Materials and Structures, 1995, 28, 92-100

Gypsum in construction: origin and properties

JOSEPH KARNI*, E'YAL KARNI~"
* Faculty of Civil Engineerin 9, t Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology,
Technion City, 32000 Haifa, Israel

Calcium sulfate, commonly known as natural gypsum, is found in nature in different forms,
mainly as the dihydrate ( CaSO 4"2H20 ) and anhydrite ( CaS0 4). They are products of partial
or total evaporation of inland seas and lakes. Both the dihydrate and the anhydrite occur in
nature in a variety of forms. The origin of 9ypsum, its 9enesis, varieties and properties are
discussed, and the focus is then on the most common bindin9 material produced from it,
plaster of Paris (~-hemihydrate), known in France as 'pl~tre de Paris', in the USA as
'calcined 9ypsum', and in Germany as 'Stuckgips '. Details are 9iven of the properties of
9ypsum paste (settin 9, expansion, and adhesion) and of hardened 9ypsum (strength, bulk
weight, thermal expansion, volume and linear changes under humidity fluctuations, moisture
absorption, paintability, corrosivity, thermal and acoustic insulation behaviour, and fire
resistance).

1. GENERAL bottom in inverse proportion to their solubilities. The

precipitation pattern is governed by chemical-physical
Naturally occurring calcium sulfate can be termed, in
principles, which in turn are affected by the geological
general, natural gypsum. It occurs in several forms, most
evolution of the water body. This is the chemical-physical
common among which are the dihydrate (CaSO4'2H20)
approach.
and anhydrite (CaSO4). The chemical composition of the
Another way of determining whether gypsum or
pure dihydrate, expressed by weight as oxides, is CaO
anhydrite was formed first is provided by the 9eological
32.5%; SO3 46.6%; H/O 20.9%. Its bulk weight is about
approach. According to Antolini [3], the actual deposition
2300 kg m- 3, its hardness 1.5-2.0 on the Mohs scale, and
sequence is determined by local conditions. It should be
its colour is white or colourless. Commercial dihydrate
borne in mind that anhydrite may convert into gypsum,
minerals only rarely reach this purity. They usually
and vice versa, depending on the geological history of
contain varying amounts of clay, slate, anhydrite, chalk,
the formation. Thus there is no scope for generalization.
dolomite, silica and iron compounds, as well as water.
In the calcium sulfate strata, formed as a result of sea
Depending on the specific impurities present, their colour
water evaporation, gypsum and anhydrite appear side by
may be grey, brown, red or pink. Their average minera-
side (horizontally or vertically), and occasionally as a
logical and chemical compositions, according to Schwiete
mixture.
and Knauf [1], are as given in Table 1. The chemical
Differentiation between the two rocks is crucial for
composition of pure anhydrite, expressed by weight as
the gypsum industry. For plaster of Paris manufacture,
oxides, is CaO 41.2%; SO3 58.8%. Its bulk weight is about
for example, the purity of the dihydrate is of prime
3000 kg m- 3, its hardness 3.0-3.5 on the Mohs scale, and
importance: a maximum dihydrate content is desirable,
its colour is white. Depending on the specific impurities
since the presence of anhydrite may actually jeopardize
present, the impure mineral may be grey, blue, red or
the production process or impair the quality of the
brown in pale shades.
product. In some cases, depending on the desired product,
a certain percentage of anhydrite may even be beneficial.
For certain products, such as ceramic gypsum or mould
2. GENESIS
gypsum, an impurity level exceeding 1% (including
Partial or total evaporation of inland seas and salt lakes anhydrite) is prohibitive. Gypsum deposits may occur as
during various geological periods led to the formation a result of volcanic activity, manifested as an accumula-
of different crystalline minerals. Two of these are gypsum tion of sulfuric acid (produced from sulfide minerals, such
and anhydrite, which can be mined in rock form. as pyrite), which converts calcium carbonate into calcium
According to Posnjak [2], the relative amounts formed sulfate. This kind of gypsum, encountered in the form of
of these two varieties were influenced by the conditions nodules, is less exploitable than the evaporation deposits.
prevailing during the geological periods in question. For As well as the rock deposits, there are calcium sulfate
example, at a temperature of 30~ as the salt concen- sand dunes, formed through weathering of gypsum rock,
tration had increased 3.35-4.80 times its normal level in and a soft mixture of gypsum and clay, (gypsite),
sea water, the calcium sulfate precipitated as anhydrite apparently the result of recrystallization of gypsum by
(see Fig. 1). The process may be summarized as follows. separation from nearby deposits. Other, less frequent,
As evaporation proceeds, the minerals accumulate on the varieties of dihydrate are: alabaster, a compact a n d
0025-5432/95 9 RILEM
 Materials a n d S t r u c t u r e s 93

0.7

0.6
III
Increase of CaSO 4 with Concent. of Sea Water
O Anhydrite
r..) 0.5

t_ 0.4

"z
~D 0.3

0.2

o
=30 C
0.1

0.0 ] 3.35] 4.80

0 2 4 6 8

Concentration of Sea Salts (1.0 = Norm. Sea w.)

