Advanced Construction Mathematics-Routledge (2019)

Advanced Construction
Mathematics
Advanced Construction Mathematics covers the range of topics that a student must
learn in order to achieve success in Level 3 and 4 mathematics for the Pearson
BTEC National and BTEC HNC/HND in Construction, Building Services, and Civil
Engineering.
Packed with easy to follow examples, its 18 chapters cover algebra (equations,
transposition and evaluation of formulae), differentiation, integration, statistics and
numerous other core concepts and their application in the construction/civil engineering
field. The book explains technical processes before applying mathematical techniques
to solve practical problems which gradually build in complexity. Each chapter contains
self-test exercises and answers and numerous illustrations to simplify the essential
maths required at Levels 3 and 4. The book is also a useful recap or primer for students
on BSc or non-cognate MSc Construction and Civil Engineering degrees.
Surinder S. Virdi is a lecturer at South and City College Birmingham, UK. He has
taught construction-related subjects for over 30 years and has written and co-authored
two books, Construction Science and Materials, 2nd edition, 2017, and Construction
Mathematics, 2nd edition, 2014.
Advanced
Construction
Mathematics
Surinder S. Virdi

First published 2019

by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2019 Surinder S. Virdi
The right of Surinder S. Virdi to be identified as author of this work has

been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or

registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Virdi, Surinder Singh, author.
Title: Advanced construction mathematics / Surinder S. Virdi.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon : Routledge, 2019. | Includes bibliographical
references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018051849 (print) | LCCN 2018055294 (ebook) | ISBN
9780429683602 (ePub) | ISBN 9780429683596 (Mobipocket) | ISBN
9780429683619 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9780367002107 (hardback) |
ISBN 9780367002138 (pbk.) | ISBN 9780429400742 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Building—Mathematics. | Civil engineering—
Mathematics.
Classification: LCC TH437 (ebook) | LCC TH437 .V568 2019 (print) | DDC
624.01/51—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018051849
ISBN: 978-0-367-00210-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-00213-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-40074-2 (ebk)
Typeset in Helvetica
by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK
Visit the eResources: www.routledge.com/9780367002138

To
the memory of my parents, Mrs Rattan Kaur Virdi
and Mr Amar Singh Virdi
Contents
Units, symbols and prefixes xiii
Preface xv
1 Introduction to some basic techniques 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Order of operations 1
1.3 Rounding 2
1.3.1 To the nearest whole number 2
1.3.2 Truncation 2
1.3.3 Significant figures 2
1.4 Standard form 3
1.5 Estimation 4
1.6 Error 4
1.7 Indices 5
1.7.1 Laws of indices 5
Exercise 1.1 7
Answers – Exercise 1.1 7
2 Algebra 1 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Multiplication and division 9
2.3 Brackets 11
2.4 Factorisation 12
2.5 Simple equations 12
2.6 Dimensional analysis 14
2.6.1 Introduction 14
2.6.2 Principle of homogeneity 15
2.6.3 Limitations of dimensional analysis 15
2.7 Arithmetic progression (AP) 17
2.8 Geometric progression (GP) 19
2.8.1 The sum of a series in GP 19
Exercise 2.1 20
Exercise 2.2 22
3 Algebra 2 25
3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Transposition of formulae 25
3.2.1 Transposition involving addition/subtraction 26
3.2.2 Transposition involving multiplication/division 26
viii Contents
3.2.3 Transposition involving addition/subtraction and multiplication/division 27

3.2.4 Transposition involving squares/square roots 27
3.3 Evaluation of formulae 30
3.4 Binomial theorem 31
3.4.1 Introduction 31
3.4.2 Pascal’s triangle 31
3.4.3 Binomial series for fractional or negative indices 33
3.4.4 Approximations 34
3.4.5 Practical problems 35
Exercise 3.1 36
Exercise 3.2 37
4 Simultaneous and quadratic equations 41

4.1 Simultaneous equations 41
4.1.1 The elimination method 41
4.1.2 The substitution method 42
4.1.3 Application of simultaneous equations 44
4.2 Quadratic equations 45
4.2.1 Factorising 46
4.2.2 The quadratic formula 48
4.2.3 Completing the square 48
4.2.4 Application of quadratic equations 49
Exercise 4.1 50
Exercise 4.2 51
5 Graphical solutions 53
5.1 Introduction 53
5.2 Linear equations 55
5.3 Linear simultaneous equations 56
5.4 The law of straight line 58
5.5 Quadratic equations 60
5.6 Cubic equations 61
5.7 Curve fitting 62
Exercise 5.1 65
6 Geometry, areas and volumes 67

6.1 Geometry 67
6.1.1 Angles 67
6.1.2 Triangles 68
6.1.3 Similar triangles 69
6.1.4 Pythagoras’ theorem 71
6.1.5 The circle 71
Contents ix
6.2 Area 75
6.2.1 Area of regular shapes 76
6.2.2 Area of quadrilaterals 77
6.2.3 Area of circle 78
6.3 Area of irregular shapes 80
6.3.1 Mid-ordinate rule 80
6.3.2 Trapezoidal rule 81
6.3.3 Simpson’s rule 81
6.4 Volume 83
6.4.1 Volume of a sphere 83
6.5 Volume of irregular objects 86
6.5.1 Mass-haul diagram 87
6.6 The theorem of Pappus 88
Exercise 6.1 89
7 Trigonometry 1 97
7.1 Introduction 97
7.2 The trigonometrical ratios 98
7.3 Angles of elevation and depression 99
7.4 Roofs 101
7.5 The sine rule and the cosine rule 103
7.5.1 The sine rule 103
7.5.2 The cosine rule 104
7.5.3 Sine rule: the ambiguous case 107
7.6 Frames 108
7.7 Area of triangles 110
Exercise 7.1 111
Exercise 7.2 113
8 Trigonometry 2 117
8.1 Introduction 117
8.2 Trigonometric identities 117
8.3 Trigonometric ratio of compound angles 119
8.4 Double angle formulae 121
8.5 Trigonometric equations 121
8.6 Trigonometric graphs 124
8.7 Addition of sine waves 127
Exercise 8.1 129
9 Logarithmic, exponential and hyperbolic functions 133

9.1 Logarithmic function 133
9.1.1 Antilogarithm 134
9.1.2 Laws of logarithms 135
x Contents
9.2 Exponential function 137

9.2.1 Compound interest on savings 138
9.2.2 Newton’s law of cooling 139
9.2.3 Thermal movement of building components 140
9.2.4 Laws of growth and decay 140
9.2.5 Decay of sound energy 141
9.3 Hyperbolic function 142
Exercise 9.1 144
Exercise 9.2 145
Exercise 9.3 146
10 Differentiation 149
10.2 Differentiation from first principles 150
10.2.1 Differentiation of y = xn 152
10.3 Trigonometric functions 154
10.4 Differentiation of function of a function 155
10.5 The chain rule by recognition 157
10.6 Differentiation of exponential and logarithm functions 157
10.7 Differentiation of a product 159
10.8 Differentiation of a quotient 160
10.9 Numerical values of differential coefficients 161
Exercise 10.1 162
Exercise 10.2 162
Exercise 10.3 163
Exercise 10.4 163
11 Applications of differentiation 167

11.1 Application in structural mechanics 167
11.2 Second derivatives 169
11.3 Velocity and acceleration 170
11.4 Maximum and minimum 171
Exercise 11.1 175
12 Integration 177
12.2 Indefinite integrals 178
12.2.1 Integration of a sum 179
12.3 Definite integrals 180
Contents xi
12.4 Integration by substitution 181

12.5 Change of limits 182
12.6 Integration by parts 183
Exercise 12.1 184
13 Applications of integration 187

13.2 Area under a curve 187
13.3 Area enclosed between a curve and a straight line 189
13.4 Volumes of revolution 190
13.5 Earth pressure on retaining walls 192
13.6 Permeability of soils 193
13.7 Bending moment and shear force in beams 195
Exercise 13.1 196
14 Properties of sections 199

14.1 Centroids of simple shapes 199
14.2 Centroids of simple/complex shapes by integration 202
14.3 Second moment of area 206
14.4 Radius of gyration 207
14.5 The parallel axis theorem 209
Exercise 14.1 213
15 Matrices and determinants 217

15.2 Square matrix 217
15.3 Diagonal matrix 218
15.4 Unit matrix 218
15.5 Addition and subtraction 218
15.6 Multiplication/division by a scalar 218
15.7 Transpose 220
15.8 Determinants 220
15.9 Cofactors 220
15.10 Inverse of a square matrix 221
15.11 Properties of determinants 222
15.12 Application of matrices 223
Exercise 15.1 225
16 Vectors 229
16.2 Addition of vectors 230
16.3 Subtraction of vectors 232
16.4 Unit vectors 233
xii Contents
16.5 Resolution of vectors 234

16.6 Addition and subtraction of two vectors in Cartesian form 236
Exercise 16.1 237
17 Statistics 241
17.2 Types of data 241
17.2.1 Discrete data 241
17.2.2 Continuous data 242
17.2.3 Raw data 242
17.2.4 Grouped data 242
17.3 Averages 243
17.3.1 Comparison of mean, mode and median 243
17.4 Statistical diagrams 245
17.5 Frequency distributions 247
17.6 Measures of dispersion 251
17.6.1 Standard deviation 252
17.7 Distribution curves 256
17.8 Probability 258
17.8.1 Mutually exclusive events (the OR rule) 258
17.8.2 Independent events (the AND rule) 259
17.8.3 Tree diagrams 260
17.9 Binomial distribution 260
17.10 Poisson distribution 261
17.11 Normal distribution 262
17.12 Normal distribution test 266
Exercise 17.1 268
18 Computer techniques 271

Exercise 18.1 282
End of unit assignment 285

Appendix 1 289
Appendix 2 299
Appendix 3 301
Index 399
Units, symbols and prefixes
Units
Quantity Name of unit Symbol Quantity Name of unit Symbol

Length metre m Acceleration m/s2
Mass kilogram kg Velocity m/s
Time second s Celsius temperature degrees celsius °C
Thermodynamic kelvin K Thermal conductivity W/mK
Temperature
Plane angle radian rad° Moment of a force kNm
degrees
Frequency hertz Hz Potential difference V
Force newton N Sound reduction index decibels dB
Pressure or pascal Pa Wavelength metre m
stress stress N/m2
Power watt W
Greek alphabet
Upper case Lower case Name Upper case Lower case Name
A α Alpha N ν Nu
B β Beta Ξ ξ Xi
Γ γ Gamma O o Omicron
Δ δ Delta Π π Pi
E ε Epsilon P ρ Rho
Z ζ Zeta Σ σ Sigma
(continued)
xiv Units, symbols and prefixes
(continued)
Upper case Lower case Name Upper case Lower case Name
H η Eta T τ Tau
Θ θ Theta Y υ Upsilon
I ι Iota Φ ϕ Phi
K κ Kappa X χ Chi
Λ λ Lambda Ψ ψ Psi
M μ Mu Ω ω Omega
Prefixes Abbreviations/symbols
Name Symbol Factor Description Symbol

Tera T 1012 Approximately Approx.
Giga G 109 Change in length, temperature etc. Δ
Mega M 106 For example e.g.
Kilo K 103 That is i.e.
Hecto H 102 Greater than >
Deca Da 10 Degrees, minutes, seconds °‘“
Deci D 10−1 Less than <
Centi C 10−2 Proportional to ∝
Milli M 10−3 Angle ∠
Micro Μ 10−6 Triangle Δ
Nano N 10−9 Therefore ∴
Pico P 10−12
Preface
Mathematics is a mandatory unit on several Edexcel courses in civil engineering and other
construction-related disciplines. This book is intended to provide the essential mathematics required
by Level 3 and Level 4 programmes in these disciplines. Students pursuing studies at Level 5 may also
find some of the topics useful. The book may also be useful for students on the access to H.E. and
Foundation degree courses.
The contents of the book have been divided into 18 chapters starting from the very basic and
progressing to trigonometry, calculus and other relevant topics. After explaining the concept of each
topic, worked examples and exercises have been included to explain the application of mathematics
in construction. There are end of chapter exercises so that the readers can check their learning by
producing solutions. Answers and solutions of all exercises have also been included to provide help,
should the readers require it. To check the readers’ learning further, an assignment has also been
included at the end of the book. Liberal use of diagrams has been made to supplement the text and
make concepts/problems more understandable.
Many thanks are due to my family, students and colleagues for the interest they have shown in this
project. A big thank you to Ed Needle (Editor) and Patrick Hetherington (Editorial Assistant) of Taylor &
Francis Group for their support in the publication of this book.
Surinder S. Virdi
CHAPTER
1
Introduction to some basic
techniques
Topics covered in this chapter:

• Order of operations, rounding off numbers: rounding off numbers to the nearest whole
number, truncation, significant figures, decimal places
• Estimation of answers, absolute and relative errors
• Indices
1.1 Introduction
In this chapter some of the basic techniques are explained. Most of these do not involve any complexity,
but it is very important to solve a number of problems and to show the answer in an acceptable format.
1.2 Order of operations

In mathematics and other analytical subjects, the calculations may involve one or more of:
multiplication, division, addition, subtraction and brackets.
There is a definite order of operations in algebra that needs to be followed to get accurate solutions.
For example, in the following calculation, the answers could be 51, 13 or 19:
Evaluate: 20 − 4 + 1 × 3
The correct answer is 19, which results from following the right procedure. This procedure, known as the
order of precedence of operations, involves dealing with brackets (B) first and then of (O), division (D),
multiplication (M), addition (A), subtraction (S), in that order. This is usually remembered as BODMAS.
In the above example, 20 − 4 + (1 × 3) = 20 − 4 + 3 = 20 − 1 = 19 (−4 + 3 = −1)
Example 1.1
Solve: a) 16 + 5 − 2 × 1.5
b) 20 − 2 + (2 × 3)
c) 25 + 5 − 3(1.5 × 4) − 3 × 2
2 1 Introduction to some basic techniques
Solution:
a) 16 + 5 − 2 × 1.5 = 16 + 5 − 3 = 21 − 3 = 18
b) 20 − 2 + (2 × 3) = 20 − 2 + 6 = 20 + 4 = 24 (−2 + 6 = + 4)
c) 25 + 5 − 3(1.5 × 4) − 3 × 2 = 25 + 5 − 3(6) − 6 = 25 + 5 − 18 − 6
= 30 − 18 − 6 = 6
1.3 Rounding
1.3.1 To the nearest whole number

The convention is to round 0.5 and above to the next highest whole number, and 0.499 (recurring) to
the next lowest whole number. For example, 8.5 will become 9.0 when rounded to the nearest whole
number. Similarly, 8.499 will become 8.0 when rounded to the nearest whole number.
1.3.2 Truncation
Truncation involves the omission of the unwanted digits at the end of a number. For example,
25.3458 truncated to four figures becomes 25.34.
1.3.3 Significant figures

3462, 346200 and 0.03462 all have four significant figures, not counting zeros at the beginning or end
of the number. To write these numbers to 3 significant figures, the last figure is discarded. If the last
figure is 5 or greater, the next figure is increased by 1. If the last figure is less than 5 then the next figure
remains unchanged.
Zeros in the middle of a number are counted as significant figures, for example 3402, 340200 and
0.03402 have 4 significant figures.
Example 1.2
The area of a building plot is 648.4613 m2. Show this value:
a) to the nearest whole number b) truncated to 4 figures c) to 4 significant figures (s.f.) d) to 1
decimal place (d.p.)
Solution:
a) 648 (nearest whole number)
b) 648.4 (truncated to 4 figures)
c) 648.5 (4 s.f.)
d) 648.5 (1 d.p.)
Introduction to some basic techniques 1 3
Example 1.3
Write: a) 260.362 to 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 significant figures (s.f.)
b) 0.06734 to 3, 2 and 1 significant figures
Solution:
a) 260.362 = 260.36 correct to 5 s.f.
= 260.4 correct to 4 s.f.
= 260 correct to 3 s.f.
b) 0.06734 = 0.0673 correct to 3 s.f.
1.4 Standard form

The standard form, which is used in scientific and technical calculations, involves splitting a small or a
large number into two parts: the first part is a number that is greater than 1 but less than 10, and the
second part is 10n, where n could be a negative or a positive integer. The two parts when multiplied are
equal to the original number.
Example 1.4
Write the following numbers in the standard form:
a) 235 b) 3565 c) 58390 d) 0.25 e) 0.000356
Solution:
a) 235 should be split into two parts so that when multiplied they should result into 235.
The first part is 2.35 (this should be greater than 1 but less than 10)
The second part is 100 or 102, as we must multiply 2.35 by 100 (or 102) to get 235.
Therefore, the standard form of 235 is: 2.35 × 102.
b) 3565 = 3.565 × 1000 = 3.565 × 103
c) 58390 = 5.8930 × 10000 = 5.839 × 104
d) 0.25 = 2.5 = 2.51 = 2.5 × 10 −1

10 10
3.56 3.56
e) 0.000356 = = = 3.56 × 10 −4
10000 104
1.5 Estimation
The process of finding an approximate answer of a calculation is known as estimation. The
process involves replacing the actual numbers by those numbers which are convenient for manual
calculations.
Example 1.5
Estimate the results of the following calculations and compare them to their accurate answers:
a) 25 + 89 +110 − 190
145 × 220
b)
80 × 115
Solution:
a) The numbers in this question may be rounded to:
30 + 100 + 100 − 200 = 30
(The accurate answer is 34)
b) This question may be written as:
150 × 200 150 × 2 300
= = =3
100 × 100 100 100
(The accurate answer is 3.47 (2 d.p.))
1.6 Error
‘Error’ in mathematics is the difference between what is acceptable as a true value and what is taken
for an approximate or estimated value. The actual difference between an approximation or estimate
and the true value is known as the absolute error. The absolute error expressed as a percentage of
the estimated value is known as the relative error. Other types of errors, such as the random and
systematic errors, are relevant in statistical and scientific investigations.
Example 1.6
Calculate the absolute and relative errors for the calculation in example 1.5(b).
Solution:
Estimated answer = 3.0 accurate answer = 3.47
a) Absolute error = 3.47 − 3.0 = 0.47
absolute error
b) Relative error = × 100
estimated value
0.47
= × 100 = 15.67%
3 .0
1.7 Indices
The power of a number is called the index, and indices is the plural of index. If we have a number 53 (read
as 5 raised to the power 3), it means that 5 is multiplied by itself 3 times; here 5 is called the base and 3
the index. The laws of indices may be used to solve problems where numbers raised to power are given.
1.7.1 Laws of indices

a) Multiplication
The indices are added when a number raised to a power, is multiplied by the same number raised to a
power. If, number ‘a’ is raised to powers ‘m’ and ‘n’, the law of multiplication is written as:
am × an = am + n
Number ‘a’ is called the base and it is important that in any one calculation, the base numbers are the
same.
Example 1.7
Simplify: b3 × b4
Solution:
b3 × b4 = b3 + 4 = b7
b) Division
If the base numbers are the same, the indices are subtracted:
am
= am ÷ an = am−n
an
Example 1.8
46
Solve
45
Solution:
As the base numbers are the same, i.e. 4, the law of indices can be used to get the solution:
46
= 46 − 5 = 41 = 4
45
Example 1.9
b2 × b7
Simplify
b2 × b4
Solution:
Use the multiplication and the division laws:
b2 × b7 b9
= = b9 − 6 = b 3
b 2 × b 4 b6
c) Power of a power
If a number raised to a power is raised to another power, the indices are multiplied:
(am)n = amn
Example 1.10
Simplify: (2m2)4
Solution:
(2m2)4 = 24 × m2 x 4 = 16 m8
d) Negative powers
am
We have seen earlier that when the law of division is used the solution of is am − n. We can get the same
an
solution by writing the question as am × a−n and applying the law of multiplication:
am × a−n = am + (−n) = am − n
In other words, when a number is moved from numerator to denominator or vice versa, the sign of the
power changes.
1
4−n is a typical example of a number with a negative power; this can also be written as n .
4
Example 1.11
4
5
Solve 2
5 × 54
Solution:
54 54
=
52 × 54 56
54
Apply the division rule, = 54 − 6
56
1
= 5−2 = = 0.04
52
e) Zero index
If number is raised to the power zero, the answer is 1. For example a0 = 1, 2850 = 1, and 10650 = 1.
Exercise 1.1
1. Solve: a) 6 + 5 × 4 − 20 + 2 × 3
b) 5 − 6 × 1.5 − 3 × 2.5 + 5 × 6 × 1.5
2. The volume of an excavation is 7525.6484 m3. Show this value:
a) to the nearest whole number b) truncated to 6 figures c) to 6 significant figures (s.f.) d) to 2
decimal place (d.p.)
3. Write: a) 256.7238, correct to 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 significant figures
b) 285294, correct to 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 significant figures
c) 0.00847, correct to 2 and 1 significant figures.
4. Write the following numbers in standard form:
a) 0.0256
b) 25.8
c) 475605
5. Estimate your answers for the following questions:
a) 620 − 380 − 120
45 × 20
b)
50
6. Estimate the answer to the following question and hence calculate the absolute and relative errors:
39 × 89 × 143

43 × 108
7. Simplify/solve
a) 4 × 42 × 34 × 32
b) x × x × x
6 2 2
x ×x×x
3 -2
c) (22)3 + (2x2)2
m6 × m4 × m2
d)
m3 × m5 × m4
Answers – Exercise 1.1
1. a) 12
b) 33.5
2. a) 7526
b) 7525.64
c) 7525.65
d) 7525.65
3. a) 256.72; 256.7; 257; 260; 300
b) 285290; 285300; 285000; 290000; 300000
c) 0.0085; 0.009
4. a) 2.56 × 10−2
b) 2.58 × 101
c) 4.75605 × 105
5. a) 100
b) 20
6. Estimate = 100; Absolute error = 6.88; Relative error = 6.88%
7. a) 46656
b) x8
c) 64 + 4 x4
d) 1
CHAPTER
2
Algebra 1

• Multiplication and division of algebraic expressions
• Solution of linear equations
• Factorisation
• Dimensional analysis
• Arithmetic progression and geometric progression
2.1 Introduction
In algebra, symbols are used to represent the unknown quantities that we need to determine. Equations
are formed from the given information using symbols and the solution of these equations will give us
the value of the unknown quantities. For example, in the equation 3w + 2d, w and d represent the price
of a window and a door respectively. The solution of this equation, simultaneously with another, will
give the price of a window and a door.
2.2 Multiplication and division

Multiplication and division of symbols is not much different from the multiplication and division of
numbers, as long as the processes are applied to the same symbols. Different symbols have to be
treated in a different way. For example:
i) 3 × 3 = 32; similarly, x × x = x2 (refer to indices – chapter 1)

ii) x × x × y = (x × x) × y = x2y
x2 x2 x2
iii) = x; = 2
x y×y y
10 2 Algebra 1
Example 2.1
Simplify: a) 5 x2y × 6 xy3
b) 30 x2y3z2 ÷ 6 xyz2
Solution:
a) The question can be divided into 3 parts: x terms, y terms and the numbers. These will be multiplied
separately first and then combined to give the answer.
x2 × x = x × x × x = x3 (1) (laws of indices can also be used)
y × y = y × y × y × y = y (2)
3 4
5 × 6 = 30 (3)
Combining 1, 2 and 3
5 x2y × 6 xy3 = 30 x3y4
30x 2 y 3 z 2
b) 30 x2y3z2 ÷ 6 xyz2 may be written as
6xyz 2
The numbers and other terms will be simplified individually first, but combined later to give the answer:
30
=5 (1)
6
x2 x × x
= = x (2)
x x
y3 y × y × y
= = y × y = y 2 (3)
y y
z2 z × z
= = 1 (4)
z2 z × z
Combining 1, 2, 3 and 4:
30x 2 y 3 z 2
= 5xy 2 × 1 = 5xy 2
6xyz 2
Example 2.2
Multiply 2x + 3 by x − 1
Solution:
Write the two expressions as shown:
2x + 3
× x −1
Multiplication in algebra proceeds from left to right. 2x + 3 is multiplied by x first and then by −1. After
multiplication the terms are added or subtracted, as appropriate:
Algebra 1 2 11
2x + 3
× x −1
2x 2 + 3x
− 2x − 3
2x 2 + x − 3
Example 2.3
Multiply (3x + 3y + 4) by (x − 3)
Solution:
3x + 3y + 4
× x−3
3x 2 + 3xy + 4x ( every item of 3x + 3y + 4 is multiplied by x )
− 9x − 9y − 12 ( every item of 3x + 3y + 4 is multiplied by − 3)
3x + 3xy − 5x − 9y − 12
2
2.3 Brackets
Brackets are frequently used to enclose an expression. The solution of the expression within brackets
takes precedence over the rest of the question. For example the solution of, 4 × (6 ÷ 2) is derived at by
solving 6 ÷ 2 first. The answer is multiplied by 4 to get the final answer. Brackets may also be used in
writing factors, for example, 3x + 9y may be written as 3(x + 3y).
The expression 3(5x + 2y) shows that the common factor is 3. The original expression was 15x + 6y,
and since 3 is a common factor the expression can be written as:
3 × 5x + 3 × 2y, or 3(5x + 2y)
Sometimes the algebraic expression may be of the form 6 + (2a − 3b) or 6 − (2a − 3b). In this case
there is no common factor, therefore the simplification involves the removal of the brackets, with due
consideration to the + or − sign before the brackets.
Therefore, 6 + (2a − 3b) = 6 + 2a − 3b
6 − (2a − 3b) = 6 − 2a + 3b
Example 2.4
Simplify: i) 4(2a − 0.5b)
ii) 4 + (3a − 6b)
iii) 4 − (3a − 6b − 2c)
12 2 Algebra 1
Solution:
Simplification of these expressions will involve the removal of brackets.
i) There is no sign, plus or minus, between 4 and the brackets, which means that 4 is a common
factor. The expression within the brackets is multiplied by 4, for simplification.
4(2a − 0.5b) = 4 × 2a − 4 × 0.5b = 8a − 2b
ii) The plus sign before the brackets means that the expression within the brackets will remain
unchanged:
4 + (3a − 6b) = 4 + 3a − 6b
iii) Due to the minus sign before the brackets, the signs of all terms within the brackets will change:
4 − (3a − 6b − 2c) = 4 − 3a + 6b + 2c
2.4 Factorisation
If two or more terms in an algebraic expression have a common factor, then the factors may be used to
rewrite the expression. The common factors could be numbers, symbols or a combination of the two.
The process is the reverse of removing brackets, as shown in example 2.5.
Example 2.5
Factorise: a) 4xy + 6yz
b) 8x2 − 6x
Solution:
a) 4xy + 6yz: The two terms of this expression have two common factors, 2 and y or 2y, as both terms
are divisible by the common factors.
Dividing 4xy by 2y gives 2x.
Dividing 6yz by 2y gives 3z.
The terms 2x and 3z are written within the brackets, therefore:
4xy + 6yz = 2y(2x + 3z) (the factors of the expression are 2, y and (2x + 3z)).
We can check the answer by multiplying out the brackets; we should get the original expression back.
b) 8x − 6x: In this question 2x is the common factor.
2
Dividing 8x2 by 2x gives 4x.

Dividing 6x by 2x gives 3.
So, 8x2 − 6x = 2x(4x − 3)
2.5 Simple equations

An equation is a mathematical statement that shows the equality of two expressions, which are
separated by the ‘equal to’ sign. Depending on the type of the equation, there may be one or two
unknowns denoted by letters such as x, y etc. The determination of the unknowns from an equation is
known as ‘solving the equation’.
Algebra 1 2 13
If there is only 1 letter (1 unknown) in an equation, and its power is 1, the equation is known as a
simple equation.
Example 2.6
Solve the following equations:
i) x + 4 = 10
ii) 3x − 6 = 12
5x
iii) = 2.5
4
iv) 2x − 7 − 3x = 3 − 5x
Solution:
i) x + 4 = 10
In this question, the solution involves the determination of x (the unknown). This equation,
like other equations, has two sides: the left side (LHS) and the right side (RHS), separated by
the = sign. For determining the value of x, we must move + 4 to the right side, and it becomes −4
in that process.
x + 4 = 10
x = 10 − 4 = 6
Therefore x = 6, or the value of x is 6.
ii) 3x − 6 = 12
Using the same method as used in the previous question:
3x − 6 = 12
3x = 12 + 6 = 18
18
=
x = 6 (3x is 18, therefore, x must be equal to 6, because 3 × 6 is 18)
3
5x
iii) = 2.5
4
Multiply both sides of the equation by 4 to simplify:
5x
× 4 = 2.5 × 4
4
5 x = 10, or x = 2
iv) 2x − 7 − 3x = 3 − 5x
Transpose −7 to the right side and −5x to the left side to have the unknown terms on one side and the
numbers on the other side.
2x − 3x + 5x = 3 + 7
7x − 3x = 10
10
4x=10, or =
x = == 2.5
4
14 2 Algebra 1
Example 2.7
Solve: a) 3(2x + 4) − 2(x − 3) = 4(2x + 4)
x x + 3 2x + 1
b) + =
2 4 3
Solution:
a) Multiply 2x + 4 by 3, x − 3 by 2 and 2x + 4 by 4, to simplify:

6x + 12 − 2x + 6 = 8x + 16
Transpose the unknown terms to the LHS and the numbers to the RHS
6x − 2x − 8x = 16 − 12 − 6
−2
−4x = −2, x = = 0.5
−4
b) Multiply all terms of the equation by 12 (the common factor) to simplify the fractions
12x 12(x + 3) 12(2x + 1)
+ =
2 4 3
6x + 3(x + 3) = 4(2x + 1)
6x + 3x + 9 = 8x + 4
9x − 8x = 4 − 9
x=−5
2.6 Dimensional analysis
2.6.1 Introduction
In science and engineering, a number of methods can be used to solve problems. Dimensional analysis
is an effective method that can be used not only to establish relationship among physical quantities
using their dimensions, but also to check the dimensional correctness of a given equation.
The dimension of a physical quantity is a combination of the basic physical dimensions:
[Mass] M
[Length] L
[Time] T
[Temperature] K
[Current] A
Square brackets are used to denote the dimension of a physical quantity and it is worth noting that:
•• The dimensions of a physical quantity are independent of the units used. For example:
[Area] = length × width
= L × L = L2 (the dimension of length/width is L)
The units could be mm2, cm2, m2, feet2 etc. However, their power is always 2.
•• We can write the unit of a physical quantity (speed, force etc.) if we know its dimensions. For
example, if a physical quantity has the dimension [MLT−1] then its unit will be kg m s−1.
Algebra 1 2 15
2.6.2 Principle of homogeneity

For any given equation, the principle of homogeneity is used to check its correctness and consistency.
According to this principle, an equation is dimensionally correct if the dimensions of each component
on either side of the equation are the same. Consider the formula, v = u + at.
Here, v = final velocity; u = initial velocity; a = acceleration; t = time
Let us take the units of velocity as metres per second. The dimension of metre (length or distance) is
L and the dimension of time is T. Therefore, the dimensions of velocity are:
metres L
Velocity = = = LT −1
second T
Dimensions of ‘v’ = LT−1
Dimensions of ‘u’ = LT−1
Dimensions of ‘a’ = LT−2 (a = m/sec2 = m sec−2 = LT−2)
Dimensions of ‘t’ = T
Replacing the symbols in the formula by their dimensions:
LT−1 = LT−1 + (LT−2) × T
= LT−1 + LT−1 = 2(LT−1)
As the dimensions of the RHS are the same as those of the LHS, the formula is dimensionally correct. 2
is a pure number having no dimension, therefore, like other numbers it is ignored in dimensional analysis.
2.6.3 Limitations of dimensional analysis

Limitations of dimensional analysis are:
i) The value of dimensionless constants cannot be determined by this method.
ii) It cannot be applied to an equation involving more than 3 physical quantities.
iii) The method cannot be applied to equations involving trigonometric and exponential functions.
iv) The method can only check whether a physical relation is dimensionally correct or not. It does not
say whether the relation is absolutely correct or not.
Example 2.8
Find the dimensions of the following quantities in terms of M, L and T:
a) Force b) Kinetic energy c) Pressure
Solution:
a) Force = mass × acceleration

[Force] = M × m/sec2
L
= M× = MLT −2
T2
16 2 Algebra 1
1
b) Kinetic energy = mv 2 (m = mass and v = velocity)
2
1 −1 2 −1
Kinetic energy  = 2 mv = M(LT ) (dimensions of velocity = LT )
2

= ML2T−2
c) Pressure = Force
Area
−2
[Pressure] = MLT = ML−1T −2
2
L
Example 2.9
Hooke’s law states that the force F in a spring, extended by a length x, is given by F = − kx. Calculate
the dimensions of the spring constant k.
Solution:
According to Hooke’s law, F = −kx
F
After transposition, k = −
x
The dimensions of force are MLT−2, and the dimension of ‘x’ is L
Therefore spring constant k has the dimensions:
MLT −2
[k] = = MT −2
L
Example 2.10
The velocity (v) of sound through a medium may be assumed to depend on the density (ρ) and elasticity
(E) of the medium. Use the method of dimensions to deduce the formula for the velocity of sound.
Solution:
As ‘v’ is proportional to ‘ρ’ and ‘E’; this may be written as:
v ∝ ρE
As we don’t know the powers of ‘ρ’ and ‘E’, the above expression is written as:
v = ρaEb
Mass
ρ= , therefore [ρ] = ML−3
Volume
Stress Force MLT −2
=E = , therefore [E] = = ML−1T −2
Strain Area L2
The formula for velocity in terms of its components’ dimensions becomes:
LT−1 = (ML−3 )a × (ML−1T−2)b
= MaL−3a × MbL−1b T−2b
= Ma+bL−3a−1bT−2b
Algebra 1 2 17
The next step is to match the indices of M, L and T on the two sides of the equation. There is no ‘M’ on the
left hand side, therefore, LT−1 may be considered to be M0LT−1. M0 does not change anything as M0 = 1.
(M) 0 = a + b; a = −b
1
(L) 1 = −3a − 1b; 1 = −3a + a, a = −
2
1
(T) −1 = −2b; b=
2
Replace ‘a’ and ‘b’ by their actual values in the equation, v = ρaEb:
E1/ 2
v = ρ−1/ 2 E1/ 2 =
ρ1/ 2
E
This can also be written as: v =
ρ
2.7 Arithmetic progression (AP)

A set of numbers which follow a pattern or rule is called a series or progression. Each of the numbers
forming this set is known as a term. An arithmetic progression (AP) is a sequence of numbers in which
the difference between two consecutive terms is constant; the difference is known as the common
difference. Consider the sequence:
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ………………..
The first term (denoted by a) = 3, and the common difference (d) = 6 − 3 = 3
The second term is a + d = a + (2 − 1)d
The third term is a + 2d = a + (3 − 1)d
The fourth term is a + 3d = a + (4 − 1)d
Therefore any term of the sequence can be given as:
Tn = a + (n − 1)d, where n the number of the term (second, third, fourth etc.)
The sum of n terms of an arithmetic progression (Sn) is given by:
n
Sn = ( 2a + (n − 1)d)
2
Example 2.11
Find the eleventh term and the sum of the series: 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, ……… to 11 terms.
Solution:
Let T11 be the eleventh term, therefore T11 = a + (n − 1)d
n = 11, a = 1 (first term of the series),
d (the common difference) = 6 − 1 = 5
T11 = 1 + (11 − 1)5
= 1 + (10)5 = 51
18 2 Algebra 1
The sum of first 11 terms is given by, S11 = n ( 2a + (n − 1)d)

