Vpe 511
Vpe 511
Vpe 511
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o what is environment ?
o different types of environment
o scope of environmental Hygiene
o importance of environmental Hygiene
o impact of environmental Hygiene.
DEFINITION
Environmental
Science is an
inter-
disciplinary
study which
deals with the
interaction of
a human
species with
other species
and the non-
living
environment.
1
2
Environmental Studies include the study of atmosphere, the land ,the oceans and
the chemical cycles that flow through physical and biological systems.
According to Newman, Environmental studies deal with the disturbances in the
environment and their reduction through societal changes. According to him
Environmental Science is the study of processes which occur in water, air, soil
and in living organisms leading to pollution, and solution to minimize the
environmental impacts.
TYPES OF ENVIRONMENT
There are two types of environment. The first one in Natural Environment and
the other one is Man-made Environment.
Natural Environment: The natural environment comprises
o Atmosphere (500kms above the surface of earth),
o Hydrosphere (surface and ground water resources on earth’s crust),
o Lithosphere (earth’s crust which includes rocks and soil)
o Biosphere (region where life exists on earth-between 10,000 m below sea
level and 6,000 m above sea level).
Man-made Environment: The man made environment comprises
o Human groups (religious and communities).
o Material infrastructure built by man (rural and urban settlements,
railways, roads etc.).
o Production relationships (factors of production-primary, secondary and
tertiary activities).
o Institutional systems (education, commercial and marketing).
CATEGORIES OF ENVIRONMENT
2
3
Environmental studies have multiple scopes. The study is very important for
everyone. The scope are as follows
o Environmental studies create an awareness among people on natural
resources. People come to know about conservation of resources and their
management following certain code of conduct.
o They provide knowledge about richness and conservation of biodiversity.
o The study provides knowledge about ecological systems and their cause,
effect and relationship.
o The study helps us to understand about environmental pollution and its
control. It helps us to know about the causes and consequences due to
natural and man-induced disaster.
o The study helps us to know the problem of overpopulation, health hygiene,
etc.
o They teach us the need for sustainable development and enable us to
convert our theoretical into practice.
3
4
Since many physical , chemical and biological parameters are used to describe
environment, an interdisciplinary approach is required to environmental studies.
One needs ‘knowledge’ inputs from many disciplines to study the various
environmental issues facing him/her. Each discipline in its own way . It is not
complete in itself. So, a multidisciplinary approach is essential to solve the
present complex environmental problems. In addition, the applied sciences are
more useful to plan new strategies to improve the environment, thereby
preventing any further adverse effects.
Refinement of one’s knowledge is possible only when there is multidisciplinary
approach and a grasp of a comprehensive view of issues. Hybridization of
different disciplines leads to newer directions for research and methods of
analysis to solve the present problems of environment.
The quality of environmental analysis is enhanced when sensor based in situ data
collection, remotely sensed data products and Geographical Information System
(GIS) based analysis are carried out. Mathematical modelling and calculations
using statistical analysis to compare data from various regions are used to study
environment in a better way. To study the natural resources, modern
geographical and geological is very useful.
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o What is Ecosystem ?
o Concept of Ecosystem
o Types of Ecosystem
o Components Ecosystem
o Producers, consumers and decomposers in Ecosystem.
ECOSYSTEM
4
5
The term ecosystem was first introduced by Sir Arthur Tansely (1935). The
relationship between biotic and abiotic components is called holocoenois.
Previously, Russian ecologist, Sukachev in 1944, coined the term ‘biogeoconeosis’
to include environment in the study of Biological communities. This term
biogeocoenosis is equivalent to term ecosystem.
Earnst Haekel (1869) coined the word ‘Ecology’, which is the study of organisms
in their natural home interacting with their surroundings. Ecology is often
defined as the study of ecosystems. According to Utpary (1954), ecosystem is a
complex system in which living and non-living constituents are interacting with
one another, triggering an exchange of energy and matter.
CONCEPT OF AN ECOSYSTEM
We may consider the living component of ecosystem from the point of view of
levels of organization for better understanding of ecosystem and ecology. All
living things are made up of protoplasm which is the physical basis of life. The
protoplasm is organized into cells which are again, organized into tissue. The
tissues organize themselves into organs, organs into systems and systems into
organisms. One kind of organisms (one kind of species) living together to form a
small or large assemblage is called a population. Several population of different
plant and animal species interacting with one another are called a biotic
community or community. A community with its interacting populations for
energy and nutrients constitutes and ecosystem.
The largest ecosystem is called biosphere or ecosphere (entire habitable part of
the earth) in which plants and animals , living part of the community interact
with environment (non-living part)
Ecosystem can be broadly classified into (i) natural ecosystem (ii) man made
ecosystem. The natural ecosystem comprises Terrestrial ecosystem (Forest,
Grassland and Desert E.S) and Aquatic ecosystem ( Freshwater E.S - Lake, Pond,
Ditch, Swamp, River, Spring and Stream E.S and Marine E.S - Ocean and Sea
E.S). Man-made ecosystem (or) Artificial ecosystem are those ecosystems which
are modified by human activities. For example, crop field, urban, industrial
laboratory and space, space crafts, gardens, parks and aquariums are artificial
ecosystems.
5
6
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
FOREST ECOSYSTEM
6
7
Tropical rain forests: They are evergreen forests found occurring near the
equator. They get high temperature, high humidity and heavy rainfall. These
forests are famous for richest biodiversity. There are three layers, namely
topmost layer of tallest trees. (e.g,. Lianes and orchids), shrub layer (many
shrubs) and ground layer (herbs) eg., The silent valley in Kerala.
Tropical deciduous forests: They are found a little away from the equator . There
is a warm climate throughout the year. Monsoon rainfall occurs during the
monsoon seasons. Since drought prevails in the forest during most part of the
year, the leaves fall down during dry season.
Tropical scrub forests: In this type of forest, dry season is longer. So, deciduous
and armed shrubs and trees grow here.
Temperate rain forests: They occur in areas where there is adequate rain fall.
Coniferous trees like firs, redwoods and pines dominate these forests. There are
also evergreen trees, with broad leaves.
Temperate Deciduous forests: Here, moderate temperature occurs. The trees like
poplar and oak grow in these forests.
Evergreen coniferous forests (or) Boreal forests: They are found in the South of
arctic tundra. There will be long winters. The temperature will be mild in
summer. The trees are represented by fir, pines, spruce and cedar which have
needle-shaped leaves. There is less species diversity due to acidic soil.
7
8
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Grassland occurs in places where there is cold climate during winter and hot
climate during summer. Rainfall is average. Grasslands and inhabited mainly by
tall grasses.
There are the types of grasslands. They are as follows
8
9
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
The desert ecosystem occurs in a region where there is less rainfall and snow and more
evaporation. The main features of the ecosystem are as follows:
Types
9
10
Tropical deserts e.g. Sahara in Africa and Thar in Rajasthan with sand dunes.
Temperate deserts e.g., Mojave in Southern California.
Cold deserts e.g., Gobi deserts in China.
Abiotic factors
o The factors include more temperature, less rainfall, less mineral cycling
and soil has more nutrients but less water.
Biotic factors
o Producers
They include shrubs, armed plants, grasses few trees fleshy plants
like Euphrobia, Agaves with adapatations, lichens and
o Consumers
Primary consumers (herbivores): Camles, rats , insects and birds.
Secondary consumer: Snake, lizard with thick skin.
Decomposers: Fungi and Bacteria are some of the thermophilic
decomposers
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Aquatic ecosystem deals with water bodies and the biotic communities. It is
either freshwater or marine.
A pond ecosystem is a self regulating and self sufficient fresh water ecosystem.
Here fresh water is stagnant, receiving water during rainy season.
10
11
Ocean Ecosystem
11
12
The Ocean ecosystem is larger than the other ecosystems on earth. Oceangraphy
is the study of the oceans. There are two environments in the ocean. The open sea
environment (pelagic -40 -50 feet from the surface) and deep sea environment)
(Benthic).
Two thirds of earth’s surface is marine water. In sea water, more salt and metals
are present. Oceans are major sinks of CO2, regulating biogeochemical cycles,
hydrological cycles thereby earth’s climate.
These are two major life zones-coastal zone and open sea. The coastal zone will be
warm with nutrient rich shallow water. There is high primary productivity due to
more nutrients and light. The open is the deeper part of the ocean.
Abiotic factors
o They include salt, organic and inorganic compounds O2, light,
temperature, tides and waves.
Biotic factors
o Producers: They include phytoplanktons, algae, angiosperms, grasses
mangrove plants like Rhizophora, Avicennia and Sonneratia.
o Consumers: There are three types of consumers:
o Primary consumers: They include small fish, crabs, protozoans and
prawns.
o Secondary consumers: They include big fishes like herring, saat and
markerel.
o Tertiary consumers: They include very big fishes like cod, hedak, and
whales.
o Decomposers: They include Bacteria and Fungi.
At the mouth of a river where fresh water and sea water meet, estuary is present.
The estuary is always affected by tides of the sea. Mixing of fresh water and salt
water helps the producers in the ecosystem to get more nutrients and energy. The
organisms show wide range of tolerance to salinity and temperature because
there are variations in the stream flow and tidal currents (eg. Tidal marshes and
coastal bays).
The abiotic factors are salt and organic and inorganic compounds. The biotic
factors include macrophytes , microphytes and phytoplanktons. There are many
endemic species. The consumers resemble marine ecosystem. There are
migratory species of fishes eg., cels and salmons, These migratory fishes spend
half of their life in salt water and half in freshwater. They get a lot of food in
estuaries which are highly productive ecosystems.
Since the estuaries provide more food for man and other animals, we have to
protect the estuary ecosystems by all means.
12
13
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o structure of ecosystem
o abiotic and Biotic substances in ecosystem
o functions of ecosystem
o food web
o types of pyramids in ecosystem.
ABIOTIC SUBSTANCES
Abiotic substances
Biotic substances
Producers: They are producing their own food and therefore they are called
autotrophs, (eg. Green plants and bacteria).
o Photo-autotrophs : Green plants prepare food during photosyntheses
Photo-autotorphs: Green plants prepare food during
photosynthesis.
Light
Photosynthesis = 6CO2 +12H2O --------------- C6H12O6 + 6O2 +6H2O
Chlorophyll (Glucose)
13
14
Heat
CONSUMERS
Organisms get their food by feeding on other organisms or organic matter. They
are called heterotrophs.
Primary consumers: Herbivores (or) Plant enters derive their nutrition directly
from plants. e.g. Rabbit, Cattle, Elephant, Camel, Insect, Deer, etc.
Secondary consumers: They are carnivores deriving their energy from herbivores
Example: Frog and small Bird.
Tertiary consumers: They are also carnivores that feed on other carnivores.
Examples are snake, Big fish, Fox, Eagle, Tiger, Lion and Wolf.
Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals. Example- Man, Rat, Birds and
Fox.
Detrivores: They feed on dead organisms and wastes. Examples are Beetles,
Termites, Ants, Crabs and Earthworms.
Decomposers
They are the heterotrophs (e.g. Bacteria and fungi) acting upon faecal matters,
exudates and dead bodies. They perform on invaluable service in the ecosystem
by decomposing the above organic matter and make it available for reuse.
14
15
15
16
FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEMS
16
17
In the process of food chains, energy flow, nutrient cycling, ecological balance
and biological magnification of some chemicals take place. Pesticides and heavy
metals are nonbiodegradable. They are carried along the food chain.
17
18
FOOD WEB
They were first devised by Charles Elton (1927) So they, are also called Eltonion
Pyramids.
Graphic representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem starting
with producers at the base and successive trophic levels forming the apex are
called Ecological Pyramids.
There are three Parameters of each Trophic level:
o Number of individuals
o Amount of Biomass
18
19
o Amount of Energy
Three types of Pyramids are as follows:
o Pyramid of numbers
o Pyramid of Biomass
o Pyramid of Energy
PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
POND ECOSYSTEM
(C2b) Pyramid of Biomass
19
20
PYRAMID OF ENERGY
Learning objectives
20
21
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o what is food chain ?
o different types of food chain
o what is Biodiversity ?
o uses of Biodiversity
o threats and conservation of Biodiversity
FOOD CHAIN
The transfer of food energy from the source in plants through a series of
organisms with repeated stages of eating and being eaten is known as the food
chain. A food chain always starts with plant life and ends with an animal. Animals
that eat only plants are called herbivores. Animals that eat other animals are
called carnivores. For example, a simple food chain links the plant, the insect
(that eat plant), and the frog (that eat the insect), and the snake (that eat the frog)
and the eagle (that eat the snake).
21
22
in its tissues. In other words, organisms along a food chain pass on much
less energy (in the form of body mass) than they receive.
The further along the food chain you go, the less food ( and hence energy)
remains available.
The above pyramid-shaped food chain shows many trees & shrubs providing food
and energy to giraffes. Note that as we go up, there are fewer giraffes than trees &
shrubs and even fewer lions than giraffes.
Most food chains have no more than four or five links. This is because the
animals at the end of the chain would not get enough food (and hence energy ) to
stay alive.
Most animals are part of more than one food chain and eat more than one kind of
food in order to meet their food and energy requirements.
A change in the size of one population in a food chain will affect other
populations. This interdependence of the populations within a food chain helps
to maintain the balance of plant and animal populations within a community. For
example, when there are too many giraffes; there will be insufficient trees and
shrubs for all of them to eat. Many giraffes will starve and die. Less giraffe means
less reproduction, less food is available for the lions to eat and some lions will
starvae to death. When there are fewer lions, the giraffe population will increase.
Food chain begins from a green plant. The food chain in aquatic and terrestrial
grazing ecosystems are shown below
The food chain begins with plant but then goes herbivores of huge number of
ectoparasites (parasites living outside the host)
Dead plant and animals ---> Earthwork ---> Frog ---> Snake
22
23
The food chain starts from organic matter of decaying animal and plant to
microorganisms and then to detritus feeding organism, the follows to their
predators.
The example is mangrove ecosystem. The food chain follows the following steps
o Mangrove leaves fall into the warm and shallow water.
o The leaves are eaten by fungi, bacteria, protozoa, etc, living on algae. Algae
are eaten by small animals, like crabs, copepods, insect larvae, etc.
o Small animals are eaten by small fish and then by large fish followed by
fish eating birds.
BIODIVERSITY
The term biodiversity refers to the wealth of plants, animals and micro
organisms that contain precious genes and formulate delicate ecosystems.
Definition
Biodiversity refers to variety and variability among the living organisms and
ecological complexes in which occur. This includes diversity within species,
between species and of the ecosystem. It is defined as the totality of genes,
species and ecosystems of a region.
Biodiversity or Biological diversity comprises Genetic diversity, Species diversity
and Ecosystem diversity.
Genetic diversity
It refers to the variation of genes within the species stores as immense amount of
genetic information. Genetic variation is seen among the individuals within a
species . For instance, in cattle there are many varieties with respect to colour,
milk yield, size or disease resistance.
The genetic variation may be in alleles, entire genes or in chromosomal
structures. It leads to better adaptation of species to the changed environment.
New species are formed due to genetic variation.
Species diversity
It refers to the various species found within a region. Variability found within a
species or between different species of a community. Species diversity is
measured by species richness (number of species per unit area) and evenness or
equitability (evenness in the number of individuals of a species).
23
24
In the case of species richness, higher species diversity represents greater species
diversity. In the second case, evenness of species represents higher species
diversity.
Ecosystem diversity
It refers to the variations in the biological communities in which the species live.
The diversity within a community is called alpha diversity. The diversity between
communities is called Beta diversity. Examples are Tropical Rain Forest and
Boreal Forest.
The present diversity has developed over millions of years of evolution and
therefore ecological balance should not be disturbed. The diversity of the habitats
over total landscape or geological area is referred to as Gamma diversity (or)
Landscape diversity. For example Forest ecosystem, aquatic ecosystem,
Grasslands, Deserts, mangroves etc.
USES OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is very essential for the health of biosphere and it provides the raw
materials for man in order to make him adapt to the changing environment.
Man derives many direct and indirect benefits from the living things. Biodiversity
provides ecological services also. The uses of biodiversity are as follows.
It includes food, medicine, fuel, fibre, timber, clothing, etc. 80,000 species are
edible wild plant species. 90% of the crops have been domesticated from wild
tropical plants. 75% of the world population depends upon plants for medicines.
For instance, penicillin from a fungus name Penicillium, quinine from a plant
namely, Cinchona, tetracycline from a bacterium and cancer-curing drugs like
vinplastine and vinchristine from a plant namely, Catharanthus
roseus (Nithyakalyani) are obtained.