Fig. 1 Solubility curves for gypsum and anhydrite in solutions of sea water salts [-2].

Table 1 Commercial dihydrate l-l] composition in wt% cements, different kinds of Portland cement and some
specialized cements. In Israel, air-hardening lime, plaster
Mineralogical composition Chemical composition of Paris, and Portland cement are used. The principal
feature of these cementitious materials is their tendency
Humidity (in 100~ 0.52 Humidity 0.52 to harden on being mixed with water. They are also
CaSO4.2H20 90.20 Crystall.H20 18.88 capable of adhesion and bonding and are used in the
Anhydrite 1.60 CaO 31.55
form of paste (with water only), mortar (paste plus fine
Calcite 0.73 SO3 42.85
Dolomite 3.94 MgO 0.86 aggregate) and concrete (paste plus fine and coarse
Unspec. impurities 3.01 CO2 2.33 aggregates). The calcium-based cementitious materials
(quartz, clay, etc.) Fe203 + A1203 0.52 are classified as air-hardening and hydraulic. The air-
SiO2 and others 2.49 hardening materials harden and subsist in air, but not in
water. Air hardening lime as well as gypsum belong to
Max. temperature for moisture content determination of this category; they harden by simultaneous drying and
dihydrate is 60~ but in [1] it says 100~ chemical reaction. Gypsum hardens in water, but it is
also soluble in water, so that it lacks durability in an
massive, marble-like material with a very fine crystalline aqueous environment. Hydraulic cementitious materials
structure used since antiquity for statuary and since the harden and subsist both in air and water. Their hardening
Middle Ages for interior decoration; selenite, a trans- does not result from drying, but from chemical processes
parent crystalline material, used in antiquity for window only.
panes; satin spar, a satin-like fibrous material, also Plaster of Paris belongs to the most ancient cementi-
occasionally used for decoration; copy, an effflorescence- tious materials, dating back to the pyramid of Khufu,
like material, found on saline deposits in Australia; and 5000 years ago. The ancient Egyptians used it both as
chemical gypsum, a commercial by-product, mainly of the coarse mortar and as plaster, and also to prepare interior
phosphate industry. Anhydrite also has several varieties, surfaces for painting. For this application, the material
but these are of little importance compared with has the advantage of being chemically neutral and thus
dihydrate. compatible with paint. In fact, some of these paintings
have survived in good condition to this day.
In medieval Europe, plaster of Paris served as a
3. C E M E N T I T I O U S MATERIALS P R O D U C E D
building material for palaces (e.g., in Germany). At
FROM DIHYDRATE
present, its use is widespread in the US, in Europe and
We shall deal here exclusively with dihydrate. Cementi- elsewhere, but not yet so in Israel. The source for this
tious materials in the building industry are based on kind of cementitious material is gypsum stone ('natural
calcium compounds, the most common ones being gypsum', CaSO4"2H20), occurring in nature as rocks.
gypsum, air-hardening and hydraulic lime, natural It is relatively easy to mine the gypsum stone because
94 K a r n i and Karni