2
11
= ( 2 ×1+ (11− 1)5)
2
= 5.5 (2 + 50) = 286
Example 2.12
The third term of an arithmetic progression is 34 and the eighth term is 19. Find the common difference
and the first term.
Solution:
Let T3 be the 3rd term and T8 be the eighth term
T3 = 34 = a + (3 − 1)d, therefore a + 2d = 34
T8 = 19 = a + (8 − 1)d, therefore a + 7d = 19
Solving the above equations simultaneously gives, d = − 3
Put d = − 3 in either of the above equations:
a + 2(− 3) = 34, hence a (first term) = 34 + 6 = 40
Example 2.13
Atlantic Engineering Co. started the production of double-glazed windows last year and produced 3000
windows. The company plans to increase the production by 50 windows each year. Determine:
a) the production in the tenth year
b) the total production from start to when it has just increased the production by 20% over the
initial production
Solution:
a) The first term, a = 3000 windows, d = 50 windows
Production in the tenth year, T10 = 3000 + (10 − 1)50
= 3000 + 450 = 3450 windows
b) Increased production = 3000 + 0.2 × 3000 = 3600
If n is the year in which the specified increase occurs, then 3000 + (n − 1) 50 = 3600
650
50n − 50 = 600, = n = 13 years
50
n
Total production in 13 years, S13 = ( 2a + (n − 1)d)
2
13
= ( 2 × 3000 + (13 − 1)50 )
2
= 6.5(6000 + 600) = 6.5(6600) = 42900 windows
Algebra 1 2 19
2.8 Geometric progression (GP)

The terms of a series are said to be in geometric progression if the ratio of each term to its preceding
term is a constant value. This ratio is known as the common ratio. For example:
9
•• In the series 3, 9, 27, 81, …… the common ratio is = 3
3 −4
•• In the series 2, −4, 8, −16, 32, ……… the common ratio is = −2
2
Let the first term of the series be a and the common ratio be r.
The second term is ar (the index of r = 2 − 1 = 1)
The third term is ar 2
(the index of r = 3 − 1 = 2)
The tenth term is ar 9
The nth term is arn − 1
Example 2.14
Find the eighth term of the series 2, 6, 18, 54, ………………….
Solution:
The first term, a = 2

6
Common ratio, = r = 3
2
The eighth term = ar8−1 = ar7
= 2 × 37 = 4374
Example 2.15
The second term of a GP is 3 and the fifth term is 81. Find the tenth term.
Solution:
The second term = ar2−1 = ar = 3 (1)

The fifth term = ar 5−1
= ar = 81
4
(2)
4
Divide equation (2) by (1), ar = 81
ar 3
r3 = 27, hence r = 3
3 3
From equation (1), ar = 3, therefore, a
= = =1
r 3
The tenth term = ar9 = 1 × 39 = 19683
2.8.1 The sum of a series in GP

Consider a series in geometric progression consisting of n terms
The first term is a
The second term is ar
20 2 Algebra 1
The last term is arn − 1

The sum (Sn) is given by: Sn = a + ar + ar2 + ………….+ arn − 1 (1)
Multiply the above equation by r
r Sn = ar + ar2 + ar3 + ………….+ arn (2)
Subtract equation (2) from (1)
Sn − r Sn = a − arn
Sn (1 − r) = a (1 − rn)
a(1 − r n )
Sn =
(1 − r)
Example 2.16
Find the sum of 7 terms of the series 2, 6, 18, 54, ………………………
Solution:
The first term, a = 2

6
Common ratio, =
r = 3
2
a(1 − r 7 )
Sum of 7 terms, S7 =
(1 − r)
2(1 − 37 ) 2(1 − 2187)

= = = 2186
(1− 3) −2
Exercise 2.1
1. Multiply: i) 1.5x y2 by 6x y z
ii) 2a2 b2 c by 4a b2 c3
2. Divide: i) 4x6 y4 z3 by 2x4 y2 z2
ii) 2x8 y3 z3 by x4 y3 z −2
3. Simplify: i) 3 + (2a + 5b − 20)
ii) 6 − (3a − 2b − 10)
iii) 2(2a + 2.5b)
iv) 1.5(2a − 3b − 5)
4. Factorise: a) 5xz − 15yz
b) 4xy2 + 8x2y
c) x3 + 3x2 + x
Algebra 1 2 21
5. Solve the following equations:

i) 3x − 3 = x + 7
ii) 5x + 2 = 12
2x
iii) = 3.2 − x
3
1
i) 2(x + 4) + 4(x + 1) = 6(2x + )
2
6−A A − 5 5
ii) + =
2 3 4
3Y Y 5
iii) = −
10 3 6
7. For a particular building job, cement, sand, gravel and water are mixed to produce 1100 kg of
concrete. Use the following information to determine the quantity (in kg) of each ingredient:
Quantity of sand = 1.5 × quantity of cement
Quantity of gravel = 200 kg more than the quantity of sand
Quantity of water = 50% of the quantity of cement
8. The width of a rectangle is 4 cm less than its length. If the perimeter of the rectangle is 32 cm, find
its length and width.
9. The length to width ratio of a rectangle is 1.5. If the perimeter of the rectangle is 40 cm, calculate
its length and width.
10. Find the dimensions of the following quantities in terms of M, L and T:
a) Potential energy b) Work c) Power
11. Use the method of dimensions to check whether the following formulae are dimensionally correct;
u and v are velocities, a is acceleration, s is distance and t is time:
a) v2 = u2 + 2as
b) v = u + at2
1 2
c) s = ut + at
2
12. A metal bar, L metres long, expands by ΔL when its temperature increases by ΔT. Find the
dimensions of the co-efficient of thermal expansion, α, if the change in length is given by:
ΔL = αLΔT
13. Find the dimensional formula of thermal conductivity, λ, if the flow of heat energy, Q, is given by:
λA ( θ2 − θ1 ) t , where A is the surface area, (θ − θ ) is the temperature difference, t is time and d
Q= 2 1
d
is the thickness of the material through which the heat energy flows.
22 2 Algebra 1
14. The centripetal force (F) acting on an object, moving uniformly in a circle, depends on the
mass (m) of the object, its velocity (v) and radius of the circle (r). Derive the dimensional formula for
force F.
Exercise 2.2
1. Find the twelfth term and the sum of the first 12 terms of the series:
1, 3.5, 6, 8.5, ………………
2. The fifth term of an AP is 28 and the twelfth term is 63. Find the common difference and the first
term.
3. The noise produced by a machine at a construction site ranges from 52 dB to 90 dB, at six
different speeds. If the noise forms an arithmetic progression, calculate the other noise levels.
4. Alpha engineering company started the production of uPVC doors last year and produced 4000
doors by the end of the year. If the company intends to increase the production by 50 doors each
year, calculate:
a) the production in the eighth year
b) the total production for the first 20 years
c) the time (years) it will take for the production to increase by 25%.
5. Delta engineering company make precast concrete floor units and increase their production each
year in an arithmetic progression. The total production from start to the end of the tenth year was
137500 units and after 18 years the total was 427500 units. Calculate:
a) the production after the first year
b) the yearly increase in production
c) the total production for the first 40 years
6. Find the seventh term of the series 2.2, 4.4, 8.8, 16.16, ………………
7. Find the sum of 8 terms of the series 1, 4, 16, 64, ……………….
8. The third term of a GP is 22.5 and the sixth term is 607.5. Find the eleventh term.
9. In a standard penetration test (SPT) on sandy clay the sampler penetrated by 18.4 mm into the
soil due to the second blow of the hammer. If the sampler penetration decreases in geometric
progression, and the sampler penetrated by 2.47 mm due to the eleventh blow of the hammer,
calculate:
a) the penetration of the sampler due to the seventh blow of the hammer
b) total penetration of the sampler into the soil after 15 blows.
10. The annual rent of a building in the first year was £6000.00 and increases every year by 10%.
Calculate:
a) the rent in the tenth year
b) total of all rents up to year 10.
Algebra 1 2 23
1. i) 9x2 y3 z

ii) 8a3 b4 c4
2. i) 2x2 y2 z
ii) 2x4 z5
3. i) 2a + 5b − 17
ii) 16 − 3a + 2b
iii) 4a + 5b
iv) 3a − 4.5b −7.5
4. a) 5z(x − 3y)
b) 4xy(y + 2x)
c) x(x2 + 3x + 1)
5. i) x = 5
ii) x = 2
iii) x = 1.92
6. i) x = 1.5
ii) A = 0.5
iii) Y = 25
7. Cement = 200 kg, Sand = 300 kg, Gravel = 500 kg, Water = 100 kg
8. Length = 10 cm, Width = 6 cm
9. Length = 12 cm, Width = 8 cm
10. a) ML2T−2 b) ML2T−2 c) ML2T−3
11. a) Correct b) Incorrect c) Correct
12. [T−1]
13. [MLT−3K−1]
kmv 2
14. F =
r
1. T12 = 28.5, S12 = 177

2. a = 8, d = 5
24 2 Algebra 1
3. 59.6, 67.2, 74.8, 82.4 dB

4. a) 4350 doors b) 89500 doors c) 21 years
5. a) 2500 units b) 2500 units c) 2050000 units
6. 140.8
7. 21845
8. 147622.5
9. a) 6.03 mm b) 110.95 mm
10. a) £14147.69 b) £95624.40
CHAPTER
3
Algebra 2

• Transposition of simple and complex formulae involving one or more of: addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, squares/square roots, cubes/cube roots and logarithms
• Evaluation of simple and complex formulae
• Binomial theorem and its application
3.1 Introduction
The formula for determining the volume of a sphere (V) is given by:
4 3
V= π r ,where r is the radius of the sphere.
3
In this formula V is known as the ‘subject of the formula’. If we want to determine the volume of a
sphere, that can be done by putting in the values of π and r3 in this formula. If the volume of a sphere
is given, and the question is to calculate the radius of the sphere, we need to rearrange the formula
so that the radius becomes the ‘subject of the formula’. This process of rearranging the symbols of
formulae is known as the transposition of formulae.
3.2 Transposition of formulae

The process of transposition may involve one or more of:
a) Addition and/or subtraction of the components of a formula.
b) Multiplication and/or division of the components of a formula.
c) Square, square root, cube root etc.
26 3 Algebra 2
3.2.1 Transposition involving addition/subtraction

A formula is an equation, with the equal to sign (=) creating the left side (LHS) and the right side (RHS).
Consider the formula:
x=y−w−z
If we want to make ‘w’ the subject of the formula, the process will involve rearrangement of the
symbols so that ‘w’ is on the left side, on its own, positive and on the numerator side. Applying these
rules to x = y − w − z:
x+w=y−z
or, w = y − z − x
Formulae involving addition and/or subtraction require the symbols to change sides horizontally. There
is no multiplication or division involved.
3.2.2 Transposition involving multiplication/division

Consider the formula to determine the circumference of a circle (c):
c = 2π r, where r is the radius of the circle
If we want to make ‘r’ the subject of the formula, then 2π must be shifted to the other side to leave ‘r’
on its own. This can be achieved by dividing both sides of the formula by 2π:
c 2πr
=
2π 2π
c
=r
2π
c
or r =
2π
Example 3.1
Transpose v2 − u2 = 2 as to make ‘s’ the subject.
Solution:
v2 − u2 = 2 as may be written as 2 as = v2 − u2
Divide both sides by 2a to leave ‘s’ on its own:
2as v 2 − u2
=
2a 2a
v 2 − u2
or,s =
2a
Example 3.2
1 2
Transpose v = ut + at , to make ‘a’ the subject.
2
Algebra 2 3 27
Solution:
1 2
The question may be written as: ut + at = v
2
1 2
Transpose 'ut' to the RHS, at = v − ut
2
1 2
Multiply both side by 2 to simplify the fraction, 2 × at = 2 × (v − ut)
2
at2 = 2(v − ut)
Divide both sides by t2, we have
2(v − ut)
a=
t2
3.2.3 Transposition involving addition/subtraction and

multiplication/division
Consider the formula: v = u + at. If the question is to make ‘t’ the subject then u and a must be
transferred to the other side of the formula.
v = u + at may be written as u + at = v
Transpose u to the RHS, at = v − u
On the LHS, a and t are multiplied, and to separate them we must do the opposite, i.e. divide.
at v − u
Divide both sides by a, =
a a
v −u
or t =
a
3.2.4 Transposition involving squares/square roots

The formula to determine the area of a circle is: A = 0.25 πd2. We have to deal with the square if d
is to be the new subject of the formula. d2 can be changed to d by taking square root of the whole
formula.
0.25 πd2 = A
A
d2 =
0.25π
A
Take square root of both sides d2 =
0.25π
A
d=
0.25π
The square root is the reverse of the square, therefore they cancel out each other.
Example 3.3
Transpose V = π r2 h to make r the subject.
28 3 Algebra 2
Solution:
a) V = π r2 h can be written as π r2 h = V
Divide both sides by πh to have only r2 on the LHS

π r 2h V
=
πh πh
V
r2 =
πh
Take square root of both sides. The square root is the reverse of squaring, therefore, the square and
the square root cancel out to give r:
V
r2 =
πh
V
r=
πh
Example 3.4
A
Transpose r = to make A the subject.
π
Solution:
A A
r= can be written as =r
π π
Square both sides to get rid of the square root:

A
= r2
π
Multiply both sides by π:
A×π
= r 2π
π
A = r2 π or A = πr2
Example 3.5
p v2
Transpose E = +z+ to make v the subject.
w 2g
Solution:
p
Transpose and z to the left hand side of the equation:
w
p v2 v2 p
E− −z= or =E− −z
w 2g 2g w
Algebra 2 3 29
p
v 2 = 2g(E − − z) (multiply both sides by 2g)
w
 p 
v = 2g  E − − z 
 w 
Example 3.6
bd3
Transpose z = to make d the subject.
6
Solution:
bd3 bd3
z= can be written as =z
6 6
After transposing 6 to the RHS we have, bd3 = 6z
6z
d3 =
b
Take cube root of both sides to change d3 into d
1 6z 13
(d3 ) 3 = ( )
b
6z 13
d=( ) (cube and cube root cancel out leaving just d)
b
6z 3
This can also be written as d = 3 ( is the symbol for cube root)
b
Example 3.7
I 
Transpose N = 10log10  2  to make I2 the subject.
 I1 
Solution:
I 
10log10  2  = N
 I1 
I  N
log10  2  =
 I1  10
To remove log10 from the LHS, take antilogarithm (antilog) of both sides.
Antilogarithm is the reverse of logarithm and cancels it out.
I  N
antilog (log10  2  ) = antilog  
I
 1  10 
 I2  N
  = antilog   (antilog cancels log10 )
I
 1  10 
30 3 Algebra 2
N
I2 = I1 × antilog  
 10 
3.3 Evaluation of formulae

The process of finding the value of one term of a formula (usually the subject) by replacing the other
terms by their respective values, is known as the evaluation of formulae.
For example, the area of a rectangle, A = Length × Width
If the length and the width of a rectangle are 15 cm and 12 cm respectively, the area of the
rectangle is:
A = 15 × 12 = 180 cm2
It is important that the units of different quantities are compatible so that the answer has got the right
units, otherwise the answer will be wrong. For instance, the length of a rectangle could be in millimetres
and the width in centimetres. In this case it is necessary to convert either the length into centimetres or
the width into millimetres.
Example 3.8
Base × Height
The area of a triangle (A) is given by: A = . If the base and the height of a triangle measure
2
10 cm and 15 cm respectively, calculate the area of the triangle.
Solution:
Base × Height
Area, A =
2
10 × 15
= = 75 cm2
2
Example 3.9
L
Evaluate R in the formula R = , if L = 250 cm2.
2π
Solution:
L
R=
2π
250
R=
2π
R = 39.7887 = 6.31cm
Example 3.10
N
Evaluate I2 in the formula I2 = I1 × antilog   , if N = 85 and I1 = 1×10−12.
 10 
Algebra 2 3 31
Solution:
N
I2 = I1 × antilog  
 10 
 85 
= 1× 10 −12 × antilog  
 10 
= 1×10−12 antilog 8.5
= 3.162 × 10−4
3.4 Binomial theorem
3.4.1 Introduction
The binomial theorem is a formula that allows us to expand a binomial expression to any power. A
binomial expression consists of two terms, for example, 1 + x, x + 2y, a + b2 etc.
The general binomial expression of (a + x)n is
n(n − 1) n − 2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n − 3 3
(a + x)n = an + nan-1 x + a x + a x + ................ + x n
2! 3!
where n may be a fraction, a decimal fraction or a positive/negative integer
n(n − 1)(n − 2) n − 3 3
In the above expression the fourth term is: a x
3!
n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) n − 4 4
Similarly the fifth term will be: a x
4!
n(n − 1)(n − 2) ......... to (r − 1) n − (r −1) r −1
The r’th term is given by a x
(r − 1)!
3.4.2 Pascal’s triangle

If we expand the expression (a + x)n for values of n ranging between 0 and 7, the following results are
obtained:
(a + x)0 = 1
(a + x) =
1
a+x
(a + x) =
2
a + 2ax + x2
2
(a + x)3 = a3 + 3a2 x + 3ax2 + x3

(a + x)4 = a4 + 4a3 x + 6a2 x2 + 4ax3 + x4
(a + x)5 = a5 + 5a4 x + 10a3 x2 + 10a2 x3 + 5ax4 + x5
(a + x)6 = a6 + 6a5 x + 15a4 x2 + 20a3 x3 + 15a2 x4 + 6ax5 + x6
(a + x)7 = a7 + 7a6 x + 21a5 x2 + 35a4 x3 + 35a3 x4 + 21a2 x5 + 7ax6 + x7
32 3 Algebra 2
It is evident from the above results:

i) The power of ‘a’ decreases as we move from left to right
ii) ‘x’ increases in power as we move from left to right
The coefficients are shown in Table 3.1; this arrangement is known as Pascal’s triangle. The coefficient of
a term may be obtained by adding the two adjacent coefficients immediately above in the previous row.
Table 3.1
(a + x)0 = 1
(a + x)1 = 1 1
(a + x)2 = 1 2 1
(a + x)3 = 1 3 3 1
(a + x)4 = 1 4 6 4 1
(a + x)5 = 1 5 10 10 5 1
(a + x)6 = 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
(a + x)7 = 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
Example 3.11
Expand (a + x)8 by using Pascal's triangle.
Solution:
From Table 3.1 the row of Pascal’s triangle corresponding to (a + x)7 is
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
Coefficients of (a + x)8 are: 1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
Therefore, (a + x)8 = a8 + 8 a7 x + 28 a6 x2 + 56 a5 x3 + 70 a4 x4 + 56 a3 x5 + 28 a2 x6 + 8ax7 + x8
Example 3.12
Use the binomial theorem to expand the term (2x + 2y)3.
Solution:
The binomial expression of (a + x)n is
n(n − 1) n − 2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n − 3 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n − 3 3
(a + x)n = an + nan −1x + a x + a x + a x + ........ + x n
2! 3! 3!
Using the above, the expansion of (2x + 2y)3 is:
3(3 − 1)
(2x + 2y)3 = (2x)3 + 3(2x)3 −1(2y) + (2x)3 − 2 (2y)2 + (2y)3
2!
Algebra 2 3 33
3×2
= 8x 3 + 3 ( 4x 2 ) ( 2y ) + ( 2x ) ( 4y 2 ) + 8y 3
1
2×1
= 8x3 + 24 x2y + 24 xy2 + 8y3
Example 3.13
Expand (x − 3y)3.
Solution:
The expression can be written as (x + (−3y))3. Comparing it to the standard expression of (a + x)n, we
have x in place of a, −3y in place of x and 3 in place of n.
3(3 − 1) 3 − 2
Therefore, (x + ( −3y))3 = x 3 + 3(x)3 −1( −3y) + x ( −3y)2 + ( −3y)3
2!
= x3 + 3(x)2 (−3y) + 3x1 (9y2) − 27y3
= x3 − 9 x2y + 27xy2 − 27y3
Example 3.14
Without expanding (2p + q)5 determine the fourth term.
Solution:
The r’th term of the expansion (a + x)n is given by:
n(n − 1)(n − 2) ......... to (r − 1) n − (r −1) r −1
a x
(r − 1)!
Here n = 5; a = 2p; x = q; r = 4 and r − 1 = 3
Substituting these values, the fourth term of (2p + q)5 is:
5(5 − 1)(5 − 2)
(2p)5 − (4 −1) q4 −1 = 10(2p)2 q4 −1
3!
= 10×4p2 q3 = 40p2 q3
3.4.3 Binomial series for fractional or negative indices

The binomial theorem is true if the index n is a positive integer (whole number):
n(n − 1) n − 2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n − 3 3
(a + x )
n
= an + nan − 1x +a x + a x + ……… + x n
2! 3!
For negative and fractional values of n the series of the terms goes on for ever and is called an infinite
series, for example the expansion of (1 + x)−2
( −2)( −3) 2 ( −2)( − 3)( − 4) 3 ( −2)( − 3)( −4) ( −5) 4
(1 + x)−2 = 1 + ( −2)x + x + x + x + .......
2! 3! 4!
= 1 − 2x + 3x2 − 4x3 + 5x4 − …………….
34 3 Algebra 2
This would result into an approximate answer which is only valid if the sequence converges. For a
convergent series, x should be less than a [for (1 + x)−2, x should be less than 1]. This is written as IxI < 1
numerically, or −1 < x < 1.
Example 3.15
1
Use the binomial theorem to expand to four terms.
(1+ 3x)3
Solution:
1
= (1 + 3x)−3
(1+ 3x)3
( − 3)( −3 − 1) −3−2
Expansion of (1 + 3x ) = 1 + ( −3 )(1) ( 3x ) +
−3 −3 −1
(1) (3x)2 +
2!
( −3)( −3 − 1)( −3 − 2) −3−3
(1) (3x)3
3!
= 1 − 9x + 54x2 − 270x3
This is true provided 3x < 1 numerically
1
or x < ; i.e. − 1 < x < 1
3 3 3
3.4.4 Approximations
We can find the value of (1 + x)n to any degree of accuracy by the binomial expansion, if x is small.
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
Since (1 + x) = 1 + nx + x + x + ......., a rough approximation is obtained by
n
2! 3!
rejecting all powers of x above x1.
Therefore, (1 + x)n :≈ 1 + nx
For accuracy, the term containing x2 or higher powers can be retained.
When x and y are very small fractions, then (1 + x)m (1 + y)n becomes
(1 + x)m (1 + y)n = 1 + mx + ny approximately.
Example 3.16
Using the binomial theorem, find the approximate as well as the value correct to 4 decimal places of
(1.004)6.
Solution:
a) (1.004)6 = (1 + 0.004)6, Here x = 0.004 and n = 6

Approximate value = 1 + nx = 1 + 6(0.004) = 1.024
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
b) (1 + x) = 1 + nx + x + x + .......,
n
2! 3!
Algebra 2 3 35
6(6 − 1)
(1.004)6 = (1 + 0.004)6 = 1 + 6(0.004) + (0.004)2
2×1
= 1 + 0.024 + 0.00024 = 1.02424
= 1.0242 (correct to 4 d.p.)
3.4.5 Practical problems

Examples 3.17 and 3.18 show how the binomial theorem can be used to find the approximate effect of
small numerical changes on a calculation.
Example 3.17
The cross-sectional area (A) of a pipe is given by
1
A = πd2 , where d is the diameter of the pipe.
4
Find the approximate error in calculating the area if the diameter has been measured 1% too small.
Solution:
π 2  1 
A= d , and the new diameter is  d − d × 100 
4  
2
π 1 
New area A’ =  d − d × 
4 100 
2
π 2 1 
A’ = d 1− 1×
4  
100 
1
The calculation can be approximated as is small compared with 1
100
π 2 1 
A’ ≈ d 1− 2×
4  100 
 2 
≈ A 1 − 
 100 
2
From 1 − it can be concluded that the new area is 2% too small.
100
Example 3.18
km2 t
In the formula Q = find the percentage error in Q due to an error of +2% in t, −1% error in m and
L
+1% error in L.
Solution:
Let Q' be the new quantity.

36 3 Algebra 2
1 2 2
k [m(1− )] t(1+ )
Q’ = 100 100
1
L(1+ )
100
1 2 2
km2 t (1− ) (1+ )
= 100 100
1
L (1+ )
100
2 1 -1
km2 t  1   2   1 
=  1−   1+   1+ 
L  100   100   100 
km2 t  2 2 1× ( −1) 
=  1− + + 
L  100 100 100 
km2 t  2 2 1  km2 t  1 
=  1− + − =  1− 
L  100 100 100  L  100 
 1 
= Q  1−  , therefore the percentage error in Q is - 1%
 100 
Exercise 3.1
1. Transpose f = c + d − e, to make e the subject

2. Transpose y = mx + c, to make x the subject
Qd
3. a) The thermal conductivity (k) of a material is given by, k = . Transpose the formula to make
Q the subject. AT
b) Evaluate Q, if k = 0.8, A = 10, T = 40 and d =0.5

V2
4. If P = , transpose the formula to make V the subject.
R
5. a) The surface area (A) of an object is given by, A = 2πr2. Transpose the formula to make r the
subject.
b) Evaluate r, if A = 8000 cm2
1
6. The area of a trapezium (A) is given by A = (a + b) × d. Transpose the formula:
2
to make d the subject.
to make b the subject.
7. a) The velocity (v) of water flow in an open channel is given by, v = c RS. Transpose the formula
to make R the subject.
b) Calculate R if v = 2.5 m/s, c = 50 and S = 0.02
8. The relationship between porosity (n) and void ratio (e) of a soil is given by:
e
n= . Transpose the formula to make e the subject.
1+ e
Algebra 2 3 37
5 wL3
9. The deflection of a beam (d) is given by, d = . Transpose the formula to make L the
384EI
subject.
1 2 1
10. a) The velocity (v) of water flow in an open channel is given by, v = R 3 S 2 . Transpose the formula
to make R the subject. n
b) Find the value of R, if: v = 2.75 m/s, n = 0.01 and S = 0.02

11. Transpose the equation U = B(T + A(S − T)) to make T the subject.
(G + e)d
12. Transpose D = to make e the subject.
1+ e
13. a) Transpose A 2 = A 1 to make h the subject.
h
1−
H
b) Evaluate h if A2 = 10, A1 = 5 and H = 5
w R
14. Transpose =w− to make w the subject.
G 1000
n 
15. a) Transpose w1 − w 2 = C × log10  2  to make n2 the subject
 n1 
b) Evaluate n2 if w1 = 25, w2 = 24, n1 = 20 and C = 4.34
N
16. Calculate I2 in the formula I2 = I1 × antilog   , if N = 97 and I1 = 1×10−12
 10 
Exercise 3.2
1. Use Pascal’s triangle method to determine the expansion of (2m − 3n)4

2. Expand (3 + x)3 using the binomial theorem:
3. Use the binomial theorem to expand (2p + q)5
4. Without expanding (3 + 2x)8 determine the fifth term
5. Without expanding (2 − 3x)7 determine the fourth term
1
6. Expand 3 to 4 terms
1+ 2x
7. Expand (3 − 2x)3/2 using the binomial theorem
km2 t
8. In the formula Q = find the percentage error in Q due to an error of +3% in t, −2% error in m
L
and +2% error in L.
KwL3
9. The maximum deflection (δ) in a beam is given by δ = . Find the approximate percentage
d4
change in deflection if W increases by 2%, L decreases by 2% and d decreases by 1.5%.
M
10. The area of steel (A) in a reinforced concrete beam is given by A = . Find the approximate
tjd
percentage change in the area of steel if M increases by 3% and t decreases by 2%.
38 3 Algebra 2

1. e = c + d − f
y −c
2. x =
m
kAT
3. a) Q =
d
b) 640
4. V = PR
A
5. a) r =
2π
b) 35.68 cm
2A
6. a) d =
a +b
b) 2A
b= −a
d
v2
7. a) R =
c2 S
b) 0.125
n
8. e =
1− n
384 dEI
9. L = 3
5w
3
 v n 2
10. a) R =  1 
 2
S 
b) R = 0.0857
11. T = U − BAS
B − BA
12. e = Gd − D
D−d
 A1 
13. a) h = H  1− 
 A2 
b) 2.5
R G
14. w = ×
1000 G − 1
 w − w2 
15. a) n1 × antilog  1 
 C 
b) 34
16. 5.01 × 10−3
Algebra 2 3 39
1. 16m4 − 96m3 n + 216m2 n2 − 216mn3 + 81n4

2. 27 + 27x + 9x2 + x3
3. 32p5 + 80p4 q + 80p3 q2 + 40p2 q3 + 10pq4 + q5
4. 90720 x4
5. −15120 x3
2 8 112 3
6. 1 − x + x2 − x
3 9 81
1 1 1
Provided x < ; i e. − < x <
2 2 2
31/ 2 2 3−3 / 2 3
7. (3)3/ 2 − (3)3/ 2 x + x + x
2 2
Provided x < 3 ; i.e. − 1.5 < x < 1.5
2
8. − 3%
9. + 2%
10. +5%
CHAPTER
4
Simultaneous and quadratic
equations

• Simultaneous equations: elimination method and substitution method
• Quadratic equations: factorisation, quadratic formula and completing the squares
4.1 Simultaneous equations

As explained in chapter 2, an equation is a mathematical statement that shows the equality of 2
expressions. Generally an equation has 1 unknown, but in some cases equations may have 2 or more
unknowns. For example, the equation 2x − 3y = 8, has two unknowns, x and y. The equation does not
have a unique solution as several values of x and y satisfy the equation:
x = 1, y = −2 2x − 3y = 2 × 1 − 3 × (−2)
=2+6=8
x = 2.5, y = −1 2x − 3y = 2 × 2.5 − 3 × (−1)
=5+3=8
If we have two equations involving two unknowns, say x and y, then there is a unique solution that
satisfies both equations. These equations are known as simultaneous equations.
Simultaneous equations can be solved by:
a) The elimination method.
b) The substitution method.
c) The graphical method.
The graphical method is explained in chapter 5.
4.1.1 The elimination method

This method involves the elimination of one unknown so that the other unknown can be determined.
For example, if we are given the equations x + 2y = −3 and x − y = 3, the solution can be found by
eliminating x first and then y, or y first and then x. The elimination process involves:
42 4 Simultaneous and quadratic equations
a) Multiplication of the equations by suitable numbers to make the coefficients of x or y the same, if they
are not equal initially.
b) Either subtraction or addition, depending on whether the x or y terms have the opposite sign or the
same sign.
This technique is explained in Example 4.1.
Example 4.1
Solve the equations, x + 2y = −3 and x − y = 3
Solution:
x + 2y = −3 (1)
x − y = 3 (2)
In both equations the x terms are positive and their coefficients are equal, i.e. 1 and 1. To eliminate x,
subtract 1 equation from the other. It doesn’t matter whether the first equation is subtracted from the
second or the second from the first. Subtraction also involves the change of signs; from + to − and
from − to +
Subtract equation (2) from equation (1):
x + 2y = − 3
x− y= 3 (the new signs of the second equation are shown in bold;
- + - they supersede the original signs))
3y = − 6 (x − x = 0; 2y + y = 3y; − 3 − 3 = − 6 )
or y = −6 / 3 = −2
To eliminate y from the two equations multiply equation (2) by 2 so that the coefficients of y terms are
the same in both equations:
2 × (x − y = 3) = 2x − 2y = 6 (3)
The signs of 2y are different in equations (1) and (3). In this situation the equations are added. The
addition of numbers/letters does not require the change of signs.
Add equations (1) and (3)
x + 2y = − 3
2x − 2y = 6
3x = 3 ( x + 2x = 3x; + 2y − 2y = 0; − 3 + 6 = 3 )
or x = 3 / 3 = 1
The solution is x = 1 and y = −2
4.1.2 The substitution method

In this method the value of x (or y) is calculated in terms of the other unknown from 1 equation and
substituted in the other equation. This method is easy to use when the coefficients of x and y are small
numbers. It can also be used in conjunction with the elimination method, as shown in example 4.3.
Simultaneous and quadratic equations 4 43
Example 4.2
Solve the equations, x + 3 = −2y and x − y = 3 by the substitution method.
Solution:
After rearranging x + 3 = −2y, we have:
x + 2y = −3 (1)
After rearranging x − y = 3, we have: x = 3 + y (2)
Substitute the value of x from equation (2) into equation (1)
3 + y + 2y = −3
Transpose 3 to the RHS, 3y = −3 −3
3y = −6, or y = −6/3 = −2
Substitute y = −2 into either equation (1) or equation (2)
Let us use equation (2)
x = 3 + (−2)
or, x = 3 − 2 = 1
The solution is x = 1 and y = −2
Example 4.3
Solve simultaneously the equations, 2x + 4y = 16 and 7 − 3y = −x
Solution:
2x + 4y = 16 (1)
x − 3y = −7 (2) (Rearrange the equation)
Multiply equation (2) by 2 so that both equations have 2x, and subtract
2x + 4y = 16
2x − 6y = −14 ( Change the signs of the second equation)
− + +
10 y = 30
or, y = 30/10 = 3
Substitute the value of y into equation (1)
2x + (4 × 3) = 16
2x + 12 = 16
2x = 16 − 12 = 4
x = 4/2 = 2
The solution is x = 2 and y = 3.
4.1.3 Application of simultaneous equations
Example 4.4
3 bricklayers and 2 general operatives complete a building extension in 6 days and earn £2520. On
similar work, 5 bricklayers and 3 general operatives earn £2720 and complete it in 4 days. Calculate the
daily earnings of 1 bricklayer, and 1 general operative.
Solution:
The question can be written in the form of 2 equations that can be solved to determine the earnings
of a bricklayer and a general operative. In the first project, £2520 was earned in 6 days whereas in the
second project the amount earned in 4 days was £2720. It is important to have the earnings for the
same duration in both cases. Let us first calculate the earnings per day:
3 bricklayers and 2 general operatives earn £420 in 1 day (2520 ÷ 6 = 420)
5 bricklayers and 3 general operatives earn £680 in 1 day (2720 ÷ 4 = 680)
Let b and g represent the bricklayers and the general operatives respectively.
3b + 2g = 420 (1)
5b + 3g = 680 (2)
Multiply equation (1) by 3 and equation (2) by 2 and subtract
9b + 6g = 1260
10b + 6g = 1360
− − −
−b =− 100 or b = 100
To find g, substitute the value of b in equation (1) or equation (2).
Let us use equation (1): 3 × 100 + 2g = 420
2g = 420 − 300 = 120
Therefore, g = 60.
A bricklayer earns £100 per day, and a general operative earns £60 per day.
Example 4.5
The demand and supply of housing in a region can be represented by the equations
P + 15 Q = 406 000, and P − 13 Q = 58800 respectively. P represents the price in Pounds and Q
represents the quantity, i.e. the number of houses. Find the price and quantity at which the supply
equals the demand.
Solution:
The solution of the given equations will give us the price and quantity at which the supply of houses
equals demand. The supply curve (Figure 4.1) shows that the builders will construct more houses as
the prices go up. However, the demand for houses increases as their prices fall. Point E gives the
equilibrium price at which the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied. The solution of the
equations will yield the equilibrium price.
d s
d - d Demand curve
Price (£) E s - s Supply curve
d
s
Quantity
Figure 4.1
P + 15 Q = 406 000 (1)