Social value
24
25
Ethical value
We must protect every life. It is based on the concept ‘Live and let live’
We must enjoy watching all animals-Kangaroo, Giraffe, Zebra etc., though they
are not useful to us directly. We should not cage birds for our pleasure and
pastime.
Aesthetic value
Biodiversity provides us a good deal for fun and recreation. This type of tourism
is known as ecotourisum which generates 12 billion dollars as income per year.
If we have a lion in a zero we get about Rs . 2 crores as income per year. But if we
kill the lion we get only Rs. 50,000/-
A teak fetches Rs. 50,000/- if cut down; but it lives, its value is priceless by way of
its ecological role.
Biodiversity in India
25
26
Biodiversity in TamilNadu
TamilNadu has a rich biodiversity. The state has 5 National Parks, 20 wild life
sanctuaries and 2 biosphere reserves.
It is estimated that 9% of the freshwater fauna of India is found in Tamil Nadu.
The insects dominate the fresh water animals. There are about 31 species of
molluscs and 153 species of fishes in Tamil Nadu.
In Vedanthangal Birds Sanctuary many species of birds are seen. They visit this
sanctuary from far off places during migratory season.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Though the rate of loss of species has been a slow process in the past, the process
of extinction has become fast in recent years. It has been reported that
approximately 10,000 species become extinct every year. This raises an alarm
regarding the threat to biodiversity. IF this trend continues 1/3 or 2/3 of our
current biodiversity would become extinct by the middle of the 21 stcentury.
Loss of Habitat
o Destruction of habitats due to clearing of forests and grasslands for
agricultural lands, pastures, settlement areas or project development lead
to loss of habitat. These factors are responsible for the disappearance of
thousands of species. According to the world Health Organisation (WHO)
estimates, about 80% of the population of developing countries relies on
traditional medicines, mostly drugs from plants. In order to meet the
demand, about 86% of plant collection involves destructive harvesting.
Many plants become endangered, besides loss and degradation of natural
habitats take place due to overharvesting.
o The wetlands, mangroves and estuaries with rich biodiversity are under
threat. They are destroyed, as if they have no value. For example estuarine
ecosystem in Adyar, Chennai has disappeared posing a major treat to
nearly 170 species of birds, many of which nest and breed there. Tropical
forests disappear at the rate of 0.6% per year in our country. Marine
biodiversity is also threatened by human intervention.
o The wetlands in India are distributed in different geographical regions.
Most of the wetlands in India are linked with major river systems. India
has 27403 wetlands covering 4.1 million . Of these , 2,175 are natural and
the rest are manmade. Wetlands occupy 18.4 of the area of our country of
which 70% are under rice cultivation. In India, out of an estimated 4.1
million ha of wetlands, 1.5 mha are natural and 2.6 mha are man-made.
Wetlands provide food and shelter for mammals and birds.
Poaching of wild life
26
27
o The illegal commercial hunting is called poaching. There are two types of
hunting subsistence hunting (killing animals for food) and sport hunting
(killing animals to sell their meat, fur, horns, tusks etc.)
Man-Animal conflicts
o Sometimes, wild animals threaten human beings. This leads to conflict
between wild life and man. For example elephant in Sambalpur, Orissa
killed 195 humans in 5 years. The villagers killed 98 elephants in
retaliation and injured 30 elephants.
Causes
When the habitats of wild animal are destroyed by man, the animals are forced to
come out of the forest in search of food to the nearby human settlements and
attack human beings when they come in contact with them accidentally.
When rice, sugarcane , etc., are not cultivated within the sanctuaries, the animals
move out in search of food. One adult elephant needs 2 quintals of green fodder
and 150 litres of water daily. If this is not available, the wild animals move out.
The weak and injured animals have a tendency to attack man. A tigress attacks
man in order to protect its cubs. Once a tiger tastes the flesh of a man
accidentally, it becomes a man-eater.
When wildlife corridors are converted into human settlements, the path of wild
life is disrupted and animals attack the settlements.
Since the compensation by the government in lieu of crop damage is not enough,
the agonized farmers kill the wild animal to protect their crops.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
27
28
Methods of Conservation
This is achieved by protection of wild flora and fauna in the natural habitat itself.
This is called ‘in situ’ or site conservation. E.g. Biosphere Reserves , National
Parks, Sanctuaries and Reserve forests. There are 13 Biosphere reserves, 80
national parks and 420 wildlife sanctuaries and 120 Botanical gardens in India.
Preserving plants and animals away from their natural habitat is called Ex-situ
conservation.
In the National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) Karnal, Haryana,
the semen of Domesticated bovine animals is protected. About 90 million cattle
were being produced world wide by 1977 using artificial insemination involving
frozen semen.
In the National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Allahabad, several fish species
are preserved.
Tissue culture methods help in conservation of varieties of crop plants and trees.
Moreover, aromatic plants and medicinal plants are also conserved by means of
Gene bank. (Seed bank, Pollen bank, DNA libraries, etc.)
28
29
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o What is the meaning of natural resources ?
o Different types of natural resources
o Uses and abuses of forest resources
o Uses and abuses of mineral resources
o Impact on the environment due to abuses.
NATURAL RESOURCES
They are inexhaustive and can be regenerated within a given span of time. For
example, water, air, soil fertility, wild plants and animals, human beings and
energy resources like wind energy, tidal energy, hydropower, solar energy and
biomass energy.
Natural resources
29
30
o Mineral resources
o Soil resources.
o Water resources
o Food resources
o Energy resources
FOREST RESOURCES
Forest are important renewable renewable natural resources. Trees, shrubs and
herbs dominate forest ecosystem. 33% of the world’s area consists of forest lands.
Insects, birds and animals live there. Native forest has naturally growing plants
and trees. Man-made forest consists of species of trees, shrubs, etc., grown by
man. Boreal coniferous forests are found around the Arctic Sea, 55 0 to 650 north
latitude .Temperate forests are found on either side of the earth 30 0 to
550 latitude north. Tropical rain forests are found between 300 north latitude and
300 south latitude.
Uses of forests
Productive function: Forests provide raw materials like pulp for paper industry
and ingredients for pharmaceutical industry. They also provide fuel, fruits, nuts ,
timber, turpentine, gum, paints herbal oil, honey and alkaloids.
Protective function: Forests provide shelter for insects, birds, animals etc., and
aid in their reproduction, provide food and ensure their free movement. They
prevent drought soil erosion and loss of water.
Regulative function: Regulation of environmental equilibrium is successfully
achieved by forests. For example , regulation of Carbon-di-oxide (CO2), Oxygen
(O2) ,water (H2O)
and minerals is very essential for a healthy environment. Solar energy is
absorbed, retained and released by forests. During photosynthesis by green
plants, starch is formed from carbondioxide and water in the presence of sunlight
and it is stored . In this process, Carbon-di-oxide (CO 2) is taken in and Oxygen
(O2) is released to maintain equilibrium in atmosphere and aid in reducing the
global temperature. An increase in global temperature poses a threat to human
beings throughout the world.
One acre of forest absorbs 4 tons of Carbon-di-oxide (CO 2) and releases 8 tons of
Oxygen (O2), thereby regulating carbon cycle, flood and drought . It is the forest
which helps in economic development and maintenance of land value.
Abuses of forests
In India, in the olden day (Period of Mauriya and Gaudilya), there was more
forest cover and less deforestation. During the period of Ashoka, many trees were
planted. In the beginning of 20th century, there was 30% of forest cover; but by
30
31
the end of 20th century, there was only 19.4% of forests left. This is mainly due to
over exploitation of forests for commercial purposes like timber, food, etc.
According to the National Forest Act recommendations (1988), 33% of total area
and 67% of hilly area must be preserved as forest area. We should not destroy
forest for our short-term benefits as it would lead to permanent loss of forests in
an area forever.
DEFORESTATION
Causes of deforestation
Consequences of deforestation
Soil erosion; 6000 million tons of soil get eroded every year in India.
Frequent floods are a common occurrence.
Threatening of wild life species and their habitats, loss of biodiversity, erosion of
genetic diversity and loss of economy take place.
The hydrological cycle is affected and rainfall is reduced.
Global warming, climate and drought occur.
Landslides in hilly areas and increase in wind speed occur.
MINERAL RESOURCES
A nation’s economy depends mainly on minerals which are used by man everyday
for various activities. On the basis of usage of minerals, there are two types of
Human civilization namely Bronze Age and Iron Age. We extract about
74m.metric tons of iron and steel per year.
Minerals are mainly of inorganic origin but minerals like coal, petroleum and
amber are of organic origin. Industrialisation and overpopulation lead to
exploitation of minerals. Environmental problems arise when mineral
exploitation is pursued unscientifically by man.
Uses
Abuses
Minerals have been exploited by way of open cast mining (stripped of unwanted
materials lying above the mineral-bearing strata cast extraction of minerals),
underground mining (coal seams) and placer mining (surface mining from
stream bar or beach deposits).
U.S.A exploit huge amounts of minerals and energy resources and has become
the richest nation. Japan has the most efficient technologies with with respect to
coal and oil.
In India, energy-generating minerals such as coal and lignite are found in West
Bengal, Maharashtra, M.P., A.P., and Orissa. The important ore, uranium taken
from uranite ore and pitchblende are found in Jharkhand, A.P. (Nellore),
Megalaya and Rahasthan.
Commercially used minerals are aluminium (bauxite ore) and iron ore
(Haemetite and Magnetite), found in Jharkhand, West Bengal, Maharashtra,
M.P, and Tamil Nadu. The copper pyrites (Copper ore) are found in Rajasthan,
Bihar, A,P, M,P., Karnataka and West Bengal.
Environmental Impact
32
33
Remedial Measures
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Soil resources
o Uses and abuses of soil resources
o Water resources
o Uses and abuses of water resources
o Impact on the environment due to abuse
SOIL RESOURCES
33
34
Soil is the most finite and valuable resource upon which we depend for our basic
amenities of life. So, we should preserve soil by all means. The total area of India
is 328.73 mha. of which the potential area is 264.5 mha. About 187.8 m ha of land
have been degraded due to water shortage, wind erosion, salinity, alkalinity and
water-logging. Soil is thin covering over land containing organic materials, living
organisms, air and water.
Soil is a renewable source. But it is regenerated at a very slow rate i.e., 2.5 cm soil
for 200-1000 years. Soil becomes non-renewable resource when the rate of
erosion is faster than the rate of renewal. A cross section of soil horizon is called
soil profile.
Abuses
The rapid increase of population results in demand for limited land resources
which are subject to degradation. Land degradation takes place due to natural
and man-induced or arthropogenic activities. Natural causes are soil erosion,
land slide, volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, droughts and desertification.
Man induced causes are deforestation, mining, over-irrigation, dam construction
and use of more fertilizers. The flood havoc witnessed in Mumbai and Tamilnadu
(Nov.2005) was perhaps due to increase in global temperature and green house
gases. The average annual erosion rate of land is 20-100 times more than renewal
rate.
Man-induced landslides
Soil erosion
Top soil moves from one place to another resulting in loss of fertility of soil. One
third of world’s croplands is getting eroded. Two thirds of degraded lands lie in
Asia and Africa. Soil erosion takes place due to normal erosion by natural process
and accelerated erosion by overgrazing, deforestation and mining.
Two types of agents cause soil erosion. The first one is climatic agent (water and
wind) and the other is biotic agent (overgrazing by 35% damage to soil, mining
and deforestation by 30% and unscientific modern farming practices by 28%)
34
35
Desertification
The croplands are converted into desert like land. The desertification may be
moderate (10-25% drop in productivity), sever (215-50% drop) and very severe
(more than 50% drop).
The causes for desertification are overgrazing, disforestation, surface mining,
quarrying , unscientific farming, overcultivation, low rainfall, more drought and
global warming.
WATER RESOURCES
Uses
Water is used by man for almost all developmental activities such as drinking,
irrigation, washing, transportation, waste disposal in the industries and coolant
for the thermal power plants.
It is the water which shapes the earth’s surface and regulates the climate. 70% of
water is used for agriculture in the whole world (93% in India and 4% in Kuwait)
and 25% of water for industries (70% in Europe and 5% in less developed
countries). The per capita use of water in a family of 4 members in the USA is
1000 m3 per year, many time more than in the developing countries.
Abuses
35
36
suffer. The surface water is largely used for irrigation (93% in India) , industrial
use, public water supply, navigation, hydroelectric generation and thermal power
generation.
The ground water resources in India is estimated at 395.6 billion cubic meters.
But we use only 10% of this water. The total requirement of water in India in
2050 would be 1,422 billion cubic metres.
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o What is environmental pollution?
o Classification of pollutants
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Pollution
The world pollution is derived from latin word ‘pollutionem’, meaning ‘defile or
make dirty’
Pollution is defined as a deviation from the natural composition of a part of the
environment resulting in adverse effect on life.
Pollution is an unfavourable change in the physical or biological characteristics of
our air, land and water (or basic amenities) causing harmful effect on our life or
that of other desirable species and cultural assets. Therefore, it is defined as, “
The addition of the constituents to water, air, or land, which adversely alter the
natural quality of the environment”.
Natural pollution is the act of nature and man cannot control its occurrence that
easily. Eg, natural forest fires, volcanic eruptions, earthquake, etc. Artificial
pollution is due to the activities of man and is under his control. Eg, industrial
effluents and emissions, thermal and radioactive emissions, etc.
Environmental pollution is the result of urban- industrial technological
revolution and speedy exploitation and completion for the same with the
intention of grabbing every bit of natural resources without any empathy. The
mad rat race among nations over the entire globe for development jeopardized
the existence of man itself. The craze of progress in agriculture, industry,
transportation and technology is taken as the general criterion of development of
the nation. Such activities of man have created adverse effects on all living
36
37
Pollutants
The material, which causes the pollution of the environment is called pollutants.
Pollutants are undesirable substances present in the wrong place, at the wrong
time and in the wrong quantity.
37
38
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o How soil, air and water is polluted ?
o Causes of air, water and soil pollution
o Effect of air, water and soil pollution
o Control measures of air, water and soil pollution.
AIR POLLUTION
Definition
Engineers Joint Council of USA defines air pollution as “ the presence in the
outdoor atmosphere of one or more contaminants, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist,
odour, smoke or vapour in quantities, with characteristics, and of duration which
as to be injurious to human, plant and animal life or to property, or which
unreasonably interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property”.
38
39
Pollutants
Thermal power amounts to more than 70 per cent of power generation and 1000
tons of coal is burnt per year to produce.
1 MW power, producing the following pollutants ( in tons/ MW/ year)
Ash 750, carbon dioxide 7000, Sulfur dioxide 12, Oxides of Nitrogen 20. In
addition, carbon monoxide, and cancer causing heavy metals , present as
impurities in coal, is also released.
Thermal power stations are responsible for about 14% of the global air pollution,
while transport systems and industry contribute 60% and 16% respectively.
Impacts
39
40
The impacts from the air pollutants of thermal power plants are as follows
o Green house effect from CO2 release
o Corrosion of structures by SO2 and NO2
o Acid rains and death of aquatic life.
o Irritation of eyes and mucous membranes and respiratory distresses
o Anemia due to CO which destroys red blood cells
o Cancers due to some metal particulates
o Reduced yield of crops and dwarfed growth of plant life.
Control Measures
Pollution due to petroleum refineries encompases three stages , viz crude oil
production, transportation and refining operations. Maximum pollution occurs
during refining, where crude oil is subjected to distillation, cracking and hydro
cracking operations to give naphtha , kerosene, diesel oil, gasoline, fuel oil,
lubricants, LPG, asphalt, coke, grease and waxes. Air pollutants comprise of H 2S,
NH3, SO2, NOX, HF, HCL, CHX, aldehydes, mercaptans, smoke, CO, CO2, fumes,
mists and dusts. The major pollutants are SO2, H2S, CHX and SPM. They are
controlled as follows.
SO2: De sulfurisation of effluent gases, besides pollution control can meet the
sulphur shortage. The desulfurization processes employed are: Cat- OX, Cal-OX,
NOs- OX and ammos- OX. In the cat- OX, SO2 is catalytically oxidized to SO3 and
converted to sulfuric acid ; with and efficiency of 93%. In the cal- OX & NOs- OX
processes, SO2 is scrubbed with and alkaline solution. In the Ammos – OX
process ammonium sulfite and sulfate solutions are used for scrubbing SO2.
H2S: Ethyl amines are most commonly used to remove H2S along with CO2,
carbon disulfide and carbonyl sulfide. Sulfur is recovered in the process and the
absorbent amine is recycled, H2S can also be removed by adsorption using
activated carbon, alumina, zeolites, bauxite or iron oxide. The adsorbent can be
regenerated and reused, by a suitable method.