of its low hardness. Mining is performed both subter- 4.2 Properties of gypsum paste [5, 6]
raneously and in open quarries, the extracted stones being
4.2.1 Gypsum chemistry
broken by automatic crushers. The material is then milled
and ground to a powder, mostly before calcining, though Shortly after mixing plaster of Paris with water, setting
occasionally calcining may precede grinding. (This begins, dihydrate (CaSO4-2H20) is formed, and the
ancient thermal processing of the raw material is material hardens. This is also true for the retarded
responsible for the name 'gypsum': the Greek 'gupsos' hemihydrate: as soon as setting has begun, the reaction
derives from the two words denoting 'earth' and proceeds rapidly, and the entire mass is converted into
'cooking'.) gypsum. According to Himsworth IT], calcium sulfate
Different types of cementitious material can be exists in three hydration states: Anhydrite, which contains
produced from gypsum stone. The only product used at no water of crystallization; Gypsum, which contains two
present in Israel is plaster of Paris (hemihydrate or water molecules; and Hemihydrate, which contains less
semihydrate). Its chemical formula is CaSO4-89 water than the gypsum. The general formula of the
Israeli Standard 198 [4] deals with cementitious materials compound is CaSO4"mH20, where the value of m
obtained by partial dehydration of natural gypsum rock. ranges from 0 to 2- In industrial plaster of Paris, m is
The cementitious materials are: structural hemihydrate normally about 89 At this water content, those properties
(predominantly CaSO4"89 without setting retarder, that depend on m are stabilized and therefore the
and structural retarded hemihydrate (the former with material is calcined to obtain a compound quite close to
added setting retarder). CaSO4" 89 When stored in humid air, the value of m
The hemihydrate occurs in two forms: [3 and ~. The [3 increases and approaches 2. On mixing with water,
product is obtained by partial dehydration of the absorption is rapid up to m = 2, further absorption taking
gypsum rock at 150-165~ This is a very low tem- place at a slower rate until dihydrate is formed. During
perature compared with that required for lime (about the mixing process, the temperature rises to a constant
1,200~ or Portland cement (about 1,450~ Calcining value, but later it increases again. The first temperature
takes place in kettles (the most common variant) or in rise is associated with the formation of CaSO4-~H20,
rotary kilns fired with coal, liquid fuel or gas. The hot and the second with the formation of dihydrate.
combustion gases pass around the tank containing the
powdered gypsum. The duration of calcining depends, of
4.2.2 Setting
course, on the extent of combustion, but is normally 2-3
hours. The setting mechanism is explained by Le Chatellier's
The ~ product is obtained by calcining of gypsum in law. The hemihydrate dissolves in water, forming Ca 2+
an autoclave using high pressure steam. Calcining and SO 2- which with water form dihydrate that
proceeds in the presence of water and a small amount precipitates from the solution. The process continues
of organic matter. The crystalline structure and the until all the gypsum has passed the following three stages:
mechanical properties of the resulting product differ from 1, dissolution; 2, hydration, i.e., binding to the water; and
those obtained by conventional calcining. In actual use, 3, precipitation of the CaSO4-2H20 crystals. The setting
a smaller amount of water is needed to form a plastic rate of plaster of Paris depends on its fineness, purity
paste which yields a stronger and harder product. The and mixing velocity. To ensure convenient application,
gypsum serves for special purposes, for example, for the time period from preparation of the low viscosity
making structural elements, but ~ gypsum is not dealt paste until it reaches a substantial viscosity must be long
with here. enough to allow casting of the gypsum, or making plaster
out of it. Thus costly work with very small batches is
avoided. To prolong the working time, retarders are
added to the hemihydrate to obtain 'retarded plaster of
4. PLASTER OF PARIS, ~-HEMIHYDRATE Paris'. After setting has started in this material, it
proceeds very rapidly until the entire mass has been
4.1 General
converted into gypsum. Since completion of hydration
As is well known, gypsum is an air-hardening cementitious of calcium sulfate is rapid in hemihydrate, wet finishing
material. It is capable of crystallizing and hardening in of the products is not required.
water as well, but does not subsist in water due to its
solubility. When not exposed permanently to water, it is
4.2.3 Expansion of the paste
more durable, as is evidenced by extensive experience.
Prolonged exposure to the atmosphere causes softening On casting plaster of Paris, there is an initial volume
of the hemihydrate, and water flowing on its surface may contraction. In rapid setting material this contraction is
dissolve and wash away the material. This is the reason barely noticeable, whereas in retarded hemihydrate the
why gypsum is recommended for indoor applications linear contraction reaches 0.05% (i.e., a volume, reduction
only. It can, however, be used in external walls if the of about 0.15%). Contraction stops with the commence-
process includes treatment with silicone or bitumen and ment of setting, when hydration has occurred in only a
if a plaster coating is added. small portion of the material, and then expansion ~ets
Materials a n d Structures 95

in. Initially, expansion is extensive, but it gradually slows 0 35

down and stops after one or two days. The overall v

/ f'T--
amount of linear expansion differs for the various types
0 30 /
of gypsum: it ranges from 1% or more in high expansion 0.25
I r 1
m,
(unretarded) plaster of Paris to 0.1% or less in low
0 20
expansion (retarded) hemihydrate or in a material

