Winocur, S. Lee, 33
Lipinan, Matthew, 35 Wright, Elena Dworkin, 48
Maistrellis, Nicholas, 85 Young, Michael, 110
Marano, Robert J., 65 Zeiderman, Howard, 85
Meeker, Mary N., 3
128
AEI
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development

Study On Thinking Skills

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ED 332 167 CS 010 589

AUTHOR Costa, Arthur L., Ed.

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.

Points of vi* of Oomiooll Staled in INS Coco

1. Balancing Process and Content Marilyn Jager Adams 1

2. Stmcture of Intellect (SOD Mary N. Meeker 3

Contributing Authors 121

Balancing Process and Content

Structure of Intellect (SOI)

Guilford's theory of intelligence, the Structure of Intel- Relationship of SOI Abilities

yet developed these abilities. General comprehension .87 .88 .85

READING (Foundational abilities): ARITHMETIC:

'See ERIC 11-0-2822 for confirmatory studies.

VISUAL CLOSURE (CFU)

00-111-- FIGURAL METHODS

READING: SOI INTERMEDIATE ABILITIES

READING: 501 ADVANCED ABILITIES

ANALYTIC REASONING (CRITICISM, TEXT ANALYSIS)

COMPREHENSUN OF NUMERICAL PROGRESSIONS (CSS)

MATHEMATICS: SOI ABILITIES

CONSTANCY OF OBJECTS IN SPACE (CFS)

SOI ADVANCED SYMBOLIC ABILITIES

COMPREHENDING SYM3OLIC INTERRELATIONS (CSS)

ICRITICAL THINKING: SYMBOLIC I

ANALYTIC REASONING (SYMBOLIC TRANSLATION)

Language Arts/Reading Basic

Arithmetic, Mathematics, Basic

REFERENCES Meeker, R. (1983). Report prepared for California State Superinten-

Structure of the Intellect (S0l)

Sample skill: NMI: coNvergent production of

Intelided audience: All students and adults.

Available from: 501 Institute, P.O. Box D, Vida, OR 97488. Telephone:503-896-3936.

FIGURE to isolate the factors involved in evaluating or predicting

Developer: Reuven Feuersteir.

Assumptions: Intelligence is dynamic (modifiable), not static.

Intended audience: Upper elementary, middle, and secondary levels.

SEEING PATTERNS MEDIATED WRITING EXPERIENCE 13a

AREAS OF COGNITIVE FOCUS 13a

*1987 Curnculum Development Associates, Inc.

Intended audience: Nine-year-olds through college students.

Time: journal writing once a week.

minds and then on a pageare menial models of how they Qualification

Circle Map for Thinking-Making

abstracting from and projecting qualities onto things, and to

Double-Bubble Map for

We use the process of Classification in the classroom as Structure Analysis

Brace Map for Structure Analysis

Flowchart Map for Operation Analysis

Multi-Flow Map for Cause-Effect

Bridge Map for Seeing Analogies

Overview of Sample Chapter Activities

Chapter 2: Qualification Using the Bubble Map

Teaching for Thinking

Wait Time Metacognitive Paraphrasing, Alternative Informative

Expand Your Thinking is a program primarily used for

REFERENCFS Lakoff, G. (1989). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things. Chicago:

Expand Your Thinking

Developer: David Hyerle (based on the work of Albert Upton)