40
41
GLOBAL AIR POLLUTION
Solar energy is in the form of light radiation has wavelength in the range of 0.2 to
4 µm. It will lose solar energy after striking the earth and will be converted to
heat energy of longer wavelengths. Thus the wavelength of this terrestrial
reradiation, from earth to atmosphere is more (4-100um).
After striking earth since energy decrease, the wavelength increases. Carbon
dioxide has radiation absorption bands in the range of 12-18 mm wavelengths.
Thus if CO2 is present in the atmosphere, it allows the incoming solar radiation to
pass through. This is the origin of the term ‘ Green House Effect’ since the glass in
a green house also is transparent to short wavelength solar radiation and absorb
the long wavelength radiation, emitted from inside the green-house. CO2, water
vapour, methane N2O, ozone and CFCs cause similar effects and hence are called
green house gases. As these green house gas molecules absorb energy, their
temperature increases and they themselves start radiating heat. Only part of it
escapes out into the space while the remaining is radiated back to earth further
increasing its temperature.
Green house effect is essential for mankind and life. But man’s activities are
accelerating or enhancing the warming process to cause concern.
41
42
Main source of GHE is carbon dioxide, contributes about 50% . Presently more
than 10,000 million tons of carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere every
year by industries. USA alone produces about 2500 million tones of CO2 per year.
The carbon dioxide concentration in the pre-industrial era was 265-290 ppm and
today it is about 350 ppm.
Heat Islands
The heat energy release causes a significant climate change in cities and may
result in global climate effects. Because of the thermal capacitance of the streets,
buildings and industries for solar input and because of energy dissipation, cities
are warmer than their rural surroundings.
A difference of 60C is common is urbanized and industrialized cities. Hence
become heat island.
Acid Rains
Thermal power plants, industries and other sources release thousand tones of
oxides of nitrogen and sulphur into the atmosphere everyday. These gases
undergo transformation in the atmosphere from nitrates, sulphates, nitric acid or
sulphuric acid droplets. Some of these pollutants can travel 200-300 km in a day.
42
43
Thus compound emitted in one place may cause effect of concern on another
place.
Rain in the purest source of water ‘Acid Rain’ means any precipitation-rain snow,
or dew, which is more acidic than normal. Acid rain in general has the pH less
than 5.6. In developed countries acid rains with pH <4.5 are common.
Ozone Holes
As civilization improved man has constrained his life to indoors and started living
more and more indoor within the structures built by him. This led to the sever
problem of “ Indoor Pollution”. Man and several thousands of household
products made by him pose a serious threat to indoor air quality. These products
include cleaners, detergents, paints, air fresheners, etc. Indoor air pollution often
leads to severe health hazards like irritation to eyes, nose, throat, headache and
respiratory problems. It is proved that indoor pollution increases the tension and
decreases the productivity of workers.
CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION
Source Removal
43
44
o Sources other than human such as motor vehicles, wastes, appliances that
are not in use etc to be moved out. Smoking must be practically prohibited
in indoor.
Improved Building Design
o Better consideration to instantaneously remove combustion production
during cooking and related enjoyment activities. Preferably use low
fuming heating agents, attached with chimney in the kitchen. Better
exhaust in the toilet in favourably placed position ion the house for better
aeration and lighting.
Tobacco smoke
o Cigarette smoking is injurious to others health too and hence many
legislations to prevent it with due license to manufacture and distribute
the same. Typically about 500 ppm carbon monoxide is inhaled in each
smoke which inactivate about 5% of hemoglobin . Other pollutants of
cigarette smoke inclues carcinogens such as aldehydes, tar, hydrogen
cyanide, nicotine, lead etc.
o The effects of cigarette smoking include lung cancer to smokers and also
others living in the environment. Smokers recover slowly from acute virus
infections. Cigarette significantly causes air pollution.
Air Pollution from Cement Industry
o Cement is manufactured by crushing two types of stones, argillaceous and
calcareous, brought from the quarry. The fine powders are blended in right
proportion and slurry is prepared by adding water. The slurry slides down
an inclined klin kept rotating on its axis, as very hot air blows through the
klin. Due to the heat and rolling action clinker balls are formed and they
roll out of the kiln. The clinker is pulverized to fine powder, which is the
final product, cement. The above process in called a dry process. In an
alternative wet process the raw material stones are crushed in a wet state
and the slurries are blended in proportion.
o The air pollution from cement factories comprises mainly of
Dust, cement , crushed stone power and ash content of coal fuel
burning for power and
So2, NOX, CO and CO2 , as combustion products of coal.
o Silica dust causes a lung disorder known as ‘silicosis’. Vegetation is
affected by cement dust clogging the process of the leaves there by
affecting the gas exchange process of the plant. The cement dust settling
on the soil will adversely alter the soil composition affecting the land
productivity. Noise and heat pollution also add to the nuisance in the
victinity.
o To control air pollution in cement factories the following measures are to
be recommended:
Wet process of cement manufacturing should be encouraged. Since
the dry process has more pollution potentials.
Pulverization of clinker and transport of materials in the process
flow should be enclosed to prevent dust spillage.
44
45
Art Treasures
WATER POLLUTION
The quality of water is a vital concern for mankind since man is made up of 79%
water. Earth’s surface contain 71% water yet only 1% is drinkable and its quality
also going down in addition to shrinkage of amount. Due to indiscriminate use of
water for industrial purpose, it is being contaminated by industrial wastage,
sludge, oil, etc.
45
46
46
47
Eutrophication
o Domestic sewage contain large amount of phosphates, nitrates and other
nutrients and thus it become nutrient rich. The water bodies become
highly productive or eutrophic and the phenomenon is known as
eutrophication. It stimulates the luxuriant growth of algae in water. It
completes with other aquatic forms, leading of depletion of oxygen.
Further the algal growth releases some toxic chemicals, which kills fish,
birds and other animals , thus water begins to stink.
Industrial Effluents
o Effluents from industries like breweries, tanneries, dying textiles, paper
and pulp mills, steel industries, mining etc. The pollutants include oils,
greases, plastics, metallic wastes, suspended solids, phenols, cyanides,
DDT, etc. Most of them are non-biodegradable.
Agricultural Discharges
o The agricultural chemicals and are fertilizers and pesticides. They are
discharged into water bodies.
Physical Pollutants
o In this class, heat and radioactive substances coming out from thermal
power plants and nuclear power plants.
Oxygen Depletion
o Due to organic compounds overloading the chemical oxygen demand
(COD) increases. Consequently, the water contains less amount of oxygen
47
48
to breach the living forms in water. This leads to death of many life forms
to low dissolved oxygen (DO).
Nitrogenous and Phosphorous Compound
o The nutrients nitrogen and phosphorous promotes the growth of algae
which prevents other plant’s prosperity.
Pathogens
o Water pollutants invariably encourage the ideal condition growth and
proliferation of disease causing microorganism (pathogens). This spreads
diseases like cholera, flu, etc.
Toxic Compounds
o Heavy metals, pesticides, cyanides, lead, mercury, dyes, etc, are the
ingredients of many industrial effluents discharged in water.
Urban sewage
More than 99% of sewage is mere water that is polluted the 1% impurities with all
the evil attributes. Hence water is the most abundant component of the
wastewaters to be put to reuse. The other components of wastewaters and their
potentials for recovery and reuse as follows:
48
49
Methods of Recovery
49
50
SOIL POLLUTION
Our Globe consists of 29% land remaining eater. Out of which the fertile land is
very less. Up to 19th century a good ecological balance was maintained the
available land was sufficient to support the population. At present the population
of about 6 billion it become a burden for Mother Earth.
Besides the population, industrialization, urbanization, modernization, use of
unethical practices of insecticides, fertilizers etc have created a great concern over
land and is degrading fast in an unimaginable speed.
Soil pollution is the result of urban technological revolution and speedy
exploitation of every bit of natural resources.
50
51
Industrialisation
o As the result of man’s technology, invented more than 50 lakhs substances
of which more than 70,000 are used in abundance or abnormal quantities.
o Further 30,000 being added every year. The production carried out in
industries and too liberates wastes, sludges that are dumped on the
innocent earth. These foreign substances percolate into soil and spoil it.
This leads to loss of soil characteristics and its fertility.
Population
o Considerable portion of the soil is polluted by man by his own waste by
spreading it irregularly. His needs and creeds also increasing and some
which he tied to get it from soil leading to over exploitation and loosing its
required properties.
o As a matter of fact, man is trying to cultivate thrice or ever four times in a
year on a land in order to get the expected from the land. He is happy in
destroying for his temporary well being to built house, laying roads, etc.
All as a while leads to ecological imbalance and soil become barren lands
due to water logging, draughts etc.
Fertilizer, Insecticides and Pesticides
o Ever growing population needs ever demanding food. From the limited
land wants to get maximum and achieve sufficiency. The achievement is
attained by means of Fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides as
supplements for crops.
o They are used excessively to achieve the creed needs. This leads to the
accumulation of chemicals leading to change in pH and other properties of
soil and become unusable forever.
Polluted Water
o As every activity one way other needs water and leading to its pollution,
which in turn discharged in a stable , body the soil.
o The polluted water from industries and the acid rain etc pollute the soil.
Mining and Soil Pollution
o Soil damage and environmental damage are inevitable during mining.
Large quantity of topsoil and vegetation are removed mining. This lead to
loss of fertile land, soil erosion etc. Further mining waste dumps also lead
to soil pollution.
o According to recent estimate in India about 20,000 hectares of land has
been degraded due to mining and another 55,000 hectares of land being
degraded to meet the requirements of mining.
Municipal Garbage and Composts
o Corporation dispose domestic wastes on the surface of the soil. The
components get of it get into the soil and it become unusable.
o The major portion of the waste includes detergents. oils, plastic materials
etc.
The Man the Ultimate Pollutant
o The mad rat race among nations over the world for development has
jeopardized the existence of man himself. According to Josae de Casro, “
Underdevelopment itself represents a type of pollution”. So development
51
52
is aimed but alternate pollutants are incorporated in the land. Today living
together nature of the man with nature is no longer exists.
o According to International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 1972
in Stockholm conference on Environment, “ the war economy in which we
live must be converted into peace economy and the enormous savings
resulting from partial disarmament must be used to obtain such type of
development that would not only be more equitable but also non polluting
land”.
o Bary Commoner’s third law of ecology states that. “ nature knows best”.
o As a whole man’s existence in the globe is in peril and he has to take a sole
responsibility in pollution including soil pollution.
o F.C.I and Tata Thermal Plants emit and add 1000 tons of pollutants to soil
every year.
In Chembur, Mumbai trees without leaves, they neither grow flowers nor
vegetables in the garden.
Food Poisoning
After exploding nature the food grain produced on soil in contaminated with all
such chemicals used since they are non-biodegradable and hence they are not an
advisable food for human. According to estimate more than 5 lakhs people die
every year due to above such consequence. Accordingly we are authorized to
drink Pepsi, Cola containing insecticides similar level in the ground water and
court found to be safe and use it or not is given to ultimate consumers. Seller
beware rule need not be used all the time.
Metallic contaminants added in the soil destroy beneficial bacteria and
microorganisms in the soil.
Severe agricultural crop damage is caused by high or low acidity of soil. It is
estimated that more than 30% of the world’s irrigated land is now affected by
salinity of soil.
Indian urban washes account about 20 million tons every year. It is spread over
land surfaces causes foul odour and spread diseases.
Radioactive pollutants dumped on sol surface get into fruits and vegetables due
to nutrient cycle mechanism and causes great invisible harm initially then leads
to cancer and genetic disorders.
Pesticides like DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls, organo phosphorous compounds
etc cause nervous disorders, mutation etc in man.
Tuberculosis, Cholera etc spread due to the spread of pathogens live in polluted
soil.
52
53
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o How marine is polluted?
o Causes and effect of marine pollution
o Control measures of marine pollution
o What is thermal pollution?
o Causes and effect of thermal pollution
o Control measures of thermal pollution.
MARINE POLLUTION
53
54
River what it carries ends up in the sea. Besides these discharges, discharge of
oils, petroleum products and radioactive wastes are dumped into the sea.
Huge quantity of plastic is being added to the sea. Over 50 million lb plastic
packing materials are being dumped into the sea of commercial fleets, whereas
over 300 million lb entering inland waterways in USA.
Rivers bring large amount of pollutants including industrial effluents, drainage,
washings pesticides, nutrients, etc. Oil drilling , damage of oil tanks, breakage of
coastal pipelines, direct discharge of industrial and agricultural waste also
contributes to marine pollution. In addition , marine environment is polluted by
dumping of radioactive materials and wastes. Few elite industrially and
technologically developed countries do it. Generally it is done in remote and
continental shelf areas which leads to marine pollution to the neighboring state.
Mercury Pollution
54
55
55
56
Eutrophication
Domestic sewage contain large amount of phosphate, nitrates and other nutrients
and thus it become nutrient rich. The water bodies become highly productive or
eutrophic and the phenomenon is known as eutrophication. It stimulates the
luxuriant growth of algae in water. It competes with other aquatic forms, leading
to depletion of oxygen. The plants starts taking in oxygen and giving out
carbondioxide and hence a situation of oxygen deficiency created and animals
die.
Further the algal growth releases some toxic chemicals which kills fish, birds and
other animals, thus water begins to stink.
In 1965, Lake Erie (USA) more than 80 tons of phosphate added daily. Each 400
g phosphate encourages about 350 tons of algal slime. This growth appeared as
big mounds, clogging pipes and interfered fishing and navigation.
o Organic pollution causes excessive multiplication of harmful organisms
and the consequences will be passed on to human being eventually.
o Hence metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons, DDT, etc get accumulated in
marine food and its products and finally reached to man and animals by
food chain.
o The oil spread due to oil spills forms a surface layer over water for several
hundred square kilometer, which prevent the oxygen dissolution from the
environment and hence marine living being die due to lack of oxygen.
o Radioactive nuclei having half life period with several million years are get
in to mineral deposits or other living organisms. As the radiations are
harmful which leads to many type of cancers in man and other animals.
o Heat causes local ecological imbalance in energy flow and biological
equilibrium . In tropical countries animals live little lower than the lethal
limit and increase in temperature leads to distress of even death.
Indoor Noises
56
57
Auditory System
o Medical research confirmed that, noise pollution cause human auditory
failure, temporary, permanent or acoustic trauma.
Annoyance
o A noise is said to be annoying if an exposed individual or a group of
individuals would reduce the noise, avoid or leave the noisy area if
possible. Both loudness and annoyance increase with increasing sound
level.
Effect of Human Performance
o Noise increase accident levels, percentage of rejection in the work place. A
risk of hostile behavior of human also reported due to noise.
Effect of Circulatory System
o Noise reduces the blood supply by shrinking blood vessels. It causes
headache and temporary laziness.
Effect of Nervous System
o Noise stimulates nervous system, which causes irregular heart beat.
Prolonged exposure of noise causes nervous breakdown and temporary
deafness. It makes man sleepless and disturbs brain.
Other Effects
o Noise levels of 150 Db can cause a rash under the collar, in between
fingers, and the thighs. It can cause dizziness nausea and vomiting.
o Loud noise increases the heart beat of foetus of a pregnant woman.
o Very high noise can damage buildings develop cracks.
Select a better machinery even if expensive which produces lease noise. Some
extent noise may have a relation with
Handling materials and equipments gently, which produces noises when it is
handled improperly. For example, trolleys, trucks etc.
Better supporting structures and tight fixing can reduce the noise up to 3 dB.
Use of resilient materials like rubber, springs , felt etc can reduce noise.
Noise isolation can be achieved by enclosing noise producing area from the other
or keeping away from the normal human activity.
57
58
Better maintenance and greasing the machine will lead to reduction of noise and
machine performance.
Ceiling
o The absorptivity of the ceiling can be increased by introducing large
absorbing area. By using suspended grid systems or by vertically
suspending panels of noise absorbing materials can be used for this
purpose.
Screens
o Sound reduction of about 10 dB can be achieved by using proper screens
near the noise location. Woolen boards, perforated asbestos, teak plywood
etc are used for this purpose.
Noise Pollution by Design
o Proper aquastics of building could reduce the noise and echoing to a great
extent. Excellent sound insulation is achieved by construction of glassed
windows without space by filling with sound absorbing material.
Planting Trees
o The presence of trees near the noise site can reduce the noise by 8-10 dB.
It has been reported that dense evergreen forest can reduce the noise by 18
dB by multiple scattering by dense barrier.