/!
f l 3
containing an expansion preventing additive. Thus, the L ......-- ~ 9 p
.=. 0 15
f" f
increase in volume may amount to 3% or more. This ,1 J
0 10 f,e"
property constitutes an advantage when gypsum is cast,
since it ensures accurate dimensions and shape of the
/
0 05
product. When gypsum serves as coarse mortar, interface /,d I
0 J
cracks are avoided, in contrast to lime-cement mortar or
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
cement mortar. As expansion continues even after the
initially hot mass has cooled down to ambient tempera-
Time (min)
ture, it must be concluded that it is not caused by the
heat evolved during setting. Neither is the volume Fig. 2 Linear expansion of plaster of Paris having standard
increase a result of the chemical reaction: consistency [5]: l, unretarded plaster of standard
consistency, water/gypsum ratio = 0.56; 2, high-expansion
CaSO+-2H20 + ~H20 = CaSO4-2H20 , plaster acc. to Andrews [-8]; 3, unretarded plaster;
water/gypsum ratio = 0.60; 4, retarded plaster of standard
because this reaction causes a volume reduction of 4%. consistency, 0.1~ caseolysate; and 5, retarded plaster of
It appears that expansion should be attributed to the standard consistency, 0.8% gelatin.
forces arising during the growth of gypsum crystals and
the geometric ordering of the growing crystals. Until the
mass becomes rigid, the crystals can grow freely, while detergent ('Ama'), lime, Teepol, gelatin, gelatinous hot
the formation of a rigid structure restrains the motions wood adhesive, casein-base cold wood adhesive, Lissapol,
of their ends so that expansion takes place. The following 'skiza' resin, borax, casein and casein hydrolysate
factors affect the magnitude of expansion: 1, the fineness ('caseolysate') [5].
of the powder; 2, the water/gypsum ratio (ratio of mixture It has been found that added retardants (as well as
water to weight of gypsum); 3, added retarders or accelerators) usually reduce expansion during setting.
accelerators; 4, added sand; and 5, added lime paste. This is due to the specific shape of the crystals formed
in their presence. Retardants normally cause the formation
of short and thick crystals, which fill more easily the
4.2.4 Effect of powder fineness spaces in which they grow. Under these circumstances,
It was found that, even for a constant water/gypsum ratio, smaller forces develop in the bulk. The use of accelerators
the expansion of fine plaster of Paris was greater than results in a larger number of small crystals than in pure
that of coarse material. water, so that here too the crystals are shorter. This
explains the decreased expansion caused by the crystals
in both cases. Fig. 2 shows the differences in linear
4.2.5 Effect of water/gypsum ratio expansion between retarded, unretarded and high-
Increasing the water/gypsum ratio reduces expansion. expansion plaster of Paris.
The reason for this is that the distances between particles
increase with increasing water/gypsum ratio and, conse-
4.2.7 Effect of added sand
quently, the crystals will have more space for growth. In
addition, more water means a longer setting time, and a Sand added to plaster of Paris reduces expansion. For
higher degree of hydration will be required to obtain a example, adding 5 parts of sand to one part of hemihydrate
rigid mass, so that the growth rate will be lower after (by volume) reduces expansion to about 50?/0 of the value
setting. for pure plaster of Paris. Find sand allows greater
expansion than coarse sand.
4.2.6 Effect of retarders
4.2.8 Effect of added lime paste
In the USA and the UK it is customary to add to plaster
of Paris 0.1% keratin (a protein compound derived from In some countries slaked lime has been added to plaster
horns and hoofs) as a retarder. Other retarders cited in both as a setting retardant and as an expansion reducer.
the literature include gelatin, protein hydrolysate, lime, Since lime paste is a strongly contracting cementitious
etc. A large number of materials, in different concen- material it reduces considerably the expansion of plaster
trations, have been tested at the Building Research of Paris. A 1:1 mixture, showing practically no expansion
Station in Haifa to determine the optimum processing changes the nature of the set plaster. As regards setting,
time that would not impair the main properties of slaked lime is a poor retarder: a large amount of it would
gypsum. The materials tested were: a common household be needed and the product would be quite weak.
96 Karni and Karni