P − 13 Q = 58 800 ( 2)
− + −
28 Q = 347 200 or Q = 12400
Substitute the value of Q in equation (2)

P − (13 × 12 400) = 58 800
P = £220 000
At a Price of £220 000, quantity supplied = quantity demanded = 12 400
4.2 Quadratic equations

An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c are constants (numbers) and, a ≠ 0 is
known as the quadratic equation. Constants a, b and c are known, whilst x is unknown which can be
determined by a range of methods:
a) Factorising.
b) The quadratic formula.
c) Completing the square.
d) The graphical method (explained in chapter 5).
As the highest power of x in a quadratic equation is 2, therefore there are 2 values of x, which satisfy
the equation. These values are also known as the roots of the equation.
4.2.1 Factorising
The factors of ax2 + bx + c = 0, when a = 1 are:
(x + m) (x + n) = 0
m and n are numbers so that m × n = c
and m + n = b
The procedure is explained in Example 4.6.
Example 4.6
Solve the equation x2 + 5x + 6 = 0
Solution:
As explained earlier, the factors of x2 + 5x + 6 = 0 will be of the form:
(x + m) (x + n) = 0 (1)
We need to select 2 numbers, which give 5 on addition and 6 on multiplication. Numbers 2 and 3
satisfy these conditions:
2 + 3 = 5 and 2 × 3 = 6 (m = 2 and n = 3)
Replacing m and n in equation (1) with 2 and 3:
(x + 2) (x + 3) = 0
Since the product of the 2 factors is equal to 0, then
Either x + 2 = 0 (2)
Or x + 3 = 0 (3)
If x + 2 = 0, then x = −2
If x + 3 = 0 then x = −3
The solution is x = −2 or x = −3
Example 4.7
Solve the equation x2 − 7x + 12 = 0
Solution:
As explained earlier, we need to select 2 numbers, which give −7 on addition and +12 on multiplication.
The numbers are −3 and −4.
−3 + (−4) = −3 − 4 = −7
−3 × −4 = 12
The factors of x2 − 7x + 12 = 0 will be of the form (x + m) (x + n) = 0
(x − 3) (x − 4) = 0 (replace m with −3 and n with −4)
Either x − 3 = 0, therefore x = 3
Or x − 4 = 0, hence x = 4
The solution is x = 3, or x = 4
Example 4.8
Solve the equation x2 − x − 6 = 0
Solution:
Comparing x2 − x − 6 = 0 to the general form ax2 + bx + c = 0 we find that in the given equation, a = 1,
b = −1 and c = −6. In this case the product of the two numbers should be −6 and their algebraic sum −1.
We can only get −1 as the sum if the bigger number is negative; −3 and 2 are such numbers that will
satisfy these conditions.
−3 + 2 = −1
−3 × 2 = −6
The factors will be of the form:
(x + m) (x + n) = 0, (1)
Replacing m and n with −3 and 2 in equation (1) we have:
(x − 3) (x + 2) = 0
Either x − 3 = 0, therefore x = 3
Or x + 2 = 0, therefore x = −2
The solution is x = 3 or x = −2
Example 4.9
Solve the equation 5x2 −8x − 4 = 0
Solution:
In this equation the coefficient of x2 is greater than 1, which makes the solution more complex. The
factors of 5 are 1 and 5:
1×5=5
The factors of 4 are 1, 2 and 4: 1 × 4 = 4 and 2 × 2 = 4
Several factors are possible:
(5x ± 4) (x ± 1) or (5x ± 2) (x ± 2) or (5x ± 1) (x ± 4)
Only one of these factors will give the right answer. This can be checked by multiplying the brackets out:
(5x + 4) (x − 1) = 5x2 + 4x − 5x − 4 = 5x2 − x − 4
(5x − 4) (x + 1) = 5x2 − 4x + 5x − 4 = 5x2 + x − 4
(5x − 2) (x + 2) = 5x2 − 2x + 10x − 4 = 5x2 + 8x − 4
(5x + 2) (x − 2) = 5x2 + 2x − 10x − 4 = 5x2 − 8x − 4
(5x + 2) and (x − 2) are the right factors of 5x2 − 8x − 4
Therefore 5x2 − 8x − 4 = (5x + 2) (x − 2) = 0
Either 5x + 2 = 0, or x − 2 = 0
If 5x + 2 = 0, then x = −2/5 or − 0.4
If x − 2 = 0, then x = 2
The solution is x = − 0.4, or x = 2
4.2.2 The quadratic formula

If ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ≠ 0, the solutions of the equation are given by the formula:
− b ± (b)2 − 4ac
x=
2a
This formula can be used to solve all types of quadratic equations, especially those which cannot be
solved by the other methods.
Example 4.10
Solve the equation 2x2 = 6x + 8
Solution:
The first step is to rearrange and write the equation to match the general form, i.e.
ax2 + bx + c = 0:
2x2 − 6x − 8 = 0
In this equation, a = 2, b = − 6 and c = − 8
Put the values of a, b and c in the quadratic formula:
b b a c
− ( −6) ± ( −6)2 − 4 × 2 × ( −8)
x=
2× 2
a
6 ± 36 + 64
[ − ( −6 ) = 6; ( −6 ) = 36]
2
4
6± 100 6 ± 10
= =
4 4
6 + 10 6 − 10
Either x = or x =
4 4
Solve the above to get the solution. The solution is x = 4 or x = −1
4.2.3 Completing the square

Quadratic equations can be rearranged by transposing the constant to the RHS. If the constant is greater
than zero, it is possible to solve the equation by completing the square. A number is added to the LHS to
make it a perfect square. For example, (x + 1)2, (x + 2)2, (x − 1)2, (x − 2)2 are perfect squares, and we must try
to get the LHS of the equation written in this form. The next example explains the procedure.
Example 4.11
Solve the equation x2 + 2x − 5.25 = 0
Solution:
Rearrange the equation by transposing 5.25 to the RHS:
x2 + 2x = 5.25
We know that (x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1, therefore x2 + 2x = (x + 1)2 − 1

(x + 1)2 − 1 = 5.25
(x + 1)2 = 5.25 + 1 = 6.25
(x + 1)2 = (2.5)2
Take square root of both sides. The square root cancels out the square
x + 1 = ± 2.5
x + 1 = +2.5, x = 2.5 − 1 = 1.5
or x + 1 = −2.5, x = −2.5 − 1 = − 3.5
The solution is x = 1.5 or x = − 3.5
4.2.4 Application of quadratic equations
Example 4.12
A rectangular lawn measuring 15 m by 10 m is surrounded by a path. The total area of the lawn and the
path is 218.75 m2. Calculate the width of the path.
Solution:
Let x metres be the width of the path.
Length of the lawn (including path) = 15 + 2x; Width = 10 + 2x
218.75 = (15 + 2x) × (10 + 2x)
218.75 = 150 + 50x + 4x2
0 = 4x2 + 50x − 68.75
This is a quadratic equation, and can be written as: 4x2 + 50x − 68.75 = 0
Although the quadratic formula will be used to solve the equation here, other methods may also be
used:
− b ± b2 − 4ac − 50 ± 502 − 4(4)( −68.75)

x= =
2a 2× 4
− 50 ± 3600 − 50 ± 60
= =
8 8
− 50 + 60
Either x = = 1.25 m
8
− 50 − 60
or,x = = −13.75 m
8
Rejecting 13.75 m, as the width cannot be negative, the width of the path is 1.25 m.
Example 4.13
The length of a rectangular building plot is (x + 20) metres and its width (x + 5) metres. Calculate the
length and the width of the building plot if its area is 2700 m2.
Solution:
Area = length × width

2700 = (x + 20) × (x + 5)
2700 = x2 + 20x + 5x + 100
or, 2700 = x2 + 25x +100
0 = x2 + 25x − 2600 or x2 + 25x − 2600 = 0
− b ± b2 − 4ac − 25 ± 252 − 4(1)( −2600)

x= =
2a 2×1
− 25 ± 11025 − 25 ± 105
= =
2 2
− 25 + 105
Either x = = 40 m
2
− 25 − 105
or x = = − 65 m
2
Rejecting the negative value, x = 40 m
Length = 40 + 20 = 60m; Width = 40 + 5 = 45 m
Exercise 4.1
1. Solve the following simultaneous equations by substitution:

a) x + y = 3 and x − y = −1
b) 2x + y = −1 and x + 2y = 1
2. Solve the following equations by elimination/substitution:
a) x + y = 5 and 3x − 2y = −5
b) x + y = 1 and 3x − y = −5
c) 2x − 1 = y and x − 2y = −2.5
d) 5y = 0.5 − 4x and 2x = 4 − 4y
e) 1.5a + 2.5b = 3, and 2a + 3.5b = 5
3. 2 doors and 1 window cost £260 at B & B DIY store. At another DIY store, where prices are similar
to those at B & B store, 3 doors and 2 windows cost £430. Find the cost of 1 door, and 1 window.
4. The demand and supply of housing in a region can be represented by simultaneous equations,
P + 29 Q = 800 000, and P − 27 Q = 100 000 respectively. P represents the price in Pounds Sterling
and Q represents the quantity, i.e. the number of houses. Find the price and quantity at which the
supply equals the demand.
5. The shear strength of soils is given by the equation, s = c + nR, where
s = shear strength (kN/m2); c = cohesion (kN/m2); n = normal stress (kN/m2);
R = shearing resistance component. Two tests were performed on samples of a particular soil to yield
the following data:
Test 1: s = 320 kN/m2 at n = 310 kN/m2

Test 2: s = 200 kN/m2 at n = 110 kN/m2
Form 2 equations from the above data and calculate the values of c and R.
6. The number of bricks (N) at a site (existing stock + delivered) is represented by the equation: N = a D + e
where D = number of days; a = constant; e = existing stock before the delivery program started.
After 2 days the number of bricks at the site was 22 000 and after 5 days the number of bricks was
40 000. Assuming that the bricks are delivered to the site regularly, calculate the values of a and e,
and hence calculate the number of bricks after 8 days.
Exercise 4.2
1. Solve the following equations by factorisation:

a) x2 − 4x + 3 = 0
b) x2 + x − 20 = 0
c) x2 + 8x + 12 = 0
d) 4x2 − 4x − 3 = 0
2. Use the quadratic formula to solve the following equations:
a) 3x2 + 10x − 8 = 0
b) 6x2 + 9x − 6 = 0
c) 2x2 − 3x − 5 = 0
d) 4x2 + 8x = − 3
e) x2 = − 5x − 6
3. Solve the following equations by completing the square
a) x2 + 4x = 5
b) x2 + 2x = 3
c) x2 − 6x = 7
4. The perimeter of a rectangular plot of land is 84 m and the length of its diagonal is 30 m. Calculate
the dimensions of the plot.
5. The perimeter of a rectangle is 21 m and its area 24.5 m2. Calculate the dimensions of the
rectangle.
6. The owner of a house requires 121 m long fencing on three sides of the back garden. Find the
length and the width of the garden if its area is 605 m2.
7. The bending moment (M) at any point on one particular beam is given by:
M = 9x − 1.5x2
where x is the distance between the point and the left support.
Find the distance, from the left support, where the bending moment is 12 kN-m.
8. The cross-section of an irrigation canal is shown in Figure 4.2. If the shaded portion shows the
cross-sectional area of the water flow:
a) obtain an expression, in terms of x, for the cross-sectional area of the water flow.
b) calculate the value of x if the cross-sectional area of flow is 5.4 m2.
6m
Water surface x
5m
5-x
Figure 4.2 Irrigation canal
1. a) x = 1, y = 2 b) x = −1, y = 1

2. a) x = 1, y = 4 b) x = −1, y = 2 c) x = 1.5, y =2
d) x = −3, y = 2.5 e) x = −8, y = 6
3. Door = £90, Window = £80
4. Price = £437 500, Quantity = 12 500
5. c = 134 kN/m2, R = 0.6
6. a = 6000, e = 10 000, N = 58 000
1. a) x = 1 or x = 3 b) x = −5 or x = 4 c) x = −6 or x = −2

d) x = 1.5 or x = −0.5
2. a) x = 2/3 or x = −4 b) x = 0.5 or x = −2 c) x = 2.5 or x = −1
d) x = −0.5 or x = −1.5 e) x = −2 or x = −3
3. a) x = 1 or x = −5 b) x = 1 or x = −3 c) x = −1 or x = 7
4. Length = 24 m, width = 18 m
5. Length = 7 m, width = 3.5 m
6. Length = 55 m, width = 11 m
7. x = 4 m or 2 m
8. a) 0.6 x2 − 6x + 15 b) x = 2 m
CHAPTER
5
Graphical solutions

• Straight line graphs and determination of the law of a straight-line
• Solution of simultaneous, quadratic and cubic equations by graphical technique
• Plotting of experimental data and production of the ‘best-fit’ line
5.1 Introduction
A graph represents the relationship between two quantities and basically shows how 1 quantity varies
relative to the other quantity. A graph consists of 2 axes, the x-axis and the y-axis, drawn at right
angles to each other. The 2 axes cross at the origin, and are known as rectangular or cartesian axes
(Figure 5.1). As a graph is used to show the relationship between 2 variables, 1 variable is represented
along the x-axis and the other variable represented along the y-axis.
If a set of values, x, is connected to another set of values, y, and for each value of x there is
only 1 value of y, then y is known as a function of x. If the values of x are continuous, a graph can
be produced to represent the function.
The data is collected and plotted as points, each point having 2 values: the ‘x’ value and the ‘y’
value. These values are known as the x-coordinate and the y-co-ordinate; if the co-ordinates of a
point are (2, 1), then:
i) The first number, i.e. 2, is known as the ‘x co-ordinate’.
ii) The second number, i.e. 1, is known as the ‘y co-ordinate’.
This is shown as point A in Figure 5.1. Similarly, if the x co-ordinate of point B is −4 and its y co-
ordinate is 3, these are written as (−4, 3). For establishing the x co-ordinate on the graph, we move
horizontally. Positive values of x are shown on the right hand side of the origin whereas the negative
values of x are shown on the left hand side of the origin. The positive values of y are plotted above the
origin and its negative values plotted below the origin. Figure 5.1 also shows points C and D having co-
ordinates (−3, −3) and (3, −3) respectively.
54 5 Graphical solutions
B (−4,3) 3
1 A (2,1)
Origin
−x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 0,0 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
C(−3, −3) −3 D (3,−3)
−4
−y
Figure 5.1
Example 5.1
The air temperatures on a typical day, last autumn were:
Time 0800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200

Temperature (°C) −1 1 3 7 6 3 0 −1
Plot a graph to show the air temperature against time.
Solution:
On a graph paper the axes are drawn as shown in Figure 5.2. The x-axis is normally used to represent
the independent variable, i.e. time, and the y-axis used to represent the dependent variable, i.e.
temperature. The first point on the graph should represent a temperature of −1°C at 0800 hours. To plot
this point draw a vertical line at 0800 hours and a horizontal line at −1°C, and wherever the lines meet
mark that point with a dot or a cross. This point represents a temperature of − 1°C at 0800 hours, and
similarly the other points are established on the graph paper. Finally, join the points to show how the air
temperature varies with time.
Graphical solutions 5 55
10
8
Temperature (°C)
6
−2
0800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 hours
Time
Figure 5.2
5.2 Linear equations

The general form of a linear equation is ax + by = c, where a, b and c are constants. The equation is
rearranged so that the values of y can be determined corresponding to assumed values of x. Since the
graph will be a straight line, only 3 points are required, as illustrated in example 5.2.
Example 5.2
Draw the graphs of: a) 2x − y = −1, from x = −2 to x = 3
b) 2x + y = 4, from x = −2 to x = 4
Solution:
Before the points are plotted on a graph paper and the graph produced, it is necessary to use at least
3 values of x from the given range, and find the corresponding values of y. To make this process easier
the equations may be written as:
y = 2x + 1 (equation a) and y = 4 − 2x (equation b)
a) If x = −2, y = (2 × −2) + 1
= −4 + 1 = −3
Similarly for x = 1 and 3, the corresponding values of y are determined, which are shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1
x −2 1 3
y −3 3 7
The coordinates of the 3 points are: (−2, −3), (1, 3), (3, 7). Suitable scales are selected, the axes
marked and the points plotted, as shown in Figure 5.3. A straight line is drawn that passes through all
the points; this is the graph of the equation: 2x − y = −1 (or y = 2x + 1)
10
1
=
+
4
2x
6
−
2x
=
y
4
x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−2
−4
−6
Figure 5.3
b) The process explained above is used for producing the graph of y = 4 − 2x.
If x = −2, y = 4 − (2 × −2)
=4+4=8
The other values of x and y are as shown in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2
x −2 2 4
y 8 0 −4
These points are plotted to get a straight line graph, as shown in Figure 5.3.
5.3 Linear simultaneous equations

The analytical methods of solving linear simultaneous equations are explained in chapter 4; in
this section the graphical method of solving the equations will be described. The graphs of linear
simultaneous equations are drawn in the same way as explained in section 5.2. The graphs are plotted
on the same axes and the co-ordinates of the point of intersection are determined. The point of
intersection is common to both lines and hence is the solution.
Example 5.3
Solve graphically the simultaneous equations:
x − 3 = − 2y and x + y = 4
Solution:
The equations may be given in any form, but it is necessary to rearrange each equation into the form of
the straight line law, i.e. y = mx + c:
−x + 3
Equation 1: 2y = −x + 3 or y =
2
Equation 2: y = −x + 4
At least three values of x are assumed in each case and the corresponding values of y determined:
−1+ 3 2
Equation 1: If x = 1, y = = =1
2 2
−3 + 3 0
If x = 3, y = = =0
2 2
Similarly when x = 5, y = −1
The co-ordinates for equation 2 are calculated in a similar manner. The following tables (Tables 5.3a,
5.3b) summarise the calculations:
Table 5.3a
Equation 1 x 1 3 5
−x + 3 1 0 −1
y=
2
Table 5.3b
Equation 2 x 1 3 5
y = −x + 4 3 1 −1
The graphs are plotted as shown in Figure 5.4. The solution of the 2 equations is the point of
intersection (5, −1). Therefore x = 5 and y = −1.
4
y
3 =
−x
+
2 4
y=
3−
1 x
2
x x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1 (5,−1)
−2
−3
Figure 5.4
5.4 The law of straight line

The general equation of the straight line (or linear function) is given by:
y = mx + c, where x and y are independent and dependent variables, respectively.
m is the slope or gradient of the straight line.
c is the intercept made by the straight line on the y-axis.
Any equation that conforms to this form will produce a straight-line graph, for example, the graphs
shown in Figures 5.3 and 5.4.
Figure 5.5 shows two straight-line graphs, one with positive slope and the other with negative slope.
Graph (a) slopes upwards from left to right; its slope (or gradient) is taken as positive. Graph (b) slopes
downwards from left to right, therefore its gradient is considered to be negative. The gradient (m) of a
line graph can be determined by drawing a right-angled triangle, of any size, as shown in Figure 5.5 and
is given by:
Vertical side AC 1.5
=m = = = 0.5
Horizontal side BC 3
In some cases when data from experimental work is plotted, a straight-line graph is produced. If the
task involves the determination of the equation of the straight line, then it is necessary to determine the
gradient (m) and the intercept on the y-axis (c) due to the straight-line graph. The law of the straight line
is determined by incorporating the values of m and c into the equation y = mx + c.
Example 5.4
A 10 cm long sample of a ductile material was stretched by a tensile force. The lengths of the rod at
different levels of the tensile force were:
4 A
3
(a) (b)
2
B C
AC = 1.5
1 BC = 3.0
C
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Figure 5.5
Length, L (cm) 10 10.4 10.8 11.2 11.6

Force, F (Newtons) 0 2 4 6 8
a) Show that the equation connecting length (L) and force (F) is of the form:
L = mF + c
b) Find the equation of the graph.
c) Find the length of the rod if a force of 12.5 N acts on it
Solution:
a)
Length (L) is plotted on the y-axis and the force (F) plotted on the x-axis.
Suitable scales are selected and marked on the axes as shown in Figure 5.6. It is evident on plotting
the points that they follow a straight line. Therefore, it can be concluded that the equation connecting L
and F is of the form: L = mF + c.
12
A
Length (cm)
11 AC = 1.2 cm
BC = 6 N
10
B C
9
8
0 2 4 6 8
Force (N)
Figure 5.6
b)
To find the gradient, a right-angled triangle ABC is drawn as shown in Figure 5.6. As the left end of the
line is lower than the right end, the gradient of the line is positive.
AC 1.2
Gradient=
m = = 0.2
BC 6
Intercept on the y-axis, c = 10.0
Therefore the equation of the straight line graph is: y = 0.2x + 10 or, L = 0.2F + 10
c)
When F = 12.5 N, L = 0.2 × 12.5 + 10 = 12.5 cm
5.5 Quadratic equations

The graphical method, although time consuming, can be used to solve any quadratic equation. There
is only 1 unknown (e.g. x) in a quadratic equation, but for plotting a graph we need the values of y
co-ordinates as well. Therefore, for graphical solution the quadratic is equated to y. For example, if we
are asked to solve the equation
4x2 − 4x − 3 = 0, then as a starting point we say that:
y = 4x2 − 4x − 3 = 0
At least 6 or 7 values of x are assumed and the corresponding values of y are determined. The
points are plotted on a graph and joined by a smooth curve. As y = 0, the solution of the equation is
determined by finding the values of x co-ordinates where the curve meets the x-axis.
Example 5.5
Solve the equation 4x2 − 4x − 3 = 0 by graphical method.
Solution:
Assume any reasonable values of x, for example we can start off by assuming −3, −2, −1, 1, 2, 4 and
then the corresponding values of y are calculated as shown below. Depending on the shape of the
graph further points may be necessary to find the solution.
x −3 −2 −1 1 2 4
4x2 36 16 4 4 16 64
−4x 12 8 4 −4 −8 −16
−3 −3 −3 −3 −3 −3 −3
y = 4x2 − 4x − 3 45 21 5 −3 5 45
The equation 4x2 − 4x − 3 is evaluated by adding −3 and the values of 4x2 and −4x. These are also the
values of y coordinate, as y = 4x2 − 4x − 3.
We have 6 points (−3, 45), (−2, 21), (−1, 5), (1, −3), (2, 5) and (4, 45) which are plotted as shown in
Figure 5.7. A smooth curve is drawn passing through all the points.
60
50
40
30
20
10
x x
−3 −2 −1 2 3 4 5
−10
−20
y
Figure 5.7
The curve crosses the x-axis at x = −0.5 and x = 1.5, therefore the solution of equation
4x2 − 4x − 3 is: x = −0.5 and x = 1.5
5.6 Cubic equations

The general form of a cubic equation is ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0, where a, b, c and d are constants.
The values of b, c, and d may be equal to 0, but constant a must have a value other than 0. A cubic
equation can have 1, 2 or 3 real roots. If a cubic equation has 3 real roots, then their values will be
different. However, there are cases where we could have only 1 or 2 solutions. A range of methods are
available for solving a cubic equation, but here the graphical method will be used.
Example 5.6
Solve the equation 2x3 − 2x2 − 8x + 4 = 0, graphically.
Solution:
Let y = 2x3 − 2x2 − 8x + 4 = 0
x = −3, y = 2(−3)3 − 2(−3)2 − 8(−3) + 4 = −54 −18 + 24 + 4 = −44
x = −2, y = 2(−2)3 − 2(−2)2 − 8(−2) + 4 = − 16 − 8 + 16 + 4 = −4
x = 0, y = 2(0)3 − 2(0)2 − 8(0) + 4 = 4
x = 2, y = 2(2)3 − 2(2)2 − 8(2) + 4 = 16 − 8 − 16 + 4 = −4
x = 4, y = 2(4)3 − 2(4)2 − 8(4) + 4 = 128 − 32 − 32 + 4 = 68
The points are plotted and joined by a smooth curve as shown in Figure 5.8.
The solution of the equation is: x = −1.8, or x = 0.5, or x = 2.35
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−10
−20
−30
−40
−50
Figure 5.8
5.7 Curve fitting

When data is collected from experimental work or surveys and plotted on a graph, very often a
relationship is found to exist between the variables. The data may not lie exactly on a straight line or
a curve, even if there is a relationship between the variables. This may be visualised by drawing an
approximating curve; Figure 5.9 shows some of the possibilities.
y y y y
x x x x
Perfect Fair Poor None
Figure 5.9 Types of correlation
Curve fitting is the process of finding equations of the curves which fit the given data. The method of
least squares is a technique which avoids individual judgement in drawing lines, parabolas and other
curves to fit the given data. If X and Y are the independent and the dependent variables, the quantity:
D12 + D22 + ……….+ Dn2 must be minimum for a best fitting curve; see Figure 5.10.
D4
D3
D2
D1
Figure 5.10
The least squares line approximating the points (X1, Y1), (X2, Y2), ………, (Xn, Yn) has the equation:
Y = a + bX
This is same as the equation y = mx + c. Here, a is the intercept on the y-axis, and b is the slope of the
straight line. The values of a and b are determined from the equations: ΣY = a N + b Σ X and Σ XY = a Σ
X + b Σ X2, and substituted into
Y = a + bX to produce the ‘best fit’ straight line. The line is called the linear regression of y on x. Similarly
y can be taken as the independent variable and the line known as the regression of x on y produced.
Example 5.7
In an experiment to prove Hooke’s law the following data shown in Table 5.4 was obtained by
stretching a spring:
Table 5.4
Applied force (Newtons) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Extension (mm) 0 10 19 23 35 39
a) Plot the data showing the force on the x-axis and the extension on the y-axis.
b) Find the equation of the least squares line.
c) Plot the least squares line.
Solution:
a) The points are plotted by taking force on the x-axis and extension on the y-axis, as shown in
Figure 5.11.
b) Table 5.5 is prepared first to solve the equations already explained in section 5.7,
i.e. ΣY = a N + b Σ X (1)
Σ XY = a Σ X + b Σ X (2) 2
Table 5.5
X Y X2 XY
0 0 0 0
1 10 1 10
2 19 4 38
3 23 9 69
4 35 16 140
5 39 25 195
Σ X = 15 Σ Y = 126 Σ X2 = 55 Σ XY = 452
The above values are substituted in equations 1 and 2:

126 = a × 6 + b × 15
452 = a × 15 + b × 55
Solving these equations simultaneously, a = 1.43 and, b = 7.83
The equation of the least squares line (or the best fit line) is:
Y = 1.43 + 7.83 X
c) We need the co-ordinates of two points to draw the best fit line:
When X = 1.5, Y = 1.43 + 7.83 × 1.5 = 13.18 (1.5, 13.18)
When X = 4, Y = 1.43 + 7.83 × 4 = 32.75 (4, 32.75)
The 2 points are plotted on the graph (shown as crosses in Figure 5.11) and a straight line drawn
through these points. This line is the least squares line or the regression line.
40
30 Least squares line

Extension (mm)
20
10
0 1 2 3 4 5
Applied Force (N)
Figure 5.11
Exercise 5.1
1. A test was conducted to determine the effect of water content on the density of compacted clay.
The results are shown in Table 5.6:
Table 5.6
Density (kg/m3) 1800 1840 1870 1870 1840
Water content (%) 9 11 13 15 17
Draw a graph between density and water content taking water content on the x-axis.
2. Draw the graphs of the following equations:
a) y = 2x − 3, taking values of x between −2 and 4
b) y = 4 − 0.5x, taking values of x between −2 and 4
3. In an experiment to prove Hooke’s law, the following data (Table 5.7) was obtained by stretching a
spring:
Table 5.7
Stretching force, F (Newton) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Extension, L (mm) 0 8.5 16 24.5 33 41.5 50
a) Plot a graph of stretching force (y-axis) against extension (x-axis) and find the gradient of the
straight line.
b) Show that the law connecting F and L is of the form F = mL, and find the law.
4. Solve the following simultaneous equations graphically:
a) x + y = 5, and 3x − 2y = −5
b) x + y = 1, and 3x − y = −5
5. Solve graphically: a) x2 + x − 20 = 0
b) 3x2 + 10x − 8 = 0
6. Solve, graphically, the equation 0.5x3 − 2x2 − 6x + 6 = 0
7. A soil sample was tested to determine its shear strength and the data shown in Table 5.8 was
obtained:
Table 5.8
Shear stress (kN/m2) 110 190 220 280 380 430
Normal stress (kN/m2) 0 100 200 300 400 500
a) Plot the data showing the shear stress on the y-axis and the normal stress on the x-axis.
b) Find the equation of the least squares line.
c) Plot the least squares line.
1. Refer to Figure S5.1 (Appendix 3)

2. Refer to Figure S5.2 (Appendix 3)
3. a) m = 0.12
b) F = 0.12L
4. a) x = 1 and y = 4
b) x = −1 and y = 2
5. a) x = −5 or x = 4
b) x = −4 or x = 0.7
6. x = −2.5 or 0.8 or 5.7
7. a) Refer to Figure S5.7 (Appendix 3)
b) Y = 109.08 + 0.637X
c) Refer to Figure S5.7 (Appendix 3)
CHAPTER
6
Geometry, areas and volumes

• Properties of angles, triangles, quadrilaterals and circles
• Pythagoras’ theorem and its application
• Area of regular and irregular shapes
• Volume of regular and irregular objects
6.1 Geometry
Geometry is a branch of mathematics that studies the properties of points, lines, angles, shapes and
space. Shapes are studied in 2 dimensions and 3 dimensions. 2-dimensional shapes have length and
width, such as rectangles, triangles etc., whereas 3-dimensional shapes (cubes, cylinders, pyramids
etc.) have length, width and height. Geometry plays a very important role in the study of several areas
of construction/civil engineering, for example land surveying, quantity surveying and construction
technology cannot be studied without a knowledge of lines, angles, areas and volumes.
6.1.1 Angles
An angle is formed when two straight lines meet at a point. Figure 6.1 shows two lines PQ and PR
meeting at point P, and hence producing angle QPR, which may be denoted as ∠QPR or ∠P. The size
of the angle depends on the amount of rotation of line PQ from line PR. A complete revolution by line
PQ will produce an angle of 360 degrees, denoted as 360°.
P R
Figure 6.1
68 6 Geometry, areas and volumes
The basic unit for measuring angles is a degree, but for more accurate work, minutes and seconds
are also used:
1
1° = of a complete revolution
360
1° = 60 minutes (60′)
1′ = 60 seconds (60″)
If an angle measures 20 degrees, 30 minutes and 50 seconds, then in the calculation it is written as
20°30′50″.
An angle may be measured in radians as well:
π radians = 180°
180ο
1radian = = 57.30° ( correct to 2 d.p.)
π
π
1° = radians
180
Example 6.1
Convert a) 60° 45′ 30″ into radians
2π
b) radians into degrees.
3
Solution:
30
a) 30″ = = 0.5′
60
45′ + 0.5′ = 45.5′
45.5
45.5′ = = 0.7583°,Therefore 60°45′30″ = 60.7583°
60
π
60.7583° = 60.7583° × = 1.06 radians
180
The question can also be solved by converting 60° 45′ 30″ into decimal format with a scientific
π
calculator, and then multiplying it with 180
180
b) 1radian = degrees
π
2π 2 π 180
radians = × = 120°
3 3 π
6.1.2 Triangles
A figure enclosed by 3 straight lines is known as the triangle. The triangular shape is more stable as
compared to the other geometrical shapes. It is difficult to distort a triangle without changing the length
of one of its sides, whereas a rectangle can be distorted without changing the length of its sides. A roof
truss is triangular in shape as the slope of the sides can drain rain water quickly, but also, the triangular
shape provides stability to the roof trusses and hence the roof structure. The stability of the triangular
Geometry, areas and volumes 6 69
shape is also used in the fabrication of steel frames for multi-storey buildings. The rectangular grids of
the selected steel frames of a building are changed into triangles by fixing extra structural sections − a
process known as ‘triangulation’. The use of extra structural sections is called ‘wind bracing’.
The main types of triangles are:
a) Acute angled triangle: Each angle of the triangle is less than 90°.
b) Obtuse angled triangle: One angle is more than 90°.
c) Right-angled triangle: One of the angles is equal to 90°.
d) Scalene triangle: All angles and all sides of the triangle are unequal. Acute angled, obtuse angled
and right-angled triangles can be scalene triangles as well. The 3-4-5 triangle is a right-angled as well
as a scalene triangle.
e) Equilateral triangle: All sides and all angles are equal. Each angle is a 60° angle.
d) Isosceles triangle: Two sides and two angles equal.
The conventional method of denoting the angles of a triangle is to use capital letters, e.g. A, B, C, P, Q,
R etc. The sides are denoted by lower case letters; side a is opposite angle A; side b is opposite angle
B; side p is opposite angle P and so on, as illustrated in Figure 6.2.
A P
c b r q
B C Q R
a p
Figure 6.2
The sum of the 3 internal angles of a triangle is 180°:

∠A + ∠B + ∠C = 180°
∠P + ∠Q + ∠R = 180°
6.1.3 Similar triangles

2 triangles are similar if the angles of 1 triangle are equal to the angles of the other triangle. The sides of
similar triangles are unequal, but proportional because of the same shape, as shown in Figure 6.3.
a b c
= =
d e f
D
A
°
° f
c e
b
°
°
°
°

B C E F
a d
Figure 6.3
Example 6.2
Figure 6.4 shows triangle ABC with a line DE forming another triangle. If lines BC and DE are parallel:
a) Show that triangles ADE and ABC are similar.
b) Calculate AD and AE.
Side AB = 10 cm
Side AC = 8 cm
D E
4.2 cm
B C
6 cm
Figure 6.4
Solution:
a) Line BC is parallel to line DE, therefore:
∠D = ∠B, and ∠E = ∠C (corresponding angles)
∠A is common to both triangles.
As the angles in the two triangles are equal, ΔADE and ΔABC are similar.
b) As ΔABC and ΔADE are similar, their sides should be proportional.
BC AB
=
DE AD
6 10
=
4.2 AD
Transposing, 6 × AD = 4.2 × 10
4.2 × 10
AD = = 7.0 cm
6
AB AC
Also, =
AD AE
10 8
=
7 AE
Transposing, 10 × AE = 8 × 7
8×7
AE = = 5.6 cm
10
6.1.4 Pythagoras’ theorem

Pythagoras’ theorem states that in a right-angled triangle the area of the squares on the hypotenuse is
equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the other sides.
c2 = a2 + b2
(Hypotenuse)2 = Sum of the squares of the other two sides
Hypotenuse, the longest side of a right-angled triangle, is always opposite the right angle (Figure 6.5a).
A A
Hypotenuse
Hypotenuse
c b c b= 6 m
B C B C
a a=8m
(a) (b)
Figure 6.5
The theorem is based on the areas of the squares on the sides of right-angled triangles, but is used
mainly for calculating the sides of such triangles. The principle behind the theorem is used in setting
out small buildings by making use of the 3-4-5 triangle. In this triangle, if 2 sides that enclose the right-
angle, measure 3 m and 4 m, the third side (hypotenuse) will measure 5 m. This is true for all units of
measurement.
Example 6.3
Figure 6.5b shows a right-angled triangle with sides 6 m and 8 m. Show that the length of the
hypotenuse (side AB) is 10 m.
Solution:
From Pythagoras’ theorem:
(Hypotenuse)2 = Sum of the squares of the other 2 sides
c2 = 62 + 82 = 36 + 64 = 100
= =
c2 100, therefore, c 100 = 10 m
6.1.5 The circle