Use of Ear Protection Aids
o In noise industries workers are provided with ear protection aids, like
earplugs, headphones, noise helmets etc.
Noise Control by Town Planning and Legislation
o It is the duty of the planners to segregate industrial area, highways etc
from the residential area.
o Legislators are to make acceptable law and their coordinates to help in
implementing the same in letter and spirit.
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Nuclear hazards
o Natural sources of radioactivity
58
59
NUCLEAR HAZARDS
Radioactive pollution is a form of pollution of air, water and soil with radioactive
substances like radium, thorium and uranium present in nature.
Natural decay in which unstable isotopes give out fast moving particles,
radiations or both until new stable isotope is formed. Isotopes release energy as
gamma rays (high energy electromagnetic radiation (or) Ionisation particles i.e.,
alpha particles (high speed positively charged electrons) and beta particles (high
speed negatively charged electrons).
Sources of Radioactivity
Natural Sources
59
60
Cosmic Rays from outer space and radiation from earth’s surface (Radium- 224,
Uranium-238, Thorium-232, Potassium- 40, Carbon-14)
Anthropogenic Sources
Nuclear power plants, Nuclear accidents, X-rays, diagnostic kits, test labs etc,
where radioactive substances are used.
Nuclear explosion- Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan.
BIO SAFETY
Genetic damages
Radiation causes mutations in the DNA thereby damaging the genes and
chromosomes . This is often seen in children, affecting several generations.
Somatic Damage
Radiation affects the body resulting in burns, miscarriage, eye cataract and
cancer of bone, thyroid, breast , lungs and skin . Even small done of radiation
over a period of time may cause adverse effects. Alpha particles have more energy
than beta particles. So they are dangerous when entering into our body through
inhalation or food.
Beta particles penetrate our skin and damage internal organs.
Radioisotopes with intermediate halflives require long time to enter our body.
They enter environment during mining of Uranium.
Radioactive Iodine (I-131) is accumulated in the thyroid gland causing cancer.
Strontium- 90 causes cancer in the bone marrow or Leukaemia.
Single body with dose of over 500 rems could result in death in 4 or 5 days.
Delayed effects after 20 years-blood cancer (or) leukemia and other cancers.
There is noe remedy available, once a person is exposed to radiation.
RISK ASSESSMENT
Installation of nuclear power plants must be done after studying long term and
short term effects.
Proper disposal of wastes from lab using radioisotopes should be done.
At present, burning high level irradiated wastes deep inside earth’s crust is being
done. (Volcano and tectonic plate movements of rocks are hurdles for this type of
safety method).
It appears almost impossible to find a safe and permanent resting place for the
nuclear wastes for hundreds of thousands of years or millions or years.
60
61
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Environmental protection acts
o Constitutional provision for the act
o Different types of acts
o Activities and objectives of the act
o The related issues.
The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to
safeguard forests and wildlife of the country.
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion
for living creatures. It shall be the duty of state to protect and improve
environment and public health and provide water, air and environment, free of
pollution for the public.
This Act has been a landmark in the history of protection of wildlife which was
transferred from state to concurrent list in 1976.
61
62
After enactment of Wildlife Protection Act (1972). Indian Board of Wildlife (1952)
took up the task of setting up wildlife national parks and sanctuaries.
Drawbacks
Ownership certificates for animal articles (like tiger, leopard skins etc., are
allowed. It leads to illegal trading.
The offender is fined upto upto for Rs. 25,000 or imprisoned for 3 years or both.
But these measures are not enough to deal with the poachers and wildlife
traders.
This act was enacted under Article 252 (1) of the Constitution as a social welfare
measure.
Objectives
62
63
MODULE-12: DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Diaster management
o Different types of diasters
o Impact of diasters
o Management of diasters
o Mitigations for disaster.
63
64
About ten million people are affected by cyclones in the entire 5700km long
coastline of peninsular India in 9 states. This impact of earthquake is much more
than the other disasters because about 400 million people in the seismic zones IV
and V (55% of total area of India) are being greatly affected.
About ten million people living along the entire sub Himalayan region and
Western Ghats suffer a lot due to landslides. Since the disasters strike human
settlements often in different parts of the world, they have to learn to minimize
the effects of disasters.
CYCLONES
Tropical cyclones in the warm oceans are formed to heat and moisture. Sea
surface temperature should be above 260C. Cyclones move like a spin (120-400
km/hr) with a diameter of 100-1500 km.
The following are the examples of types of cyclones:
o Hurricane in the Atlantic, Caribbean and North East Pacific areas.
o Typhoons in Western Pacific areas.
o Cyclone in the Indian Ocean.
o Willy Willies in the sea around Australia.
o Cyclones occur more in the Bay of Bengal than Arabian Sea.
Management
It is not possible to stop cyclones. But we can follow certain measures to escape
from their devastation. The measures are as follows:
o Planting of trees along coastal belts.
64
65
FLOODS
Inundation of extensive land area with water for many is called floods. Flood
causes colossal loss of human lives and property.
Causes
65
66
Control
EARTHQUAKES
A sudden movement of Earth’s crust (or) a motion of the ground surface is known
as earthquake.
Earth’s crust has many tectonic plates of solid rock which slowly move along their
boundaries.
Hypocenter is a point of sudden energy release.
Epicenter is the place on the ground surface (fault lines or planes of weakness)
recording seismic waves (first movement) for the first time.
The intensity of energy released by an earthquake is measured by the Richter
scale devised by Charles F. Richter.
Sesimometer is an instrument used to measure seismic waves.
Severity of an earthquake
66
67
Severe earthquakes under sea water generate high sea waves and these are
referred to as tsunami in Japanese language. They travel at a speed up to
1000mk/hr or more. They rise from 15 meters to 65 meters in height at sea shore,
causing vast devastation in coastal areas.
The first Tsunami hit India in 1945, when Indians were engaged in the war of
Independence. At that time, people did not worry about Tsunami much. Even
now there is a danger of Tsunami in the Arabian sea. People are not aware of this
danger. But the animals are capable of learning the tsunami strike in advance
with the help of their ultrasonic radiation. Thus, they often escape from the
danger. Therefore, it is better to train sea animals as done in China, in order to
caution the human beings about tsunami in advance. A tsunami-warning
instrument is to be fixed in the Bay of Bengal to track tsunami in advance.
Generally tsunami strikes during the beginning or towards the end of a month.
For example, tsunamis struck on 27th August 1883, 25th November 1945 and
26th December 2004. In some countries, tsunami struck in the beginning of the
month.
Case studies
Earthquake on 26-12-04 with 9 Richer scaler occurred under sea near Sumatra in
Indonesia and it created tsunami waves to a height of 10m in India (Tamil Nadu),
Malaysia, Thailand and Andaman island. About 2.5 lakhs of people died due to
tsunami waves.
In TamilNadu , tsunami caused death and destruction in the low-lying areas near
sea shore from Chennai to Kanyakumari.
In China, 8,30,000 people in the year 1556 and 50,000 people in the year 1976
died of tsunami.
Causes
67
68
Effects
Mitigation of earthquakes
LANDSLIDES
The moving down of coherent rock of soil mass due to gravitation is called
landslide. The sudden rockslides are more dangerous then slow landslips.
68
69
Causes
Mitigation
Learning objectives
69
70
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Sources of water supply
o Natural sources
o Surface water
o Underground water
o Water quality and its classification.
WATER SOURCES
Environmental Hygiene
It is a branch of medical sciences that deals with the effect of living conditions on
health, devises measure to prevent the occurrence of disease and establishes
conditions that ensure preservation of health.
RAIN WATER
The amount of rain water depends upon the rainfall, and the distribution of rain
over a period in particular region.
The two monsoons , the south west and north east monsoons bring about 80 per
cent of total rainfall.
The average rainfall for Tamil Nadu state is about 1143 mm to 1270 mm per
annum.
The rain water must be collected in suitable natural basins or artificial reservoir
and stored as a source for use in the farm.
Rain water at its origin is the least polluted water with minimum impurities but
as it descends down it gathers various impurities /pollutants depending upon the
activities of the region.
Rain water collected under the rural conditions is less polluted than that
collected under the urban conditions.
Rain water collected from highly industrialized places are heavily contaminated
with toxic matter or harmful matters.
In general rain water is comparatively pure and is soft in nature with less of
dissolved impurities.
It is insipid in taste and some times it will acidic in reaction, having plumbo
solvent characters with corrosive properties.
SURFACE WATER
Surface water is the natural collection of rain water, that has fallen on the earth,
washed the surface and collected in the form of rivers and lakes. These are most
common and economical sources under natural farming conditions, where there
is a good rainfall. In the absence of good rainfall, most of these sources will be
dried up.
Surface sources in general provide a poor quality water sometimes the water may
be dangerously polluted by manure and land washings.
The quality of such water changes due to the influence of rain and sun.the lake
water is highly impure even when it is freshly collected. The river water is least
populated as its origin but as it travels it gathers impurities in the form of land
washings and household sewage and various industrial effluents discharged into
the river.
Polluted river water when it travels more distance it undergoes certain amount of
self purification, due to natural sedimentation, absorption of oxygen and
oxidation, percolation into the beds and reappear in the form of springs.
The exposure of vast sheet of water to the ultra -violet rays of the sun is also
responsible for self purifications.
The mineral content of the river water depends upon geological strata of the earth
through which the water flows.
The chemical character of river water is subjects of wide variation according to
the nature of the gathering grounds and also to the different geological
formations through which the river bed passes.
71
72
Dissolved solids taken up in one are may be deposited in another area. The
bacterial quality of water depends upon the amount of river pollution taking
place and the chances given for self purification of water.
Hygienic measures should be taken for the protection of surface water sources to
prevent pollution and contaminations by preventing the mixing up of industrial
wastes wash water from livestock farm and dwelling places.
Public health acts as well as river pollution prevention act should be enforced
undue pollution with sewage, industrial effluents should be checked.
Gathering grounds or catchment are such as lakes should be protected by high
raised wall/fencing, preventing unauthorized entry of livestock and human
beings and should be maintained as per the public health regulations.
UNDERGROUND WATER
This water is held above the first impermeable layer and it rises and falls
according to the season and rainfall of the locality.
The sub soil water is liable to gross contamination form organic vegetable wastes
and livestock excretory pollutants.
The fitness of the sub soil water as a source for the livestock should be regarded
with suspicion and such water has to be submitted to bacteriological examination
before put to use.
This water lies below at least one impermeable stratum. As it has percolated to a
greater depth it is usually free form significant bacterial pollution.
Water is protected form surface pollution by the presence of impermeable
strata.
Even this ground water sources may occasionally be grossly polluted and
contaminated due to certain natural faults such as cracks, and fissures in the
course of rock formation.
Mineral contents of ground water is generally very high.
SPRINGS
72
73
These are natural outlets of underground water and they supply the water at the
surface of the earth in the form in different springs
Whenever there is a dip in the land exposing the impermeable stratum to the
surface the water comes out in the farm of land spring. The water is doubtful
purity and its supply is seasonal.
Fissure spring
This spring occurs due to the presence of deep fissure or crack in the rock upto
the water bearing stratum.
Junction spring
This spring results form the geological fault occurring due to two different strata
coming together and forming a junction.
Deep ground water comes out in the form of spring at the junction of the strata.
The last two springs are permanent springs supplying good quality water with
lesser seasonal fluctuations. These natural springs can be developed into good
water sources.
An artificial basin should be constructed for collection of such water.
Fence should be provided all around to prevent unauthorized entry of human
beings and animals.
The quality of water is similar to that of the deep underground water.
CLASSIFCATION OF WATER
73
74
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Sources of water contamination
o Leachates
o Solid wastes
o Main sources of water contamination
o Possible sources of water contamination.
RAIN WATER
74
75
MODULE-15: BACTERIOLOGY OF WATER
75
76
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Bacteriology of water
o Influencing factors
o Faecal and non faecal coliforms
o Soil bacteria
o Iron bacteria.
BACTERIOLOGY OF WATER
The presence of bacteria in water depend largely on the character of the water
and on the source from which it is drawn.
Classification of Bacteria
o The bacteria found in water may be broadly classified into two main
groups
Firstly, Saprophytic bacteria which are indigenous to water are
adapted to live and multiply at temperature lower than body heat
eg: at 20-220c and derive their nutrient from decaying organic
matter. These free living forms are of little importance from the
hygienic standpoint except that their presence in a water in very
large number denotes an abundance of organic matter.
The Second broad group which may be called the adventitious
water microorganisms are introduced from outside sources and are
incapable of surviving in water for an indefinite period. Amongst
these are included bacteria precipitated from the air by rain or
snow, soil bacteria washed in after heavy rainfall and excretal
bacteria from human or animal sources.
Coliform Bacilli
Soil Bacteria
Iron Bacteria
COLIFORM BACILLI
76
77
The E. coli does not normally live for any length of time outside the intestinal
tract of man and animals, the presence of this organism in water can be regarded
as almost certain evidence of recent excretal pollution of human or animal origin.
There is no very satisfactory method at present for distinguishing between faecal
coli of human origin on the one hand and those of animal origin on the other. But
the topographical circumstances relevant to the water supply may sometime help
in assigning faecal coli to their probable source.
SOIL BACTERIA
Ground water lying near the surface will usually contain free living bacteria
derived from the upper few inches of the soil complex.
These bacteria include aerobic forms which break down organic material into its
simple component elements of carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen. This resolution
process is further carried on by two groups of nitrogen oxidizing organisms which
convert ammoniacal nitrogen to acid radicles that in combination with existing
soil bases form nitrites and nitrates.
The first of these bacterial groups (Nitrosomonas) converts ammonia to nitrites
whilst the second (Nitrobactor) completes the oxidation process by converting
the nitrites to nitrates, which constitute the completely oxidized state of nitrogen.
The bacteria which initiate breakdown of organic material as well as those
involved in the oxidation of nitrogen require for their efficient functioning the
provision of adequate moisture, oxygen , suitable bases and an environmental
temperature over 50c.
This process of converting the soil organic matter to nitrites and nitrates is called
biological scavenging.
If the process is interrupted it leads to accumulation of acid radicals which cause
souring of the soil. Water draining from such soil in which these condition
pertain will be acid in character.
Another example of failure of this biological scavenging process sometime occurs
in connection with land treatment of sewage tank liquor, where as a result of
excessive application of the sewage liquor the alkaline bases in the soil become
exhausted and consequently the conversion of the acid formed by the nitrifying
bacteria to nitrates and nitrites does not occur and they accumulate in the soil
rendering it “sewage sick”. Such soil may have its purifying properties restored by
the addition of 1-2 tons of lime per acre, combined with a period of rest from
further sewage application.
IRON BACTERIA
Certain of the bacteria have the power of abstracting iron from the water in which
they live and of depositing it in the form of ferric hydroxide in the mucilagenous
sheath with which they are invested.
Crenothrix
77
78
The best known iron bacteria but not the most widespread it consists of minute
filaments attached by one end of some solid object .
Generally the service supply pipes become coated with a rusty pile of crenothrix
and such pipes were actually obstructed by a hard ferruginous deposit.
The water is unusable for domestic supply owing to its bad taste and smell.
Gallionella
Another iron bacteria and it is more widespread, it forms a slimy coating on the
inner surface of iron supply pipes, this coating may become so thick that it
considerably reduces the capacity of the pipes.
The organisms also plays a part in the formation of the hard rusty nodules and
incrustations that are commonly seen in water pipes in some areas.
The organism also accelerate the deposition of rust probably through their
oxidation processes.
Chlorination of water is one of the remedies that have been found satisfactory in
the control of iron bacteria.
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Physical evaluation of water
o Necessity and importance
o Different parameters
o Inference
o Judgment.
water sample is evaluated physically for colour, turbidity, odour, taste and
electrical conductivity
o Colour and Turbidity
o Odour and Taste
o Electrical Conductivity
78
79
Natural waters rarely show colours other than yellow or reddish brown, which
usually indicate the presence of peat acids or , in the case of turbid water,
suspended particles clay or iron oxides: occasionally algal growth is responsible
for the appearance of a green or red colour.
Few waters which can be considered satisfactory contain appreciable quantities
of suspended organic matter.
Its presence in any quantity encourages the growth of micro-organisms, renders
the water difficult to filter, and frequently makes sterilization difficult. Suspended
mineral matter, on the other hand , is less objectionable.
Its presence tends to be seasonal, occurring usually after periods of heavy rain,
although when in the form of hydrated oxide of iron it appears as a permanent
turbidity in ferruginous waters.
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
79
80
Values of electrical conductivity for natural waters vary from about 100 gemmhos
for soft waters derived from the older crystalline rocks to about 2,000 gemmhos
for very hard waters derived from the newer and softer rocks; sea water has a
conductivity of about 50,000 gemmhos.