Therefore, slaked lime should not be used for this fineness and the age of the cementitious material. These
purpose, though addition of a certain amount may subjects have been discussed above. Table 2 shows how
improve workability. Occasionally, plaster of Paris is the quality of the added retardants affects the strength
added to lime plaster in order to accelerate setting and of plaster of Paris at the age of 14 days [5]. The
hardening; a typical amount is 10~ of the dry mixture. best results were obtained with 'caseolysate' (casein
It should be noted that addition of lime does not inhibit hydrolysate). It was found that all the added retardants
the chemical reaction between gypsum and water caused weakening of the hemihydrate. The extent of
appreciably, though it may retard setting. This would weakening depends on the type of retardant, the amount
impair the quality of the cementitious material, since the added and, occasionally, the water/gypsum ratio. Table
plaster-lime mixture can be remixed easily even after the 3 shows the effect of added slaked lime on the strength
plaster has become dihydrate, i.e., it has ceased to be a of plaster of Paris.
cementitious material. Working the gypsum-plaster
mixture after the chemical process has advanced will
markedly reduce the strength of the plaster. Therefore, a 4.3.3 Effect of water/gypsum ratio on strength
gypsum-lime mixture should not be used after thickening The strength of gypsum depends largely on its water/
and it should not be remixed. For this reason, excessive gypsum ratio, decreasing with increasing water content.
working of the upper plaster layer, i.e., the finish layer, Therefore, high strength is achieved by adding to the
should be avoided. gypsum only the amount of water needed for setting and
crystallization (17 wt %). However, this amount is much
4.2.9 Adhesion smaller than that required to reach the desired plastic
consistency and, consequently, a higher water/gypsum
Gypsum adheres well to different materials, including ratio is normally used. A typical value for manual
reed, wood chips, sawdust, sand, asbestos fibres, sisal compacting is 0.60. Table 4 shows the effect of the
fibres, etc. Fresh gypsum also adheres well to thoroughly water/gypsum ratio on the strength of retarded and
hardened gypsum, yielding strong, monolithic products. unretarded gypsum as a function of the environmental
conditions.
4.3 Properties of hardened gypsum
4.3.1 Strength 4.3.4 Effect of product age
The strength derives directly from crystallization of the Strength increases with time. Israeli experience shows
gypsum. Growth and interlocking of the contacting that under normal (ambient) finishing conditions, maxi-
crystals impart strength to the gypsum paste. Strength mum strength is reached within 14 days in summer and
is determined by the following factors: 1, the quality of within 28 days in winter. Table 5 illustrates the effect of
the cementitious material (gypsum and additives); 2, the age on the strength of plaster of Paris.
water/gypsum ratio; 3, the age of the product; and 4, the
conditions of storage of the product, both during
4.3.5 Effect of conditions durin 9 strengthening
strengthenin9 (of interest to the industry), and after the
strengthenin9 period (of interest to the user). Different conditions during the strengthening period will
yield products having different strengths. These effects
are studied by compression loading of specimens of
4.3.2 Effect of quality of cementitious material
retarded gypsum that had been treated as follows (Table 6
The quality of the gypsum depends on the raw material gives the compressive strength values for the gypsum):
composition, the calcining temperature, the particle (1) drying under ambient conditions (27.5~ RH);

Table 2 Compressive strength and tensile strength of retarded plaster of Paris [5] a

Retardant Water/gypsum Bulk Compressive strength Tensile strength

and amount ratio b weight
(kg m - 3) (N ram- 2) % ch.r (N mm- 2) % ch.r

Unretarded gypsum 0.63 1200 12.0 0 1.9 0

Caseolys. 0.2% 0.57 1290 11.3 - 5.8 1.9 + 1.6
Gelatin 0.85% 0.70 1120 7.3 - 39.2 1.3 - 29.2
Hot wood glue, 1.0% 0.66 1170 8.3 - 30.6 1.8 - 2.1
Protein hydrolys. 5.3% 0.56 1250 9.0 - 25.2 t. 1 - 36.7

a Conditioning for 13 days at room temperature + one day in an oven at 50~ duration of initial setting 20 + 2 min.
b Water/gypsum ratio as required to obtain a paste of standard consistency.
r Change in strength is given relative to unretarded gypsum.
Materials and Structures 97

Table 3 Compressive strength and tensile strength of lime-retarded plaster of Paris [5] a

Mixture Water/gypsum Bulk Compressive strength Tensile strength

ratio weight
(kg m - 3) (N mm- 2) ~o ch-u (N m m - 2) ~o ch. b

Gypsum no lime 0.57 c 1230 20.7 0 2.2 0

Gypsum + slaked lime, 5 wt ~o 0 -63c 1150 t4.5 -30.0 1.8 -18.2
Gypsum + slaked lime, 7.5 wt ~ 0.63 1140 14.0 -32.4 1.4 -35.8
Gypsum + slaked lime, I0.0 wt ~o 0.63 1130 13.2 -36.6 1.5 -31.7

"Conditioning: 13 days at room temperature + one day in an oven at 50~

b Water/gypsum ratio as required to obtain standard consistency.
c Change is given relative to gypsum without added lime.