A plane figure enclosed by a curved line so that every point on the curve is equidistant from the centre
is known as a circle (Figure 6.6a). Line OA is called the radius (r); all lines drawn this way are equal:
OA = OB = OC = OD (Figure 6.6a)
Any straight line that passes through the centre and touches the curved line at 2 points is known as the
diameter (d). The diameter is twice the length of the radius:
d = 2 × radius
B
Major sector
A
r C
O
O r
Diameter
r θ
B
A
D
C
Minor sector
(a)
(b)
Major segment
O
(c)
Chord
A B
Minor segment
Figure 6.6
The length of the curved line is known as the circumference (c) of the circle. The ratio of the circumference
to the diameter of a circle is a constant and denoted by the Greek letter π (pronounced as pie):
c
= π or c = π × d
d
As d = 2r, therefore c = π × 2r = 2πr
The value of π is 3.14159 (5 d.p.)
As explained in section 6.1, an angle may be measured in either radians or degrees. In Figure 6.6b, if l
is the length of arc ACB and r the radius of the circle, then angle θ is given by:
l
θ (in radians ) =
r
The part of a circle between 2 radii is known as the sector. If the sector is smaller than the semi-circle
then it is called a minor sector, otherwise it is called a major sector (Figure 6.6b). ∠AOB in a minor sector
is less than 180°, whereas in a major sector this angle is greater than 180°.
θ
Area of minor sector = Area of the circle ×
360o
( angle θ in degrees )
θ
= Area of the circle ×
2π
( angle θ in radians )
θ 1
= πr 2 × = r 2θ
2π 2
( angle θ in radians )
Any straight line that divides a circle into 2 parts is called a chord. In Figure 6.6c line AB is the chord,
which divides the circle into minor and major segments. An arc is a portion of the circumference of a
circle, for example portion ACB in Figure 6.6c.
Area of the shaded segment (Figure 6.7a) is:

= Area of sector OACB − Area of triangle OAB
1 2 1
= r θ − r 2sinθ
2 2
1 2
= r ( θ − sin θ ) ( angle θ is in radians )
2
A line that meets the circle at 1 point, without cutting it, is known as the tangent (Figure 6.7b). The radius
drawn from point A, where the tangent meets the circle, is at right angles to the tangent.
Tangent
A B
C
(a) (b)
Figure 6.7
Example 6.4
The circle shown in Figure 6.8 has a radius of 15.0 cm. Calculate:
a) the circumference.
b) area of the minor sector.
c) length of arc ACB.
Solution:
Radius, r = OA = OB
= 15 cm
O
r
r θ = 2/3 π
B
A
C
Figure 6.8
a) Radius, r = 15.0 cm
The circumference of the circle = 2πr
= 2π × 15.0 = 94.25 cm.
2π
b) Area of the minor sector = πr 2 × 3
2π
1
= π × 152 × = 235.62 cm2
3
θ
c) Length of arc ACB = 2πr ×
2π
2π
= 2π × 15 × 3 = 31.42 cm
2π
Example 6.5
Figure 6.9 shows the sectional view of a circular tunnel. Calculate the length of arc ABCDE so the
engineers can prepare estimates for lining the tunnel with concrete.
Solution:
Tunnel C
AF = 6 m
B D
O
r
θ r Road
A 6m F E
4m
G
Figure 6.9
Let r be the radius of the tunnel; OA = OE = r

OF = OG − FG
= r − 4 (FG = 4 m)
Triangle OAF is a right-angled triangle, therefore, (OA)2 = (AF)2 + (OF)2
r2 = 62 + (r − 4)2
= 36 + r2 − 8r + 16
r2 − r2 + 8r = 52
52
8r =
52, therefore, r = 6.5 m
8
AF 6
In triangle OAF, sin θ = = = 0.9231
OA 6.5
∠θ = sin−1 0.9231 = 67.3836º
∠AOE = ∠2θ = 134.77º
134.77ο
Length of arc EGA = 2πr ×
360ο
134.77ο
= 2π × 6.5 × = 15.289 m
360ο
Length of arc ABCDE = Circumference of the circle − 15.289
= 2π × 6.5 − 15.289 = 40.84 − 15.289 = 25.552 m
6.2 Area
Area is defined as the amount of space taken up by a 2-dimensional figure or the surface of a
3-dimensional object. A summary of the formulae used in calculating the areas, and other properties of
some regular shapes is given in Table 6.1.
The main units of area used in the metric systems are: mm2, cm2, m2, km2 and hectares.
Table 6.1
Shape Area and other properties
Triangle B×H
Area =
2
H
Rectangle Area = L × B
Perimeter = 2(L + B)
B
TRAPEZIUM 1
Area = (A + B) × H
B
2
(continued)
Table 6.1 (continued)

Shape Area and other properties
PARALLELOGRAM Area = L × H
Circle πd2
Area = πr2 =
4
d Circumference = 2πr
r
= πd
Sector θ°
Area of sector = πr 2 ×
360°
θ°
Lengthof arc AC = 2πr ×
360°
r
θ
A
c
6.2.1 Area of regular shapes

(a) Triangles
Several techniques are available to determine the area of triangles, which depend on the available
information. In this section, the formulae given in Table 6.1 and other formulae will be considered to find
the area of a right-angled triangle.
Example 6.6
Find the area of the triangle shown in Figure 6.10 by 3 methods.
A
AB = AC= 10 cm
c b
D
B C
a
16 cm
Figure 6.10
Solution:
base × height
i) Method 1: Area of triangle ABC =
2
(This method can be used if the vertical height of the triangle is either known or can be calculated)
Base BC = 16 cm; Height AD = 102 − 82 = 6 cm
16 × 6
Area of triangle ABC = = 48 cm2
2
ii) Method 2: Area of triangle ABC = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
a +b +c
where, s =
2
(This method is used where all 3 sides (sides a, b and c) of a triangle are known. s is known as the
average perimeter of the triangle)
16 + 10 + 10
s= = 18
2
Area of triangle ABC = 18(18 − 16)(18 − 10)(18 − 10)
= 18(2)(8)(8)
= =
2304 48 cm2
1
iii) Method 3: Area of triangle ABC = ac sin θ
2
1 6 AD 6
= × 16 × 10 × (a = 16; c = 10; sin θ = = )
2 10 AB 10
= 48 cm2
(Also refer to chapter 7: trigonometry)
6.2.2 Area of quadrilaterals

A polygon formed by 4 sides is called a quadrilateral, typical examples being rectangle, square, trapezium,
parallelogram and rhombus. The calculation of areas of some of the quadrilaterals is explained in this section.
Example 6.7
Figure 6.11 shows the section of a steel beam made from 2 channel sections. Calculate its cross-sectional
area in mm2 and cm2.
Solution:
The area of the section (or cross-section) of an object is called its cross-sectional area.
Each channel section may be divided into 3 parts as shown in Figure 6.12.
Area of the heavier channel = Area A + Area B + Area C
Area A = 101.6 × 10.2 = 1036.32 mm2
Area B = 284.4 × 14.8 = 4209.12 mm2
Area C = 101.6 × 10.2 = 1036.32 mm2
Sub total = 1036.32 + 4209.12 + 1036.32 = 6281.76 mm2
Area of the lighter channel = Area D + Area E + Area F

Web Web

14.8 thick 13.7 thick
Flange: 10.2 mm thick
(all dimensions in mm)
Figure 6.11
Area D = 88.9 × 10.2 = 906.78 mm2

Area E = 284.4 × 13.7 = 3896.28 mm2
Area F = 88.9 × 10.2 = 906.78 mm2
Sub total = 906.78 + 3896.28 + 906.78 = 5709.84 mm2
Total = 6281.76 + 5709.84 = 11991.6 mm2
= 11991.6 ÷ 100 = 119.92 cm2 (1 cm2 = 100 mm2)

A D
10.2 10.2
14.8 E
B

10.2 13.7 10.2
C F

(a) (b)
(all dimensions in mm)
Figure 6.12
6.2.3 Area of circle

Some of the important properties of the circle have been explained in section 6.1.5.
There are two formulae that can be used to determine the area of a circle:
π 2
Area = πr 2 = d
4
where r and d are the radius and the diameter of the circle, respectively.
Example 6.8
The depth of water flow in a drain is shown in Figure 6.13. If the diameter of the drain is 300 mm,
calculate the cross-sectional area of the water flow.
Solution:
Drain
OA = OB = 150 mm
CD = 80 mm
O
A C
B
D Water
Figure 6.13
Cross-sectional area of water flow = Area of sector OAB − Area of triangle OAB
1
= r 2 ( θ − sin θ ) ( see section 6.1.5 )
2
Angle θ is in radians for the above formula.
Radius of the drain = 150 mm.
For calculating angle θ, consider right-angled triangle OAC:
θ OC 70
cos = = = 0.466667 ( OC = 150 − 80 = 70 mm)
2 OA 150
θ
= cos −10.466667 = 1.08528 radians
2
Therefore, ∠θ = 2.17056 radians
1
Cross − sectional area of water flow = × 1502 × ( 2.17056 − sin 2.17056 )
2
= 11250 × (2.17056 − 0.82547)
= 15132.26 mm2
Example 6.9
A hot water cylinder has a cylindrical body but hemispherical top. If the total height of the cylinder is
900 mm and its diameter is 400 mm, find the surface area of the cylinder in m2.
Solution:
Surface area of hemispherical part = 4π r2 ÷ 2 = 2π r2
= 2π × 0.22 (diameter = 0.4 m; radius = 0.2 m)
= 0.25133 m2
Surface area of cylindrical part = 2π rh

= 2π × 0.2 × 0.7 (h = 0.9 − 0.2 = 0.7 m)
= 0.87965 m2
Area of the base = π r2 = π × 0.22 = 0.12566 m2
Total surface area = 0.25133 + 0.87965 + 0.12566 = 1.257 m2
6.3 Area of irregular shapes

In construction we often come across shapes that may not conform to any regular geometrically
shape, a typical example being a building site. Methods such as the mid-ordinate rule, the
trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule may be used to determine the approximate area of any
irregular shape. Simpson’s rule is more complex than the other 2 methods but will give a more
accurate answer.
6.3.1 Mid-ordinate rule

The irregular shape is divided into a number of strips of equal width (d) by vertical lines, known as the
ordinates (Figure 6.14a). Each strip is assumed to be an approximate rectangle, as shown in Figure 6.14b.
The mid-ordinates of the strips (y1, y2, etc.) shown in Figure 6.14a, represent the approximate average
length of the strips or the assumed rectangles. Mathematically, the mid-ordinate of each strip can be
determined by calculating the average of its ordinates, and the area of a strip is calculated by multiplying
the length of the mid-ordinate by the width of the strip. Finally, the area of the shape is determined by
adding the areas of all the strips.
y1 y2 y3 y4 y5
d d d d d d
(a) (b)
Figure 6.14
Area = dy1 + dy2 + dy3 + dy4 + dy5

= d (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 + y5)
Area = width of strip × sum of mid-ordinates
The number of strips may vary from one task to another.
6.3.2 Trapezoidal rule

In this method the irregular shape is divided into a number of strips of equal width (Figure 6.15a), and
each strip is assumed to be a trapezium, as shown in Figure 6.15b. Consider the first strip ABJK, its
area is given by:
B B
A A
C D
E
y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y1 y2
K J H G F K J
d d d d d
(a) (b)
Figure 6.15
1
Area of strip ABJK = ( y1 + y 2 ) × d
2
1
Similarly,area of strip BCHJ = ( y2 + y3 ) × d
2
The area of other strips can be determined in the same way. Finally, the area of the whole shape is deter-
mined by adding the area of the individual strips:
1 1 1
Total area of the shape =
2
( y1 + y 2 ) d + ( y 2 + y 3 ) d + .......... + ( y 4 + y 5 ) d
2 2
y1 + y 5
= d( + y2 + y3 + y4 )
2
1
= Width of strip × [
2
( sum of the first and last ordinates ) +

( sum of the remaining ordinates )]
6.3.3 Simpson’s rule
Simpson’s rule gives a more accurate answer as compared to the other 2 methods. The figure is
divided into an even number of vertical strips of equal width, giving an odd number of ordinates.
Simpson’s rule cannot be used if a figure is divided into an odd number of strips.
1
Area =
3
( width of strip ) [( first + last ordinate) + 4 ( sum of the even ordinates )
+ 2 ( sum of the remaining odd ordinates )]
Example 6.10
Calculate the area of the building plot shown in Figure 6.16 by 3 methods and compare the answers.
2 4 5
6
1 3
7
40m 42m 40m 42m 41m 40m 38 m
12 m 12 m 12 m 12 m 12 m 12 m
Figure 6.16
Solution:
Mid-ordinate rule:
Area = width of strip × sum of mid-ordinates
= 12 (41 + 41 + 41 + 41.5 + 40.5 + 39)
= 12 (244) = 2928 m2
Trapezoidal rule:
1
Area = Width of strip × [
2
( sum of the first and last ordinates ) + (sum of the
remaining ordinates)]
1
= 12 × [ (40 + 38) + 42 + 40 + 42 + 41 + 40]
2
= 12 [244] = 2928 m2
Simpson’s rule: The numbers at the top of Figure 6.16 show whether an ordinate is even or odd.
1
Area =
3
( width of strip ) [(first + last ordinate) + 4 (sum of the even ordinates (i.e. 2,
(
4 and 6)) + 2 sum of the remaining odd ordinates (i.e. 3 and 5 ) ] )
1
= (12) [(40 + 38) + 4 (42 + 42 + 40) + 2 (40 + 41)]
3
1
= (12) [78 + 496 + 162]
3
1
= (12) 736 = 2944 m2
3
The answer produced by the mid-ordinate rule as well as the trapezoidal rule is 2928 m2; the answer produced
by the Simpson’s rule is slightly higher at 2944 m2. Although the result obtained by the Simpson’s rule is consid-
ered to be more accurate, the accuracy of these results can only be determined if we know the actual answer.
6.4 Volume
Volume may be defined as the space occupied by a 3-dimensional object, for example, the volume
of a concrete block is the amount of concrete used to make the block. Similarly, the amount of
fluid that a container can hold is known as the capacity of the container. The area of a surface is
2-dimensional, but the volume of an object is 3-dimensional, therefore, in some cases the volume of
an object may be determined by multiplying its surface area by the thickness/height. The volume of
a cuboid is given by:
Volume, V = length (l ) × width ( w ) × height ( h)
Surface area of the cuboid = l × w

As the volume = area × height, therefore, V = (l × w) × h
Units of volume: mm3, cm3, m3

Units of capacity: millilitres (ml), centilitres (cl), litres (l)
6.4.1 Volume of a sphere

A sphere is a solid generated by a semi-circle revolving through 360º about its diameter as an axis.
4 3
Volume of a sphere = π r ,where r is the radius of the sphere.
3
2 3
Volume of a hemi − sphere = π r , where r is the radius of the hemi − sphere.
3
A summary of the formulae used in calculating the volume, and other properties of some regular
objects is given in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2
Shape Volume and other properties
Cuboid Volume = l × w × h
Surface area = 2(lw + lh + wh)
h
Cylinder Volume = πr 2h
r
Surface area = 2πrh + 2πr 2
h
(continued)

Shape Volume and other properties
Cone 1 2
Volume = πr h
3
L
h
Surface area = πr 2 + πrl
r
Pyramid 1
Volume = l ×w × h
3
h t Surface area (regular pyramid) = wt + lt + lw
W
L
Sphere 4 3
Volume = πr
3
r
Surface area = 4πr 2
Example 6.11
A hot water cylinder has a cylindrical body but hemispherical top. If the total height of the cylinder is
1050 mm and its diameter is 400 mm, find its capacity in cubic metres and litres.
Solution:
200 mm
1050 mm
400 mm
Figure 6.17 Hot water cylinder

The cylinder may be divided into 2 parts (Figure 6.17) for calculating the total volume/capacity:
a) cylindrical body b) hemi-spherical top
a) Volume of the cylindrical part = π r2 h
= π × (0.2)2 × 0.850 (r = 0.200 m; h = 0.850 m)
= 0.1068 m3
2 3
b) Volume of the hemi − spherical part = πr ,
3
2
π ( 0.200 )
3
=
3
= 0.0168 m3
Total volume = 0.1068 + 0.0168 = 0.1236 m3

1 m3 = 1000 litres, therefore 0.1236 m3 = 123.6 litres
Therefore, capacity of the hot water cylinder is 0.1236 m3 or 123.6 litres
Example 6.12
A concrete retaining wall is 0.6 m wide at the top and 1.30 m wide at the base. If the height of the wall
is 3.0 m, find the volume of concrete used:
a) per metre length
b) to construct a 15 m long wall.
Solution:
a) Figure 6.18 shows the sectional details of the wall. The volume of the retaining wall is:
Volume = Cross-sectional area × length
0.6 m
3.0 m
1.3 m
Figure 6.18 Retaining wall
The wall has trapezoidal cross-section, therefore:

0.6 + 1.30
Cross − sectional area = × 3.0 = 2.85 m2
2
Volume per metre length = Cross-sectional area × 1 m

= 2.85 × 1 = 2.85 m3
b) Volume of 15 m long wall = 2.85 × 15 = 42.75 m3
6.5 Volume of irregular objects

The volume of irregular objects may be determined by any of the 3 methods, i.e. the mid-ordinate rule,
the trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule. In section 6.3, these methods have been used to determine the
areas of irregular surfaces. Their use can be extended to the determination of the volume of irregular
objects if the ordinates that were used in area calculation are replaced by the sectional areas.
Simpson’s rule, as discussed before, gives more accurate results.
a) Mid-ordinate rule:
Volume = Width of strip × [sum of the areas of mid-sections]
b) Trapezoidal rule:
1
Volume = Width of strip × [ (first area + last area) + ( sum of the remaining areas ) ]
2
c) Simpson’s rule:
1
Volume =
3
( width of strip ) [(first area + last area) + 4 ( sum of the even areas )
+ 2 ( sum of the remaining odd areas )]
Example 6.13
The cross-sectional areas of an embankment, at 10 m intervals, are shown in Figure 6.19. Use the
trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule to calculate the volume of the soil used.
10 m
10 m A5
=1
7.0
10 m m2
A4
=1
7.5
10 m m2
A3
=1
6.3
m2
A2
=1
4.8
A1 m2
=1
3.0
m2
Figure 6.19 Sections of the embankment
Solution:
Trapezoidal rule:
A1 = 13.0 m2, A2 = 14.8 m2, A3 = 16.3 m2, A4 = 17.5 m2, A5 = 17.0 m2
1
Volume = 10 × [ (13.0 + 17.0) + (14.8 + 16.3 + 17.5)]
2
Volume = 10 × [(15.0) + (48.6)]

= 10 [63.6] = 636 m3
Simpson’s rule:
1
Volume =
3
( width of strip ) [(first area + last area) + 4 ( sum of the even areas )
+ 2 ( sum of the remaining odd areas )]
1
= (10 ) [(13.0 + 17.0) + 4 (14.8 + 17.5) + 2 (16.3)]
3
1
= (10 ) [( 30.0 ) + 4 ( 32.3 ) + 2 (16.3)]
3
1
= (10 ) [30.0 + 129.2 + 32.6]
3
1
= (10 ) 191.8  = 639.33 m3
3
6.5.1 Mass-haul diagram

Mass-haul diagrams are prepared for highway projects where large quantities of soil have to be moved;
these diagrams show the volume of soil to be excavated (cut) and the volume of soil required to fill the
areas which are below the balance line (Figure 6.20). Mass-haul diagrams also show:
i) the distance and the direction of haul.
ii) the gradients of ground to balance cut and fill.
iii) the volume of soil to be carted away and/or the volume of soil to be borrowed.
CUT FILL
Section 1

Section 2

Balance line

Fill
Section 3
(All dimensions in metres)
Figure 6.20 Mass-haul diagram

Example 6.14
Figure 6.20 shows the mass-haul diagram for a 320 m long section of a highway construction project.
Calculate the volume of soil to be excavated, volume of soil required to fill the area that is below the
balance line and the volume of surplus soil. Assume that the ordinates represent average values across
the width of the highway.
Width of the highway = 40 m
Solution:
In Figure 6.20, 2 parts require excavation and removal of the excavated soil. The third part is below the
balance line, therefore, requires to be filled.
Using the trapezoidal rule:
0+0
Section 1( cut ) : Cross − sectional area = 20 × [( ) + 0.5 + 1.0 + 1.3 + 1.0 + 0.6]
2
= 20 × [0 + 4.4] = 20 × 4.4 = 88.0 m2
Volume of soil = 88.0 × 40 = 3520 m3
0+0
Section 2 ( cut ) : Cross − sectional area = 20 × [( ) + 0.55 + 0.6 + 0.55]
2
= 20 × [0 + 1.7] = 20 × 1.7 = 34.0 m2
Volume of soil = 34.0 × 40 = 1360 m3
Total volume of soil (cutting) = 3520 + 1360 = 4880 m3
0+0
Section 3 ( fill ) : Cross − sectional area = 20 × [( ) + 0.75 + 1.0 + 1.1 + 1.05 + 0.85]
2
= 20 × [0 + 4.75] = 20 × 4.75 = 95.0 m2
Volume of soil (for filling) = 95.0 × 40 = 3800 m3
Surplus amount of soil that has to be carted away from the site = cut − fill
= 4880 − 3800
= 1080 m3
6.6 The theorem of Pappus

The theorem of Pappus is used in finding volumes, and in locating centroids when the volume of
revolution is known. It states that when a plane area revolves around an axis which is in the same plane
but does not cut the area, the volume generated is equal to the product of the area and the distance
through which the centroid of the area moves:
Volume = 2πyA
where, y is the distance of the centroid from the axis
A is the area of the object
Example 6.15
A curved concrete wall, 400 mm thick and 2.5 m high, forms a circular arc subtending an angle of 70º,
as shown in Figure 6.21. Calculate the volume of the wall.
Solution:
x 0.4 m B
A
r = 40
°
m

2.5 m
40.0 - 0.2 = 39.8
x
Concrete wall
Concrete wall
40.0 m D
C
(a) x
(b)
Figure 6.21
The solid wall is generated by rotating rectangle ABCD about axis x-x through 70º as shown in Figure 6.21.
The position of the centroid of the wall is situated at the centre of the wall, i.e. where the two
diagonals meet. The distance between the centroid and face BC of the wall is 0.2 m.
Distance between axis x-x and the centroid of the wall = 40 − 0.2 = 39.8 m
Area of the wall = 0.4 × 2.5 = 1.0 m2
70ο
Volume = 2πyA × ( y = 39.8 m)
360ο
70ο
= 2π × 39.8 × 1.0 × = 48.625 m3
360ο
Exercise 6.1
1. Convert a) 35.5° into radians
2π
b) radians into degrees
5
2. Find angles c to g shown in Figure 6.22. Line AB is parallel to line CD.

A B

a = 120°
b = 80°
C D
Figure 6.22
3. Figure 6.23 shows a north-light roof; angles ACB and BAF are right angles and triangle DCF is an
isosceles triangle. Calculate all unknown angles (i.e. ∠1 to ∠8) of the truss.
3
2
6 D
4 7 8
1 5 30°
B F
C E
Figure 6.23
4. Triangle ABC, shown in Figure 6.24, has ∠C = 135° and side AB = 13 m. Calculate the length of
sides AC and BC.
A A
m m
13 13
° °

B C B D
C
(a) (b)
Figure 6.24
5. In Figure 6.25 side AB = side AC and side CE = side CD. Find ∠1 to ∠5.
45° 2 C
B D
3 4
Figure 6.25
6. The diameter of the circle shown in Figure 6.26 is 12.0 m. Calculate:

a) The circumference of the circle.
b) The area of the major and the minor sectors.
c) The length of arc ACB.
C
A B
Minor sector
60°
Major sector
Figure 6.26
7. The base of an isosceles triangle is 12.0 cm long, and the other two sides are each 15.0 cm long.
Calculate the area of the triangle by 3 methods.
8. Figure 6.27 shows a bridge beam (plate girder) made up of structural steel plates and angle
sections. Find the cross-sectional area of the beam.
500 x 20 mm thick plate
Angle section
150 x 150 x 18 mm thick
18
Steel plate
800 x 30 mm thick
150 mm
Angle section
18 mm thick
500 x 20 mm thick
Steel plate
150 mm
(a) (b)
Figure 6.27 Plate girder
9. The depth of water flow in a drain is shown in Figure 6.28. If the diameter of the drain is 450 mm,
calculate the cross-sectional area of the water flow.
C 125 mm
A D B
Diameter = 450 mm
O
Figure 6.28
10. Figure 6.29 shows the entrance to a building that has four segmental arches, each arch having a
span of 8.0 m. Calculate the area of the shaded portion (for one arch) which is to be provided with
stained glass.
AC = 8.0 m
BD = 1.0 m

A C
D
°
Figure 6.29
11. Find the area of the irregular shape shown in Figure 6.30, by the mid-ordinate rule, trapezoidal rule
and Simpson’s rule, and compare the results.
30 29 30 28 28 29 26
10 10 10 10 10 10
16 18 22 27 23 19 16
Figure 6.30
12. A hot water cylinder has a cylindrical body but hemispherical top. If the total height of the cylinder
is 1200 mm and its diameter is 600 mm, find its capacity in cubic metres and litres.
13. The cross-sectional areas of a trench at 10 m intervals are shown in Figure 6.31. Use the
trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule to calculate the volume of excavated soil.
10 m
10 m
A5
10 m =1
.8 m
A4 2
10 m =1
.75
A3 m2
=1
.63
m2
A2
=1
.68
A1 m2
=1
.7 m
2
Figure 6.31 Cross-sections of a trench
14. The spot levels of a building site, on a grid of 10 m × 10 m, are shown in Figure 6.32. The earth
needs to be excavated to reduce the ground level to 97.0 m. Calculate the volume of the earth to
be excavated.
A B C D E
100.0 100.14 100.16 100.2 100.3
10 m
100.1 100.1 100.15

100.0 100.2
10 m
99.85 99.9 100.0

99.8 100.08
10 m
99.8 99.9 99.95

99.8 100.0
10 m
99.7
99.7 99.7 99.6 99.6
A B C D E
10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m
Figure 6.32
15. An 8 m long retaining wall, shown in Figure 6.33, has two counterforts to increase the
stability of the wall. Find the volume of concrete required to construct the wall, including the
counterforts.
Counterfort
Counterfort
0.
3.5 m
3
8.
m
0
m
0.4 m
0.4 m thick
wall section
3.0 m
Figure 6.33 Counterfort retaining wall
16. A structural steel plate, shown in Figure 6.34, is 30 mm thick and is to be used in the fabrication
of a plate girder. Some of the metal will be cut out to form trapezoidal voids for making the plate
lighter in weight. If there are 18 such voids, calculate:
a) The net area of the plate in m2
b) The volume of the plate in m3
5213 mm
64
128
384 mm
212.48
(a) (b)
Figure 6.34
17. The dimensions of a structural steel beam section are shown in Figure 6.35. Calculate the cross-
sectional area of the section and its mass per metre if the density of steel is 7850 kg/m3.
[Density = Mass ÷ volume]
8.5
125.4
r = 10.2
6 r = 10.2
349
r = 10.2
b)
(All dimensions in mm)
a)
Figure 6.35 Structural steel beam
18. A concrete retaining wall, that forms a circular arc, subtends an angle of 90°. If the radius of the
arc is 75.0 m and the cross-section of the wall is as shown in Figure 6.36, calculate the volume of
concrete used to construct the wall.
0.4 m
A
75 m B
°

2.0 m
Concrete
retaining wall (b)
D
(a) 1.0 m C
x 0.4 m
A
B
2.0 m
75 - 0.371 = 74.629 m
Concrete
retaining wall
D
1.0 m C
x
(c)
Figure 6.36 Concrete retaining wall


1. a) 0.6196 radian b) 72°
2. ∠c = 80°, ∠d = 100°, ∠e = ∠g = 60°, ∠f = 120°
3. ∠1 = ∠3 = ∠4 = ∠6 = ∠7 = ∠8 = 60°,
∠2 = ∠5 = 30°
4. AC = 7.071 m; BC = 7 m
5. ∠1 = 90°; ∠2 = ∠3 = 45°; ∠4 = ∠5 = 67.5°
6. a) 37.699 m, b) 18.85 m2 (minor sector), 94.248 m2 (major sector), c) 6.283 m
7. 82.49 m2
8. 64304 mm2
9. 122992.05 mm2
10. 5.308 m2
11. 2970 m2 (mid-ordinate, trapezoidal); 2980 m2 (Simpson’s)
12. 0.311 m3 or 311.02 litres
13. 68.1 m3 (Trapezoidal); 68.27 m3 (Simpson’s)
14. 4734 m3
15. 21.938 m3
16. a) 1.365 m2 b) 0.041 m3
17. Cross-sectional area = 4213.11 mm2; mass = 33.073 kg
18. 164.118 m3
CHAPTER
7
Trigonometry 1

• Sine, cosine and tangent ratios
a b c
• Sine rule: = =
sin A sinB sinC
• Cosine rule: a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
• Application of the sine rule and the cosine rule to solve triangles and practical problems in
construction
• Area of a triangle if 2 sides and the included angle are given
7.1 Introduction
The use of trigonometry started more than 2000 years ago when astronomers started working on the
measurement of angles and sides of triangles. The word trigonometry is made up of 2 Greek words
‘trigonon’ and ‘metron’, which mean triangle and measurement, respectively. Basically, trigonometry
is the study of triangles (particularly right-angled triangles) and the relationship between the sides and
angles. Trigonometry is of theoretical as well as practical importance as it is used in mathematics, land
surveying, engineering, physics, satellite navigation and other applications.
Hypotenuse
Opposite
B C
Adjacent
Figure 7.1
98 7 Trigonometry 1
7.2 The trigonometrical ratios

Consider a right-angled triangle ABC, shown in Figure 7.1. Angle ACB (∠C) is a 90° angle or a right-
angle. If ∠B is being considered for calculations, then side AC is called the ‘opposite side’ or just
opposite. Side AB, the longest side, is called the ‘hypotenuse’, and the third side, BC, which is
common to the right angle and ∠B is called the ‘adjacent side’ or adjacent.
There are 3 main trigonometric ratios, which are basically the ratios of the sides of a right-angled
triangle (Figure 7.1):
AC Opposite
=
i) = sine of ∠B or sin B (sin is the shorter version of sine)
AB Hypotenuse
BC Adjacent
=
ii) = cosine of ∠B or cos B
AB Hypotenuse
AC Opposite
=
iii) = tangent of ∠B or tan B
BC Adjacent
There are also reciprocals of sine, cosine and tangent, but they are more commonly used in land surveying:
1
= cosecant B or cosec B
sinB
1
= secant B or sec B
cosB
1
= cotangent B or cot B
tanB
These trigonometric ratios are only applicable if we have a right-angled triangle. For other types of
triangles, sine rule and cosine rule may be used, as explained in section 7.5.
Sine, cosine and tangent work only with angles; without the angle they cannot be used.
Example 7.1
With reference to ∠B, find the sine, cosine and tangent ratios for the triangle shown in Figure 7.2.
Solution:
5 cm
3 cm
B C
4 cm
Figure 7.2
Trigonometry 1 7 99
With reference to ∠B:

Side BC = adjacent; Side AC = opposite; Side AB = hypotenuse
Opposite AC 3
=sin B = = = 0.6
Hypotenuse AB 5
Adjacent BC 4
=cos B = = = 0.8
Hypotenuse AB 5
Opposite AC 3
=
tan B = = = 0.75
Adjacent BC 4
Example 7.2
a) Find the value of: i) sin 30º
ii) cos 30º
b) i) If cos B = 0.6, find angle B.
ii) If tan A = 1.1, find angle A.
Solution:
a)
i) The calculator must show D (degrees) in the display area. If the calculator displays R or G then
use the MODE key or the SET UP key to change the angle unit to degrees, and press the
following keys:
sin 3 0 = 0.5
ii)
cos 3 0 = 0.866
b)
i)
This question involves the determination of angles, therefore the process is the reverse of that
used to solve part (a). Instead of sin, cos or tan keys, use sin−1, cos−1 and tan−1. Use the following
sequence:
SHIFT cos 0 . 6 = 53.13°
Angle B is 53.13°
ii)
SHIFT tan 1 . 1 = 47.726°
Angle A is 47.726°
7.3 Angles of elevation and depression

If an object is situated above the observer, then the angle between the horizontal and the line of sight
is called an angle of elevation (Figure 7.3a). If the object is situated below the observer, then the angle
between the horizontal and the line of sight is known as the angle of depression, as shown in Figure 7.3b.
100 7 Trigonometry 1
Object Observer Horizontal

Angle of depression
Line of sight
Line of sight
Angle of elevation
Object
Observer Horizontal
(b)
(a)
Figure 7.3
Example 7.3
From an observation point, 70.0 m from a building, the angle of elevation to the top of the building is
55º. If the height of the instrument is 1.420 m and the ground between the surveyor and the building is
level, find the height of the building.
Solution:
The building and the other details are shown in Figure 7.4.
Height of the building = AC + CE = AC + 1.420 m
In triangle ABC, AC is the opposite side and BC is the adjacent side.
Building
C 55 B
1.420
E D
Figure 7.4
AC
= tan 55°
BC
AC = BC × tan 55º
= 70 × tan 55º = 99.97 m
Height of the building = AC + 1.420 = 99.97 + 1.420 = 101.39 m
Trigonometry 1 7 101
Example 7.4
The angles of depression from the top of an 80 m high building, to points C and D, are 70º and 30º,
respectively (Figure 7.5). If points C and D are on the opposite edges of a road, and A, C and D are in
the same vertical plane, find the width of the road.
30
70
80 m
Building
70
C 30 D
B
Road
Figure 7.5
Solution:
Assuming the building is vertical and the ground is level, ∠C = 70º in triangle ABC and ∠D = 30º in
triangle ABD.
Width of the road = CD = BD − BC
Opp AB
Consider right-angled triangle ABC: tan 70° = =
Adj BC
AB 80
BC = = = 29.118 m
tan70ο tan70ο
Opp AB
Consider right-angled triangle ABD: tan 30° = =
Adj BD
AB 80
BD = ο
= = 138.564 m
tan30 tan30ο
Width of the road = BD − BC

= 138.564 − 29.118 = 109.446 m
7.4 Roofs
Trigonometry is often used in calculating the pitch of a roof, the length of common/hipped rafters and
the surface area of a roof. Before embarking on the solution of problems it is important to get familiar
with the main technical terms associated with roof construction. Figure 7.6 illustrates some basic
terminology used in roof construction.
Ridge
Common rafters
Eaves
Gable
end
Figure 7.6 Roof terminology
The highest member of a roof truss is known as the ridge, whereas the lowest member is known as the
eaves. In order to calculate the area of the roof, the true lengths of common rafters and hipped rafters are
required; these can only be determined from the end views. The slope of a roof is called its pitch.
Example 7.5
The roof shown in Figure 7.7 is 10 m long, 4 m high and has a span of 12 m. Calculate:
a) Pitch of the roof.
b) True lengths of the common rafters.
c) Surface area of the roof.
G J
E
A A
4m 4m
B
K D
D B C
12 m F H 6m 6m
C 10 m
(a) (b)
Figure 7.7
Solution:
a) As the roof is symmetrical, BD = DC, and AB = AC

∠B or ∠C is the pitch of the roof
With reference to ∠B in the right-angled triangle ABD:
AD = opposite side = 4m; BD = adjacent side = 6 m
AD 4
tan=
B = = 0.6667
BD 6
Therefore ∠B = tan−1 0.6667 = 33.69º

The pitch of the roof is 33.69º.
b) True length of a common rafter is equal to AB or AC
6 6
= ο
= = 7.211m
cos 33.69 0.83205
Therefore, true length of the common rafter = 7.211 m.