In the absence of sodium salts, the electrical conductivity is proportional to the
hardness, one degree of hardness raising the electrical conductivity by about 20
units. Thus such a water with a conductivity of 500 units , would possess a
hardness of approximately 250.
The determination of electrical conductivity finds its greatest use in indicating
changes in the amount of dissolved solids present in a water where the
composition of the dissolved solids fraction is known and is fairly constant.
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Chemical evaluation water
o Necessity and importance
o Different parameters
o Inference
o Judgment.
80
81
Chlorides
The Nitrogen Constituents
Reducing Powder or "Oxygen Absorbed"
TOTAL SOLIDS
pH VALUE
HARDNESS
The hardness of water refers to its soap-destroying power and is due to the
presence of calcium and magnesium salts in solution.
It is usual to distinguish between waters that are “temporary” hard and those that
are “permanently” hard .
81
82
CHLORIDES
Chlorides are rarely absent from natural waters, being present chiefly as sodium
chloride, with occasionally magnesium, potassium and calcium chlorides.
The chloride content of waters derived from rocks near the sea is invariably high;
waters from deep wells may contain sufficient to impart a brackish taste.
The presence of chloride considered alone is therefore of little significance as
regards hygienic quality, but as sewage contains appreciable quantities of it, if the
chloride is present together with free ammonia, nitrite or appreciable quantities
of nitrate, this finding may support an indication of sewage pollution.
Uncontaminated surface waters (except near the sea ) rarely contain more than 2
parts of chloride per 100,000; well waters may contain considerably greater
quantities.
82
83
Satisfactory waters rarely contain any free ammonia at all, and the presence of
more than 0.005 parts per 100,000 must be regarded as significant of pollution.
If the amount of free ammonia present is greater than the amount of albuminoid
ammonia then sewage contamination is certain. Many satisfactory waters, e.g.
peaty waters, contain appreciable quantities of albuminoid ammonia but such
waters yield their albuminoid ammonia slowly, and they contain only traces of
free ammonia.
In waters other than moorland waters, the albuminoid ammonia may be
significant of sewage pollution if it is a present in concentrations greater than
0.01 parts per 100,000.
The presence of nitrate is of no significance in the absence of other nitrogenous
constituents. If, on the other hand, free ammonia is present then the presence of
nitrate is an added indication of pollution.
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Microbiological evaluation of water
o Necessity and importance
83
84
o Different test
o Interpretation
o Judgment.
COLIFORM BACILLI
84
85
CLOSTRIDRIUM WELCHII
FAECAL STREPTOCOCCI
85
86
87
88
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Biological evaluation of water
o Algae in water
o Fungi in water
o Protozoa in water
o Problems and remedy.
All natural waters, excepting possibly some of the deepset underground waters,
are inhabited by a diverse plant and animal life, the chief phyla of the former
being Algae, Fungi and Bacteria, whilst the animal kingdom is represented by
Protozoa, Sponges, Rotifers, Molluscs, various free-living “worms”, Insects,
Fishes and Amphibia.
The kinds of plants and animals found in any particular water depend largely on
the character of the water and on the source from which it is drawn, and, as far as
contaminant intestinal bacterial of human or animal origin are concerned, on the
degree to which the water has been exposed to sewage and/or manurial pollution.
88
89
In general , the flora and fauna of surface waters are more abundant and more
diverse than those of underground waters, whilst those of the deepest
subterranean waters are relatively poorer than the life of sub-soil waters.
A few minute Crustacae feeding on bacteria and fungi are able to live in deep
wells and in the subterranean waters on which they draw, but if the wells be of
great depth or are poorly aerated the water will usually be devoid of living things.
Few, if any, of the forms of life, apart from contaminant bacteria of intestinal
origin, which may be found in natural waters would appear to be toxic or harmful
to man or animals drinking the water.
In the following paragraphs, some account is given of the more important forms
of plant and animal life which are to be found in water supplies, and which may
give rise to problems during the purification, storage, and distribution of the
water.
ALGAE
The algae constitute the most ubiquitous form of plant life existing in freshwater;
the majority are microscopic in size but some are visible to the naked eye, eg., the
bright green thread-like algae often seen in ponds and streams.
From the point of view of water supply, three groups of algae are of great
importance, namely the Isokcnatae or Green Algae, the Myxophyceae or Blue-
Green Algae, and the Diatoms.
These and other groups of algae, which may only flourish moderately in the
running water of rivers and streams, generally increase markedly in the
comparatively still waters of lakes and storage reservoirs. This increase in useful
in some ways.
The aeration of the water by the algae helps to purify it and, as will be mentioned
later, they play a vital role in the purification of water supplies by filtration
processes but, if their growth becomes excessive, they may interfere with
filtration.
Such excessive increases in the algal population of open storage reservoirs can be
controlled by the application to the water of a chemical algicide, such as copper
sulphate which is used at the rate of 1kg to 4.5kg. CuSo4 per 45,46,000 litres of
water. Care must be taken to ensure the even distribution of the
CuSO4 throughout the reservoir.
The usual method of application is to tow a bag of the along carefully planned
lines in the reservoir .
It is better policy to use Cuso4 as a preventive against excessive algal
multiplication in a reservoir than as a curative, in which case the dead algae
undergoing decomposition may render the water unfit to use for time.
Objectionable taste due to algal growths may be removed by dosing the water the
with powdered activated carbon at the rate of 1 to 5 parts per million. The
covering over of small reservoirs will effectively reduce algal growth therein.
A great bulk of algae passing on from storage reservoirs to the filter beds during
periods of algal abundance introduces mechanical difficulties in the filtration of
89
90
the water, and unless the filtration plant is frequently cleaned the filter beds will
become choked.
The use of algicides in the filter beds is not practicable, as the purification of vary
large quantities of dead algae may be even more objectionable than the presence
of the living plants in the water.
If it is necessary to remove offensive tastes after filtration about 0.5 part per
million of potassium permanganate may be used.
SOIL BACTERIA
Ground-water lying near the surface will usually contain free-living bacteria
derived from the upper few inches of the soil complex.
These bacteria include aerobic forms which break down organic material into its
simple component elements of carbon, nitrogen and hydrogen.
This resolution process is further carried on by two groups of nitrogen-oxidising
organisms, which convert ammoniacal nitrogen to acid radicles that in
combination with existing soil bases form nitrites and nitrates. The first of these
bacterial groups ( Nitrosomonas) converts ammonia to nitrites, whilst the second
( Nitrobacter) completes the oxidation process by converting the nitrites to
nitrates, which constitute the completely oxidised state of N 2.
The bacteria which initiate the breakdown of organic material, as well as those
involved in the oxidation of nitrogen, require for their efficient functioning the
provision of adequate moisture, oxygen, suitable bases and an environmental
temperature of over 50c. Unless this requirements are satisfied, the disintegration
of organic matter cannot proceed to completion and the end products
represented by the humic acids now formed cause “souring” of the soil.
Water draining from a soil in which these condition pertain will be acid in
character, as for example, the acid waters draining from water-logged peat
accumulations, in which the incomplete breakdown of the excessive amounts of
vegetable organic matter is due to the absence of oxygen and of suitable bases.
The plant remains are finally converted to true peat by anaerobic bacteria. Sandy
soils, which are always characteristically low in mineral matter, may also under
certain conditions accumulate organic matter, because in the absence of soil
bases (lime) the decomposition of plant debris cannot proceed, and layers of peat
may be formed.
Similarly, even on heavy land plant debris may tend to accumulate, e.g., many old
grass-lands have matted turves many inches thick which show little or no signs of
decomposition if ploughed in unless lime is used to correct the soil acidity .
Another example of failure of this biological scavenging process sometimes
occurs in connection with land treatment of sewage-tank liquor, where as a result
of excessive application of the sewage liquor the alkaline bases in the soil become
exhausted, and consequently the conversion of the acids formed by the nitrifying
bacteria to nitrates and nitrites does not occur and they accumulate in the soil,
rendering it “sewage-sick”.
Such soil may have its purifying properties restored by the addition of 1 to 2 tons
of lime per acre, combined with a period of rest from further sewage application.
90
91
IRON BACTERIA
Certain of the Bacteria have the power of abstracting iron from the water in
which they live and of depositing it in the form of ferric hydroxide in the
mucilagenous sheath with which they are invested.
The “ochre-beds” sometimes seen on boggy moorland streams are produced by
the deposition of the iron impregnated sheaths of these bacteria, which sink to
the bottom of the stream when the bacteria die.
The presence of iron in their surrounding medium is not essential to the life of
the Iron Bacteria, for they can flourish in its absence.
The iron seems to be assimilated by the bacteria probably in the form of ferrous
bicarbonate, along with nutrient materials, is oxidised to the insoluble hydrated
ferric oxide, and is then deposited in this form in the filament sheaths of the
bacteria.
Crenothrix is perhaps the best known of the Iron Bacteria, though possibly it is
not the most widespread.
As normally found, it consists of minute filaments attached by one end to some
solid object.
Each filament consists of a single row of cells, the whole being invested by
mucilagenous sheath.
Rapid multiplication of Crenothrix in supply reservoirs has occasionally
produced spectacular effects in the water drawn from the service main. The water
was unusable for domestic supply owing to its bad taste and smell.
The effect in water supply systems due to Gallionella, another of the Iron
Bacteria, is less striking than those of Crenothrix, but this organism in probably
far more widespread.
Gallionella forms a slimy coating on the inner surface of iron supply pipes, from
which streamers extend into the water; this coating may become so thick that it
considerably reduces the capacity of the pipes, Gallionella also plays a part in the
formation of the hard rusty nodules and incrustations that are commonly seen in
water-pipes in some areas.
The exact role of the bacteria in the production of these is uncertain, but it is
thought that in some way they accelerate the deposition of rust, probably through
their oxidation processes.
Chlorination of the water is one of the remedies that have been found satisfactory
in the control of Iron Bacteria and the troubles arising there from in public
supply systems.
FUNGI
Since all free-living fungi are saprophytic, i.e. derive their nourishment from
decomposing organic material, the occurrence of fungi growing in water is
evidence of the presence in the water in question of decomposing organic
substances, and therefore of possible excretal pollution.
91
92
The number of species of aquatic fungi is small, and of these the only one which
needs consideration in relation to the purity of water supply is the association of
fungi, bacteria and protozoa, commonly known as the “Sewage Fungus” which
may be found in streams and rivers into which sewage effluent is discharged.
The appearance presented by this growth is that of a dirty yellow or greyish jelly-
like film covering the bottom and sides of the watercourse in which it occurs, and
which is especially abundant where the current is slow or the watercourse
tortuous.
It may be found growing plentifully in drains which carry off the effluent water of
sewage farms. Whenever this fungus occurs, it is certain sign of the presence in
the water of a large quantity of organic compounds and, therefore, of possible
pollution either with sewage effluent, or perhaps with raw sewage.
Members of all the chief groups of fresh water animals are to be found in one or
other of the various sources from which water supplies are drawn.
They may gain access to purification plants at waterworks, but rarely cause
serious trouble in these.
In the past, before the sand filtration of public water supplies was universally
adopted , there are several instances where Sponges, Polyzoa and Mollusca are
reported to have flourished abundantly in service pipes and mains.
The sand filtration of water effectively excludes the minute larval stages of these
animal types, which can pass readily through the strainers used to stop the
grosser inclusions of natural waters.
Should these larvae, on the other hand, gain access to the water pipes, they may
lodge at suitable sites and develop into the adult forms. The latter feed on
Diatoms and other Algae which are invariably present in unfiltered water, and
may multiply so greatly as to seriously reduce the capacity of the pipes.
They afford lodgment, too, to a whole host of organisms which would otherwise
to swept on by the current, and when members of this pipe fauna die their decay
pollutes the water and favors the growth of saprophytic bacteria.
The common freshwater fishes are usually to be found in sources of water supply,
such as rivers and natural lakes.
They are thought to exercise a beneficial influence on the quality of the water, in
that they feed on the smaller plant and protozoal forms, and so possible limit the
numbers of these.
For this reason, artificial impounding reservoirs for the storage of water are
commonly stocked with fish, generally trout.
92
93
MODULE-20: WATER PURIFICATION
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Water purification
o Natural purification
o Large scale purification
o Small scale purification
o Physical and chemical agents in purification.
INTRODUCTION
Water Purification
The aim is to ensure the absence of pathogenic organisms, other factors like
relative hardness in the water.
The treatment received by public supplies at the present time may comprise one
or all of the following processes.
o Storage
o Filtration with or without the aid of coagulants.
o Chemical sterilization
Boiling
Chlorination
Potassium Permanganate
STORAGE
93
94
The bottom of the reservoir is frequently devoid of available oxygen and is the site
of anaerobic decomposition of organic materials.
To avoid the removal of the tainted water from the bottom of the reservoir, and
the filter blocking algae from the surface, means are usually provided for drawing
off water from the reservoir at points between these layers.
FILTRATION
Filtration is normally carried out by allowing the water flowing from the reservoir
to percolate through sand, and two types of sand filters are recognized slow sand
filters and rapid sand filters.
The slow sand filters when first put into use act simply as strainers removing
solid matter in suspension without retaining bacteria but after a time the sand
grains become coated with a film of organisms which are effective in biologically
purifying the water as it passes through the filter.
Slow sand filters which have reached this condition are said to have “ripened”
and such filters require careful supervision to maintain them in this ripened
condition out of doors .
Slow sand filters function efficiently , but as they only pass about 120 litres per
square metre per hour they suffer from the obvious drawback that they need to be
very extensive to cope with a large volume of water.
In rapid sand filters the water drawn from the reservoir is forced through the
filter under pressure, either by means of a pump or by maintaining a head of
water above the filter.
Suspended particles are removed but biological purification does not takes place.
Purification is effected in this case by introducing a coagulant before filtration or
by sterilizing with chlorine afterwards.
Coagulants in the form of freshly precipitated hydroxides of many metals possess
the property of adsorbing considerable quantities of organic matter and this
property is made use of in removing organic contaminants from water, the
metallic hydroxide in common use is aluminium hydroxide.
In practice the aluminium hydroxide precipitate is formed in the water by adding
to it either aluminium sulphate or sodium aluminate. In both cases the
aluminium salt is hydrolysed to aluminium hydroxide which settles rapidly,
dragging with it at the same time the organic matter dissolved or suspended in
the water.
Bacterial contamination is largely removal by this procedure and the removal of
filter blocking particles permits of a more rapid and efficient filtration
subsequently.
Impure water when it has filtered is improved is appearance , colour, taste and
odour. Its organic matter is reduced and its bacterial content may be reduced 99
per cent.
The microorganisms that are pathogenic to man are more easily killed in the film
than are the harmless ones and coliform bacilli which are always found in sewage
are taken as the index of the efficiency of the filtration because if they are absent
94
95
form filtered water it may rightly be presumed that pathogenic organisms are
absent.
If water containing much suspended solid matter or muddy water is habitually
drunk by animals it leaves an even increasing deposit of silica, mica in the
alimentary tract.
This is a cause of colic, constipation and in the case of mica which forms a coating
on the mucous membrane, malnutrition. Water of this nature can be roughly
filtered by passing it through a gravel and sand bed or in case of emergency,
through coarse canvas.
CHEMICAL STERILISATION
Boiling
Except for domestic purposes or for the sterilization of very limited amounts of
water, boiling is impracticable in most circumstances, as for instance in the
supply of water for a dairy form.
Boiling is however of great value when there is reason to believe that the filters of
a public supply have become temporarily faulty or when owing to heavy flooding,
surface water has gained entrance to wells or springs. When such an accident as
the letter occurs, warning is usually given by the turbid appearance of the water.
95
96
Chlorination
Is the best method for the routine treatment of small supplies of water, the
chlorine being readily obtainable in the form of chloride of lime (bleaching
powder). The latter should be added to the water in such quantity that free
chlorine will be available to the extent of at least one part per million of water.
This may be done by first preparing a solution of chloride of lime consisting of 30
gms of chloride of lime to 250ml water, which will suffice to treat 2000 gallons of
a water not containing an excessive amount of organic matter. After chlorination
the water should be allowed to stand in an open tank for four hours before being
used.
In the case of waters which contain much organic matter or are heavily
contaminated by bacteria, super chlorination followed by dechlorination should
be the method adopted . After standing for not less than 30 minutes, small
quantities of this water may be dechlorinated by adding sodium thiosulphate ,
which removes the taste of chlorine
Potassium permanganate
CHLORINATION
96
97
CHLORAMINE
A combination of chlorine and ammonia is now widely used for the sterilization
of water.