Table 4 Effect of water/gypsum ratio on the strength of hardened gypsum [5]

Water/gypsum Retarded gypsum Unret.

ratio gypsum
Bulk Compr. Bulk Compr. Bulk Compr. Tensile Compr.
weight strength weight strength weight strength strength strength
(kg m - 3) (N m m - 2) (kgm -3) (Nmm -2) (kgm -3) (Nmm -2) ( N m m -2) (N mm- 2)
Conditioning before testing a
I I I I II II II II
Testing after (days)
7 7 28 28 14 14 14 14

0.50 1430 7.1 1400 10.4 1410 14.6 2.5 15.8

0.55 1270 4.6 1230 8.0 1300 13.0 2.0 14.0
0.60 1250 3.2 1170 5.1 1230 11.4 1.6 12.0
0.65 1190 2.5 1110 4.5 1170 10.8 1.3
0.70 1140 2.2 1010 4.3 1130
0.75 1070 1.5 1050 3.8 1040 9.5 1.2

a Conditioning: I, drying at room temperature; II, drying at room temperature + one day in an oven at 50~

Table 5 Increase in strength (N m m - 2) of unretarded (a) the initial strength of specimens kept in water or in
gypsum with time (water/gypsum ratio = 0.68) [5] a humidity chamber was relatively high, but it decreased
with time; (b) specimens kept for 14 days in a humidity
Age (days) chamber and then for a few days under ambient
1 7 28 conditions showed higher strength than specimens kept
in a humidity chamber during the entire conditioning
In compression 2.7 3.2 7.5
period (specimens kept at 50~ on the last day were even
In tension 0.7 1.2 1.4
stronger); (c) air-dried specimens reached m a x i m u m
strength after about 14 days; and (d) specimens that had
been air-dried and then kept for 24 h at 50~ showed
(2) keeping in a humidity chamber (_> 90~o RH, temp. ?); even better results.
(3) keeping in water (temp. ?); (4) drying at room
temperature (27.5~ RH) and finally conditioning
4.3.6 Effect of conditioning of hardened product on its
for 2 4 h at 50~ (5) drying at room temperature
strength
(27.5~ RH) 6 or 9 days, then one day at 50~ and
finally a few days in room conditions (27.5~ RH); Since gypsum is hygroscopic, it is important to know the
and (6) keeping 14 days in a humidity chamber and effect of environmental humidity on its strength. Table
returning for a few days to r o o m conditions (27.5~ 7 shows the influence of humidity or moisture on
RH). hardened products of plaster of Paris basod on a
From the results in Table 6 it may be concluded that water/gypsum ratio of 0.60 (age ?).
during the strengthening period the strength is influenced The oven-dried product showed the highest strength.
by the environmental conditions. It was found that: The 'dried strength' is an appropriate criterion for a
98 Karni and Karni

Table 6 Compressive strength (N mm-2) of hardened

gypsum as a function of conditioning (see text) during strengthening [5]

Condition Compressive strength (N m m - 2)

Specimen age (days)

1 3 7 8 9 10 12 13 14 17 21 24 28

(1) 3.0 2.9 4.6 7.4 6.4

(2) 3.3 3.4 3.2 2.3 3.1
(3) 2.9 3.1 2.5 2.1 1.8
(4) 8.5 7.9
(5) 4.5 a 5.8 a 6.3 a 6.3 b 7.5 b 6.4 b
(6) 3.5 6.0 6.7 6.7
8.3 c

a 6 days drying at room temperature.

b 9 days drying at room temperature.
c kept at 50~ on the last day.

Table 7 Effect of humidity or moisture on the strength of 4.3.7 Enhancing strength by use of fibres and polymers
hardened products of plaster of Paris I'8]
A research project on the improvement of gypsum by the
Conditioning Moisture in Compressive strength use of fibres and polymers [9] was completed at the
gypsum (%) Building Research Station in Israel in 1976. The work
(N m m - 2) % was aimed at improving the strength of thin gypsum slabs
designed for the assembly of light partitions and for 'dry
Dried at 35-40~ 0 13.8 100.0 plaster'. Local gypsum, satisfying the requirements of
In air of 65% RH 0.04 13.6 98.5 Israeli Standard 198, was used to prepare the specimens.
In air of 90% RH 0.15 12.9 93.5 The fibres were chopped glass fibres, 12 m m long and
With 1~o water added 1.00 7.7 56.0 10 lam in diameter, made from E glass rovings (Type
With 3% water added 3.00 7.1 51.5
8252P-2380). The following polymers were tested:
Immersed in water 17.50 6.4 46.5
polyvinyl acetate emulsion 'Servinyl 1040P' and acrylic
copolymer emulsion 'Seracryls 4000'. T a p water was
used. The consistency of the gypsum paste was uniformly
comparison of gypsum from different sources for uses liquid and suitable for manual compacting. The quality
where moisture absorption is not possible. It was found of the hardened composite, made from gypsum with
that the strength of hardened gypsum decreases as a result added fibres and polymer, was established by determining
of moisture absorption. If moisture can be absorbed, it its flexural and compressive strength and comparing these
is necessary to assume a reduced strength, as seen from values with those for uncompounded material and those
Table 7. It was also found that, under moisture conditions of gypsum containing polymer only or chopped glass
c o m m o n in residential buildings, there is no significant fibres only. Some results of this work are given in Table 8.
effect, particularly since dried gypsum is capable of The following conclusions may be drawn. 1, The
regaining strength. compressive and flexural strength of gypsum can be