(This can also be calculated by the theorem of Pythagoras.)
c) Surface area of the roof = 2 × Area of surface ACKJ
AC = KJ = 7.211 m; CK = AJ = 10 M
Therefore, surface area of the roof = 2 × (AC × CK)
= 2 × (7.211 × 10)
= 144.22 m2
7.5 The sine rule and the cosine rule

In the previous sections the trigonometrical ratios were applied to determine the unknown angles and
the sides of right-angled triangles. For triangles which do not have a right-angle, the trigonometrical
ratios cannot be applied directly, instead sine and cosine rules may be used to determine the unknown
sides and angles.
7.5.1 The sine rule

According to the sine rule the ratio of the length of a side to the sine of the angle opposite that side is
constant in any triangle,
a b c
or = =
sin A sinB sinC
where a, b and c are the sides and A, B and C are the angles of ΔABC, as shown in Figure 7.8. Sides a,
b and c are opposite ∠A, ∠B and ∠C respectively.
The above rule can be adapted if we have triangles DEF, PQR etc.
d e f
In ΔDEF, = =
sinD sinE sinF
In ΔPQR, = p q r
=
sin P sin Q sin R
The sine rule may be used for the solution of triangles when:
•• 2 angles and 1 side are known.
•• 2 sides and the angle opposite 1 of them are known.
Example 7.6
In ∆ABC, ∠ B = 65º, side a = 15 cm and side b = 20 cm. Find ∠A, ∠C and side c.
Solution:
∆ABC is shown in Figure 7.8.
c
b = 20 cm
65
B C
a = 15 cm
Figure 7.8
a b c
= =
sin A sinB sinC
15 20 c
= =
sin A sin65 sinC
15 20 15 × sin65ο
Consider = ; After transposition, sin A =
sin A sin65 20
sin A = 0.679731 or ∠A = 42.823º or 137.177º
∠A cannot be 137.177º, as ∠A+ ∠B + ∠C will be more than 180º.
∠C = 180 − 65º − 42.823º = 72.177º

b c b × sinC
= ; After transposition, c =
sinB sinC sinB
20 × sin72.177ο
Side c =
sin65ο
19.040
=
Side c = 21.01 cm
0.9063
7.5.2 The cosine rule

According to the cosine rule the square of any side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of
the other 2 sides minus the product of those 2 sides and the cosine of their included angle:
i.e. a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A

b2 = c2 + a2 − 2ca cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
The cosine rule may be used for the solution of triangles when:
•• 2 sides and the included angle are known.
•• 3 sides are known.
Example 7.7
In triangle ABC sides AB and BC are 80 cm and 100 cm respectively, and the angle enclosed between
these 2 sides is 50º. Find the unknown side and angles.
Solution:
c = 80 cm b
50
B C
a = 100 cm
Figure 7.9
In this question 2 sides and the enclosed angle are given, therefore, the cosine rule will be used to
determine the remaining side and angles (see Figure 7.9).
The equation that is appropriate to begin with, is:
b2 = c2 + a2 − 2ac cos B (because ∠B is known)
= 802 + 1002 − 2 × 80 × 100 × cos 50º
= 6400 + 10000 − 10284.602
= 6115.398
Therefore, side b = √6115.398 = 78.201 cm
To find ∠A, use: a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
1002 = 78.2012 + 802 − 2 × 78.201 × 80 × cos A

10000 = 6115.398 + 6400 − 12512.16 cos A
12512.16 cos A = 12515.398 − 10 000
2515.398
=
cos A = 0.201036
12512.16
∠A = cos−1 0.201036 = 78.402º

∠C = 180º − 50º − 78.402º = 51.598º
Example 7.8
A building plot is shown in Figure 7.10a. Calculate ∠D, ∠DAC and the length of sides AC and DA.
A
D
53
80 m b
55
85
42
B C
a = 100 m
a)
Figure 7.10a
Solution:
a b c
Consider ΔABC; = =
sin A sinB sinC
a b 100 b
= or =
sin A sinB sin53 sin42ο
ο
100 × sin42ο
Therefore, b = = 83.784 m
sin53ο
b (side AC) = 83.784 m
a × sinC 100 × sin85ο
Similarly, c = =
sin A sin53ο
c (side AB) = 124.737 m
Consider ΔDAB (Figure 7.10b):
A
b
D
a = 80 m d = 124.737 m
55
b)
Figure 7.10b
Using cosine rule, b2 = d2 + a2 − 2da cos B

= (124.737)2 + (80)2 − 2 × 124.737 × 80 × cos 55º
= 15559.3192 + 6400 − 11447.393 = 10511.9266
b (side DA) = √10511.9266 = 102.528 m
80 102.528 124.737
Using sine rule, = =
sin A sin55ο sinD
80 102.528 80 × sin55ο
= or sin A = = 0.63916
sin A sin55ο 102.528
∠A = sin−1 0.63916 = 39.729º
Total ∠A (∠DAC) = 53º + 39.729º = 92.729º
In ΔDBA, ∠D = 180º − 55º −39.729º = 85.271º
7.5.3 Sine rule: the ambiguous case

If we are given 1 side and 2 angles of a triangle, there will be only 1 solution for the unknown sides. If
we are given 2 sides and 1 angle, the sine rule could give us 1 or more solutions. If we know sides
a and b, and ∠A of ΔCAB (Figure 7.11) then side a can be swung to the left or right and produce 2
possible triangles, i.e. ΔCAB and ΔCAB′. The solution will produce 2 values of ∠B. There are a number
of conditions for a case to be ambiguous:
i) ∠A is less than 90º.
ii) Side b is longer than side a.
iii) 2 sides and 1 angle are known. For example, sides a, b and ∠A are known.
iv) Side a is longer than the vertical height CD.
b
a
B D
A B
c
Figure 7.11 Sine rule: the ambiguous case
Example 7.9
In ∆ABC, ∠A = 30º, side a = 10 cm and side b = 16 cm. Find ∠B and ∠C.
Solution:
∆ABC is shown in Figure 7.12
C
16 cm
10 cm
°
A B
Figure 7.12
a b c
= =
sin A sinB sinC
10 16 c
= =
sin30 sinB sinC
10 16 16 × sin30°
Consider = , After transposition sin B =
sin30 sinB 10
sin B = 0.8 or ∠B = 53.13º or 126.87º
If ∠B = 53.13º, ∠C = 180º − 53.13º − 30º = 96.87º
If ∠B = 126.87º, ∠C = 180º − 126.87º − 30º = 23.13º
This is the ambiguous case as there are 2 solutions. The solutions are shown in Figure 7.13; it is
obvious that the 2 triangles are not congruent to each other.
C
C
16 cm
°
10 cm 16 cm

°
°
°

°

A B 10 cm
(a)
°
A B
(b)
Figure 7.13
7.6 Frames
Frames are widely used in buildings and civil engineering structures to resist the applied forces and distribute
them to the other parts of the structure in a safe manner. Refer to Appendix T for more details on frames.
Before a frame can be structurally designed, it is necessary to find the magnitude of force in each
member of the frame. Here we are concerned with only the analysis of the forces and not the structural
design. So, let us discuss the basics first:
A force which is inclined to the horizontal at an angle other than 90º or 0º can be resolved into 2
components, i.e. a horizontal component and a vertical component. Consider a force F, inclined at ∠θ
to the horizontal as shown in Figure 7.14:
horizontal component
cos θ =
Force F
Therefore, horizontal component = F × cos θ or F cos θ

vertical component
sin θ =
Force F
Vertical component = F sin θ
The forces in the members of a frame, at any particular joint, are resolved into horizontal and vertical
components. For equilibrium:
1) The sum of all horizontal forces at a joint should be equal to 0 (or ΣH = 0), and
2) The sum of all vertical forces at a joint should be equal to 0 (or ΣV = 0).
Each joint needs to be considered for determining forces in all the members.
Vertical component
F sinθ Force F
θ Horizontal component
F cos θ
Figure 7.14
Example 7.10
Find the magnitude of forces in the members of the truss shown in Figure 7.15.
5 kN
JT. 2
B C
D
°
°
JT. 1 JT. 3
4.5 m 2.6 m
R1 = 1.83 kN A R2 = 3.17 kN
Figure 7.15
Solution:
FBD represents the force in member BD, similarly FDA represents the force in member DA.
At joint 1: Resolve forces in the members vertically, and put their algebraic sum equal to 0:
Vertical component of FBD − R1 = 0 (1)

Force in member BD and Reaction R1 act in the opposite direction, therefore if 1 is considered positive,
the other will be considered negative.
Vertical component of FBD = FBD × sin θ (explained earlier in section 7.6)

= FBD × sin 30º = 0.5 FBD
Substituting values in equation (1), 0.5 FBD − 1.83 = 0 or FBD = 3.66 kN
Resolve forces in the members horizontally, and put their algebraic sum equal to 0:
Horizontal component of FBD − FDA = 0 (2)
(There is no horizontal component of R1; the forces in members BD and DA act in the opposite
direction, therefore if 1 is considered positive, the other will be considered negative.)
Horizontal component of FBD = FBD × cos θ
= 3.66 × cos 30º = 3.17
From equation (2), 3.17 − FDA = 0, or FDA = 3.17 kN
At joint 2: Resolve forces in the members vertically, and put their algebraic sum equal to 0:
Vertical component of FBD + Vertical component of FCD = 5 kN
FBD × sin 30º + FCD × sin 45º = 5
3.66 × 0.5 + FCD × 0.707 = 5
FCD × 0.707 = 3.17, ∴ FCD = 4.48 kN
(The forces in member CD could also be determined by resolving forces at joint 3.)
7.7 Area of triangles

If 2 sides and the included angle are known, then trigonometry may be used to determine the area of
the triangle:
1 1 1
=
Area = ab sinC bc sin A = ca sinB
2 2 2
Depending on the information given, 1 of the above formulae may be used for area calculation.
Example 7.11
Find the area of the triangle shown in Figure 7.16.
Solution:
In Figure 7.16, a = 100 cm; b = 130 cm;
Angle between sides a and b, i.e. ∠C = 60°
c
b = 130 cm
60
B C
a = 100 cm
Figure 7.16
1
Area of ∆ABC = ab sinC
2
1
= × 100 × 130 × sin60ο
2
1
= × 100 × 130 × sin60ο
2
= 5629.17 cm2
Exercise 7.1
1. A land surveyor wants to find the distance between 2 buildings A and B. He sets up his instrument at
building A and finds that the angle of elevation to the top of building B is 7°. If the height of building B
is 8.0 m, find the distance between the 2 buildings. The height of the instrument is 1.35 m.
2. A 6 m long ladder is placed on horizontal ground and its top rests against a wall. How far should the
foot of the ladder be from the wall so that the ladder makes an angle of 75° with the ground?
3. An engineer wants to find the width of a river and stands on one bank at point S, directly opposite
a tree, as shown in Figure 7.17. She sets up another station at point R which is 60 m from point S,
along the river bank. If angle TRS is 60°, find the width of the river.
Tree
River
60
R 60 m S
Figure 7.17
4. A surveyor wants to find the height of a building, which is constructed on high ground. He sets
up his instrument at a distance of 100 m from the building and measures the angles to the top
and the bottom of the building. If the angles are as shown in Figure 7.18, find the height of the
building.
A
Building
D 60
20 C
1.4 m
G.L.
100 m
Figure 7.18
5. A civil engineer sets up his instrument at point A and finds that the angle to the top of a tall building
is 20º. He moves the instrument by 100 m towards the building, sets it up at point B and finds that
the angle to the top of the building is 42º. If the height of the instrument is 1.4 m, find the height of
the building.
6. A pitched roof is 12 m long, 4 m high and has a span of 14 m. Calculate:
a) Pitch of the roof.
b) True lengths of the common rafters.
c) Surface area of the roof.
7. A trussed rafter is shown in Figure 7.19. Find the length of members HD, HE and AH.
E F
D G

°
B C
H J K
5.0 m 5.0 m
10.0 m
Figure 7.19 Trussed rafter
8. Figure 7.20 shows a fink roof truss. Calculate the force in each member of the truss.
10 kN
JT.4
C D
10 kN 10 kN
JT.2
G J
B H
E
°
°
F K
JT.1
JT.3
A
R1 = 15 kN R2 = 15 kN
Figure 7.20
Exercise 7.2
1. In triangle PQR, ∠Q = 50º, ∠R = 70º and side PQ = 75 cm. Calculate ∠P and sides PR and QR.
2. In triangle ABC, sides a, b and c are 8 cm, 7 cm and 5 cm respectively. Use the cosine rule
to find ∠B.
3. A surveyor wants to find the distance between 2 buildings A and B. However, the distance cannot
be calculated directly as there is a small lake between the two buildings. The surveyor sets up a
station at point C and measures angle ACB to be 120º. If distances AC and CB are 220 m and 260 m
respectively, find the distance between the 2 buildings.
4. Figure 7.21 shows 2 members of a crane, 1 in tension (tie) and the other in compression (strut).
While lifting a certain load, the angle between the strut and the tie was 55˚. Find the length of the
strut and the angle that it makes with the vertical wall.
B
c = 2.5 m
A Tie
55
a
b 3.5 m
Strut
C
Load
Figure 7.21
5. 2 forces of 40 kN and 70 kN act at a point with an angle of 70º between their lines of action, as
shown in Figure 7.22. Calculate the magnitude of their resultant and its direction relative to the
70 kN force.
A B
40 kN nt
ulta d = 40 kN
Res c
70
X
D C
b = 70 kN
Figure 7.22
6. Figure 7.23 shows the dimensions of a building site. Find the area ABCD.
A

B

°

°
C
D
Figure 7.23
7. Bob Brickwalla wants to determine the distance between 2 points A and B. The distance cannot be
measured directly as there is an obstruction between the 2 buildings. He sets up his instrument at
point C, and measures angle ACB. If distance AC = d metres, ∠ACB = Xº and distance CB is twice
the distance AC, show that distance AB = d 5 − 4 cos X
8. Stations J and K are established for setting out building ABCD, as shown in Figure 7.24. Find the
information, which is not shown (i.e. distances BJ, CJ, DK and AK), so that the setting out engineer
is able to set out the building accurately.
70 m
A B
50 m
D C
35.31 m 44.8 m
79.29°
66.71°
J
93.977 m K
Figure 7.24
9. Station T is 65 m from corner A and 41 m from corner D of building ABCD (see Figure 7.25). If the
whole circle bearings of TD and TA are 12.5º and 308º find the distance BT and CT, and angles
∠ATB and ∠CTD so that the building can be set out accurately.
B C
70 m
60 m D
A
38.673 m
58.729 m
Figure 7.25
1. 54.16 m
2. 1.553 m
3. 103.923 m
4. 136.808 m
5. 62.492 m
6. a) 29.745° b) 8.062 m c) 193.488 m2
7. AH = 3.334 m HD = 1.667 m HE = 1.924 m
8.
Member Compression/Tension Force (kN)

BF, EK Compression 30
FA, AK Tension 26
CG, DJ Compression 25
GF,KJ Compression 8.7
GH, HJ Tension 8.7
HA Tension 17.3
1. ∠P = 60º QR = 69.12 cm PR = 61.14 cm

2. 60º
3. 416.173 m
4. Angle = 35.8º Length = 4.272 m
5. Resultant = 91.735 kN Direction = 24.19º
6. 3931.765 m 2
8. DK = 94.049 m CJ = 86.657 m AK = 124.925 m BJ = 115.775 m

9. BT = 115.806 m CT = 107.04 m ∠ATB = 28.45º ∠CTD = 13.42º
CHAPTER
8
Trigonometry 2

• Trigonometric identities
• Trigonometric ratios of compound angles
• Trigonometric equations
• Trigonometric waveforms
8.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter the trigonometric ratios and their application in the construction problems
were explained. This was followed by sine rule and cosine rule and their application in the field of land
surveying. In this chapter, trigonometric identities, trigonometric equations and sinusoidal wave forms
will be discussed.
8.2 Trigonometric identities

Identities may look similar to equations, but they are true for all values of the unknown variable.
An equation on the other hand is only true for certain values of the unknown variable. Some of the
trigonometric identities are dealt with in this section as they can be used to simplify trigonometric
expressions/equations.
The most fundamental trigonometric identity is: sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1, and to prove it consider a right-
angled triangle ABC, shown in Figure 8.1. Using Pythagoras’ theorem:
b2 + a2 = c2
b2 a 2 c 2
Divide both sides by c2: + =
c2 c2 c2
2 2
b a
  +   =1
c c
(sin θ)2 + (cos θ)2 = 1
(sin θ)2 and (cos θ)2 can be written as sin2 θ and cos2 θ
or sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
From the above, after transposition sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ
and cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ
c b
θ
B C
a
Figure 8.1
Example 8.1
Show that: 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
Solution:
Refer to Figure 8.1 that shows a right-angled triangle ABC. Using Pythagoras’ theorem:
a2 + b2 = c2
a 2 b2 c 2
Divide both sides by a2: + =
2 2
a2 a2 a2
b c
1+   =  
a a
1 + (tan θ)2 = (sec θ)2
or 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
Example 8.2
Prove the identity: 1 − 2 sin2 θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1
Solution:
As shown earlier in example 8.1, sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ
Therefore, 1 − 2 sin2 θ = 1 − 2(1 − cos2 θ)
= 1 − 2 + 2 cos2 θ
= 2 cos2 θ − 1
Hence 1 − 2 sin2 θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1

Example 8.3
Use a right-angled triangle to show that: (1 − sin2 θ)(1 + tan2 θ) = 1
Solution:
(1 − sin2 θ)(1 + tan2 θ) = 1 − sin2 θ + tan2 θ − sin2 θ tan2 θ
2 2 2 2
b b b b
= 1−   +   −     (Refer to Figure 8.1)
c a c a
b2 b2 b2 b2
= 1− + − ×
c2 a 2 c2 a 2
c2 − a 2 c2 − a 2 c2 − a 2 c2 − a 2
= 1− + − ×
c2 a2 c2 a2
2
a c 2
 a  c
2 2

= 1− 1+ 2 + 2 − 1−  1− 2  ×  2 − 1
c a  c  a 

a 2 c2  c2 c2 a 2 a2 
= 2
+ 2 − 1−  2 − 2 2 − 1+ 2 
c a  a a c c 

a 2 c2  c2 a2 
= 2
+ 2 − 1−  2 − 1− 1+ 2 
c a  a c 

a 2 c2 c2 a2
= + − 1− + 2 − =1
c2 a 2 a2 c2
Example 8.4
Prove that cotB cosecB = cosB
1+ cot2 B
Solution:
cotB cosecB cotB cosec B

= (1 + cot2B = cosec2B)
1+ cot2 B cosec2 B
cotB
=
cosec B
cos B 1 cosB
= × = × sinB= cosB
sinB cosecB sinB
8.3 Trigonometric ratio of compound angles

a) To show that sin(A+B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B, consider Figure 8.2; the right-angled triangles OMN
and OPM contain angle A and angle B: ∠PON = ∠A + ∠B
From the geometry of the diagram, ∠RPM = ∠A
TP TR + RP MN + RP
sin( A + B) = = = (RT = MN)
OP OP OP
MN OM RP MP
= × + ×
OM OP MP OP
= sin A cos B + cos A sin B
Hence sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
M
R
A
O N
T
Figure 8.2
b) Show that: cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

Refer to ΔOPT in Figure 8.2,
OT ON − TN ON − MR
cos( A + B) = = = (TN = MR)
OP OP OP
ON MR
= −
OP OP
ON OM MR MP
= × − ×
OM OP MP OP
= cos A cos B − sin A sin B

Hence cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
tan A + tanB
c) Similarly it can be shown that tan(A + B) =
1− tan A tanB
d) Replacing B with − B, the three equations become:
sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A − tanB
tan(A − B) =
1+ tan A tanB
8.4 Double angle formulae

Double angle formulae can be established by putting A = B in the compound angle formulae:
a) sin(A + A) = sin A cos A + sin A cos A
therefore, sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
b) cos(A + A) = cos A cos A − sin A sin A
cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A
= 1 − sin2 A − sin2 A = 1 − 2 sin2 A
Also, cos 2A = cos2 A − sin2 A
= cos2 A − (1 − cos2 A) = 2 cos2 A − 1
2 tan A
c) Similarly it can be shown that tan2A =
1− tan2 A
8.5 Trigonometric equations

There are many types of trigonometric equations, some of which are dealt with in this chapter. Any
equation which contains a trigonometric ratio (sine, cosine etc.) is known as a trigonometric equation.
As the trigonometric functions are periodic, trigonometric equations usually have an unlimited number
of solutions. The solutions, however, may be restricted to those between 0º and 360º.
Figure 8.3 shows the 4 quadrants of a graph and also shows which trigonometric ratio is positive in a
particular quadrant.
90°
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
sin + all +
180° 0°
360°
tan + cos +
Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
270°
Figure 8.3
Example 8.5
Solve the equation: sin x = 0.629321
Solution:
sin x = 0.629321, therefore ∠x = sin−1 0.629321
or ∠x = 39.0º
Since the sine of the angle is positive, the solution must be in quadrants 1 and 2.
Hence x = 39º, 141º, 399º, 501º etc. (141º = 180 − 39; 399º = 360 + 39)
Example 8.6
Solve the equation 4 sin θ + 2 = 0, for values of θ from 0º to 360º.
Solution:
4 sin θ + 2 = 0 can be written as 4 sin θ = − 2
From the above, sin θ = − 0.5
Angle θ = − 30º
Since the value of sin θ is negative, angle θ is in the third and fourth quadrants
Therefore, θ = 180º + 30º = 210º (angle in the third quadrant)
or θ = 360º − 30º = 330º (angle in the fourth quadrant)
Example 8.7
Solve the equation 4 sin2 θ − 1 = 2.
Solution:
After transposition 4 sin2 θ = 2 + 1 = 3

3
sin2 θ = = 0.75
4
sin θ = 0.75 = ±0.866
or θ = ± 60º
sin θ is positive in first and second quadrants, and negative in third and fourth quadrants, therefore, the
solutions are in all 4 quadrants.
Hence θ = 60º, 120º, 240º, 300º

Example 8.8
Solve the equation 3 cos2 x + sin2 x = 2 for 0º ≤ x ≤ 180º.
Solution:
3 cos2 x + sin2 x = 3(1 − sin2 x) + sin2 x = 2
3 − 3 sin2 x + sin2 x = 2
3 − 2 = 3 sin2 x − sin2 x
2 sin2 x = 1, therefore sin2 x = 0.5
sin x = 0.5 , or sin x = ± 0.7071
We are only interested in values of x between 0º and 180º. There are 2 answers:
∠x = sin−1 0.7071, therefore ∠x = 45º (first quadrant)
and ∠x = 180 − 45 = 135º (second quadrant)
Example 8.9
Solve the equation: 2 cosec2 A + 6 cot A = 7, for 0º ≤ x ≤ 360º.
Solution:
2(cot2 A + 1) + 6 cot A − 7 = 0 (cosec2 A = cot2 A + 1)
After simplifying the above, 2 cot2 A + 6 cot A − 5 = 0

Solving the above equation by the quadratic formula:
−6 ± 36 − 4( 2)( −5)
cot A =
2× 2
−6 ± 76 −6 ± 8.72
= =
4 4
−6 − 8.72 −6 + 8.72
cot A = = − 3.68, and cot A= = 0.68
4 4
1
tan A = − = − 0.272 = −15.2º
3.68
tangent (and cotangent) is negative in the second and fourth quadrants.

A = 180 − 15.2 = 164.8º, and A = 360 − 15.2 = 344.8º
1
tan A = = 1.47 = 55.8°
0.68
tangent (and cotangent) is positive in the first and third quadrants.

A = 55.8º, and A = 180 + 55.8 = 235.8º
8.6 Trigonometric graphs

The graph of any trigonometric function can be drawn by obtaining their values at different angles, such
as, 0º, 30º, 60º, 90º, 120º etc.; Table 8.1 shows the values of sin x and cos x at different angles. The
angles are marked on the x-axis, their values on the y-axis and the graph is produced by drawing a
smooth curve through the points, as shown in Figure 8.4.
Table 8.1
x 0º 30º 60º 90º 120º 150º 180º 210º 240º 270º 300º 330º 360º
sin x 0 0.5 0.87 1 0.87 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.87 −1 −0.87 −0.5 0
cos x 1 0.87 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.87 −1 −0.87 −0.5 0 0.5 0.87 1
y y = cos x
y = sin x
0.5
0 x (degrees)
0 30 60 90 120 150 210 240 270 300 330 360
-0.5
-1
Figure 8.4 Graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x
Some of the important features of the 2 graphs are:
1) The graph of cos x has the same shape as the graph of sin x, but it is ahead of sin x by 90º. The
cosine function can be written as:
y = sin (x + 90º), 90º is the phase angle.
2) Each function has a maximum value of +1 and a minimum value of −1; these values are known as
the amplitude.
3) The graphs of sin x and cos x are periodic, i.e. they repeat themselves after every 360º, therefore,
the period of sin x and cos x is 360º.
The graph of sin x is also known as the sine wave and another name for this wave is sinusoidal
waveform.
The sin x graph may also be produced by considering the rotating radius of a circle. In Figure 8.5 OM
is the rotating radius or rotating vector that is free to rotate anticlockwise at a velocity of ω radians per
second (rad/s). A rotating vector is known as a phasor. The length of the phasor is equal to the radius
of the circle, i.e. R.
y
y = sin x
P 1
N
R 0.5
ωt
M 0 x (radians)
O L 0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π
-0.5
-1
Figure 8.5 Graph of y = sin x
After time ‘t’ seconds phasor OM moves to ON and the angle through which it turns (∠NOM) is
NL
ωt. If NL is perpendicular to OM, then = sin ωt or NL = ON sin ωt. As the phasor moves to P and
ON
other positions, and their vertical components are projected onto a graph, the result is the sine
wave or the graph of y = R sin ωt. The graph shows that the peak value of the sine wave is R,
i.e. the length of the rotating vector. When the phasor returns to position OM, the sine wave
completes 1 cycle.
Period: the time taken for the waveform to complete 1 cycle is known as the period. We can also say
that it is the time taken by phasor OM to complete 1 revolution or 2π radians.
2π
Period = seconds
ω
Frequency: the number of cycles per second is known as the frequency of the wave.
2π
seconds are taken to complete 1 cycle
ω
1 ω
1 second is taken to complete 2π or 2π cycles
ω
Therefore frequency, f = ω Hz (Hz or hertz is the unit of frequency)

2π
1
Also, Frequency =
Period
Phase angle: it is not necessary that all sinusoidal waveform will pass through the zero point on the
x-axis at the same time, but may be shifted to the left or to the right as compared to another sinusoidal
waveform. This is known as the phase shift or phase difference and is defined as the angle α in degrees
or radians that the waveform has shifted from a reference point along the horizontal axis. The equation
for the sine function needs to be modified to include the phase angle and is given by:
y = R sin (ωt ± α)
If α is positive, the sine wave is said to lead R sin ωt. If α is negative the sine wave is said to lag R sin ωt.
Figure 8.6 illustrates these 2 cases.
y
Positive phase angle
(leading)
1
Negative phase angle
(lagging)
0.5
0
π/2 π x (radians)
+α 0 -α 3π/2 2π
-0.5
-1
Figure 8.6 Phase angles
Example 8.10
A power tool on a building site can be used with a maximum voltage of 155 volts. If the voltage is
sinusoidal and its frequency is 60 Hz, express the voltage (v) in the form, v = A sin (ωt ± α); at time t = 0,
voltage = 60 V.
Solution:
A = amplitude = maximum voltage = 155 volts
Angular velocity, ω = 2πf = 2π × 60 = 120π rad/s
Therefore, v = 155 sin(120πt + α)
60 = 155 sin(120π × 0 + α) (v = 60 V at t = 0)
60
60 = 155 sin α or sin α = = 0.3871
155
α = sin−1 0.3871 = 0.397
Therefore, v = 155 sin(120πt + 0.397).
Example 8.11
A sinusoidal ocean wave has a frequency of 0.25 Hz, and at time t = 0.2 s the height of the crest of the
wave, from the horizontal base line, is 0.618 m (see Figure 8.7).
a) Find the maximum height of the wave’s crest from the base line.
b) Find maximum height of the wave (height of the wave is from trough to crest).
c) Express the height of the wave in the form: height = A sin ωt.
Solution:
y
Crest
0.618 Base line

m t= 0.2 s
0 x (radians)
0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π
Trough
Figure 8.7 An ocean wave
a) Angular velocity, ω = 2πf = 2π × 0.25 = 0.5π rad/s
Height of the crest from the base line = A sin ωt = A sin(0.5πt)

In the above equation, A = amplitude = the height of the crest of the wave, from the horizontal
base line.
0.618 = A sin(0.5π × 0.2) = A sin(0.1π)
0.618 = A × 0.309
0.618
=
Therefore, A = 2.0 m
0.309
b) The height of the wave is from the trough to the crest. Assuming that the distance between the
trough and the base line is same as the distance between the crest and the base line, the height of
the wave is:
Height of the wave = 2 × 2.0 = 4.0 m
c) Height of the crest of the wave, above the base line = 2 sin(0.5πt) m
8.7 Addition of sine waves

In mechanical mechanisms and other processes waves of same frequency or different frequencies
are produced, and sometimes 2 waves need to be added to see their combined effect. If 2 sine
waves have same frequency then their combination will produce a sine wave of the same frequency.
If 2 sine waves have different frequencies then their combination will produce a complicated
waveform, which will not be in the form of a sine wave. Sine waves may be added graphically, as
explained in example 8.12.
Table 8.2
θº 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
sin θ 0 0.5 0.866 1.0 0.866 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.866 −1.0 −0.866 −0.5 0
10 sin θ 0 5 8.66 10 8.66 5 0 −5 −8.66 −10 −8.66 −5 0
(θ − 30º) − 30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330
sin (θ − 30) −0.5 0 0.5 0.866 1 0.866 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.866 −1 −0.866 −0.5
15 sin (θ − 30) −7.5 0 7.5 12.99 15 12.99 7.5 0 −7.5 −12.99 −15 −12.99 −7.5
y1 + y2 −7.5 5 16.16 22.99 23.66 17.99 7.5 −5 −16.16 −22.99 −23.66 −17.99 −7.5
Example 8.12
A construction process at a site produces movements given by y1 = 10 sin θ and y2 = 15 sin(θ − 30º).
If the movements are measured in mm, draw graphs of the 2 sine waves and hence calculate the
resultant movement by adding the 2 waves together.
Solution:
The graphs of y1 and y2 are shown in Figure 8.8; the data have been plotted for 1 cycle of 360º. The
ordinates of the combined graph can be determined either from the graph or from Table 8.2. Because
the 2 sine waves have the same frequency, the combined graph will be a sine wave with the same
frequency. The phase angle of the combined graph is 18º and its peak value is 24 mm. Therefore the
formula of the combined wave is: y3 = 24 sin(θ − 18º).
25
20 y3 = 24 sin(θ − 18°)
15
10
y2 = 15 sin(θ − 30°)
5
θ°
0 30 60 90 120 150 240 270 300 330 360 390
−5
−10 y1 = 10 sinθ
−15
−20
−25
Figure 8.8 Addition of two sine waves of same frequency
Exercise 8.1
1. Simplify: a) cos A2tan A b) sin A cos A cot A.

sin A
2. Use a right-angled triangle to prove that 1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ.
sin θ + tan θ
3. Use a right-angled triangle to prove that = sin θ tan θ .
cot θ + cosec θ
4. Prove that:
a) tan A + cot A = cosec A sec A
cos A 1− sin A
b) =
1+ sin A cos A
sec A
c) = sin A
tan A + cot A
1+ cos θ sin θ 2
5. Prove that: + =
sin θ 1+ cos θ sin θ
tan A + tanB
6. Show that: tan(A + B) =
1− tan A tanB
7. Solve the equations:
a) cos 2x = 0.5, for x in the range 0º and 360º
b) 2.5 tan x − 2.5 = 0
c) 5.2 − 4.5 sec x = 0
8. Solve the equation: 4 + 2 cosec2 B = 6
9. Solve the equation: 2 cos2 x + sin2 x = 1, for 0º ≤ x ≤ 360º
10. Solve the equation: 2 sec2 θ + tan θ − 3 = 0, for 0º ≤ x ≤ 360º
11. The voltage in an a.c. circuit is given by, v = 330 sin(100πt − 0.5). Find:
a) amplitude
b) periodic time
c) frequency
d) phase angle
e) is the phase angle leading or lagging?
12. An oscillating mechanism in a machine has a maximum displacement of 0.5 m and a frequency
of 40 Hz. The displacement at time t = 0 is 20 cm. Express the displacement in the general form:
displacement = A sin (ωt ± α).
13. A tall building starts to vibrate horizontally when a seismic wave of 0.4 Hz frequency hits the
building. The displacement of the building at time t = 0.4 s is 6.75 cm. Calculate the angular
velocity, maximum displacement and express the displacement of the building in the form:
Displacement = A sin ωt.
14. A construction process at a site produces 2 movements given by y1 = 5 sin θ and y2 = 10 sin(θ + 20º).
If the movements are measured in mm, draw graphs of the 2 sine waves and hence calculate the
resultant movement by adding the 2 waves together.

1. a) cosec A
b) cos2 A
2. See solutions in Appendix 3.