It is less affected by the presence of organic matter and its sterilizing action is
more prolonged than that of chlorine.
Its only advantage over chlorine is that it does not to the same extent give raise to
iodoform and chlorinous tastes in the water.
Its bactericidal effect is however, very much slower than that of chlorine and long
contact is therefore necessary which in many circumstances is a decided
drawback to the use of chloramine.
OZONISATION
97
98
MODULE-21: DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Disposal of sewage
o Large scale disposal
o Small scale disposal
o Methods of disposal
o Treatment of sewage.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL
Sewage consists of a mixture of solid and liquid human excreta, waste water from
dwelling houses and usually road water and rain washings, it may also contain a
greater or lesser amount of trade wastes. The disposal of sewage in a manner
which will be free from nuisance and danger to public health through
contamination of water and food supplies is a matter of great importance in
connection with food control and inspection.
o Sewage and animal health
o Conservancy Methods
o Composition and Strength of sewage
o Disposal of water carried sewage by dilution
o Purification treatment of water carried sewage
o Classification of sweage treatment
o Preliminary treatment
o Artificial biological treatment
o Bioaeration or Activated sludge process
o Chemical Sterilization of Sewage Effluent
o Small scale sewage purification and disposal
o Disposal of Farm Wastes
o Removal of Manure from Buildings
It has frequently been alleged that the drinking water polluted by domestic
sewage has given rise to symptoms of poisoning in cattle and other animals.
It has been affirmed that cattle may be rendered ill by drinking water containing
sewage. In this connection it is important to make it clear that there are two kinds
98
99
Conservancy Methods
It is now practically confined to rural areas where the water supply is inadequate
for the installation of a water carriage system. The simplest method of disposing
of human excreta is burial in the soil. Since proper disposal is of some
importance owing to the risk of flies carrying pathogenic bacteria such as typhoid
bacilli from infected excreta to the milk.
The human excreta should be buried in shallow trenches and covered with top
soil without chemicals since disinfectants and antiseptics merely retard
putrefaction. The faeces decompose without causing any harm. The place chosen
for the ultimate deposition should be distant from the house and not near a well.
In this system the private drains from dwelling houses and other buildings empty
into public sewers, which convey the sewage to a purification works where it is
99
100
treated so as to render the resulting effluent suitable for ultimate disposal into
the sea or into rivers and streams.
Sea
This is a way of disposal of sewage from coastal towns. The following points are
taken into consideration.
The state of the tides, action of discharging rivers and influence of prevailing
winds, tending to carry the sewage to the foreshore the possible deleterious
effects of the sewage on boating and bathing. The pollution of the beach by the
deposit of solids, the possible injury to fishing and the possible infection of shell
fish by sewage contaminated with pathogenic organisms such as typhoid bacilli.
The sewage is either discharged in its crude state into the sea , or after it has been
screened and treated in a settling tank, but unless the position of the outlet and
the tidal flow are particularly favourable, further preliminary treatment is usually
carried out. In some cases tanks are used to store the sewage during the raising
tide and to enable discharge to take place during the ebb tide only. As a method
of purifying sewage screening is not very effective, particularly if the sewage has
travelled through several kilometers of pipes, because by the time that it has
arrived at the screen it is already in a state of emulsion, the solids having become
disintegrated but not reduced while passing through the pipes.
Rivers
100
101
Where the stream is large enough to give a dilution of over 500 volumes the
crude sewage may be discharged into the stream.
Preliminary treatment
o Arrangement for dealing with storm water
o Screening
o Detritus or Grit tanks
o Sedimentation or Precipitation tanks
o Disposal of sludge
o Treatment of tank liquor
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT
Storm water
o The quantum of storm of upto three times the dry weather flow should be
dealt with in the works as ordinary sewage. Anything over this amount
should be diverted to special storm tanks.
Screening
101
102
102
103
Trickling filters are really aerating beds, not filters they consist essentially of
circular beds of broken stone of various sizes on which sewage is distributed.
The broken stone becomes coated after a short period with a gelatinous covering
which in the presence of oxygen forms a nidus for aerobic bacteria which is then
said to be ripened or activated.
Distribution of the tank liquor is obtained by means of a revolving sprinkler
driven by a constant head of water or by the intermittent discharge of a siphon.
Contact beds
It comprise tanks filled with broken stone the object being to permit digestion of
organic material by aerobic bacteria.
The tank is filled and the liquor allowed to remain in contact with the material in
the bed for a sufficient period to allow purification to take place, thereafter the
tank is emptied, and in the process air is drawn into the interstices of the stone,
thus providing the oxygen necessary for the bacteria.
The cycle of operation occupies eight to twelve hours, the resting period being
about half this to keep the beds in condition.
Humus tanks
The effluent from percolating filters and contact beds often contain a good deal of
fine organic matter termed humus.
It is necessary to allow this to settle before discharging the final effluent into a
stream. This may be done by holding the filter effluent in tanks.
In this method screened sewage free from detritus is purified in tanks largely by
aerobic bacterial action.
103
104
The bacteria are attached to the particles of ripened or activated sludge which is
mixed with the incoming sewage and mixed liquid is kept in continuous motion
during its passage through aeration tanks in order to prevent settlement of the
sludge, secondly to bring the organic matter in contact with activated sludge and
thirdly to supply the bacteria with oxygen.
Cesspool
104
105
An installation suitable for the purification and disposal of sewage from isolated
building usually comprises
o a single from of septic tank designed to retain the sewage for a period of
time sufficient to permit anaerobic digestion of its organic solids and to
allow insoluble matter to settle out as sludge and
o a percolating filter or a contact bed in which the effluent from the septic
tank is purified by aerobic bacterial action. The final effluent should be fit
for discharge into a stream or for disposal by subsoil irrigation without any
potential risk arising. Rain and other surface water should not be allowed
access to a septic tank. The sludge needs removal only at long intervals
extending in some cases to as long as two years.
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Disposal of farm wastes
o Necessity
o How to collect?
o How to store?
o Counteract the problems.
A proper system for the hygienic disposal of animal excreta is essential for the
preservation of animal health and as an aid to the control of disease.
The disposal of excreta, together with the straw or other material used for
bedding is complicated by the fact that this material has a considerable manurial
value and usually has to be conserved or stored in some way until it can be
conveniently applied to the land.
105
106
Manure pit
Should be for away from the stable or cowsheds, not only as a safeguard against
smell, but also as a preventive measure against the nuisance of flies. Fresh
manure forms an ideal breeding ground for the common house fly, a pest which
may easily become a hindrance to clean milk production. Flies also cause
considerable annoyance to the cows in summer, and there is some evidence that
they may be a factor in the spread of mastitis.
The common practice of depositing the manure in a dump immediately outside
the buildings and into which the drainage system empties is most objectionable.
A concrete pathway should connect the building and manure pit and where it is
possible accessibility to the latter from a hard road is an advantage when it comes
to transferring the manure to the land.
The space required for a manure pit depends on number of factors. These include
the number and species of animals kept the nature of the food consumed, the
amount of bedding supplied and the extent to which it is re-used or discarded
and the length of time the manure is to be stored. The manure pits have a
capacity of not more than 1 cubic metre unless it be emptied every 48 hrs. It is
suggested that a manure pit should be of such a size as to ensure that it must be
emptied every 6 to 8 weeks.
If bedding is used it should be separated from manure and can be dried for
further use
Approximate quantity of dung expelled per animal per day
o Horse - 10-12 Kg
o Ox - 30-35 Kg
o Sheep - 1-3 kg
o Swine - 1.5-3kg
The capacity manure pit for 100 cattle per day is 6.4 sq metres. The retaining
walls about 1.2-1.5 metres high preferably of brick or concrete. Bottom should
106
107
always be impervious, cement concrete is the best material, there should be a fall
to one end where a drain leads to the liquid manure tank.
The manure pit should be roofed over with galvanized iron or other suitable
material to prevent the leeching of the valuable soluble constituents, nitrogen,
phosphates and potash from the manure.
The roof must allow free circulation of air over the manure, otherwise the latter
may get too hot and so deteriorate.
To make the stored manure to become fertilizer anaerobic condition is essential
hence the manure mass is tightly packed.
These conditions essential for the making of good manure also serve to prevent
the multiplication of flies and to bring about the destruction of certain pathogenic
bacteria and strongyle and other worm larvae.
In certain circumstances manure may be directly applied to the land without
storage, but it is to be spread on arable land or on field not being used for
livestock since it may remain potentially infective with the organisms of
tuberculosis paratuberculosis and with parasitic ova and larva for considerable
period.
Liquid maure
The urine and other organic liquid waste should be drained with surface channels
and collected in liquid manure tank.
The advantage of surface channel are not blocked, and economy to construct.
The channels from the animal houses still converge at the inspection chamber.
From this chamber one pipe carried the liquid to the settling chamber.
The settling chamber is constructed of cement concrete throughout or with
cement concrete floor and walls of brick faced with cement. From the settling
chamber liquid alone carried to liquid manure pit and liquid is pumped out.
The tank must be made of impervious material throughout and the bottom
should be constricted of reinforced concrete.
The sides may also be build of reinforced concrete or alternatively be brick built
and faced inside with a good coating of cement Absolute gas tightness in a liquid
manure tank is essential in order to conserve the anmonia.
Learning objectives
107
108
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Health implications of farm wastes
o Organism involved
o Manure as a breeding material for flies
o Fly borne diseases
o Methods to prevent.
INTRODUCTION
108
109
The pathogens found in faeces may also be carried on the clothing and footwear
of persons whose business is to remove faeces another from sheds and stables.
They may contaminate food stuff as for example when doing is distributed over
land when green crops are being raised for animal food. Birds may to some extent
be responsible for disseminating pathogenic organisms service some species
frequent manure heaps in search of seeds and insects and in doing so pick up
infective material on their feet and legs and convey it else where.
Of the flies which select manure as a breeding material the most important is the
house fly musca domestica and somoxys calicitrans commonly known as the
stable fly or biting house fly. Horse , pig and to a lesser extent cattle doing
appears to bethe most favoural materials in which these species and flies breed.
The flies oviposits only in material which can provide food in a readily
assemilable form, suffered moisture and usually warmth and shelter for the
developing maggots.
The fly also breed in decaying and fermenting organic matter of various kinds
and in poultury droppings. It does not breed in cow dung scattered in fields.
Although horse manure is the chief breeding site this material is attractive
to oviposting house flies only so long as it is and not much older than twenty for
hours.
The stomoxys calcitrans deposits its eggs in moist decaying vegetable matter
shown as piles of waste litter and find stuffs that may collect in a farm yard,
get wet and decay as are with urine or have certain amount of manure added to
them.
The flies in great numbers may result in epidemics of typhoid fever and other
disease. The whole life cycle of muscle domestic can be completed under very
favourable circumstances in 8-9 drop. The rate of development rares greatly
depending upon the temperature of the air and of the feval material and upon the
nature of the ford and other factors. The eggs are deposited in small matter of
120-150 in cervices below the surface of the manure. After housefly may deposit
five or six such batches during her life time and may produce in all for 60 to 900
or more eggs. The maggots avoid light and burrow into and feed upon their food
material. They do not to have occur throughout a manure heap but are usually
restricted to the superficial layer, at the most from 10 to 12cm deep, because the
head produced by fermentation makes t impossible for them to love it deeper
levels. To pupate the maggot leaves the manure heap to find a drier and cooler
place outside the base of the heap her which to undergo its metamorphosis.
The house fly not merely a nuisance in disturbing the rest of men and animals, in
certain circumstances a carrier of disease and therefore a serious danger
to human and animal health.
109
110
The disease which this insect carrier or is capable of carrying are at restricted to
dysentery, cholera, typhoid fever and some infection of man by parasitic
helminths, the fly is also an important factor in the spread of infertile or summer
diarrhoea which results from the consumption of fly contaminated milk
hydration.
The flies also act as vectors of habronema species parasitic in horses. The
organisms cornyebacterium pyogens responsible for summer moisture or dry
cows and heifers is transmitted by flies.
Manure is a valuable land fertilizer and wherever possible should not be burnt or
deathy buried. When however it is neither practicable nor desirable to conserve it
as a fertilizer incineration is the best method of disposing of it.
Regarding burial it should be buried deeply since simple burial of the material in
sand or ordinary soil will not prevent the development of house flies which have
considerable powers of borrowing upwards both as mature maggots and as newly
hatched flies to gain the soil surface.
Furthemore the simple burial or ploughing under of manure cannot be
guaranteed to dispose of nematode eggs and larvae. The larvae of equine
strongyles can migrate upwards for varying distances according to the nature of
the soil and moreover can live for many month under favourable conditions of
temperature and moisture in the soil.
Similarily cattle are sheep roundworm larvae such as Ostertagia, Haemonchus
and Nematodirus can all regain the soil surface after being ploughed under, in
fact ploughing in may help development of the nematodes by breaking up the soil
and faeces.
The application of chemicals and oily fluid to manure in order to deter flies
from oviposting and for killing fly larvae, worm eggs and larvae and other
pathogenic organisms has been suggested. The general use of these substances
for the purpose of combating the fly nuisance is however of doubtful value
because,
o Most chemical when applied in large quantities to manure regard
fermentation and so prolong the period of fly infestation.
o Most chemicals if they are to be effective require to be used in large
quantities so that this form of treatment is expensive are deleterious to the
manure rendering it totally unfit for agricultural uses.
o Before they can be effective as larvicides most chemicals require to
be intimately mixed with the manure a coating procedure requiring
considerable labour and careful supervision .
110
111
o Some of the substance which have been suggested may have poisonous
effects should be the treated manure be allowed to come in contact with
plants or animals.
These are however certain substances relatively free from the
objection enumerated above which have been should to be effective in preventing
the housefly from breeding in manure heaps are of these is powdered hellebore
which has no ill effect upon the manure or a crops to which the manure is later
applied. To prepare for use one half pound of the powder should be mixed in 10
gallons of water and left to stand for 24 hrs. This amount applied with a spray or
watering can to the manure as soon as it is removed from the stable is sufficient
to treat 10 cubic feet of manure, during application the manure must be turned
over so as to bring the liquid into contact with every part of the mass. Another
satisfactory agent is powdered borax this may be applied dry at the rate of 1 lb of
borax to each 16 cubic feet of manure which must then be watered care being
taken not the add more water than the manure will sock up. A solution of 1 lb
borax in 6 gallons of water may also be used . A degree of caution is necessary in
adding borax to manure which is later to be used for agricultural purposes
because in large quantities their chemical may have bad effects upon crops. A
third chemical that has been recommended is sodium fluosilicate applies as a
solution of 1 lb in 15 gallons of water until the manure is thoroughly soaked.
Benzene hexachloride and DDT can be sprayed on manure heaps and other fly
breeding places. The larvae, young and emerging flies and also adult flies are get
killed. Approximately 200 mg DDT per square feet of manure and surface will
give adequate control during fly season if spraying carried out at 2-6 weekly
intervals. Urine particularily horse urine is lethal to strongyles larvae, as a
rule the addition of 30-40 per cent by weight of urine to fresh faeces will kill the
free living stages of equire strongyles. Some fertilizers are also lethal to eggs and
larvae urea at 0.75 per cent by weight to fresh faeces will kill struggles.
Manipulation of manure
SPREEDING OR DRYING
Suitable for hot dry climates, this method consists in spreading within 24 hours
of its being voided each day’s output of manure in a thin layer so that it may be
subjected to rapid desiccation by sun and wind.
111
112
Rapid and regular daily drying is essential as only the eggs and pre infective
stages of struggles are easily destroyed by desiccation. Moreover dry or drying
manure does not attract over poisoning flies and any maggets already present
therein cease development and die.
The method should be worked on the “ Three day system” using three areas of
ground each just large enough to take one days output of manure when it is
spread out thinly. Each area is covered in turn and before re-using an area again
the dries along may where necessary be swift raced to one sole for burning.
The basic principle of both this and the close packening method is the utilization
of the natural heat which is generated in fermenting manure for the purpose of
destroying the eggs, larvae and pupae of flies and the eggs and larvae of round
worms normally present in the dung of farm livestock. A well packed stock of
horse manure becomes very hot after a interval of manure becomes very hot after
or interval of from one to three days. The temperature attained vary at different
depths, at 2.5 cm below the surface the heat regenerated may lie between 30-36 0c
at 10 cm below the surface it will range between, 63-690C, at 15 cm depth it will
commonly be about 700C whilst, at a depth of 25 cm it will be about 710C.