Table 8 Relative composite strength (%) 1"9]: A, 'Servinyl 1040P'; B, 'Seracryls 4000'; glass fibres 12 mm long

Strength Composite

Plaster of Paris Plaster of Paris Plaster of Paris Plaster of Paris

+ polymer + fibres + polymers + fibres
A B A B A B

Bending strength prisms 100 128 106 142 145 186 172
4 0 m m x 4 0 m m • 160mm
Bending strength panels 100 137 131 175 173 241 202
300 mm x 400 mm x 10 mm
Compressive strength 100 135 113 96 98 116 107
prism-halves 40 mm x 40 mm
Materials and Structures 99

improved by the addition of a suitable polymer. 2, Adding 4.3.13 Thermal insulation

chopped glass fibres to gypsum can improve its flexural
Generally speaking, the thermal insulation capability of
strength considerably; however, its compressive strength
gypsum is a direct consequence of its porous structure.
does not increase and may even decrease to a certain
To obtain a wall with high thermal insulation, one must
extent. 3, The flexural strength of the composite can be
usually accept a certain reduction in strength require-
improved quite considerably by adding both polymer
ments. This can be done, since a wall is normally expected
and chopped glass fibres to the gypsum matrix. The effect
to carry only its own weight. The thermal conductivity
is synergistic, i.e., the flexural strength improvement
of set plaster of Paris is approximately 2 = 0.6 W m - 1 K - 1
is quantitatively greater than the arithmetic sum of
and that of cellular gypsum is 2 = 0.2 W m - 1 K - 1. Thin
improvements obtained with the fibres and polymer
gypsum boards do not substantially reduce the thermal
separately. This is particularly conspicuous in the case
conductivity of a wall, but when adjacent to an air space
of thin slabs. 4, It seems plausible that an additional
they can serve well as heat insulators. Improved insulation
study, based on fibres and polymers in different combina-
is achieved by using special boards or by adding
tions, might lead to a further improvement of the matrix
insulating materials. Satisfactory solutions can be reached
and the fibre-matrix adhesion and thus to a stronger
by appropriate combinations of the various materials
composite as a whole. Removal of excess water from the
(the external wall material, the gypsum board and the
plastic paste, while compacting the composite, might also
insulator) and intelligent design.
improve strength as a result of the increased density as
well as the decreased water/gypsum ratio in the gypsum.
4.3.14 Fire resistance

4.3.8 Thermal expansion Gypsum is a non-flammable material that can serve to

protect both load-bearing and unloaded elements of steel
Products of plaster of Paris expand on heating. The linear and wood against fire. The fire resistance of gypsum
thermal expansion coefficient of the hardened gypsum is products derives primarily from its content of water of
20 x 10 -6 K-1, i.e., about twice that of concrete. crystallization, amounting to 17~ of its weight. When
gypsum is heated or calcined at relatively low tempera-
ture, its water of crystallization is gradually liberated as
4.3.9 Volume changes and linear changes due to changes
vapour, and the heat consumed in this reaction reduces
in moisture the rate of temperature rise. In the case of fire near
Gypsum products contract on drying to a limited extent. gypsum products, calcination of their exposed surfaces
The linear change does not exceed 0.01~o (ordinary begins, penetrating slowly into the bulk of the gypsum.
concrete contracts 0.03-0.08%). It can thus be concluded The progress of calcination is slowed down by the layer
that hardened gypsum does not undergo any appreciable of calcined gypsum on the surface of the product, which
volume change as a result of moisture changes. adheres well to the underlying uncalcined gypsum.
Retardation of the process becomes more efficient with
increasing thickness of the calcined gypsum layer. The
4.3.10 Moisture absorption materials adjacent to the inside of the gypsum product
reach temperatures not exceeding 150~ by the time
Gypsum (not painted) is capable of absorbing and
calcination is completed. Since this temperature is much
releasing excess moisture in an apartment (condensation
below the ignition temperatures of conventional building
control), which may affect the quality of housing.
materials and most materials stored inside the buildings,
the gypsum serves as a fire retardant. An additional
contribution to localization of a fire stems from the
4.3.11 Paintin9
limited contraction of gypsum on drying. Owing to the
Gypsum can be painted with oil paint or plastic paint a low bulk weight of the gypsum, heat transfer is reduced.
few days after it has been prepared. Gypsum boards lined with cardboard of special paper
are not flammable, though the cardboard carbonizes.