7. a) θ = 30º and θ = 330º
b) x = 45º, and x = 225º
c) x = 30.07º, and x = 329.93º
8. B = 90º, and B = 270º
9. x = 90º, and x = 270º
10. θ = 135º, θ = 315º
θ = 26.57º, θ = 206.57º
11. a) 330 V b) 0.02 s c) 50 Hz d) 0.5 rad. e) Lagging
12. Displacement = 0.5 sin(80πt + 0.412) m
13. ω = 0.8π rad/s; A = 0.08 m; Displacement = 0.08 sin(0.8πt) m
14. y3 = 14.75 sin(θ + 13.3º).
CHAPTER
9
Logarithmic, exponential and
hyperbolic functions

• Logarithms and antilogarithms
• Exponential functions and their application
• Hyperbolic functions
9.1 Logarithmic function

Before the invention of scientific calculators, logarithms were used in the form of logarithmic tables
(log tables) to perform a range of calculations. The credit for inventing logarithms goes to John Napier
although many scientists and mathematicians contributed to the final form that we use now.
If a positive number x is expressed in the form: x = ay, then y is called the logarithm of x to the base
a, which is written as:
y = logax
Consider the number 100; this can be expressed as:
100 = 102 (Base (a) = 10, Index (y) = 2, x = 100)
We can say that base 10 must be raised to the power 2 to get 100, or log10 100 = 2. Similarly, 23 = 8
(Base (a) = 2, Index (y) = 3)
Therefore, log2 8 = 3
Although we can use any base, the most commonly used are base 10 and base ‘e’. Logarithm having
a base of 10 is known as the common logarithm; it is usually shown as log10 or just log. When ‘e’ is
used as the base, the logarithms are known as natural, Napierian or hyperbolic logarithms; ‘e’ is an
irrational number, and its approximate value is 2.71828 (5 d.p.). Logarithms to the base ‘e’ are shown
as loge or just ln.
On most scientific calculators there are 2 log keys whereas on others there might be 3.
The key log is used for calculations involving 10 as the base.
The key ln is used when the base is ‘e’.
On some calculators there is a key to select any number as the base.
134 9 Logarithmic, exponential and hyperbolic functions
Example 9.1
Evaluate a −b without a calculator, and c − d with a calculator:
a) log3 27 b) log10 100 c) log10 256 d) loge 2536
Solution:
a) Referring to section 9.1, base 3 must be raised to the power 3 to get 27
3x = 27 = 33
Therefore x = 3 (the index or power is the answer)
Hence log3 27 = 3
b) 10x = 100 = 102
Therefore x = 2
Hence log10 100 = 2
c) Use the log key for this calculation
log 256 = 2.408
d) Use the ln key for this calculation.
ln 2536 = 7.838
9.1.1 Antilogarithm (antilog)

Antilogarithm is the reverse of logarithm. If we know the logarithm of a number, then we can use the
antilogarithm key ( 10x ) of a scientific calculator to determine the original number. Antilogarithms can
be used to simplify equations that involve logarithms, as they cancel each other out; this is illustrated in
example 9.5b.
Example 9.2
Calculate the antilogarithms of:
a) 3.7 (base = 10)
b) 4.8 (base = e)
Solution:
Press the following keys of a scientific calculator
a)
SHIFT log 3 . 7 = 5011.872
b)
SHIFT ln 4 . 8 = 121.510
Logarithmic, exponential and hyperbolic functions 9 135
9.1.2 Laws of logarithms

In each of the following laws, every logarithm must have the same base:
a) When two numbers are multiplied: log (a × b) = log a + log b.
a
b) When a number is divided by another number: log   = loga − logb.
b
c) When a number is raised to a power: log an = n log a.
Example 9.3
Express as the sum or difference of the simplest possible logarithms:
3x
a) log
x −1
b) ln 4(x + 2)
c) ln (x2 − 1)
Solution:
a) Use the laws explained in section 9.1.2.
3x
log = log 3x − log (x − 1)
x −1
= log 3 + log x − log (x − 1)
b) ln 4(x + 2) = ln 4 + ln (x + 2)
c) ln (x2 − 1) = ln (x + 1)(x − 1) [(x2 − 1) = (x + 1)(x − 1)]
= ln (x + 1) + ln (x − 1)
Example 9.4
Simplify the expression: a) log 9 + log 27
b) log 8 + log 16 − log 4
Solution:
a) log 9 + log 27 = log (3 × 3) + log (3 × 3 × 3)

= log 3 + log 3 + log 3 + log 3 + log 3 = 5 log 3
b) log 8 + log 16 − log 4 = log (2 × 2 × 2) + log (2 × 2 × 2 × 2) − log (2 × 2)
= log 2 + log 2 + log 2 + log 2 + log 2 + log 2 + log 2 − log 2 − log 2
= 5 log 2
Example 9.5
Solve the following equations:
a) log4 x = 2
b) x1.7 = 3.259
c) 2.55x = 5.955
Solution:
a) Refer to section 9.1; if loga x = y then ay = x

Comparing this to the equation, log4 x = 2, we have a = 4 and y = 2
Therefore, 42 = x, Hence x = 16
b) x1.7 = 3.259
Take logarithms (base10) of both sides, log x1.7 = log 3.259
1.7 log x = 0.5131
0.5131
=
log x = 0.3018
1.7
Take antilogarithms of both sides, antilog (log x) = antilog 0.3018
Antilog and log, being opposite are cancelled out, therefore, x = antilog 0.3018
Hence x = 2.004
c) 2.55x = 5.955
Take logarithms (base10) of both sides, log 2.55x = log 5.955
x log 2.55 = 0.77488
x × 0.40654 = 0.77488
0.77488
=
or x = 1.906
0.40654
Example 9.6
Solve: log (2x + 5) = log (x2 − 3)
Solution:
log (2x + 5) = log (x2 − 3)

Take antilogarithms of both sides:
antilog [log (2x + 5)] = antilog [log (x2 − 3)]
Antilog and log, being opposite, cancel each other out, therefore:
2x + 5 = x2 − 3, which after simplification, becomes, x2 − 2x − 8 = 0
This is a quadratic equation and can be solved by using the quadratic formula, factorisation or other
methods. The first method is used here:
−( −2) ± ( −2)2 − 4(1)( −8)

x= � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � (a = 1; b = −2; c = −8)
2×1
2 ± 4 + 32 2 ± 36
x= =
2 2
2+6 2−6
Now x = or x =
2 2
Hence, either x = 4, or x = −2
9.2 Exponential function

An exponential function is a mathematical function of the form: f(x) = ax, where the value of ‘a’ is: a > 0
and a ≠ 1. ‘a’ is called the base and ‘x’, known as the exponent, is a variable. Exponential functions can
be used in many applications, for example, calculation of compound interest on savings, population
growth, thermal expansion of construction materials, etc. The function is usually modified by adding
constants before it can be used in practical applications.
In applied mathematics, the most commonly encountered exponential function base is ‘e’ whose
value is 2.71828 (approx.); thus the expression for the exponential function becomes f(x) = ex. Figure 9.1
shows the graphs of exponential growth (ex) and exponential decay (e−x).
y
8
6
y = e−x(decay)
y = ex(growth)
−x x
−2 −1 0 1 2
Figure 9.1
Example 9.7
Solve 25(1 − e−x/2) = 20
Solution:
−
x
20
1− e 2
= = 0.8
25
x
−
e 2
= 1− 0.8 = 0.2
1 1 x
x
= , therefore e 2 = 5
− 0.2
e 2
 x
Take logarithms of both sides, ln  e 2  = ln(5)
 
(ln and e cancel each other out)
x
=
1.6094,therefore, x 3.219
2
9.2.1 Compound interest on savings

The banks normally show the interest earned on savings as an annual rate, e.g. 2%, 3%, etc. There
are basically 2 types of interest, i.e. simple interest and compound interest. In simple interest the
interest is paid on the principal amount, whereas in compound interest the interest is also paid on
the interest already earned. The amount of compound interest after a number of years can be
calculated from the following formula:
Y = P(1 + r)t
However, the interest may be compounded more frequently than once a year, therefore this formula is
modified to:
nt
 r
Y = P  1+ 
 n
Y = amount after ‘t’ years; r = annual rate of interest
P = principal amount; t = term of the deposit
n = number of times the interest is compounded per year
Example 9.8
John Tahli requires £100 000 in future to buy a building plot. His savings, at present, are £75 000, and
he has been advised by his bank manager to deposit the money in a term deposit yielding an annual
interest of 6%. If the interest is compounded twice a year, calculate the time required (in years) for his
initial amount of £75 000 to grow into £100 000.
Solution:
Y = the value of the matured account = £100,000
P = principal (original) amount = £75,000
r = 6%; n = 2; t = term of the deposit in years
nt
 r
Y = P  1+ 
 n
2t
 6   6 
100,000 = 75,000  1+   r = 6% = 
 100 × 2   100 
100000
= (1.03 )
2t
75000
.
1. 33333 = (1.03 )
2t
.
Take logarithms of both sides, ln(1. 33333) = ln (1.03 )
2t
ln(1.33333) = 2t (ln 1.03)

0.287682 = 2t × 0.0295588
0.287682 = t × 0.0591176
0.287682
=t = 4.87 years
0.0591176
The growth of £75,000 into £100,000 requires 4.87, say 5 years.
9.2.2 Newton’s law of cooling

According to Newton’s law of cooling, the rate of temperature change of an object is proportional to
its own temperature and the temperature of its surroundings (ambient temperature). If an object is not
at the temperature of its surrounding environment, then its temperature continues to change until it
reaches the ambient temperature.
T (t) = Ts + (T0 − Ts )e−kt
T (t) = temperature of an object at time ’t’
Ts = temperature of the surrounding environment (or ambient temperature)
T0 = the initial temperature of the object
k = decay constant
The assumption in this law is that the ambient temperature remains constant.
Example 9.9
In order to assess the effectiveness of a cavity wall insulation material an experiment was performed
which involved taking a container full of hot water at 85 ºC that was surrounded by the insulation
material. The hot water temperature reduced to 70 ºC after 5 minutes, while the ambient temperature
remained constant at 20 ºC. Calculate:
a) the exponential function to represent this situation.
b) how long will it take for the water to reach 60 ºC.
Solution:
a) T (t) = Ts + (T0 − Ts )e−kt

T (t) = 70 ºC; Ts = 20 ºC; T0 = 85 ºC; t = 5 minutes
70 = 20 + (85 − 20)e−kx5
50
50 = 65e−5k , which gives = e −5k
65
 50 
 = ln(e )
−5k
Take logarithm of both sides, ln 
 65 
− 0.26236 = − 5k, therefore, k = 0.05247
b) T (t) = 60 ºC
60 = 20 + (85 − 20)e−0.05247 t
40
40 = 65e−0.05247 t , which gives = e −0.05247 t
65
 40  −0.05247 t
Take natural logarithms of both sides, ln   =lne
 65 
− 0.48551 = − 0.05247 t, Therefore, t = 9.25 minutes
9.2.3 Thermal movement of building components

All components in the superstructure of a building expand/contract due to temperature variations in the
surrounding environment. Assuming that the co-efficient of thermal expansion α is constant, the linear
thermal expansion of a material/component is given by:
L = L 0 eα (t − t )
0
where, L0 and L are the original and the length after expansion, respectively
t0 and t are the initial and final temperatures, respectively.
Example 9.10
Calculate the thermal expansion of 10 m long PVC guttering if the air temperature increases from 15 ºC
to 27 ºC. The co-efficient of linear expansion of PVC is
7×10−5/ºC.
Solution:
L = L 0 eα (t − t )
0
L0 = 10.0 m; α = 7×10−5/ºC; t0 = 15 ºC; t = 27 ºC

−5 −5
L = 10.0 (e7×10 (27 − 15 )

) = 10.0 (e84×10 )
L = 10 × 1.00084 = 10.0084 m
The linear expansion of the PVC guttering = L − L0 = 10.0084 − 10.0
= 0.0084 m or 8.4 mm
9.2.4 Laws of growth and decay

The laws of exponential growth and decay are of the form, y = A ekx and y =A e−kx, where A and k are
constants. The negative value of k is used in problems involving reduction or decay.
Example 9.11
The municipal council of Alpha-city needs to predict the future population of the city so that the
road network could be planned. If the population increases at a rate of 1.8% each year, what will be
Alpha-city’s population after 20 years. The population now is 100 000 and assume that it increases
continuously.
Solution:
Population after growth, P = P0 ert
P0 = 100,000; r = 1.8% or 0.018; t = 20 years
P = 100,000 × e0.018×20 = 100,000 × e0.36
= 100,000 × 1.4333294 = 143,333
9.2.5 Decay of sound energy

Reverberation is the continued presence of sound in a room/hall due to repeated reflections of sound
waves from the various surfaces. The reverberant sound decays exponentially with time as the sound
energy is absorbed by the room surfaces. The sound energy, S, after time, t, is given by:
t
−
S = S0 e c
where S0 is the initial sound level

c is the time constant of the exponential.
Example 9.12
The sound in a hall decays exponentially with time, t, as shown in Figure 9.2. From the given
information on the 2 points A and B, find:
t
−
a) an exponential equation of the form S = S0 e c .
b) the sound level at time, t = 0.
90
C
80
A
70
Sound level (dB)
60
50
B
40
30
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Time (s)
Figure 9.2 Sound level decay

Solution:
a) Time, t, between points A and B = 1.0 − 0.2 = 0.8 s
S (at point B) = 40 dB; S0 (at point A) = 73 dB;
0.8
−
Put these values in the equation, 40 = 73e c
0.8
40 −
=e c
73
−0.8
Take logarithms of both sides, ln ( 0.548 ) =
c
−0.8
c= = 1.33
ln (0.548)
t
−
Therefore, S = S0 e 1.33
b) S = 73 dB at 0.2 s ; S0 = sound level at time zero seconds (point C)

Time t between points A and C = 0.2 − 0 = 0.2 s
t
−
S = S0 e 1.33
0.2
−
73 = S0 e 1.33
73 = S0 × 0.8603844; therefore, S0 = 84.8 dB
9.3 Hyperbolic Function

The hyperbolic functions are defined using the exponential function ex. sinh x (pronounced as ‘shine x’)
and cosh x (pronounced as ‘kosh x’) are defined as:
ex − e− x
sinh x =
2
ex + e− x
cosh x =
2
sinh x ex − e− x
As in trigonometry, tanh x = =
cosh x e x + e− x
Example 9.13
Simplify cosh x + sinh x.
Solution:
 ex + e− x   ex − e− x 
cosh x + sinh x =   + 
 2   2 
1 x
=
2
( e + e− x + ex − e− x )
1
=
2
( 2ex ) = ex
Example 9.14
Show that: cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1.
Solution:
2 2
 ex + e− x   ex − e− x 
cosh2 x − sinh2 x =   − 
 2   2 
e2x + 2 + e −2x e2x − 2 + e −2x
= −
4 4
1 2x
=
4
( e + 2 + e−2x − e2x + 2 − e−2x )
1
= (4) = 1
4
Example 9.15
Prove that: sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x.
Solution:
e2x − e −2 x
sinh 2x =
2
 e x -e-x   e x +e-x 
2 sinh x cosh x = 2   
 2  2 
 e2x − e0 + e0 − e −2x 
= 2 
 4 
e2x − e −2x
= = sinh 2x
2
Hence, sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x
Example 9.16
Prove that: sech2 x + tanh2 x = 1.
Solution:
2 2
 2   ex − e− x 
sech2 x + tanh2 x =  x −x 
+ x −x 
e +e  e +e 
4 e2x − 2 + e −2x
= + 2x
e + 2+e
2x −2x
e + 2 + e −2x
4 + e2x − 2 + e −2x e2x + 2 + e −2x

= = 2x =1
e2x + 2 + e −2x e + 2 + e −2x
Example 9.17
If 2 cosh 2x + 8 sinh 2x = 3, find the value of x.
Solution:
 e2x + e −2 x   e2x − e −2x 

2 cosh 2x + 8 sinh 2x = 2   + 8 
 2   2 
e +e 
2x −2x
e −e 
2x −2x
Therefore, 2   + 8 =3
 2   2 
e2x + e−2x + 4e2x − 4e−2x − 3 = 0
Multiply by e2x : (e2x)2 + (e−2x)(e2x) + 4(e2x)2 − 4(e−2x)(e2x) − 3(e2x) = 0
(e2x)2 + e0 + 4(e2x)2 − 4(e0) − 3(e2x) = 0
5(e2x)2 + 1 − 4 − 3(e2x) = 0 (e0 = 1)
5(e2x)2 − 3(e2x) − 3 = 0
Solve for e2x using the quadratic formula:
−(−3) ± (−3)2 − 4(5)(−3)

e2x =
2× 5
3 ± 69 3 ± 8.3066
= =
10 10
e = 1.13066 or − 0.5307
2x
e2x is always positive, therefore e2x = 1.13066

Take logarithms of both sides, ln (e2x) = ln (1.13066)
2x = 0.1228 (logarithm and ex cancel out to leave behind x)
Therefore, x = 0.0614
Exercise 9.1
1. Evaluate (without using a calculator): a) log2 32

b) log10 10000
2. Use a scientific calculator to find the logarithm (base 10) of: a) 25, b) 150
3. Use a scientific calculator to find the natural logarithm of: a) 25, b) 150
4. Find the antilogarithm of a) 2.5, b) 0.0014.
5. Express as the sum or difference of the simplest possible logarithms:
x
a) log
x +1
b) log 2x +1
c) ln x(x + 4)
6. Simplify the expression: a) log 81 − log 27

b) log 81 − log 9 − log 3
7. Solve: a) log10 x = 3
b) x2.5 = 15.598
c) 3x − 1 = 2x + 3
8. Solve: a) log(x2 − 1) = log (3x − 3)
b) log (x + 3) + log (x − 4) = 2 log (x − 1)
Exercise 9.2
1. Solve: a) 3e2t = 1.2

b) 5.1 = 2.2e−1.5x
x
−
c) 10 = 14 (1− e 2 )
2. Rob Kikkar requires £100 000 in future to buy a building plot. His savings, at present, are £80 000,
and he has been advised by his bank manager to deposit the money in a term deposit yielding an
annual interest of 5.5%. If the interest is compounded 4 times a year, calculate the time required (in
years) for his initial amount of £80 000 to grow into £100 000.
3. In order to assess the effectiveness of an insulation material, a container full of hot water at 86 ºC
was surrounded by the insulation material. The hot water temperature dropped to 70 ºC after 6
minutes, while the ambient temperature remained constant at 20 ºC. Calculate:
a) the exponential function to represent this situation.
b) how long it will take for the water to reach 60 ºC.
4. Calculate the thermal expansion of 8 m long PVC guttering if the air temperature rises from 15 ºC to
30 ºC. The co-efficient of linear expansion of PVC is 7×10−5/ºC.
90
C
80
A
70
Sound level (dB)
60
50
B
40
30
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Time (s)
Figure 9.3
5. The city council of Blizton needs to predict the future population of the city so that the road network
and other facilities could be planned. If the population increases at a rate of 1.6% each year, what
will be Blizton’s population after 25 years? The current population is 100 000 and assume that it
increases continuously.
6. The population of a country is decreasing at a rate of 1.3% per year. If the population at present
is 20 million, what will the population be after 20 years? Assume that the population decreases
continuously.
7. The sound in a hall decays exponentially with time, t, as shown in Figure 9.3. From the given
information on the two points A and B, find:
t
−
a) an exponential equation of the form S = S0 e c
.
b) the sound level at time, t = 0.
c) the sound level after 0.6 seconds.
Exercise 9.3
1. Simplify: cosh x − sinh x.

2. Prove that cosh 2x = (cosh x)2 + (sinh x)2.
3. Prove that coth2 x − cosech2 x = 1.
3
4. If sinh x = , find the value of x.
5
5. If 2 cosh x = 3.4, find the value of x.
a) 2 sech x − 1 = 0.
b) 2.4 cosh x + 5 sinh x = 7.5.
-------------------------------------------
1. a) 5 b) 4
2. a) 1.3979 b) 2.1761
3. a) 3.2189 b) 5.0106
4. a) 316.2278 b) 1.00323
1
1
5. a) log x − log (x + 1) b) log( 2 x + 1) 2 = log( 2 x + 1) c) ln x + ln (x + 4)
2
6. a) log 3 b) log 3
7. a) x = 1000 b) x = 3.001 c) x = 7.84
8. a) x = 2, or x = 1 b) x = 13
1. a) − 0.458 b) − 0.5605 c) 2.506

2. 4.08 years
3. a) 0.04627 b) 10.82 min
4. 8.4 mm
5. 149 182
6. 15 421 032
t
−
7. a) S = S0 e 1.7856 b) 80.5 dB c) 57.5 dB
1. e−x
4. 0.5687
5. 1.3008
6. a) 2.01, − 0.624 b) 0.7828
CHAPTER
10
Differentiation
Topics covered:
• Differentiation from first principles
• Differentiation using the product rule, quotient rule, function of a function
• Differentiation of trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions
10.1 Introduction
If we want to find the gradient of a curve at a specified point, e.g. point P in Figure 10.1, then we
must produce the graph of the curve and draw tangent MN to the curve at that point. The gradient of
the tangent is the gradient of the curve at point P. However, if we know the equation of the curve, an
alternative method known as differentiation may be used, to produce accurate results.
o x
Figure 10.1
150 10 Differentiation
10.2 Differentiation from first principles

Consider the curve y = x2, shown in Figure 10.2. Let P be the point on this curve at which x = 1 and y = 1.
Let Q be another point on the curve whose x and y co-ordinates are 3 and 9 respectively.
y
y = x2
32
28
24
20
16
12
Q
8
δy
4 Q1
P δx
0 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 10.2
Let δx and δy represent increments of x and y respectively, as shown in Figure 10.2.

δx = 3 − 1 = 2, and δy = 9 − 1 = 8
δy 8
The gradient of chord PQ = = =4
δx 2
As point Q moves nearer to point P, the gradient of the curve changes. This change is due to the shape
of the curve (only a straight line has a constant gradient). When Q moves to position Q1, the new co-
ordinates are 2, 4.
δx = 2 − 1 = 1, and δy = 4 − 1 = 3
δy 3
The gradient of chord PQ = = =3
δx 1
When Q is very close to P, the gradient of chord PQ may be considered as the average gradient of the
portion of the curve PQ. Let x and y co-ordinates for Q be x + δx and y + δy respectively.
Since the equation of the curve is: y = x2
Differentiation 10 151
Therefore y + δy = (x + δx)2
or y + δy = x2 + 2xδx + (δx)2
Since y = x2, x2 + δy = x2 + 2xδx + (δx)2
or δy = 2xδx + (δx)2
Divide both sides by δx to obtain the gradient of the chord
δy 2xδx δx 2
= +
δx δx δx
= 2x + δx (equation 1)
When Q approaches P, δx becomes smaller, and finally when P and Q coincide, δx becomes zero. As δx
approaches zero (δx → 0), the gradient of the chord becomes the gradient of the tangent. The limiting
δy dy
value of is written as
δx dx
δy dy
Lim δx → 0 ( )=
δx dx
δy dy
Lim δx → 0 ( )= = 2x + 0 = 2x ( δx in equation 1 becomes zero)
δx dx
dy
=At x 1=
, gradient of tangent = 2
dx
dy
=At x 2=
, gradient of tangent = 4
dx
dy
Similarly gradient at other points may be determined, is known as ‘the differential coefficient of y
dx
with respect to x’ and the process of determining it is known as differentiation.
Example 10.1
Differentiate from first principles: i) y = x3
1
y=
ii)
x
iii) y = 2x2
Solution:
i) Let x increase by a small amount δx and the corresponding increase in y be δy

y + δy = (x + δx)3
or y + δy = x3 + 3x2 δx + 3x (δx)2 + (δx)3 (equation 2)
As y = x , equation 2 becomes:
3
x3 + δy = x3 + 3x2 δx + 3x (δx)2 + (δx)3

or δy = 3x2 δx + 3x (δx)2 + (δx)3
Divide both sides by δx
δy 3x 2 δx 3x δx 2 δx 3
= + +
δx δx δx δx
= 3x2 + 3x δx + (δx)2
δy dy
Limit δx → 0 ( ) = = 3x 2 (δx and (δx)2 are zero)
δx dx
ii) Let x increase by a small amount δx and the corresponding increase in y be δy
1
y + δy = (equation 3)
x + δx
1
As y = , equation 3 becomes:
x
1 1
+ δy =
x x δx
+
1 1
By transposition, δy = −
x + δx x
x − x − δx − δx
δy = =
x (x + δx) x (x + δx)
δy − δx
=
δx x (x + δx) δx
δy dy −1
As δx is zero, Limit δx → 0( )= =
δx dx x (x + 0)
dy − 1
or =
dx x 2
iii) Let x increase by a small amount δx and the corresponding increase in y be δy
y + δy = 2(x + δx)2
or y + δy = 2(x2 + 2x δx + (δx)2)
y + δy = 2x2 + 4x δx + 2(δx)2) (equation 4)
As y = 2x2, equation 4 becomes:
2x2 + δy = 2x2 + 4x δx + 2(δx)2
or δy = 4x δx + 2(δx)2
δy 4x δx 2 ( δx)2
= +
δx δx δx
= 4x + 2δx
δy dy
Limit δx → 0( ) = = 4x + 0 = 4x ( δxis zero)
δx dx
10.2.1 Differentiation of y = xn
dy
It has been shown in section 10.2 that if y = x2, then = 2x
dx
dy
Similarly in example 10.1 it has been shown that if y = x3, then = 3x 2
dx
From these 2 results a rule may be derived for differentiating functions such as
y = xn, where n could be any value:
dy
If y = xn, then = nx n−1
dx
[multiply by the original power and reduce the power by 1]
This rule enables us to differentiate functions without using the first principles, which are more time
consuming.
Also, we can conclude from the solution of example 10.1 (iii) that a constant (i.e. 2) is not involved
in the differentiation process. A number, which is on its own, will result into 0 after a function has
been differentiated.
The rule for differentiating y = axn, where a is a constant, is:
dy
= nax n−1
dx
These results are summarised in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1
y dy
dx
xn nxn − 1
axn naxn − 1
Example 10.2
Differentiate i) y = x
ii) y = 3x
iii) y = 2x3 + 4 x2 + 5x
Solution:
i) y = x may be written as y = x1
dy
Using the rule: = nx n −1
dx
dy
= 1 x1−1, as n = 1
dx
dy (according to law of zero index, x0 = 1)

= x=
0
1
dx
ii) y = 3x may be written as y = 3x1
dy
Using the rule = nax n −1
dx
dy
= 1× 3x1−1 (n = 1 and a = 3)
dx
dy
or = 3x 0 = 3 × 1 = 3
dx
iii) y = 2x3 + 4x2 + 5x
To find the solution, each term is differentiated separately
dy
= 3 × 2x 3 −1 + 2 × 4x 2 −1 + 1× 5x1−1
dx
= 6 x2 + 8 x1 + 5x0 = 6x2 + 8x + 5
10.3 Trigonometric functions

Figure 10.3a shows a graph of y = sin x. If tangents to the curve are drawn at points A, B, C, D and E and
their gradients determined, then it will be found that the gradients are 1.0, 0, −1.0, 0 and 1.0 respectively.
If these gradients and the gradients at other points on the curve are plotted, then we get a curve as shown
in Figure 10.3b. The shape of this curve is same as the shape of the y = cos x graph. Hence the gradient of
sin x curve at any value of angle x is the same as the value of cos x. Mathematically, this is written as:
dy
If y = sin x then = cos x
dx
y
(+)
B
1.0
0.5
A C E
0 x
0.5
1.0
D
(−)
a) Graph of y = sin x
y
(+) E
A
1.0
0.5
B D
0 x
0.5
1.0
(−) C
b)
Figure 10.3
dy
Similarly it can be shown that if y = cos x then = −sin x
dx
These results and their extensions are shown in Table 10.2.
Table 10.2
y dy
dx
sin x cos x
cos x −sin x
sin ax a cos ax
cos ax −a sin ax
tan x sec2x
Example 10.3
Differentiate i) y = sin 4x ii) y = cos 3x
Solution:
i) y = sin 4x, a = 4 in this question

d
From Table 10.2, ( sin ax ) = a cos ax
dx
d
Therefore, ( sin 4x ) = 4 cos 4x
dx
ii) y = cos 3x, a = 3 in this question
d
From Table 10.2, ( cos ax ) = −a sinax
dx
d
Therefore, (cos 3x) = −3 sin 3x
dx
10.4 Differentiation of function of a function

It may be either inconvenient or impossible to expand functions such as, y = (x2 + 3x −4)9 into
polynomials so that the method explained in section 10.2 cannot be used. The function of a function
method involves the substitution of x2 + 3x − 4 with u so that:
u = x2 + 3x −4; therefore, y = u9
dy du
and are determined, and finally:
du dx
dy dy du
= × ; this is also known as the chain rule
dx du dx
Example 10.4
Differentiate y = (x2 + 3x − 4)9.
Solution:
Let u = x2 + 3x − 4, so that y = (u)9

Use the method explained in section 10.2.1
du dy
= 2x + 3, and = 9u9 −1 = 9u8
dx du
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= 9u8 × (2x + 3)

Now replace u with x2 + 3x − 4
dy
= 9 ( x2 + 3x − 4)8 × (2x + 3)
dx
= 9(2x + 3)( x2 + 3x − 4)8
Example 10.5
Differentiate i) y = sin2 θ ii) y = cos3 θ
iii) y = cos4 2x
Solution:
i) y = sin2 θ may also be written as y = (sin θ)2

Let u = sin θ, so that y = u2
Use the methods explained in sections 10.3 and 10.2.1

du dy
= cos θ, and = 2u2 −1 = 2u
dθ du
dy dy du
= ×
dθ du dθ
= 2u × cos θ = 2u cos θ
dy
= 2 sin θ cos θ
dθ
ii) y = cos3 θ, or y = (cos θ)3
Let u = cos θ, so that y = u3
du dy
= − sin θ, and = 3u3 −1 = 3u2
dθ du
dy dy du
= ×
dθ du dθ
= 3u2 × (−sin θ) = − 3u2 sin θ
dy
dθ = − 3 cos θ sin θ
2
iii) y = cos4 2x, or y = (cos 2x)4

Let u = cos 2x, so that y = u4
du dy
= −2 sin 2x, and = 4u4 −1 = 4u3
dx du
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= 4u3 × (− 2sin 2x) = − 8u3 sin 2x

dy
= −8 (cos 2x)3 sin 2x = − 8 cos 3 2x sin 2x
dx
10.5 The chain rule by recognition

It is possible to differentiate composite functions without resorting to substitution, as discussed in
section 10.4. For example, if we want to differentiate y = (x2 + 3x −4)9; first deal with the outside function
(i.e. the power) and then differentiate the inside function (i.e. (x2 + 3x −4)). The process is shown in
example 10.6.
Example 10.6
Differentiate y = (x2 + 3x − 4)9.
Solution:
y = (x2 + 3x − 4)9
dy d 2
= 9( x 2 + 3x − 4 )9 −1 ( x + 3x − 4 )
dx dx
= 9(x2 + 3x − 4)8 (2x + 3) = 9(2x + 3)(x2 + 3x − 4)8
10.6 Differentiation of exponential and logarithm

functions
The exponential function ex is given by:

x2 x3
ex = 1 + x + + + ............
2! 3!
x2 x3
= 1+ x + + + ............
2×1 3× 2×1
d(e x ) 2x 3x 2
= 0 + 1+ + + ............
dx 2×1 3× 2×1
x2 x3
= 1+ x + + + ............which is the original function
2×1 3× 2×1
d(e x )
Therefore, = ex
dx
It can also be shown that a simple logarithm function after differentiation results in:
d(loge x) 1
=
dx x
These results and their extensions are shown in Table 10.3.
Table 10.3
y dy
dx
ex ex
eax aeax
1
loge x x
1
loge ax x
Example 10.7
Differentiate with respect to x.
a) e5x + 1 b) loge 8x
Solution:
a) y = e5x + 1
dy d
= e 5 x +1 × (5x + 1)
dx dx
= e5x + 1 × 5 = 5 e5x + 1

b) y = loge 8x
dy 1 d
= × (8x )
dx 8x dx
1 1
= ×8 =
8x x
10.7 Differentiation of a product

If y = u × v, where u and v are two different functions of x, then:
dy du dv
=v +u
dx dx dx
Example 10.8
Differentiate i) y = 2x3 loge x
1
ii) y = x 3 sin 3x
3
Solution:
i) y = 2x3 loge x
Let u = 2x3 and v = loge x
du dv 1
= 6=x 2 and
dx dx x
dy du dv
As =v +u
dx dx dx
1
= loge x × 6x 2 + 2x 3 ×
x
= 6x2 loge x + 2x2
dy
or = 2x 2 (3loge x + 1) (2x2 is the common factor)
dx
1 3
ii) y = x sin 3x
3
1 3
Let u = x and v = sin 3x
3
du 1 dv
= × 3x 2 = x 2 and = cos 3x × 3 = 3 cos 3x
dx 3 dx
dy du dv
As =v +u
dx dx dx
1 3
= sin 3x × x 2 + x × 3cos 3x
3
= x2 sin 3x + x3 cos 3x
dy
or = x 2 ( sin 3x + x cos 3x ) (x2 is the common factor)
dx
10.8 Differentiation of a quotient

u
If u and v are functions of x and y = , then:
v
du dv
v −u
dy dx dx
=
dx v2
Example 10.9
dy ex
Find if: i) y =
dx x2
loge 2x
ii) y=
sin2x
Solution:
ex
i) y = 2
x
Let u = ex, v = x2
v2 = (x2)2 = x4
du dv
= e=x
, 2x
dx dx
du dv
v −u
dy dx dx
=
dx v2
x 2 × e x − e x × 2x
=
x4
x e x (x − 2)
=
x4
dy e x (x − 2)
Therefore =
dx x3
loge 2x
ii) y =
sin2x
Let u = loge 2x, v = sin 2x
v2 = (sin 2x)2 = sin2 2x
du 1 1 dv
= ×2 = , = 2 cos 2x
dx 2x x dx
1
dy sin2x × x − loge 2x × 2cos 2x
=
dx sin2 2x
sin2x − 2cos 2x loge 2x × x

= x
sin2 2x
dy sin2x − 2x cos 2x loge 2x
or =
dx x sin2 2x
10.9 Numerical values of differential coefficients
Example 10.10
dy
Find the value of for the following curves:
dx
i) y = 2x − 4x − x + 5, at the point where x = 2.
3 2
π
ii) y = cos 2x − 2 sin x, at x =
4
Solution:
i) y = 2x3 − 4x2 − x + 5
dy
= 6x 2 − 8x − 1
dx
dy
At x = 2, = 6( 2)2 − 8 × 2 − 1
dx
dy
Therefore = 24 − 16 − 1 = 7
dx
ii) y = cos 2x − 2 sin x
The angle is in radians here, so the mode of your calculator must be set to radians
dy
= −2 sin 2x − 2 cos x
dx
π dy π π
At x = , = −2 × sin( 2 × ) − 2 × cos
4 dx 4 4
dy
or = −2 × 1 − 2 × 0.707 = −3.414
dx
Example 10.11
dy
If y = e2x + e0.4x, find the value of where x = 0.5
dx
Solution:
y = e2x + e0.4x
dy
= 2e2x + 0.4e0.4x
dx
dy
At x = 0.5, = 2 e2×0.5 + 0.4e0.4×0.5
dx
= 2 e1 + 0.4 e0.2
dy
or = 2× 2.7183 + 0.4 ×12214
. = 5.925
dx
Exercise 10.1
Differentiate the following from first principles:
1. y = 2x
2. y = 3x + 5
dy
For questions 3 to 6, find dx if:
3. y = 3x2 + 2
−6
4. y =
x
2
5. y = 5x 2 + 2x + + 5
x
Differentiate the functions, given in questions 6 to 11, with respect to the variable:
6. 2 sin 3x
7. cos 2θ − 3 sin 4θ
8. 4z2 − 2 cos 2z
1
9. loge 2x
2
10. e7x
11. 1
e2x
Exercise 10.2
Use the chain rule to differentiate the following with respect to the variable:
1. (x2 + x)5
2. (2x − 3x +1)
2
1
3.
(2x + 5)3
4. tan (2x + 4)
5. cos 4x
6. sin5 x
7. cos3 3x
8. sin (3x + 8)
1
9.
sin2 x
10. loge (7 − 3x)
11. 4e2x − 1
1
12. 2x + 4
e
Exercise 10.3
Use the product/quotient rule to differentiate the following:
1. y = x cos x
2. y = x2 loge x
3. y = e2x sin 3x