In general a temperature level that will destroy the strongyles of horses will also
destroy almost any of the related parasites of other livestock, as equine red
worms are amongst the most hardy of the nematodes so far as resistance and
viability of the larvae and concerned. As a rule sufficient heat will be generated by
fermentation in a tightly packed stock of horse manure to kill during the first
three days all fly larvae and worm eggs one larvae buried at a depth of 15 cm
below the surface.
Atmospheric warmth combine with moisture accelerates the temperature of
organic manure whereas dry heat or cold retard it. Finally it must be noted that
whilst the lethal effect of the heat generated in fermenting manure is undoubtly
great, the killing of eggs and larvae is not occurred by this means alone, gases
liberated during the decomposition of dung also exert considerable toxic action
or these stages.
It would appear, then that a surface method of dealing with fresh manure so as to
free it from these free living forms of parasitic life is to bury it in a mass which is
already undergoing fermentation fresh manure instead of being thrown or to the
surface of the stock should be buried at a depth which ensures a surrounding
temperature high enough to prevent eggs hatching and to kill any larvae that may
be present. The outside layer at the stock must be buried periodically in a similar
fashion. The procedure outlived here is the essence of the turning over the
surface method which it must be recognized entails a degree of labour one of
intelligent.
CLOSE PACKENING
112
113
The simplest form of this method consists of making a compact block of manure
of any desired horizontal dimension but, which for ease in its subsequent
treatment should not exceed about 150 cm height.
The site selected must have a hard level surface, and to the block must be firmly
pressed down with shovels or other means The following are methods of close
packening patton, Barbar, Alnutt and Hutchison trap.
Patton's method
Baber's method
It has got four compartments each sufficiently large to hold a week's output of
maure. Each compartment is floured with cement concrete slopening document
at the edges to a surrounding gutter. Retention of the manure is secured by a
enclosure of strong iron posts and wire -netting erected an the floor.
The manure must be tightly packed into the various compartments in turn and
must be moistered if it is too dry and be protected against heavy rainfall by a
covering of some sort against heavy rainfall by a covering of some sort.
Any maggots not killed by the heat of fermentation and leaving the manure to
seek a fermentation and leaving its manure to seek a pupation site or trapped in
the gutter from which pupation site are trapped in the gutter from which their
escape through crawling up the walls can be their escape through crawling up the
walls can be prevented by filtering a metal over hang to the edges of the gutter.
The gutter slope to a sump of appropriate size into which the drainage from the
manure is collected. If desired the gutter may be filled with any suitable
disinfectant or fly poison.
Allnutt's method
It have the receptable , killed on three sides and set on a cement concrete or other
strong impervious platform and having a gutter running across the open front.
The surrounding walls and the partition are provided or their inner surface a few
can from the top with a baffle or ledge projecting inward in order to prevent
migrating larvae which have crawled up the walls from escaping over the edge.
The manure is stored below the baffle level. The gutter is constructed in front of it
and is half with a solution of cresol to kill migrating larvae.
Here one compartment being filled and tightly packed fermentation and
decomposition can proceed in the other which is already full. The system allows
113
114
the front and top layers of manure to be periodically removed and deposited in
the centre of the stack with the least difficulty.
Hutchison's method
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Sanitation of animal house
o Objectives
o Drainage Laying of drainage system
o Testing of drainage system.
114
115
Dairy cows and buffaloes under average feeding conditions require about 28
litres of water per day for maintenance purpose and additional 3 litres of water
for each litre of milk produced. In addition, for washing and cleansing of cow-
sheds, the animal themselves, utensils, etc., an average of another 45-70 litres of
water per cow is necessary. Thus, for all purposes, a daily supply of 110 litres of
water per cow is necessary.
A horse under average stable-feeding conditions will drink about 36 litres of
water per day. For washing and other general stable purposes, an additional 36
litres of water is required. An average daily allowance of 18 litres of waste per
head would be sufficient for sheep and goats. For pigs, about 40 litres of water
may be provided per day head for all purposes. On an average 100 hens require
20-30 litres of water per day.
Objectives of sanitation
The aim of ensuring sanitation within animal horses are (i) to establish hygienic
atmosphere and structures and (ii) to create conditions for comfortable living of
the livestock (including poultry and ducks) so that they may remain healthy and
productive.
115
116
viz., species , age, weight and sex of animals and feeding rate, acclimatization,
husbandry system.
DRAINAGE OF BUILDINGS
To maintain sanitation in animal house one has to pay attention in drainage. The
drainage system may conveniently be divided into three sections which all inter
connected. That part inside and outside the building situated above ground level
and leading to.
The underground drain pipes and fittings in turn or connected to,
The public sewer cesspool, septic tank or other means of disposal.
The general principles of only drainage system
The pipes should be made of non absorbent material and be laid with air and
water tight joints.
The drains should be laid in straight lines between points of access all changes of
direction or gradient being open to inspection. All connections being on made
that the incoming drain points in the direction of the flow of sewage.
The drain should be laid to gradients which will ensure their being self cleaning.
All inlets to fowl drain should be trapped.
No drain should pass under buildings.
All entrance to drains should be outside the building.
There should be ample means of access for inspection.
The drainage should be disconnected from the sewer or other outfall by means of
a proper intercepting trap.
The drainage system should be properly ventilated.
It is desirable to provide a separate system of drains to take the rainwater in most
cases.
Drain pipes
Pipes for underground drains must possess strength to withstand the pressure of
the super imposed soil and the weight and jar of traffic. Strength is also necessary
to resist the internal pressure of gases. Drain pipes must have a smooth internal
face so that the free passage of waste matter is not hindered. The internal surface
must also resist the corrosion of liquids or gases.
Pipes must be durable be able to withstand alternating temperatures, the action
of chemicals and the friction of sand and other solid particles. Absolute
impermeability to gases and water is an essential feature without which any drain
pipe is not only useless but extremely dangerous as otherwise the surrounding
soil would soon become the stoneware or fireclay pipes when well laid are always
cleaner than iron drains and will in ordinary circumstances remain practically
tight for long periods. On the other hand iron pipes will remain perfectly tight for
long periods but do not remain for any length of time perfectly clean. Because of
greater length of iron pipes fewer joints are required than with stoneware fireclay
pipes.
116
117
Bends
The drainage pipes must be laid in straight line if abrupt deviations from the
straight are necessary bend are used. At the curve chokage is liable to occur the
curved pipes are frequently provided with removable bolted covers.
Junctions
Junctions at right angles are to be avoided for free flow. Junction should have
inspection chambers and it is covered by lid which is securely bolted down. The
optimum size of the pipe for livestock farm is 10-15 cm internal diameter.
Trap
When laying drain pipes and fittings in a drench care must be exercised to see
that the trench has a firm bottom. If the soil is of a loose character it is well to
make a solid bed of concrete for the pipes.
The gradient of its pipes should be such as to ensure a steady and even passage of
sewage. For ordinary drains from most animal habitations a speed of 10
cm/second is satisfactory and this attained in a 10 cm pipe if there is a gradient of
one in forty and in a 15 cm pipe with a gradient of one in sixty is maintained .
All joints must be made perfectly gas and water- proof and the material used for
sealing the join must be able to resist the action of fluids from without and of
fluids and gases from within. One part of cement and one part of sand makes a
excellent jointing material for stoneware or fireclay pipes.
117
118
Defects
Testing of drains
Drains must be tested after laying to ensure that they are gas and water tight and
that the water seals of the traps are satisfactory. Tests are carried out on the
various sections of a drainage system during its construction and a final test on
the whole system when completed. Thereafter periodical tests should be made
from time to time to ascertain that the system remains satisfactory as defects may
developed from various causes which if not rectified may cause serious pollution.
The methods of testing drains are described below
o The air and smoke tests: The air test consists of plugging the open ends of
the drains and ventilating pipes and the pumping in air under a pressure
sufficient to be indicated on a pressure gauge. If the gauge does not show
that a fixed pressure is being mentioned this denotes a leak or leakage.
These can generally be located by filling the pipes with dense white smoke
afterwards plugging the pipes and applying the same pressure before. This
will force the smoke out at the defective parts and enable them to be
located and made good. This test should be continued until the gauge
remains steady and proves that the drains are sound.
o Hydraulic test: In the hydraulic test the outlet of a drain or a section of it
is plugged with a extending rubber bag or other patent stopper, and the
section to be tested then filled with water . The water is left in for two or
three hours and if a leak exists its pressure will be indicated by a fall in the
head of water at the point of observation.
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
118
119
DISINFECTION - INTRODUCTION
PROPERTIES OF A DISINFECTANT
TYPES OF DISINFECTANTS
Physical agents
Chemical agents
PHYSICAL AGENTS
119
120
CHEMICAL AGENTS
Oxidising agents
Reducing agents
Acids and alkalis
Alcohol
Phenol and cresols
Dyes
Detergents and surface active agents
Miscellaneous organic compounds
Oxidising agents
Oxidising agents are rapid in action, and can be divided into those which release
oxygen oxidation without the release of oxygen the halogens.
Peroxides
Potassium permanganate
120
121
Consists of dark, adourless, purble crystals with a metabolic luster, which are
solubless water giving pink to deep purple solutions depending on
concentrations. Solutions of potassium permanganate have strong oxidizing
properties without releasing gaseous oxygen.
Halogens
Reducing agents
Sulphur dioxide
The strong mineral acids can be used as disinfectants but their corrosive actions
limit their usefulness to disinfection of -------- surfaces.
Several alkalis are in common use as disinfectant, e.g sodium hydroxide, sodium
carbonate and quick lime. Most bacteria are inactivated above pH 9, but a
particular property of the alkalis is their antiviral activity. A 4% solution of
sodium carbonate (washing soda) is employed in the cleansing and disinfection
procedures required after or outbreak of fat and mouth disease.
Acid alcohol is effective in inactivating bacterial spares.
Phenols and cresols and their derivatives such as the various chlorinated cresols
and phenyl mercuric compounds are used.
Phenol is toxic but it is a good disinfectant even at low concentration (0.5%)
Cresol is straw coloured liquid which darkens with age and exposure, less soluble
in water but soluble in organic solvents. Cresol in very effective against acid fast
bacteria but less effective against viruses and it has no effect on spores. It act
even in the presence of organic matter. Solution of cresol and soap (Lysol) is
preferred because of its greater solubility in water. Phenol should not be used in
------ since it ----- mick and mink products. Phenol and cresol are toxic to cats
and dogs.
121
122
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Recycling of farm wastes
o Necessity
o Different types of farm wastes
o Collection
o Zero waste management.
The farm waste may be solid, semisolid or liquid. Some waste may be treated
primarily as sewage and the residues emanating from the digestion tank serve as
manure. The sludge from the primary sedimentation tank could be disposed by
land bury or by composting while the liquid effluent after the separation of
activated sludge in the secondary sedimentation tank is disposed to courses.
Besides, the sludge may also be disposed in the sea as done in Mumbai, spread
over the land or used as manure.
The effluent from secondary settling tank, ie disposed into water courses such as
rivers and streams should be diluted at least 8:1 (water: effluent) in manner that
it should not contain > 10 ppm of suspended solids and 10ppm of BOD. Since
people may use as source waters, the effluents needs essentially to be rendered
pathogen free by chlorination. If chemicals are not removed from the water it
could prove toxic to man, fish, agriculture and limits its use for other purpose.
Oxidation pond
122
123
Oxidation ditches
With the use of mechanical rotors for extended aeration, the aerated lagoons can
also be used for purification of sewage and wastes generated by townships with
5000 to 20000 population. Only one acre of land is required for an oxidation
ditch and 2.5 acres for aerated lagoon.
Collection of wastes
Dung, feed wastes, soiled bedding , etc. forming solid wastes and waste water
constituting liquid manure can be collected separately or flushed out together
with plenty of water through hose pipes. The former group of wastes are lifted
into wheel barrows or trolleys and drawn out by bullock carts.
Solid manure is to be collected and removed from the shed at least twice daily
and should be stored in manure pit with impervious walls which is located at a
minimum distance of 10m from a well, river, tank or boundary of an adjoining
land property to safeguard against the menace of foul odours and flies.
The production of manure is on an average 40 kg per day per one adult unit ( one
adult cattle or buffalo above 3 years of age). One calf blow one year or one adult
sheep or goat or pig produces manure roughly equal to 1/3rd of an adult unit.
Aggregates of small globules are voided by sheep and goats, which are quite hard
and can be swept of floors. For pig paddock, 0.5 m wide trench covered with slats
or iron grills can be provided along the outer border where the animals will void
the faeces which will drop through the grill to fall at the bottom of the trench,
from where it can be collected periodically.
Manure pit
Simple manure pit for villages can be constructed by digging out on an elevated
land 4x3 sqm pit of 2 m depth with a roof constructed of locally available
material. The objective is to desiccate the manure quickly to dung cake, and to
prevent entry of rain water into the pit to overcome leaching of plant nutrients.
Another way is to construct a brick walled pit with cement concrete bottom.
There should be fall of base to one end from where a drain is to lead to the liquid
manure chamber. This pit as usual would have roof at a height of permitting free
circulation of air over the manure yet preventing leaching of valuable soluble
plant nutrients. It also prevents anaerobic conditions causing deterioration of
manure.
123
124
Biogas plant
At village or farm level, the disposal of farmyard manure can be utilized for
production biogas, fertilizer or compost. The Ministry of Non-Conventional
Energy Resources, Govt. of India, is implementing biogas program, - gas being
produced from cattle dung, other organic wastes and / or human excreta in a
system popularly known as Gobar-gas plant through the process of digestion. The
plant consist of
o Mixing tank and inlet
o Digester
o Gas holder or storage dome
The slurry from the biogas plant is a good quality manure free from weeds, sedds,
foul smell and pathogens.
Biogas plant
Liquid manure
When the slurry from the biogas plant is used in liquid form as it comes out, it
can be easily distributed in the field by linking the outlets with the main irrigation
channel or through an appropriate handling system.
Composting
124
125
Rectangular pits of 3x2x1.5 m are dug. A layer of straw, animal bedding, garbage
and leaves is first put in the pit. Digested slurry is then allowed to flow into the
pit. Alternate layers of refuse and slurry are laid until the pit is full. Bamboo poles
having holes 10cm apart are placed in the compostable material for aeration.
Finally the pit is plastered with mud layer. This will minimize the loss of nitrogen
from the pit. After one pit is filled, the same process is repeated for filling another
pits because compost from such pits is usable as manure only after 3 to 4 months.
Composting process consist of compost heaps, semi-dried slurry and slurry filter
bed.
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Sources of air pollution within animal house
o Natural air pollution within animal house
o Man made air pollution within animal house
o Effect on animal health
o Effect on animal production.
It is necessary to know
o The impurities that may be present in the atmospheric air
o How they accumulate
o To what degree they can be tolerated by man and domesticated animals
and
o How polluted air may be purified.
Pure air is a mixture of various gases including a quantity of water vapour, it has
the following approximate composition by volume
o Oxygen : 20.94%
o Carbondioxide : 0.28 to 0.04 %
o Nitrogen : 78.04%
o Argon : 0.94%
o Helium, Krypton, neon, etc. : Traces
125
126
There are also traces of ammonia, ozone, nitric acid, free hydrogen and methane
on an average air contains about 1.4% moisture which exists as a gas and not in
the form of droplets.
Can be man made are naturally occurring the main sources of air pollution are
stationary and area sources, mobile sources, agricultural sources and natural
sources.
A stationary source of air pollution refers to an emission source that does not
move (Chemical and manufacturing) industries. Stationary sources are defined as
large emitters who release relatively consistent qualities and quantities of
pollutants.
The term area source is used to describe the many smaller stationery sources
located together whose individual emissions may be low but whose collective
emissions can be significant.
Mobile sources
Mobile source of air pollution refers to a source that is capable of moving under
its own power.
In general mobile sources imply on road transportation. In addition there is also
a non road or off road category that that includes gas powered lawn tools and
mowers, farm and construction equipments, recreational vehicles, boats, planes
and trains.
Agricultural sources
Natural sources
126
127
An erupting volcano emits particulate matter and gages, forest and prairie fires
can emit large quantities of pollutants, plants and tress emit hydrocarbons, and
dust storms can create large amounts of particulate matter.
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Standards of ventilation
o Types of ventilation.
INTRODUCTION - VENTILATION
Ventilation in animal houses required for removing stale air and to replace it by
fresh air. Very little or too much of it is injurious to the health of animals and
their attendants.
The stagnant air becomes warmer and more humid in improperly ventilated
animal houses. Condensation of water on the surface, bedding and floor makes
them wet and animals become uncomfortable.