4.3.12 Corrosion
4.3.15 Acoustic insulation
Metal may corrode in contact with gypsum during setting
and hardening of the latter as well as during the service Two properties are of significance in building acoustics:
of gypsum products in a humid environment. Gypsum acoustic insulation and sound absorption. Acoustic
products should not be used under conditions of high insulation means the ability of an element (wall, partition,
humidity, owing to the effect on gypsum and the risk of ceiling) to prevent or reduce the transfer of sound through
metal corrosion. The safest way of preventing corrosion that element. Sound absorption signifies the loss of energy
is to employ cenventional methods of metal pretreatment. of sound when making contact with the surface of the
Even if corrosion does not cause structural damage, it element. This effect depends mainly on the nature of the
may result in undesirable staining. material surface. Products of plaster of Paris, having a
100 Karni and Karni

relatively low bulk weight, are poor sound insulators Materials, Saint-R~my-16s-Chevreuse, France, May
compared with materials of higher bulk weight, but 25-27, 1977.
gypsum board partitions can be made quite sound- 4. Israeli Standard 198 (1993): Hemihydrate building gypsum.
insulating. As regards sound absorption, regular plaster 5. Karni, J., 'Suggestions for the use of gypsum semihydrate in
having a smooth surface is practically not absorbent. the local building industry' (in Hebrew), 'Researches',
No. 4 (Building Research Station, Technion--Israel
However, considerable sound absorption is shown by
Institute of Technology, 1956).
gypsum containing some special additives. This kind of 6. Karni, Joseph. and Karni, E'yal., 'The Gypsum in Building'
plaster is rather soft and easily scratched, so that it is (in Hebrew) (Building Research Station, Technion--
usually employed only for coating of ceilings and upper Israel Institute of Technology, 1987).
parts of walls. 7. Himsworth, F. R., 'The Setting and Expansion of Plasters'
(The Society of Chemical Industry, London, 1947).
8. Andrews, H., 'The effect of water contents on the strength
REFERENCES
of calcium sulphate plaster products', J. Soc. chem. Ind.,
1. Schwiete, H. E. and Knauf, A. N., 'Alte u. neue Erk. u. Erz. 65 (1946).
u. Anw. der Gipse' (1963). 9. Karni, Joseph., 'Fibre-reinforced, polymer-modified Plaster
2. Posnjak, E., Amer. 3. Sci. (1940). of Paris', in RILEM International Symposia 'Calcium
3. Antolini, P., in Proceedings of the RILEM International Sulfates and Derived Materials', edited by M. Murat
Symposium on Calcium Sulfates and Derived and M. Poucault (1977).

RESUME ses vari~t~s et propri~t~s, l'article traite de la mati~re la

plus couramment produite 3 partir du gypse, qui est connue
Le gypse dans la construction: son origine et ses propri6t6s en France sous le nora de 'pl~tre de Paris' (~-semi-hydrate),
aux USA sous celui de 'calcined gypsum', et en Allemagne
Le sulfate de calcium, gbndralement appelb gypse naturel, sous celui de 'Stuckgips'.
se rrouve dans la nature sous diffbrenres formes, souvent L'article dbcrit aussi en dbtail les propribtks de la p~te
comme dihydrate (CaSO4"2H20) et comme anhydrite de pl~tre (prise, dilatation, adhkrence) et celles du pierre
(CaS04), qui sont le rbsultat d'une bvaporation totale ou dur (r~sistance, poids, dilatation thermique, volume et
partielle de mers intbrieures et de lacs. Aussi bien changements linbaires sous l'influence des fluctuations de
l'anhydrite que le dihydrate existent dans la nature sous l'humidit~, absorption d' eau, aptitude 3 ~tre peint, corrosion,
une varibtb de formes. comportement ~ l'isolation thermique et acoustique et
Aprbs un compte-rendu sur l'origine du gypse, sa genOse, rksistance au feu).