4. y = (2x + 1) tan x
5. y = 3(x2 + 3) sin x
6. y = 4 sin θ cos θ
7. y = (z2 + 2z − 2) sin z
cos x
8. y =
x
2x
9. y =
x+4
x+3
10. y =
sin x
11. y = sec x
12. y = cosec x
e2x
13. y =
x2
2logex
14. y =
sin 2x
Exercise 10.4
The following questions involve the calculation of numerical values of differential coefficients; these have
been taken from Exercises 10.1 and 10.2:
dy
1. Find the value of for the following functions when x = 1.5
dx
−6
a) y =
x
2
b) y = 5x 2 + 2x + + 5
x
2. If y = 4z2 − 2 cos 2z, find the value of dy when z = 0.3

dz π
3. Find the gradient of the curve cos 2θ − 3 sin 4θ, at the point where θ =
5
Find the value of dy for the following functions where x = 0.4
dx
4. loge (7 − 3x)
5. 4e2x − 1
1
6. 2x + 4
e
1. 2
2. 3
3. 6x
3
4. 3/2
x
5. 10x + 2 − 2
x2
6. 6 cos 3x
7. −2 sin 2θ − 12 cos 4θ
8. 8z + 4 sin 2z
1
9.
2x
10. 7e7x
11. − 2e− 2x
1. 5(x2 + x)4 (2x + 1)

2. 1 ( 2x 2 − 3x+1)− ( 4x − 3)
1
2
2
3. −6(2x + 5) − 4
4. 2 sec2 (2x + 4)
5. − 4 sin 4x
6. 5 cos x sin4 x
7. − 9 cos2 3x sin 3x
8. 3 cos (3x + 8)
− 2cos x
9.
sin3 x
−3
10.
7 − 3x
11. 8e2x − 1
−2
12. 2x + 4
e
1. cos x − x sin x
2. 2x loge x + x
3. e2x (2 sin 3x + 3 cos 3x)

4. 2 tan x + (2x + 1) sec2 x
5. 6x sin x + 3(x2 + 3) cos x
6. 4(cos2 θ − sin2 θ)
7. (2z + 2) sin z + (z2 + 2z − 2) cos z
−x sin x − cos x
8.
x2
8
9.
(x + 4)2
10. sin x − ( x + 3)cos x
sin2 x
11. tan x sec x
12. − cot x cosec x
2x e2x (x − 1)
13.
x4
2sin 2x − 4x loge x cos 2x
14.
x sin2 2x
1. a) 1.633
b) 16.111
2. 4.659
3. 7.806
4. − 0.5172
5. 6.5496
6. −0.01646
CHAPTER
11
Applications of differentiation
Topics covered:
• Application of differentiation to solve civil engineering problems
• Second derivatives and their application
• Maximum and minimum, and their application to solve construction related problems
11.1 Application in structural mechanics

In the structural design of beams and slabs the engineers have to determine, as the first step, the
maximum bending moment (BM) and the position where it occurs. If a beam is subjected to uniformly
distributed load or uniformly increasing load, then differentiation may be used to determine the point on
the beam where the maximum BM will occur.
By looking at a typical BM diagram (Figure A1.9, Appendix 1), it will be evident that the bending
moment increases initially and then peaks off at the maximum value, so its slope is 0 at that point.
For calculating the BM at any point on the beam it is necessary to form an equation, which is then
differentiated and equated to 0 as the slope of the line forming the bending moment diagram is 0 at the
maximum value of the BM.
More details on the behaviour of beams can be found on the companion website.
Example 11.1
Find the position and magnitude of the maximum bending moment for the beam shown in Figure 11.1.
2.5 kN/m (udl)
A B
8m 2m
R 1 = 12 kN R 2 = 8 kN
Figure 11.1
168 11 Applications of differentiation
Solution:
Let us assume that the maximum BM occurs at point C, x metres from A, as shown in Figure 11.2.
Bending moment at this point is given by:
x
Mx = R1 × x − 2.5 × x ×
2
x2
= 12 × x − 2.5 ×
2
dMx
At maximum BM the slope of the curve is 0, therefore =0
dx
dMx x
= 12 − 2.5 × 2 × = 0
dx 2
12
12 − 2.5 x = 0 or x = = 4 .8 m
2 .5
(4.8)2
Mx = 12 × 4.8 − 2.5 × = 28.8 kNm
2
2.5 kN/m (udl)

C
A B
x
8m 2m
R 1 = 12 kN R 2 = 8 kN
Figure 11.2
Example 11.2
A simply supported 8 m long beam carries a uniformly increasing load from 0 at 1 end to 5 kN/m at the
other. Find the position and magnitude of the maximum bending moment on the beam.
Solution:
The beam and the load are shown in Figure 11.3.
1
Total load on the beam = × 8 × 5 = 20 kN
2
8
R1 × 8 = 20 × or R1 = 6.67 kNm
3
R2 = 20 kN − 6.67 kN = 13.33 kN
Triangles ADE and ACB are similar:
w 5 5x
= = or w
x 8 8
1 x
BM at point E ( x metres from A ) , Mx = R1 × x − ×w×x×
2 3
1 5x x 2
= 6.67 × x − × ×
2 8 3
Applications of differentiation 11 169
3
5x
= 6.67 × x −
48
dMx
At maximum BM the slope of the curve is zero, therefore =0
dx
dMx 5× 3× x 2
= 6.67 − =0
dx 48
C
D
5 kN/m (udl)
w
A B
x E
8m
R 1 = 6.67 kN R 2 = 13.33 kN
Figure 11.3
5× 3× x2
= 6.67;
48
x2 = 21.344 or x = 4.62 m
5
× ( 4.62) = 20.54 kNm
3
Mx = 6.67 × 4.62 −
48
11.2 Second derivatives

If y = 2x3, then after differentiating:
dy
= 6x 3- 1 or 6x 2 ,
dx
dy
is called the first derivative or the first differential coefficient.
dx
On differentiating the above equation again, we have:
d2 y d2 y
2
= 2 × 6x 2 −1 = 12 x; is called the second derivative or the second differential coefficient of y
dx dx 2
with respect to x.
Example 11.3
d2 y
Find dy and , if:
dx dx 2
i) y = 2x2 − 3x + 2
ii) y = 4 sin 3x − cos 4x
iii) y = e2x − e−2x
Solution:
i) y = 2x2 − 3x + 2
dy
= 4x − 3
dx
d2 y
=4
dx 2
ii) y = 4 sin 3x − cos 4x
dy
= 4 × cos 3x × 3 − ( − sin 4x ) × 4 ( chain rule )
dx
= 12 cos 3x + 4 sin 4x
d2 y
= 12 × ( −sin 3x ) × 3 + 4 × cos 4x × 4
dx 2
= −36 sin 3x + 16 cos 4x = 16 cos 4x − 36 sin 3x
iii) y = e2x − e−2x
dy
= 2e2x − ( −2e-2x ) = 2e 2x + 2e −2x
dx
d2 y
= 2 × 2e2x + 2 × ( −2) e −2x
dx 2
= 4e2x − 4e−2x
11.3 Velocity and acceleration

The rate of change of distance with respect to time is known as velocity. If the distance is denoted by s
and time by t, then:
ds
Velocity =
dt
Since acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time, therefore the second derivative,
d2s
i.e. , will give the acceleration.
dt2
Example 11.4
The distance travelled (s) by a vehicle in time t seconds is given by:
s = t3 − 6t2 + 9t + 4
Calculate: a) the velocity of the vehicle at the end of 5 seconds.

b) the acceleration at the end of 5 seconds.
c) the time when the velocity of the vehicle is 0.
Solution:
a) s = t3 − 6t2 + 9t + 4
ds
Differentiate with respect to s, = 3t2 − 12t + 9
dt
The rate of change of distance (s) with respect to time (t) is known as velocity.
ds
Therefore, velocity = = 3t2 − 12t + 9
dt
ds
= 3 ( 5 ) − 12 ( 5 ) + 9
2
When t = 5,
dt
=75 − 60 + 9 = 24 m/s
b) Since acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time, therefore the second
d2s
derivative, i.e. , will give the acceleration.
dt2
ds
From part (a), = 3t2 − 12t + 9
dt
d2s
= 6t − 12
dt2
Acceleration at the end of 5 seconds = 6 × 5 − 12 = 18 m/s2.
ds
c) is zero, when the velocity of the vehicle is zero.
dt
ds
Therefore, = 3t2 − 12t + 9 = 0
dt
This is a quadratic equation, its solution will give the value of time t
−( −12) ± ( −12)2 − 4 × 3 × 9
t=
2× 3
12 ± 36 12 ± 6
= =
6 6
12 + 6
t= = 3.0 seconds
6
12 − 6
or t = = 1.0 second
6
11.4 Maximum and minimum

There are many examples in construction and engineering where the maximum or minimum value
of a quantity is required. These values are examples of turning points, as shown in Figure 11.4.
The turning point at P is called the maximum turning point and the turning point at Q is called
the minimum turning point; the turning points are not necessarily the maximum and the minimum
values of y. The gradient of the tangents to the curve at the turning points is 0 as the tangents are
horizontal lines. As the gradient of the curve is 0, dy = 0
dx
d2 y
There are 2 methods of distinguishing between a maximum value and a minimum value. If is
dx 2
d2 y
calculated, it is negative at maximum and positive at minimum. If the calculation of is difficult a
dx 2
dy
second test may be used. At a maximum, changes from positive just before to negative just after,
dy dx
and at a minimum changes from negative just before, to positive just after.
dx
Figure 11.4
Example 11.5
Find the maximum and minimum values of y, if: y = x3 − 7x2 − 8x + 15.
Solution:
y = x3 − 7x2 − 8x + 15
dy
Therefore = 3x 2 − 14x − 8
dx
d2 y
= 6x − 14
dx 2
At a turning point dy = 0
dx
dy
= 3x − 14x − 8 = 0
2
dx
The above equation is a quadratic equation and may solved using the quadratic formula:
−( −14 ) ± ( −14 )2 − 4 ( 3)( −8 )
x=
2× 3
14 ± 17.09
=
6
14 + 17.09 14 − 17.09
Either x = = 5.18, or x= = − 0.52
6 6
d2 y
When x = 5.18, = 6x − 14 = 6 × 5.18 − 14 = 17.08
dx 2
Since 17.08 is positive, the turning point at x = 5.18 is a minimum.

To find the minimum value of y, put x = 5.18 in the original equation.
y (minimum) = (5.18)3 − 7(5.18)2 − 8 × 5.18 + 15 = −75.28
d2 y
When x = − 0.52, = 6x − 14 = 6 × (-0.52) − 14 = − 17.12
dx 2
Since 17.12 is negative, the turning point at x = −0.52 is a maximum.
y (maximum) = (−0.52)3 − 7(−0.52)2 − 8 × −0.52 + 15 = 17.13
Example 11.6
The cost (C) of producing x number of a building component is calculated by adding the fixed cost and
the variable cost. If the fixed cost is £1000, and the variable cost is given by 0.05x2 + 20x, determine:
i) the output that will minimise the average cost per component.
ii) the average cost per component.
Solution:
Total cost of producing x number of building components = Fixed cost + Variable cost
= 1000 + 0.05x2 + 20x
i) Average cost (CAv) = Total cost ÷ x
1000 0.05 x 2 20 x
= + +
x x x
1000
= + 0.05x + 20 = 1000x −1 + 0.05x + 20
x
dCAv
Differentiating the above equation, = 1000 ( −1) x −2 + 0.05
dx
dCAv
For maximum/minimum, must be equal to 0
dx
1000(−1)x−2 + 0.05 = 0
1000
0.05 = 1000x −2 or 0.05 =
x2
1000
=
Therefore, x2 = or x 20000 = 141 components
0.05
d2CAv 2000
= − 1000 ( −2) x −3 =
dx 2 x3
This will be positive for all values of x, therefore, x = 141 is a minimum.
1000
ii) Average cost / component = + 0.05x + 20
x
1000
= + 0.05 × 141 + 20
141
= 7.09 + 7.05 + 20 = £34.14
Example 11.7
A 750 litres capacity rectangular tank, with a square base and open top, is to be made from a sheet of
corrosion resistant metal. Find:
i) The dimensions of the tank so that the area of the metal sheet used is minimum.
ii) The area of the metal sheet.
Solution:
750 litres = 0.750 m3

i) Let the length (and width) of the base be x metres, and the height be h metres
Volume of the tank = length × width × height = 0.750 m3
0.750
x × x × h = 0.750, therefore, h = .............................. (1)
x2
Total area of the metal sheet, A = surface area of the tank
= 4 × (x × h) + x2
= 4xh + x2
0.750 0.750
As h = , Therefore A = 4x × + x2
x2 x2
3.0
or A = + x 2 = 3.0x −1 + x 2
x
dA −3.0
Differentiating the above equation, = − 1× 3.0x -2 + 2x = 2 + 2x
dx x
d2 A 6.0
and = ( −2) ( −3.0x ) + 2 = 3 + 2
-3
dx 2 x
dA
For a turning point, =0
dx
−3.0 3.0
Therefore + 2x = 0 or 2x = 2
x2 x
3.0
=
After transposition, 2x 3 3.0 = or x 3 = 1.145 m
2
d2 A 6.0
Test for a minimum : = 3 +2
dx 2 x
6.0
= + 2= 6
(1.145)3
As this value is positive, area of the metal sheet (A) is minimum.
ii) From eq. 1, Height of the tan k, h = 0.750
x2
0.750
As x = 1.145 m, h = = 0.572 m
(1.145)2
Area of the metal sheet, A = 4xh + x2
= 4 × 1.145 × 0.572 + (1.145)2 = 3.931 m2
Exercise 11.1
dy d2 y
1. Find and , if:
dx dx 2
i) y = 2x3 − 3x2 + 2x
ii) y = 3 sin 2x + cos 5x
iii) y = e2x − loge 7x
2. The distance travelled (s) by a vehicle in time t seconds is given by:
s = 0.5t3 − 2t2 + 2t + 5
Calculate: a) the velocity of the vehicle at the end of 4 seconds.
b) the time t seconds, when the vehicle comes to rest.
c) the time when the acceleration of the vehicle is 8 m/s2.
3. Find the position and magnitude of the maximum bending moment on the beam shown in
Figure 11.5.
2 kN/m (udl)
A B
C 6m 2m
x
R1 = 7.5 kN R2= 4.5 kN
Figure 11.5
4. Find the maximum and minimum values of y, if: y = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 6.

5. The profit (P) of a firm manufacturing hardwood doors is given by:
P = 20x − 0.04x2, where x is the number of doors produced (output). Calculate the best output for
maximising the firm’s profit.
6. The cost (C) of producing x number of a roof component is calculated by adding the fixed cost
and the variable cost. If the fixed cost is £25000, and the variable cost is given by 0.05x2 + 20x,
determine:
i) the output that will minimise the average cost per component.
ii) the average cost per component.
7. A steel plate, 700 mm wide, is used to manufacture a hollow beam having a width of b mm
and depth of h mm in cross-section. If the strength of this beam is proportional to bh3, find the
dimensions of the strongest beam.
8. An open channel, made from 200 mm wide strip of steel, is rectangular in cross-section. Calculate
the width and depth of the channel which provide the maximum area of cross-section.
9. An open channel, made from 400 mm wide strip of steel, is triangular in cross-section (see
Figure 11.6). Calculate the depth of the channel and its width at the top so that the area of
cross-section is maximum.
20
m
0m
0m
20
m
Figure 11.6 Open triangular channel
10. A pressurised hot water cylinder has flat top and base. Find the height and diameter of the cylinder
if its capacity is 210 litres and has the least surface area.
Answers − Exercise 11.1

dy d2 y
1. i) = 6x 2 − 6x + 2; 2 = 12x − 6
dx dx
dy d2 y
ii) = 6 cos 2x − 5 sin 5x; 2 = −12 sin 2x − 25 cos 5x
dx dx
dy d2 y
iii) = 2e2x − x −1; 2 = 4e2x + x −2
dx dx
2. a) 10 m/s b) 2 sec. or 0.67 sec. c) 4 sec.
3. Distance = 3.375 m from left support; Max. B.M. = 26.39 kNm
4. y (max) =10; y(min) = 6
5. 250
6. i) 707; ii) £90.71
7. b = 87.5 mm; h = 262.5 mm
8. Width = 100 mm; Depth = 50 mm
9. Width = 282.84 mm; Depth = 141.42 mm
10. Height = 644.22 mm; Diameter = 644.24 mm
CHAPTER
12
Integration

• Indefinite and definite integrals
• Integration by substitution
• Change of limits
• Integration by parts
12.1 Introduction
dy
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. If y = x2, then after differentiation = 2x and after
dx
transposition dy = 2x dx. Here the power of x has been decreased by 1. As integration is the reverse
process of differentiation, the power of x will be increased by 1. Integration is indicated by the sign ( ∫ )
shown in front of the differential; the integration of dy = 2x dx is shown as:
∫ dy = ∫ 2x dx
2x1+ 1 2x 2
y= = = x 2 (increase the power by 1 and divide by the increased power)
1+ 1 2
We can say this as the integral of 2x with respect to x is x2.
So what is integration? we can understand this by considering Figure 12.1a that shows area ABCD.
The area may be determined by first dividing the shape into ‘n’ number of strips of equal width δx. Let
the area of one strip be δA:
δA ≈ y × δx (δA is approximate as the strip is not a perfect rectangle)
Since δx is small, the shaded area at the top of each strip (Figure 12.1b) is small as compared to the
area of the rectangle. The approximate area of figure ABCD is given by the sum of the areas of all the
rectangles.
Area of shape ABCD = Area of all strips = y1δx + y2δx + y3δx + ……. + ynδx
x =b
This can be written as: Area of ABCD = Area = ∑ y δx (Σ denotes the sum)
x =a
178 12 Integration
As δx approaches 0 (written as δx → 0), the shaded area at the top of each strip becomes negligibly
small and the above sum gives the exact value of the area. δx is replaced by dx and the Σ sign is
b
replaced by the integral sign, i.e. ∫. Thus the area is now written as: Area of ABCD = ∫ y dx , where a and
a
b are the limits of integration.
x
x
x
x
Figure 12.1
12.2 Indefinite integrals

If y = x2 + 3, or y = x2 + any number, then:
dy
= 2x , or dy = 2x dx
dx
Integrating the above differential, we have: ∫ dy = ∫ 2x dx , or y = x 2
The answer must account for the number (constant) which was given in the original question. This is
resolved by including a constant (c) in the answer.
Therefore, ∫ 2x dx = x 2 + c, where c is known as the arbitrary constant of integration and the result
containing it is known as the indefinite integral. Table 12.1 shows a selection of the formulae used in
integration:
Integration 12 179
Table 12.1
Formulae for integration:
dy ax n + 1
If = ax n, then y = ∫ ax n dx =
dx n +1
1
∫ sin x = −cos x ∫ cos x = sin x ∫ sinax = − cos ax
a
1 1 1 ax
∫ cos ax = ∫ sec x = tan x = loge x ∫e =
2 ax
sinax ∫ e
a x a
∫e = e
x x
12.2.1 Integration of a sum

When an expression contains several terms, then the result will be the sum of the integrals of the
separate terms. Only 1 arbitrary constant is used.
Example 12.1
Determine the following indefinite integrals:
i) ∫5 dx
ii) ∫6 dθ
iii) 4x3 dx
iv) ∫ (2x − 3x + 2)dx
2
1 
v) ∫  + e3x  dx
x 
vi) ∫ (cos 2x + sin4x)dx
Solution:
i) ∫ 5dx = 5x
ii) ∫ 6 dθ = 6θ
θ
(Note: Depending on the differential, a number after integration results in 5x, 6θ etc.)
4x 3 + 1
iii) ∫ 4x 3 dx = + c (increase the power by one and divide by the increased power)
3 +1
4x 4
= + c = x4 + c
4
2x 2 + 1 3x1+ 1
iv) ∫ (2x − 3x + 2)dx = − + 2x + c
2
2 + 1 1+ 1
2x 3 3x 2
= − + 2x + c
3 2
1  e3x
v) ∫  + e3x  dx = loge x + +c
x  3
180 12 Integration
sin2x −cos 4x
vi) ∫ (cos 2x + sin4x)dx = + +c
2 4
sin2x cos 4x
= − +c
2 4
12.3 Definite integrals

An integral between 2 limits, the upper limit and the lower limit, is known as a definite integral. The
indefinite integral is determined first and then the limits are used to find the definite value. The constant
of integration disappears in this process. Let us assume that the upper and lower limits of an integral
are b and a, then:
The value of the integral = the value of indefinite integral due to b − the value of indefinite integral due to a
Example 12.2
3
Evaluate ∫ (x 2 − 1)dx
1
Solution:
The first step is to go through the integration process and use the square brackets to show that this has
been done. The second step involves the evaluation of the integral by putting x = 3 (upper limit) first and
then putting x = 1 (lower limit), as shown:
3
3  x3 
∫ (x − 1)dx =  − x 
2
1  3 1
33 13
= ( − 3) − ( − 1)
3 3
1
= ( 9 – 3 ) – ( − 1)
3
2 2
= 6 – (− ) = 6 +
3 3
2
=6 or 6.67
3
Example 12.3
1
Evaluate i) ∫ e3x dx
0
11
(sin2θθ−−1)d
ii) ∫∫(sin2 1)dθθ
00
Solution:
1
1
 1 3x 
∫ e dx =  e 
3x
0  3 0
1 1
= e3 × 1 – e3 × 0
3 3
1 3 1 0 1 1
= e − e = × 20.086 − × 1= 6.36
3 3 3 3
Integration 12 181
1
ii) ∫ (sin2θ − 1)dθ =  − 1 cos 2θ − θ 

1
 2 
0  0
1 1
= [ − cos 2 × 1 − 1] − [ − cos 2 × 0 − 0 ]
2 2
1 1
=− cos 2 – 1+ cos 0
2 2
(Your calculator must be set to give the values of angles in radians)
1 1
=− × ( −0.416 ) − 1+ × 1
2 2
= 0.208 − 1 + 0.5 = − 0.292
12.4 Integration by substitution

The method of substitution may be used to simplify the integration of complex integrals. For example,
the integration of (2x − 3)5 may be done by expanding the expression first and then use the method
described in section 12.1.1. However, this is time consuming process, and to solve this question
quickly, integration by substitution may be used, as shown in example 12.4.
Example 12.4
Find ∫ (2x − 3)5 dx
Solution:
Let u = 2x − 3
du du
=
Differentiating u, 2=, or dx
dx 2 du
After substitution the question now becomes ∫ (u)5 ×
2
du 1 5
∫ (u) 5
× = ∫ u du
2 2
1 u6 1
= × + c = ( 2x − 3 ) + c
6
2 6 12
Example 12.5
3 x dx
Evaluate ∫
2 (x 2 − 1)
Solution:
Let u = x2 − 1
du du
=
Differentiating u, =
2x or dx
dx 2x
3 x dx 3 x du
After substitution, ∫2 =∫ ×
(x 2 − 1) 2 u 2x
182 12 Integration
131 1 3
= ∫ du = loge u 2
22 u 2
1 3
= loge (x 2 − 1)
2 2
1
= loge (32 − 1) − loge (22 − 1)
2
1
= loge 8 − loge 3
2
1
= 2.0794 − 1.0986  = 0.49
2
Example 12.6
1
Find ∫ sin2 θ cos θ dθ
2
Solution:
Let u = sin θ
du du
After differentiation, = cos θ or dθ =
dθ cos θ
1 2 1 du
After substitution, ∫ sin θ cos θ dθ = ∫ u2 cos θ
2 2 cos θ
1 2 1 u3
= ∫ u du = × + c
2 2 3
u3 1
= + c = sin3 θ + c
6 6
12.5 Change of limits

It is sometimes more convenient to change the limits while integrating definite integrals using the
substitution method. The necessity of reintroducing the original variable is avoided by changing the
limits.
Example 12.7
2
Evaluate ∫ (x 2 + 3) 3x dx
1
Solution:
du du
Let u= x 2 + 3; = 2x or dx =
dx 2x
Change limits: When x = 2, u = 22 + 3 = 7
When x = 1, u = 12 + 3 = 4
Integration 12 183
2 7 du 3 7 1/2
∫ (x + 3) 3x dx = ∫ (u) 3x = ∫ (u) du
2 1/2
1 4 2x 2 4
7
 
3  u3/2  3 2 3 / 2 3 / 2
=   = × 7 − 4 
2 3  2 3
 2  4
= 18.52 − 8.0 = 10.52
Example 12.8
π /3
Evaluate ∫ sin2 θ cos θ dθ
0
Solution:
Let u = sin θ
du du
After differentiation, = cos θ or dθ =
dθ cos θ
Change limits: When θ = π/3, u = sin π/3 = 0.866
When θ = 0, u = sin 0 = 0
π /3 0.866 du
∫ sin θ cos θ dθ = ∫ u cos θ
2 2
0 0 cos θ
0.866
0.866  u3 
= ∫ u du =  
2
0  3 0
 0.8663 03 
= −  = 0.216
 3 3
12.6 Integration by parts

Integration by parts is a special rule which can be used to integrate the product of 2 functions.
Let y = u × v, where u and v are 2 functions
dy d du dv
After differentiating, = (uv) = v +u
dx dx dx dx
dv d du
u = (uv) − v
dx dx dx
If we integrate both sides with respect to x, we have:
dv d(uv) du
∫u dx = ∫ dx − ∫ v dx
dx dx dx
dv du
∫u dx = uv − ∫ v dx
dx dx
∫ udv = uv − ∫ v du (integration by parts rule )
The formula replaces the integral on the left with another integral (on the right) that is simpler.
184 12 Integration
Example 12.9
Find ∫x sinx dx
Solution:
On comparing ∫ x sin x dx with the left side of the ‘integration by parts rule’
u = x and dv = sin x dx
du
Differentiating u = x, we have =1
dx
Integrating ∫dv = ∫sinx dx we have v = − cos x
Substituting the above in the ‘integration by parts rule’: ∫ udv = uv − ∫ v du
∫ x sin x dx = x( − cosx) − ∫ ( − cos x)(1)dx

= − x cos x − (− sin x)
∫ x sinx dx = sin x – x cos x +c
Example 12.10
2
Evaluate ∫ x e x dx
1
Solution:
2
On comparing ∫ x e x dx with the left side of the ’ integration by parts rule’
1
u = x and dv = ex dx
du
Differentiating u = x, we have =1
dx
Integrating ∫ dv = ∫ e dx , we have v = ex
x
Substituting the above in the ‘integration by parts rule’: ∫ udv = uv − ∫ v du
∫ x e dx = x e − ∫ (e )(1)dx
x x x
= x ex − ex
2 2
∫ x e dx =  x e − e  0
x x x
= [2 × e2 − e2] − [0 × e0 − e0]
= [14.778 − 7.389] − [0 − 1] = 8.389
Exercise 12.1
Integrate the following with respect to the variable:
1. ( 2x + 4 − 12 ) dx
x
2. (2x + 1)2 dx
Integration 12 185
3. (sin 3θ − cos 4θ) dθ

1 2
4. (e x + 3x − ) dx
e x
5. ( x + 3)2 dx
Evaluate the following (Q6 to Q11):

2
6. ∫ (2x − 4x)dx
2
2 1
7. ∫ ( x + )dx
1 x
π /2
8. ∫ 2sin3θ dθ
0
1 x
9. ∫ 2cos dx
0.5 2
1 3
10. ∫ dx
−1 2e3x
3
11. ∫ (e
x/3
+ e − x/4 ) dx
2
Use substitution for Q.12 to Q.15:
12. Find ∫ 4x( (1 − x )dx

2
1 x dx
13. Evaluate ∫
0 x2 + 1
1
2
14. Evaluate ∫ tan x sec x dx
0
2loge x 2
15. Evaluate ∫ dx
1 x
Use substitution and change of limits for Q.16 to Q.18:
2 2
16. Evaluate ∫ 2x e x −1
dx
1
0.5
17. Evaluate ∫ sin(2x + 1)dx
0
1
18. Evaluate ∫ x ( 1+ x 2 ) dx
0
Use integration by parts to find/evaluate the following integrals:

19. ∫ 2x loge x dx
20. ∫ x 3 loge x dx
2
21. ∫ x cos x dx
2 log x
22. ∫
e
dx
1 x2
1
23. ∫ x (x + 1)2 dx
0
186 12 Integration

1
1. x 2 + 4x + +c
x
4x 3
2. + 2x 2 + x +c
3
−cos 3θ sin4θ
3. − +c
3 4
1
4. e x − 3x − 2 loge x + c
3e
x2
5. + 4x + 9x + c
3/2
2
6. − 1.33
7. 2.047
8. 0.67
9. 0.928
10. 10.018
11. 2.848
4
12. − (1− x 2 )3/2 + c
3
13. 0.414
14. 1.213
15. 0.48
16. 19.086
17. 0.478
18. 0.609
x2
19. x loge x − +c
2
2
x4 x4
20. loge x − +c
4 16
21. (x2 − 2) sin x + 2x cos x + c
22. 0.1534
23. 1.416
CHAPTER
13
Applications of integration

• Area under a curve
• Area enclosed between a curve and a straight line
• Volumes of revolution
• Civil engineering applications
13.1 Introduction
There are many applications of integration in civil engineering and building services engineering, but it
is possible to consider only some of them here. Integration is used in several applications such as:
- Calculation of centroids and second moments of area of engineering components.
- Determination of areas under curves.
- Determination of volumes of revolution.
- Civil engineering processes in geotechnics, structural mechanics, fluid mechanics and other disciplines.
Some of these are dealt with in this chapter but centroids and second moment of areas are considered
in another chapter.
13.2 Area under a curve

The area shown in Figure 13.1 may be determined by several methods depending on the degree of
accuracy required. Integration may be used to give more accurate results as compared to methods such
as the trapezoidal rule or the Simpson’s rule. For determining the area of shape ABCD, shown in Figure
13.1, the shape is divided into ‘n’ number of strips of equal width δx. Let the area of 1 strip be δA, then:
δA ≈ y × δx
The approximate area of figure ABCD is given by the sum of the areas of all strips.
x =b
Area of shape ABCD = Area of all strips = ∑ y δx
x =a
188 13 Applications of integration
As δx approaches 0 the above sum gives the exact value of the area. δx is replaced by dx and the
b
Σ sign is replaced by the integral sign. Thus area ABCD is given by: Area of ABCD = ∫ y dx (a and b are
a
the limits of integration)
For more details of the above process refer to section 12.1.
x
x
Figure 13.1
Example 13.1
Find the area (shaded) shown in Figure 13.2.
3x
y=
O x
x=0 x=5
Figure 13.2
Solution:
5
Area, A = ∫ y dx
0
5
= ∫ 3x dx
0
( y = 3x, is the equation of the line )
5
 3 x2  3 2 5
=  =  x  0
 2 0 2
Applications of integration 13 189
Therefore, Area = 3 52 − 02  = 37.5 square units

2 
Example 13.2
Find the area enclosed by the curve y = x3, the x-axis and ordinates x = 1 m and x = 3 m.
Solution:
3
Area, A = ∫ y dx
1
( y = x , is the equation of the curve )

3
= ∫ x 3 dx 3
3
 x4  1 3
=   =  x 4 
4
 1 4 1
1 4 4
Therefore, Area = 3 − 1  = 20 m2
4
13.3 Area enclosed between a curve and a straight line

Figure 13.3 shows a straight line intersecting the curve at 2 points and hence encloses the shaded
area. The shaded area is the difference between the area under the curve and the area under the
straight line.
y
D
C
E
A B
O x
x=a x=b
Figure 13.3
Example 13.3
Find the area between the curve y = 5x − x2 and the line y = x + 3
Solution:
Refer to Figure 13.3.
The points of intersection of the 2 graphs are found by solving the equation:
5x − x2 = x + 3 or x2 − 4x + 3 = 0
(x − 1)(x − 3) = 0 Therefore x = 1 or x = 3
The above values of x are the limits of integration.
3 3
Area AEDCBA = ∫ y dx = ∫ (5x − x 2 )dx
1 1
3
 5x 2 x 3 
= − 
 2 3 1
 5 × 32 33   5 × 12 13 
= − − − 
 2 3  2 3
= [22.5 − 9] − [2.5 − 0.33] = 11.33
3 3
Area AECBA = ∫ y dx = ∫ (x + 3)dx
1 1
3
 x2 
=  + 3x 
 2 1
 32   12 
=  + 3 × 3 −  + 3 × 1
2  2 
= [4.5 + 9] − [0.5 + 3] = 10.0

Enclosed area (shaded) = 11.33 − 10.0 = 1.33 square units (2 d.p.)
13.4 Volumes of revolution

Consider the triangle shown in Figure 13.4a. If this triangle is rotated 1 complete revolution about the
x-axis, then it will trace out a cone which is known as the solid of revolution (Figure 13.4b).
y y
A A
Triangle Cone
B x B x
O O
(a) (b) C
Figure 13.4
Figure 13.5 shows an area under the curve y = f(x) and a thin strip of thickness δx. If this area is
rotated about the x-axis, the strip will produce a disc of nearly uniform area of cross-section. Thus
the approximate volume of the disc is πy2δx. The volume of revolution is made up of several such
elementary discs, hence the complete volume of revolution is the sum of all the elementary discs
between the values of x = a, and x = b.
Volume of revolution = ∑ πy 2 δx ( approximately )
x =b
x =a
As the thickness of the discs approaches zero (δx → 0) they can be considered as discs with uniform
area of cross-section.
Volume of disc = πy2 dx
The accurate volume can be calculated by finding the sum of infinite number of discs. This can be
achieved by integrating the volume of discs between the limits x = a and x = b
b
Volume of revolution = ∫ πy 2 dx
a
O x
x=a δx x=b
(a)
δx
O a x
b
(b)
Figure 13.5
Example 13.4
Find the volume of revolution between the limits x = 1 and x = 5, when the curve y = 3x2 is rotated about
the x-axis.
Solution:
5 5
Volume of revolution = ∫ π y 2 dx = ∫ π (3x 2 )2 dx
1 1
5 5
= ∫ π ( 3 x ) dx = ∫ 9π x 4 dx
2 2
1 1
5
 x5  55 15
= 9π   = 9π − 9π
 5 1 5 5
= 9π ( 625 − 0.2) = 17665.8 cubic units
13.5 Earth pressure on retaining walls

Retaining walls and other earth-retaining structures are constructed to maintain the ground surfaces
at different levels on either side of them. It is necessary to calculate the lateral pressure exerted by the
retained soil on the retaining structures so that the structures can be designed and their safety checked.
Retaining
wall y Pressure diagram
Pa
dy
H
Figure 13.6 Earth pressure on a retaining wall
Consider the retaining wall shown in Figure 13.6. If γ is the unit weight and ϕ is the angle of shearing
resistance of the soil, then
Vertical stress at y metres below the soil surface (σv) = γy (1)
If σh is the horizontal stress due to the retained earth, then
σ
Coefficient of active earth pressure, K a = h (2)
σv
From equations 1 and 2, σh = Kaγy
Consider a strip of unit length and very small height dy