It eventually leads to concentration of animals at places causing accumulation of
excreta and expired air in pockets. All these factors are also lead to concentration
of dust, particulate matter, ammonia, other gases and pathogenic micro-
organisms carried by animals facilitating exacerbation of respiratory and enteric
diseases, mastitis and other illnesses.
STANDARDS OF VENTILATION
127
128
value for animals is lower than that for man and deserves utmost attention. Three
standards are considered for ventilation.
o Cubic space: The air of the animal house would appear fresh as long as the
amount of carbon dioxide produced during respiration does not exceed
more than two parts in 10,000 parts of air. This would depend on the type,
age, and number of livestock housed therein.
o Air change: It is more important than the cubic space requirement
because the cooling effect power of the air is to be maintained
satisfactorily. The number of air changes per hour is calculated by dividing
the total hourly air supply to the house by the cubic capacity of the house.
o Floor space: the floor space per animal is more important than the cubic
space. Height in excess of 3 meters is ineffective from the point of view of
ventilation as the products of respiration tend to accumulate at the lower
levels.
TYPES OF VENTILATION
Natural ventilation
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Controlling the source and agent
o Preventing the susceptible host from the source of infection or agents of
disease.
From the disease control point of view, the weakest link in a disease transmission
process is the agent or the source of the disease. Any measures to eliminate this
source is the easiest way by which the disease problem can be checked. The
important tools to achieve this are,
o Early detection and notification: when a disease is diagnosed and notified
to the authorities at a very early stage, it becomes very easy to stamp out
the etiological agent before it spreads into the masses. Early diagnosis
makes it easy to carry out detailed epidemiological studies in a more
effective manner and helps the authorities to take pre-emptive measures
before the agents spreads in a larger population.
o Epidemiological investigation: Epidemiological investigation involves
identification of the source of infection and factors influencing its spread
in the population. Successful epidemiological studies ensure
implementation of prompt disease management measures right at the
initiation stage of a disease process.
o Quarantine and isolation: Quarantine and isolation measures are the
oldest communicable disease prevention and control measures. It is
applied for the livestock imported from other countries in order to
minimize the risk of transmission of and exotic disease in importing
countries. A large number of infectious diseases of humans and animals
particularly those that are air-borne, can be controlled by physical
isolation of the diseased hosts till they get rid of infections either through
treatment or naturally after the infective stage of the disease has passed.
o Sanitation and disinfection: Majority of the water borne diseases are
transmitted through sewage contaminated drinking water. It is , therefore,
of paramount importance to either prevent such sewage from
contaminating water sources or to treat it in such a manner that the risk of
contamination with infectious diseases is either eliminated or minimized.
Treatment of industrial effluents or smoke which prevent the discharge of
129
130
harmful and toxic chemical hazards due to water and air pollution.
Regular disinfection of hospitals, animal sheds, meat processing plants,
human and animal dwellings, public places will reduce the risk of spread
of both water and air borne pathogens.
o Legislation: Legislative measures are important tools in controlling water
and air-borne diseases. The health hazards caused by pollution of water
and air due to both biological and chemical agents can be effectively
checked by bringing about comprehensive legislation against agencies
polluting the water sources and air and implementing it in true spirit.
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Effects and controls of acid rain
o Depletion of ozone layers
o Methane production.
Acid rain
Acid forming gases (SO2, N2O) from industries and fossil fuel combustion, are
oxidise after traveling thousand of kilometer in the atmosphere to form acid rain.
Sulphur-di-oxide (SO2) ð Sulphuric acid (H2So4), Nitrous oxide (N2O) ð Nitric
acid (HNO3) : HCI ð Hydrochloric acid (HCI ACID); CO2 ð carbonic acid .
130
131
Ozone layer is in stratosphere it is anatural sun screen filtring ultra violet rays
from sunlight protecting living organisms for the past 450 million years. The
thinning of the stratospheric ozone layer is referred to as ozone hole.
Among the pollutants which cause O3 depletion, the prominent ones are CFC’s
CH4 and N2O. Of these three pollutants, CFC’s are the most damaging gas of
ozone layer and are used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners. They
enter from the troposphere to the stratosphere and remain there for 65-110 years,
depleting O3.
Anthropogenic emissions of CFC’s are the main cause of worrying seasonal ozone
losses in both the hemispheres of our earth. Long-lived chloride compounds of
CFC’s are mainly responsible for ozone losses.
Markus Rex, an atmosphere scientist at the Alfred Wegener Institute of Polar and
Marine Research in Potsdam, Germany, saw new data for the break – down rate
of a crucial molecule, dichlorine peroxide (Cl2O2). The rate of photolysis (light
activated splitting) of this molecule was extremely low in the wavelengths
available in the stratosphere – much lower than the currently accepted rate.
The rapid photolysis of Cl2O2 is a key reaction in the chemical model of ozone
destruction developed 20 years ago. At least 60% of ozone destruction at the
poles points only to an unknown mechanism.
METHANE PRODUCTION
131
132
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Green house effect
o Global warming.
The increase in the global mean temperature is called global warming. The global
warming is due to increase in green house gases in the atmosphere.
A green house means a special house in which delicate plants are grown with
controlled temperature inside than outside but with less radiation. This is called
green house effect which is due to glass walls, high Carbon-di-oxide (Co 2) content
and high water vapour in the green house. The green house allows short wave
radiations inside but prevent the long wave, i.e, infrared radiations from the
earth’s surface. That is why the green house is warmer inside than outside.
In the same way, green house effect occurs in our environment. Some
atmospheric gases allow short wave radiations through them but absorb long
wave radiations from the earth and reflect the heat to earth. These gases are
called green house gases.
The green houses gases include Carbon-di-oxide (CO2), Oxygen (O3), Methane,
Nitrous Oxide (N2O), Chlorofluoro carbon (CFC), water vapour and Hydro
Fluorocarbons (HFC). The predominant gases are CO2 and water vapour. About
70 million tons of CO2 per day are dumped into the earth’s atmosphere.
o The average global temperature is 150C.
o If there are no green house gases, the temperature would be – 18 0C.
o The green house gases increase the temperature to 330C.
o The moderate heat trapped by mainly CO2 and water vapour keeps planet
warm enough to allow species to exist.
o The level of H2O vapour is constant but CO2 is increased.
132
133
o Man contributes to the increase of methane, N2O and CFC’s. This leads to
enhanced green house effect.
Global warming
Thermal expansion of ocean and melting of glaciers and polar ice sheets and
increase in sea level.
Increase in sea level at the rate of 1 to 2 mm/yr during 20th Century.
Increase by 30C would increase the see level by 0.2 to 1.5 meters over the next 100
years.
1 meter rise of sea level will inundate many cities like Sydney, Cairo, Bangkok etc.
Negative impact on human settlements, fisheries, tourism, agriculture and
coastal ecosystems.
Effects on agriculture
Increase in plant diseases, pests and weeds resulting in the reduction of crop
productivity.
In temperate region, small increase in temperature may increase crop production
but more temperature decreases the crop productivity.
133
134
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Tannery, wool, bone and blood meal industry pollution and its control
o Chemical hazards
o Impact of hazards and prevention
o Treatment of tannery effluent.
INTRODUCTION
Tannery, wool, bone and blood meal industry pollution and its control
Tanning is a chemical process that is used to convert animal hides and skins into
leather. The term hide used for the skin of large animals (e.g., cows or horses),
while skin is used for that of small animals (e.g. sheep). In the tanning process,
chemical reactions convert the semi-soluble protein “collagen”, present in the
corium of animal skins and hides into tough, flexible and highly durable leather.
The tanning process uses acids, alkalis, salts, enzymes and tanning agents to
dissolve fats and non-fibrous proteins and chemically bind the collagen fibers
together.
Chemical hazards
The large variety of acids, alkalis, tannins, solvents, disinfectants and other
chemicals in a tannery can be respiratory and skin irritants. Dust of vegetable
tanning materials, lime and leather and chemical mists and vapours arising in the
various processes may be responsible for causing chronic bronchitis.
Several chemicals may cause contact dermatitis. Chrome ulceration may occur in
chrome tanning, especially on the hands. Exposures in the beamhouse operations
are mainly due to sulphur compounds such as sulphides and sulphates. Since
these are alkaline substances, there is a potential to generate hydrogen sulphide
gas, if these substances , there is a potential tog generate hydrogen sulphides gas,
if these substances come into contact with acids.
134
135
In many countries tannery effluents are discharged into sewers or inland surface
water or brought onto the land with irrigation water.
The high concentrations of salt and hydrogen sulphide affect the quality of water
and may cause bad taste and odour. Though the suspended matter (lime, hair,
fleshigns, etc.) makes the surface water turbid, it eventually settles at the bottom.
Both processes create unfavourable conditions for aquatic life. Mineral tannery
waste water that is discharged on land, affects the productivity of soil adversely
and may cause land to become infertile. As a result of infiltration, the quality of
ground water is also affected adversely.
Discharge of untreated tannery effluents into the sewer system causes deposition
of calcium carbonate and choking fo the sewer. It is possible to treat the waste
water effectively before it is discharged into surface water. As a result of this
purification, the chromium and BOD levels of the purified water are relatively
low. However, the sludge in the wastewater systems has to be brought to special
dumping grounds because of its chromium content.
The tanning industry discharges different types of waste, primarily in the form of
liquid effluents containing organic matter, chromium sulphide, ammonium,
pentachlorophenol (PCP) and other salts which not only affect the quality of the
environment, but also are toxic for flora and fauna.
Some times the concentration of chromium in tannery effluent reaches upto 6500
ppm, however, pentachlorophenol used as biocide concentration reaches upto 25
ppm, thus, major pollutant of the effluent.
The mixing of the acid and alkaline wastes at a control pH results in the
coagulation of the suspended solids.
135
136
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about handling of stray
and fallen animals.
Stray animals roam about freely and create nuisance for the community in a
number of ways including damage to crops. They can be a serious hazard for
136
137
vehicular traffic especially in congested urban areas. These animals are more
likely to be exposed to diseases and environmental toxicities. When old and weak,
their movements become restricted. Thus, the dung and urine excreted by these
animals become serious threats to environmental safety. Besides, the filth created
by such animals helps in the propagation of a variety of insects. Fly breeding can
become a real threat to community health and environment.
The menace of stray animals can be minimized by collecting these animals in
what are called cattle pounds which are managed by pound keepers. The activity
is regulated by the cattle trespass act, 1921.
There are a number of private organizations that deal with the problem of old and
decrepit animals. In recent times, however, some goshalas have begun keeping
even healthy for breeding purpose and production. The goshalas are supported by
charitable organization and occasional grants from the Government sources.
There has been a growing awareness about the welfare of animals. The activities
concerning animal welfare in India are regulated by Animal Welfare Board of
India through the provision of Prevention of Cruelty to Animals act, 1960.
Stray animals dying in open areas cause enormous damage to environment. They
not only pollute the environment with foul gases/odours but also invite vultures
and other birds and wild animals to create nuisance. These animals need to be
collected immediately and disposed off in an economic and efficient manner by
cremation, burial, rendering or by composting as relevantly suitable.
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson the learner will be able to know about
o Distillery Industry
o Petroleum Industry
o Food and Beverage Industry
o Pesticide Industry
o Dye Industry
o Pharmaceutical industry
o Heavy Metal Industry.
137
138
Control
138
139
One of the main constraints on effluent discharge from the pulp and paper mill
industry is its brown or black colour due to the dissolved lignin based compounds
derived from the blow – heat condensate, pulp-Decker washing, chlorine and
alkali bleach waste, black liquid spillage and foul evaporator condensate.
The waste water should be treated and discharged.
DISTILLED INDUSTRY
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
139
140
Some environmental impacts of waste and effluents derived from the agricultural
and food processing industry are inevitable. Their composition is extremely
varied, depending on both the nature of the product and the production
techniques employed, resulting in various pollution effects of the different food
processing industries. There are, however, certain characteristic of particular
food processing industries as described above. Which may be useful in evaluating
pollution factors and as consequence, in applying appropriate treatment
operations for environmental protection objectives.
Generally, attention must be placed on minimization of waste through advanced
manufacturing practices and constructive utilization of what is unavoidable by
recycling and bioprocessing of by products and waste into edible food, feed, fuel
and chemicals with industrial application in order to prevent pollution and
minimize the effects of effluents on the environment.
Research work that will help the entire agricultural and food processing industry
identify , develop and implement new and better systems for producing high-
140
141
quality and economical foods with reduced adverse effects on the environment
and better utilization of the raw materials, is urgently needed.
In our time of environmental concern, much greater efforts are required to solve
the problems of air emissions, water discharges, and too much waste. No doubt,
appropriate technologies, techniques processes and treatment methods are
available to a great extent for the different types of the food processing industry.
However, further environmental related research is needed to evaluate.
o The qualitative and quantitative chemical composition of the solid, liquid,
and gaseous by-products and waste, as well as the extent to which they are
released to the environment
o The environmental media into which they are discharged
o The qualitative and quantitative environmental impact of waste and by-
products from the food processing industry.
o The available techniques for waste recovery and reutilization, and effective
methods for waste bioconversion and upgrading in order to minimize
environmental pollution.
o Improved packaging technologies to reduce the quantity of solid waste and
environmental impact, thereof,
o Alternatives to toxic chemicals used in agricultural and food processing
operations, and
o Policy and authority options which should be aimed at controlling and
strengthening existing environmental regulations, or even posing stricter
requirements.
Last but not least, increased efforts should be concentrated to motivate of the
consumers, producers, and authorities to conserve energy, water and raw
materials, and to minimise the generation of waste materials by re-utilization and
upgrading techniques, and in consequence, to prevent pollution of the
environment.
PESTICIDE INDUSTRY
141
142
New genes, enzymes and metabolic route have been discovered for the aerobic
and anaerobic degradation of organic pollutant. Methods have been fine – tuned
to gain a more detailed insight into structure-function relationships, leading to
the identification of structural elements and single amino acids (and therefore
nucleotides) that determine protein activities and specificities.
The broad knowledge acquired has allowed us to use culture independent studies,
based on functional characteristics to assess the diversity and quantity of
catabolic genes in response to pollution, rather than just changes in community
structure.
The integration of new methodologies, like stable isotope probing, has allowed
changes in the community to be linked with functional characteristics and has
enabled active community members to be identified.
DYE INDUSTRY
Dyes and intermediates are among the inorganic and organic chemicals which we
encounter as technological and functional necessities in nearly every sphere of
our daily lives. The environmental problems associated with the manufacture and
use of dyes are so complex and varied that only a discerning appraisal can put
them into proper perspective.
An attempt has been made to define and evaluate these problems and to show,
with reference to selected examples, what measure have been and are being
implemented to overcome them.
A good deal of creative, interdisciplinary effort and meticulous attention to minor
details will be necessary to master existing and future environmental problems in
this area. Dyes and intermediates are partly relatively stable in the aquatic
environment and cannot efficiently be degraded under wastewater plan
conditions.
Degradation of these substances in sludge, under aerobic conditions proceeds via
oxidation of the substituents located on the aromatic ring system or in the side
chain. As this reaction only leads to a partial degradation, genetic modification of
the enzymatic system of different microorganism may be studied to make the
system more active.
PHAEMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY
The pharmaceuticals industry is one of the most important industries for modern
civilization. The life of millions animals and human depends on the life saving
medicine manufactured by this industries. These medicines are metabolized in
the body, a part is utilized and the rest is excreted as it is or along with metabolic
products. These medicines entire in the environment and cause severe problems.
The toxicity of this compounds is generally very high has they have the capacity
to interfere the biological systems including changes at biochemical levels. Apart
from this the pollutants are also generated during the manufacturing process of
medicines. Thus the pharmaceuticals industry has becomes one of the major
causes of concern.
142
143
The pollutant generated during the manufacturing process are easier to tackle as
an industry is point source of pollution and it is possible to install pollutant
specific treatment facilities. However the pollution caused by the usage of
medicine is very difficult to control because of its disbursed nature.
There are many studies which have confirmed the presence of pharmaceutically
active compounds in surface ground and drinking water. Though the
concentration of this is usually in PPM or lower, the toxic effects of this
compounds are well known. The sewage treatment plants are not efficient enough
to degrade all the products. At the same time it is not possible to stop the use of
medicines as, the adverse effect has not using the medicine on society outweigh
way the potential adverb effects of the presence of such compounds in the
environment. Thus one of the most effective way of dealings with this problem is
the use of source separation management practices.
Source separation of urine and hospital effluent from the normal waste water will
reduce the amount of toxic effluent to a great extent. Also it will be possible to
install more efficient, specially designed and costly treatment technologies for the
treatment of toxic compound thereby reducing the risk of environmental
contamination.
143
144
144