Area of the strip = 1 × dy = dy
Therefore force on the strip = σh × dy = Kaγy dy
Total thrust (force) on the wall, Pa, can be calculated by integrating Kaγy dy
within the limits 0 and H (H = height of the wall).
H
Pa = ∫ K a γy dy
0
H
 y2 
= K a γ 
 2 0
 H2 02  1
Pa = K a γ − Kaγ  = K a γH
2
 2 2  2
1− sin ϕ
The value of Ka depends on the value of the angle of shearing resistance (ϕ) and is given by K a =
1+ sinϕ
1
Ka = , when ϕ = 30º
3
Example 13.5
A retaining wall is to be designed to retain a 5 m deep soil deposit. Calculate the total force on the wall
due to the soil deposit if the unit weight of soil is 18.0 kN/m3 and the coefficient of active earth pressure
is 0.33.
Solution:
H 5
Total force on the wall, Pa = ∫ K a γy dy = ∫ 0.33 × 18.0 y dy
0 0
5
5  y2 
= 5.94 ∫ y dy = 5.94  
0  2 0
 52 0 2 
= 5.94  −  = 74.25 kN
2 2
13.6 Permeability of soils

Darcy (circa 1856) proposed that the flow of water through a soil could be expressed as
v = ki
where v is the velocity of water flow
k is the coefficient of permeability of the soil
 loss of head ∆h 
i is the hydraulic gradient  i = = 
 lengthof soil sample L 
This equation is considered to be one of the most important equations in soil mechanics. In order to
determine the coefficient of permeability in a fine grained soil, a falling head permeameter (Figure 13.7)
is used. A standpipe of cross-sectional area ‘a’ mm2 is fitted over the mould that contains the soil
sample. Water is allowed to flow through the permeameter, and the head of water (h) at any time (t) is
the difference in the water level in the standpipe and the bottom tank.
Stand pipe
h1
Stop valve
h2 Soil
Sample L
Figure 13.7 Falling head permeameter
Let h1 and h2 be the heads at time intervals t1 and t2. Let h be the head at time interval t and −dh be
the change in the head in a small time interval dt.
dh
Velocity of flow, v = −
dt
(minus sign shows that the head decreases with time)
dh
Flow into the soil sample, qin = − a
dt
Flow through and out of the sample, qout = Av = Aki
(A is the cross-sectional area of the sample)
dh
As qout = qin, Therefore Aki = − a
dt
h dh
Ak = − a
L dt Ak dh
After transposition, dt = −
aL h
Integrating between the limits t1 and t2, and h1 and h2
t
2 Ak h
2 dh
∫ dt = ∫ −
t aL
1 h
1 h
Ak t2 h1
dh
∫ dt = ∫
aL t 1 h h
2
Example 13.6
The results of falling head permeability test on a fine grained soil are given below:
Initial head of water in standpipe = 1500 mm

Final head of water in standpipe = 700 mm
Sample length = 150 mm
Sample diameter = 100 mm
Standpipe diameter = 5 mm
Duration of test = 300 seconds
Calculate the permeability of the soil.
Solution:
π
Cross-sectional area of the sample, A = × 1002 = 7853.982 mm2
4
π
Cross-sectional area of the standpipe, a = × 52 = 19.635 mm2
4
7853.982 × k 300 1500 dh
∫ dt = ∫
19.635 × 150 0 700 h
300 1500
2.667 × k  t  0
= logeh 700
2.667 × k ×[300 − 0] = loge 1500 − loge 700
k × 800.1 = 0.762
k (coefficient of permeability) = 9.53 × 10−4 mm/s
13.7 Bending moment and shear force in beams

When structural engineers prepare the structural design of beams, they have to consider the forces
and their effects on the beams. Shear forces and bending moments are caused by the forces and they
affect the beams in several ways. Shear forces, as the name says, tend to cause shearing of the fibres
of the material from which the beam has been manufactured. The forces also try to cause deflection in
a beam which is due to their turning or rotational effect. This turning effect is known as the moment of a
force or bending moment. For more information refer to Appendix 1.
The magnitude of bending moments for simple cases may be determined from shear force diagrams
by integration. The area of shear force diagram gives the magnitude of bending moment, as shown in
the following example.
Example 13.7
The bending moment in a beam may be calculated from the area enclosed by the shear force diagram.
Calculate area of the shear force diagram and hence the bending moment at 2.5 m from the beam end.
Use 0 m and 2.5 m as the limits of integration.
Solution:
The shear force diagram (SFD) and the bending moment diagram (BMD) are shown in Figure 13.8.
Slope of the line forming the SFD (line CD), m = 11 ÷ 4 = − 2.75 (negative slope)
Intercept c = 11 kN, therefore equation of line CD is: y = − 2.75 x + 11
(the standard equation of a straight line is: y = mx + c)
2.75 kN/m (udl)
A B
8m
R 1 = 11 kN R 2 = 11 kN
11 kN F 4.0 m
D B
A 2.5 m G
11 kN
Shear force diagram
2.5 m E
Mx Max. B.M.
Bending moment diagram
Figure 13.8
As the bending moment is equal to the area of the SFD, therefore:

Let Mx be the bending moment at 2.5 m from A
2.5
Mx = Area ACFG of the SFD = ∫ ( − 2.75 x + 11) dx
0
2.5
 −2.75 x 2 
= + 11x 
 2 0
 −2.75 × 2.52  0 
= + 11× 2.5  −  + 0 
 2   2 
= − 8.59 + 27.5 = 18.91 kNm
Exercise 13.1
1. Determine the area enclosed by the line y = 3x + 1, the x-axis and the ordinates x = 1 and x = 3.
2. Calculate the area enclosed by the curve y = 2x2 + 5, the x-axis and the ordinates x = 1 and x = 4.
π
3. Find the area under the curve y = sin θ, between θ = 0 and θ = .
2
4. Find the area between the curve y = 7x − x2 and the line y = x + 5.
For questions 5 to 7, find the volume of revolution between the given limits when the following
curves are rotated about the x-axis:
5. y = 3; limits: x = 0 and x = 4.
6. y = 0.6x; limits: x = 0 and x = 10.
7. y = 2x2 + 3x; limits: x = 2 and x = 5.
8. Find the volume of a cone by integration if its base diameter and the height are 20 cm and 30 cm,
respectively.
9. The dimensions of the slump cone which is used for testing fresh concrete are shown in Figure
13.9. Use the method of integration to find the volume of the slump cone in mm3 and litres.

300 mm

Figure 13.9 The slump cone
10. A retaining wall is to be designed to retain a 6 m deep soil deposit. If the unit weight of the retained
soil is 18.0 kN/m3 and the coefficient of active earth pressure is 0.33, calculate the force on the wall
due to the soil deposit at a depth of: a) 4 m b) 6 m.
11. The bending moment in a beam may be calculated from the area enclosed by the shear force
diagram. If the equation of the straight line forming the shear force diagram is:
y = − 2.5x + 10 (y represents the shear force and x is the distance along the beam)
use integration to calculate the bending moment at 2.2 m from the beam end. Use 0 m and 2.2 m
as the limits of integration.

1. 14.0 square units
3. 1.0 square unit
5. 113.1 cubic units

8. 3141.59 cm3
9. 5497840.55 mm3 or 5.498 litres
10. a) 47.52 kN b) 106.92 kN
11. 15.95 kNm
CHAPTER
14
Properties of sections

• Centroids of simple shapes
• Centroids of simple/complex shapes by integration
• Second moment of area and radius of gyration
• Parallel axis theorem
14.1 Centroids of simple shapes

If an object is suspended by a string, it will only balance when its centre of gravity is vertically in line
with the string. The entire mass of the object may be considered to act at its centre of gravity. When an
area is considered, rather than the mass, the term centre of area or centroid is used for the point where
the centre of gravity of the area would be situated. The area may be represented by a lamina i.e. a thin
flat sheet of negligible thickness and mass.
The positions of the centre of gravity of common shapes are well known, for example, the centre
of gravity of a thin flat circular disc is at the centre of the disc, therefore we may say that the centroid
of a circular area is at the centre of the area. Similarly, the centroid of a rectangular area is at the
intersection of the centre lines, as shown in Figure 14.1.
G G
Figure 14.1 Position of the centroid (G)

200 14 Properties of sections
The first moment of area, defined as the product of the area and the perpendicular distance of its
centroid from a given axis in the plane of the area, is used to determine the position of the centroid
(Figure 14.2a). Let x and y be the co-ordinates of the centroid, as shown in Figure 14.2b:
ΣAx ΣAy
x= and y= (14.1)
ΣA ΣA
where ΣAx and ΣAy are the sum of the first moments of the component areas
about the axes Oy and Ox respectively.
ΣA is the sum of the component areas
Area A y
G
x G
h
First moment y
of area = A x h
A A x
O
(a) (b)
Figure 14.2
Example 14.1
Find the position of the centroid of the shape shown in Figure 14.3.

All dimensions in mm

Figure 14.3
Solution:
Let Ox and Oy be the reference axes.
The shape has been divided into two parts, as shown in Figure 14.4. The centroids of both parts (G1
and G2) are also shown in the figure. Let G be the centroid of the whole section; situated at x from axis
Oy and y from axis Ox.
Properties of sections 14 201

G2

x G

G1

y

o x

Figure 14.4
Area Distance to centroid Moment of area

From y-axis From x-axis About Oy About Ox
A (mm2) x (mm) y (mm) Ax Ay
1 70 × 40 = 2800 20 35 2800 × 20 = 56 000 2800 × 35 = 98 000
2 40 × 30 = 1200 60 55 72 000 66 000
ΣA = 4000 ΣAx = 128 000 ΣAy = 164 000
ΣAx 128000
x= = = 32.0 mm
ΣA 4000
ΣAy 164000
y= = = 41.0 mm
ΣA 4000
Example 14.2
Find the position of the centroid of the area shown in Figure 14.5.


Figure 14.5
Solution
The shape has been divided into 3 parts, as shown in Figure 14.6. The centroids of all 3 parts are
also shown in the figure. Let G be the centroid of the shape; G is situated at x from Oy and at y from
Ox.

2 3
G2 G G3

1 G1
o x

Figure 14.6

From From About Oy About Ox
y-axis x-axis
A (mm2) x (mm) Y (mm) Ax Ay
1 150 × 12 = 1800 75 6 1800 × 75 = 135 000 1800 × 6 = 10 800
2 12 × 78 = 936 6 51 936 × 6 = 5616 936 × 51 = 47 736
3 12 × 78 = 936 144 51 936 × 144 = 134 784 936 × 51 = 47 736
ΣA = 3672 ΣAx = 275 400 ΣAy = 106 272
ΣAx 275400
x= = = 75.0 mm
ΣA 3672
ΣAy 106272
y= = = 28.94 mm
ΣA 3672
14.2 Centroids of simple/complex shapes by integration

The shapes are split up into small elements δA1, δA2, δA3 etc. having co-ordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3)
etc. from the reference axes.
From equations 14.1, we have
ΣδA x ΣδA y
x= , and y=
ΣδA ΣδA
As δA → 0, the summations tend to integrals, (also see section 12.1)
∫ x dA ∫ y dA
x= , and y= (14.2)
A A
where A is the total area of the shape.
Example 14.3
Find the position of the centroid of a rectangle, by integration.
Solution:
Figure 14.7 shows rectangle ABCD drawn on x-axis and y-axis. An elementary strip of length d and
thickness δx is situated at a distance of x from Oy. Let the co-ordinates of the centroid be x, y.
Figure 14.7
b
∫ x ( d dx )
By integration,x = 0
b
∫ d dx
0
b
 x2   b2 
d 2  d 
= 0 =  2 
b
d x  0 db 
b
=
2
db
∫ ( d dx )
y = 2b
0
( dx after integration becomes x )
∫ d dx
0
b
 2 x  2 b
d 2  d 2 
=   0
= 
b
d x  0 db 
d
=
2
b d
The centroid lies at ( , )
2 2
Example 14.4
Find, by integration, the position of the centroid of the triangle, shown in Figure 14.8.
y
dy _
y
h
x
Q
b
Figure 14.8
Solution
Consider an elementary strip of thickness dy at a distance y from the apex. Let the length of the strip
be x.
Area of the strip (dA) = x dy (14.3)
x b
From similar triangles, =
y h
b
or x = y (14.4)
h
b
From (14.3 ) and (14.4 ) , dA = y dy
h
y dA
From equations (14.2) , y = ∫
A
h b
∫y y dy
=0 h
b×h
2
2b h 2
∫ y dy
= h 0
b×h
h
2  y3  2  h3 
=   =  
h2  3  0 h2  3 
2h
y=
3
1
The centroid of the triangle (G) lies on the median (PQ), 2h from the apex or h from the base.
3 3
Example 14.5
Find, by integration, the position of the centroid of the sector of a circle of radius r and an angle of α
radians subtended at the centre.
Solution:
δθ
α
α/2
θ
−α/2
Figure 14.9
The sector is shown in Figure 14.9a. By symmetry, the centroid (G) of the sector lies on the x-axis.
The sector can be divided into elementary strips, 1 of which is shown in Figure 14.9b. The angle of the
strip is δθ, and by considering the strip to be a triangle, its area is given by:
1
Area of the element = × base × height
2
1 1
= × rδθ × r = × r 2δθ
2 2
2
The centroid of the strip is at a distance of r from O. The perpendicular distance from the centroid to
3
Oy is 2 r cos θ .
3
α 1
Area of sector = πr 2 × = r 2α
2π 2
1 2 2
First moment of area of the element = × r δθ × r cos θ
2 3
First moment of area of the sector = Sum of the first moment of area of all elementary strips
θ = α /2 1 2 2
= ∑ r δθ × r cos θ
θ = − α /2 2 3
α/2 1 3
= ∫ r cos θ dθ
-α / 2 3
1 3 α /2
= r sin θ  − α /2
3
1 3
= r sin α / 2 − sin ( − α / 2)
3 
1 3
= r sin α
3
First moment of area of the sector

x=
Total area of the sector
1 3
r sin α
3 2 sin α
= = r
1 2 3 α
r α
2
14.3 Second moment of area

The second moment of area is a property of an area used in several civil engineering and structural
engineering calculations. It is denoted by I, and is used in the theory of bending which states that
M σ E
= =
I y R
Figure 14.10 shows a strip of very small width at distance x1 from axis yy. Let the area of the strip be
δA1. Its first moment of area about axis yy is δA1 x1. Its second moment of area about yy is given by δA1
x12. The second moment of area Iy of the whole section about yy is the sum of all the second moments
of the elementary areas, i.e.
Iyy = δA1 x12 + δA2 x22 + .........................

= Σ δA x2 (14.5)
As δA → 0, the summation becomes an integral, Iyy = ∫ x 2 dA

The above formula may be applied for determining the second moment of area of a rectangle, as
shown in example 14.6.
Figure 14.10
14.4 Radius of gyration

Several elemental areas δA1, δA2 etc. at distances x1, x2 etc. from a fixed axis may be replaced by a
single area A (A = δA1 + δA2 + ....) at distance k from the axis, so that Ak2 = Σ δA x2, where k is known as
the radius of gyration of area A about the given axis.
From 14.5, Σ δA x2 = I, therefore Ak2 = I
I
Radius of gyration, k =
A
Example 14.6
Find the second moment of area of the rectangle shown in Figure 14.11.
Solution:
Figure 14.11
Consider a small strip of width δy, at a distance y from Ox

Area of the strip, δA = b × δy
x =d
Second moment of area about Ox = ∑ (b × δy) y
2
x =0
d
d  y 3  bd3
= b ∫ y 2 dy = b   =
0  3 0 3
(Note: depth is always perpendicular to the axis being considered)
Example 14.7
For the beam shown in Figure 14.12, find the second moment of area about the axes AA, XX and YY.
Solution:
Y
b = 12 cm Beam
X X d = 20 cm
A A
Y
Figure 14.12
bd3
Second moment of area about AA ,IAA =
3
12 × 203
= = 32000 cm4
3
bd3 bd3
Second moment of area about XX,IXX = +
3 3
(d here is 20 ÷ 2, as Axis XX passes through the middle of the beam)
12 × 103 12 × 103
= + = 8000 cm4
3 3
db3 db3
Second moment of area about YY,IYY = +
3 3
(As before b here is 12 ÷ 2, i.e. 6 cm)

20 × 63 20 × 63
= + = 2880 cm4
3 3
14.5 The parallel axis theorem

Figure 14.13 shows a plane area whose centroid is G. There are 2 parallel axes, 1 passes through the
centroid and the other is at a distance h from the first. According to the parallel axis theorem:
IH = IG + Ah2 where IH is the second moment of area about the parallel axis
IG is the second moment of area about the axis passing through the centroid
A is the cross-sectional area of the section
Area A
G Axis through
the centroid
Parallel axis
Figure 14.13
The parallel axis theorem can be used to determine the second moment of area of a rectangle about
the axis through its centroid. Figure 14.14 shows a rectangle of width b and depth d. If I is the second
moment of area about HH, then:
IH = IG + Ah2 (A = area = bd)
bd3 d
= IG + bd × h2 (h= )
3 2
d2 bd3
= IG + bd × = IG +
4 4
bd3 bd3 bd3

IG = − = (14.6)
3 4 12
G
d
H H
Figure 14.14
Example 14.8
Figure 14.15 shows the cross-section of a timber beam. Find its second moment of area about
axis AA.
Solution:
b =10 cm
G d = 16 cm
8 cm
h
2 cm
A A
Figure 14.15
IAA = IG + Ah2
bd3
= + bd × h2
12
10 × 163
= + 10 × 16 × 102
12
= 3413.33 + 16 000 = 19 413.33 cm4
Example 14.9
Use equation 14.6 to determine IXX and IYY of the beam shown in Figure 14.12.
Solution:
Axes XX and YY pass through the centroid of the beam.
bd3
Second moment of area about XX, IXX =
12
12 × 203
= = 8000 cm4
12
db3
Second moment of area about YY,IYY =
12
20 × 123
= = 2880 cm4
12
Example 14.10
Determine the second moment of area of the section shown in Figure 14.16 about axes AA, XX and YY.
Solution:
10 cm
Y
G1 1 2 cm
G2 8 cm
X X
2 cm
G3 3 4 cm
A A
Y
Figure 14.16
The section is divided into 3 rectangles, 1, 2 and 3, and their centroids denoted by G1, G2 and G3.
The centroid of the whole section will lie on the axis of symmetry YY but its exact position needs to be
determined as the section is not perfectly symmetrical.
Area Distance of centroid Moment of area

From axis AA About AA
A (cm2) y (cm) Ay
1 20 13 20 × 13 = 260
2 16 8 16 × 8 = 128
3 40 2 40 × 2 = 80
ΣA = 76 ΣAy = 468
ΣAy 468
y= = = 6.16 cm
ΣA 76
The centroid is positioned on axis YY at a distance of 6.16 cm from axis AA.

Second moment of area about axis AA
Area 1: The second moment of area of Area 1 about AA is given by:
IAA = IG1 + A1h12
10 × 23
= + 20 × 132 ( A 1 = 20; h1 = 4 + 8 + 1 = 13)
12
= 6.67 + 3380 = 3386.67 cm4

IAA = IG2 + A2h22
2 × 83
= + 16 × 82 ( A 2 = 16; h2 = 4 + 4 = 8 )
12
= 85.33 + 1024 = 1109.33 cm4
Area 3: The base of Area 3 coincides with axis AA, therefore:
bd3
IAA =
3
10 × 43
= = 213.33 cm4
3
Therefore, IAA = 3386.67 + 1109.33 + 213.33 = 4709.3 cm4

Second moment of area about axis XX
IAA = IXX + Ah2
IXX = IAA – A × h2
= 4709.33 – 76 × 6.162 = 4709.33 – 2883.87 = 1825.5 cm4

Second moment of area about axis YY
Axis YY passes through the centroids of all three parts
b1d13 b2d23 b3d3 3

IYY = + +
12 12 12
2 × 103 8 × 23 4 × 103
= + + = 166.67 + 5.33 + 333.33 = 505.3 cm4
12 12 12
Exercise 14.1
1. Find the position of the centroid of the areas (a to d) shown in Figure 14.17.

(a) (b)

Hole
Radius = 4

(d)
(c)
Figure 14.17
2. Figure 14.18 shows the cross-section of a concrete dam. Find the position of the centroid of the
cross-section.
3. Figure 14.19 shows 2 retaining walls, a and b, constructed of stone and concrete respectively. Find
the position of their centroids.
4. A timber beam is 8 cm wide and 12 cm deep. Calculate the second moment of area of the beam
about the axes AA, XX and YY. Axis AA passes through the base and axes XX and YY pass through
the centroid of the beam.
5. Figure 14.20 shows the cross-section of a timber beam. Find its second moment of area about
axis AA.
6. Find IXX and IYY of the angle section shown in Figure 14.21.
7. Determine IXX and IYY of the channel section shown in Figure 14.22.

Figure 14.18

(a) (b)
Figure 14.19
b = 8 cm
G d = 12 cm
6 cm
h
2 cm
A A
Figure 14.20
2 cm
Y
20
cm
G 2 cm
X X
Y 20 cm
Figure 14.21
8 cm
Y
1 cm
G 13 cm
X X
1 cm
1 cm
O A
Y
Figure 14.22
8. Determine the second moment of area of the section shown in Figure 14.23 about axes AA, XX
and YY.
10 cm
Y
G1 2 cm
G2 8 cm
X X
4 cm
G3 4 cm
A A
Y
12 cm
Figure 14.23
= =
1. a) x 50.0mm; =
y 18.13mm b) =
x 35.0mm; y 60.38mm
=
c) =
x 182.96mm; =
y 70.0mm =
d) x 9.82mm; y 15.46mm
= =
2. x 2.725m; y 6.563m
= =
3. a) x 1.833m; =
y 2.333m b) =
x 1.826m; y 2.522m
4. IAA = 4608 cm4, IXX = 1152 cm4, IYY = 512 cm4
5. IAA = 7296 cm4
6. IXX = IYY = 2877.3 cm4
7. IXX = 968.42 cm4, IYY = 174.43 cm4
8. IAA = 5861.3 cm4, IXX = 2115.9 cm4, IYY = 785.3 cm4
CHAPTER
15
Matrices and determinants

• Addition and subtraction of matrices
• Determinants and their properties
• Multiplication of matrices
• Application of matrices in solving simultaneous equations
15.1 Introduction
A matrix is an array of numbers enclosed in brackets. If there are a large number of equations to be
solved then matrices (plural of matrix) make their solution much easier as compared to the method of
substitution or elimination.
Each number or symbol in a matrix is known as the element of the matrix. The number of rows and
 10 4 
columns in a matrix determines its order, for example,   is a 2 × 2 matrix; the first value is used
 9 7
for the number of rows and the second value used for the number of columns.
3 2
 
6 7  This is a 4 × 2 matrix, i.e. 4 rows and 2 columns.
8 7
 
5 4 
15.2 Square matrix

In a square matrix the number of rows is equal to the number of columns. For example,
 1 6 −5 
 
 −2 1 0  is a square matrix.
5 3 3
 
218 15 Matrices and determinants
15.3 Diagonal matrix

A square matrix in which all elements are 0, except along the diagonal, is known as a diagonal matrix.
For example:
3 0 0
 
0 6 0
0 0 7
 
15.4 Unit matrix

In a unit matrix all main diagonals are 1, and all the other elements are 0. A matrix remains unchanged
when it is multiplied by a unit matrix, which means that the unit matrix behaves like number 1.
15.5 Addition and subtraction

Matrices can be added/subtracted if they are conformable, i.e. are of the same size.
Example 15.1
 2 5  3 9
a) Add   and  5 7 
 4 1
 3 9  2 5
b) Subtract   from  
 5 7   4 1
Solution:
 2 5   3 9   2 + 3 5 + 9   5 14 
a)  + = = 
 4 1  5 7   4 + 5 1 + 7   9 8 
 2 5   3 9   2 − 3 5 − 9   −1 −4 
b)  − = = 
 4 1   5 7   4 − 5 1 − 7   −1 −6 
15.6 Multiplication/division by a scalar

If a matrix is to be multiplied/divided by a scalar (a number), then each element is multiplied/divided by
that number, as shown in example 15.2.
Example 15.2
 3 5
If A =   Find 10A
 7 1
Matrices and determinants 15 219
Solution:
 3 5   3 × 10 5 × 10   30 50 
10 A = 10 ×  = = 
 7 1   7 × 10 1× 10   70 10 
Multiplication of matrices is more complex, as shown in example 15.3. 2 matrices can only be
multiplied if they are conformable, i.e. the number of columns in the first matrix is equal to the number
of rows in the second matrix. The following process is used:
 a b   e f   ae + bg af + bh 
 × = 
 c d   g h   ce + dg cf + dh 
Example 15.3
 2 4 6 2
Evaluate  × 
 3 5 0 5
Solution:
 2 4   6 2   (2 × 6) + (4 × 0) ( 2 × 2) + ( 4 × 5 ) 
 × = 
 3 5   0 5   ( 3 × 6 ) + ( 5 × 0 ) ( 3 × 2) + ( 5 × 5 ) 
 (12 + 0 ) ( 4 + 20 )  =  12 24 
= 
 (18 + 0 )
 ( 6 + 25)   18 31

Example 15.4
 2 5  4
3 6 6
Solution:
 a b   e   ae + bg 
 ×  =  
 c d   g   ce + dg 
 2 5   4   (2 × 4) + (5 × 6) 
 ×  =  
 3 6   6   ( 3 × 4 ) + ( 6 × 6 ) 
 8 + 30   38 
= = 
 12 + 36   48 
Example 15.5
 −2 0   2 −2 
If A =   and B =   , find 2A + B
 6 −3   −6 3 
Solution:
 −2 0   −4 0 
2A = 2  = 
 6 −3   12 −6 
 −4 0   2 −2   −4 + 2 0 + ( −2)   −2 −2 
2A + B =  +  =  =
 12 −6   −6 3   12 + ( ) −6 + 3   6 −3 
−6
15.7 Transpose
The transpose of a matrix A (denoted as A′ or AT ) is obtained by writing its rows as columns in order,
i.e. row 1 becomes column 1. For example:
3 2 4  3 3 2
   
If A =  3 4 1  , then A =  2 4 3 
T
 2 3 3  4 1 3
   
15.8 Determinants
a b
If we have a 2 × 2 matrix, A =   , then its determinant (denoted by det A or A ) is given by:
 c d
a b
det A or A = = ad − cb
c d
For a 3 × 3 determinant
a b c
e f d f d e
det A or A = d e f = a −b +c
h i g i g h
g h i
Each element of the top row is multiplied by the 2 × 2 determinant from the remaining rows and
columns not containing the element. Also, the sign of the middle element of the top row is changed.
These 2 × 2 determinants are known as minors of the corresponding element, for example the minor of
e f
element a is
h i
15.9 Cofactors
The cofactor of an element is the minor determinant formed from the rows and columns not containing
that element with due regard for the appropriate sign, as shown below:
For 2 × 2 determinant 3 × 3 determinant 4 × 4 determinant
+ − + −
+ − +
+ − − + − +
− + −
− + + − + −
+ − +
− + − +
Example 15.6
Evaluate the following determinants:
4 1 5
3 4
a) b) 2 -1 2
1 2
-1 2 0
Solution:
3 4
a) Refer to section 15.8, = 3 × 2 – 1× 4 = 2
1 2
4 1 5
−1 2 2 2 2 −1
b) 2 −1 2 = 4 −1 + 5
2 0 −1 0 −1 2
−1 2 0
= 4(0 - 4) - 1(0 + 2) + 5(4 −1)
= −16 - 2 + 15 = −3
15.10 Inverse of a square matrix

The inverse of a square matrix A is denoted as A−1, so that A × A−1 = 1
a b
Consider a 2 × 2 matrix, A =   , the inverse matrix A is given by:
−1
 c d 
1  d − b 
A −1 =  = I
A  −c a 
A matrix that does not have an inverse is called a singular matrix. In this case the determinant of the
matrix is 0.
2 8 2 8
For example, the determinant of  = = 2 × 4 – 1× 8 = 0
 1 4 1 4
2 8
Therefore   is a singular matrix.
 1 4
Example 15.7
 4 2
If A =   , find A , and verify the result.
−1
6 4
Solution:
A = 4 × 4–6 × 2 = 4
 4 −2 
1  4 −2   4 4  =  1 −0.5 
A −1 =  =  
4  −6 4   −6 4   −1.5 1 
 
 4 4 
 4 2 1 −0.5 
Verification: AA −1 =   
 6 4   −1.5 1 
 4 × 1 + 2 × ( −1.5 ) 4 × ( −0.5 ) + 2 × 1
=
 6 × 1 + 4 × ( −1.5 ) 6 × ( −0.5 ) + 4 × 1
 
 4 − 3 −2 + 2   1 0 
= = =I
 6 − 6 −3 + 4   0 1 
15.11 Properties of determinants

a) The rows and columns in determinants may be changed either to alter the value of the determinant or
leave it unchanged:
i) The value of a determinant does not change if rows become columns and columns become
rows.
ii) Changing a row with another row or a column with another column causes the determinant to be
multiplied by −1. For example:
2 5 7 3 2 6
3 2 6 = 44 and 2 5 7 = -44
1 8 4 1 8 4
iii) If 2 rows and 2 columns are identical, the value of the determinant is 0.
iv) If a determinant is multiplied by a number, then each element of 1 row or 1 column only is multi-
plied. For example:
2 5 7 4 10 14 4 5 7
det A = 3 2 6 , then 2 × det A = 3 2 6 = 6 2 6 ,
1 8 4 1 8 4 2 8 4
Each element of the first row, or each element of the first column is multiplied by 2.
A common factor in any row or column can be taken outside the determinant by following the
reverse process. In the following example, the second row has a common factor of 3; the determinant
factorises to:
1 3 8 1 3 8
6 9 15 = 3 2 3 5
3 7 4 3 7 4
Example 15.8
2 6 8
Factorise 3 -7 8
1 5 -12
Solution:
The first row has a common factor of 2 and the third column a common factor of 4.
2 6 8 1 3 4 1 3 1
3 −7 8 = 2 3 −7 8 = 2 × 4 3 −7 2
1 5 −12 1 5 −12 1 5 −3
15.12 Application of matrices

Determinants may be used to solve simultaneous equations involving 2 unknowns; the equations are
written as:
a1x + b1y = c1
a2x + b2y = c2
Let D be the determinant comprising the coefficients of x and y, and Dx and Dy respectively be the
determinants obtained from D by replacing its first and second columns by the column (c1, c2 ) as
shown below:
a1 b1 c1 b1 a c1
=det D = ; Dx ; Dy = 1
a 2 b2 c 2 b2 a 2 c2
Dx Dy
x= y=
D D
For 3 unknowns, 3 equations are required which may be written as:

a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1
=det D =
a 2 b2 c 2 ; D x d2 b2 c2 ; D y = a 2 d2 c2
a 3 b3 c 3 d3 b3 c3 a 3 d3 c3
a1 b1 d1
D z = a 2 b2 d2
a 3 b3 d3
Dx Dy Dz
=x = ;y ;z =
D D D
Example 15.9
Solve the simultaneous equations: x + 2y = −3 and 2x - 2y = 6
Solution:
a1 = 1 b1 = 2 a2 = 2 b2 = −2 c1 = −3 c2 = 6
1 2
det D = = −2 − 4 = −6
2 −2
−3 2
det D x = = 6 − 12 = −6
6 −2
1 −3
det D y = = 6 − ( −6 ) = 12
2 6
Dx −6 Dy 12
x = = =1 y= = = −2
D −6 D −6
Example 15.10
Solve the simultaneous equations:
x + 2y + z = 2
2x + 2y - z = 8
3x - y + 2z = 1
Solution:
a1 b1 c1
b c2 a c2 a b2
det D = a 2 b2 c2 = a1 2 − b1 2 + c1 2
b3 c 3 a 3 c3 a 3 b3
a 3 b3 c 3
2 −1 2 −1 2 2
= 1 − 2 + 1
−1 2 3 2 3 −1
= 1(4 - 1) - 2(4 + 3) +1(−2 - 6) = − 19
d1 b1 c1
b c2 d c2 d b2
D x = d2 b2 c2 = d1 2 − b1 2 + c1 2
b3 c 3 d3 c3 d3 b3
d3 b3 c3
2 −1 8 −1 8 2
= 2 −2 +1
−1 2 1 2 1 −1
= 2(4 - 1) - 2(16 + 1 ) +1(−8 - 2) = − 38

a1 d1 c1
d c2 a c2 a d2
D y = a 2 d2 c2 = a1 2 − d1 2 + c1 2
d3 c3 a 3 c3 a 3 d3
a 3 d3 c3
8 −1 2 −1 2 8
= 1 −2 +1
1 2 3 2 3 1
= 1(16 + 1) - 2(4 + 3 ) +1(2 - 24) = − 19
a1 b1 d1
b d2 a d2 a b2
D z = a 2 b2 d2 = a1 2 − b1 2 + d1 2
b3 d3 a 3 d3 a 3 b3
a 3 b3 d3
2 8 2 8 2 2
=1 −2 +2
−1 1 3 1 3 −1
= 1(2 + 8) - 2(2 - 24) +2(− 2 - 6) = 38

Dx −38 −19 38
x= = = 2; y = = 1; z = = −2
D −19 −19 −19
Exercise 15.1
 2 −3   −2 0 
1. Add a)   and  −3 5 
6 4   
 3 2 −4   1 6 −5 
   
b)  3 4 1  and  −2 1 0 
 2 3 −3  5 3 3
   
 −2 0   2 −3 
2. Subtract a)   from  6 4 
 −3 5   
 1 6 −5   3 2 −4 
   
b)  −2 1 0  from  3 4 1 
5 3 3  2 3 −3 
   
 2 −2   −2 0 
3. If A =   and B =   , find A −2B
 −6 3   6 −3 
 2 5  3 1
4. If A =   and B =   , find 3A + B
2
 4 1 2 0
 5 3  2 4 
5. Solve the equation X –  =  where X is a 2 × 2 matrix
 7 0   1 −8 
 3 2  5 3
6. Evaluate  × 
 6 1  6 0 
 3 4  5
7 2 6
8. Evaluate the following determinants:
-2 3 0
-5 -6
a) b) -3 1 1
4 3
-2 3 4
 3 2
9. If A =   , find A , and verify the result
−1
 1 2
10. Solve the simultaneous equations: 2x + 3y = 4 and x - y = −3
11. Solve the simultaneous equations: 2x + 2y = −2 and 3x - y = 9
12. Solve the simultaneous equations:
x + 2y + z = 6
2x + 2y - z = 9
3x - y + 2z = −2

 0 −3 
1. a)  
3 9 
 4 8 −9 
b)  1 5 1 
7 6 0 
 
 4 −3 
2. a)  
 9 −1
 2 −4 1 
 
b)  5 3 1
 −3 0 −6 
 
 6 −2 
3.  
 −18 9
 17 18 
4.  
 18 5 
7 7 
5.  
 8 −8 
 27 9 
6.  
 36 18 
 39 
7.  
 47 
8. a) 9 b) 28
 0 .5 −0.5 
9.  
 −0.25 0.75 
10. x = −1, y = 2
11. x = 2, y = −3
12. x = 1, y = 3, z = −1
CHAPTER
16
Vectors

• Vectors and their addition/subtraction
• Determination of the resultant of two or more vectors
• Resolution of vectors
16.1 Introduction
Physical quantities which have magnitude but no direction are called scalar quantities or scalars. For
example mass, temperature and energy are scalar quantities. Physical quantities which are described by
both magnitude and direction are called vector quantities or vectors, typical examples being force, velocity,
acceleration and displacement. A vector may be represented by a line whose direction is parallel to the
actual vector and the length of the line is proportional to the magnitude of the vector. An arrow, shown at the
end of the vector, is used to show the direction of the vector (Figure 16.1a). A vector is written in bold print
such as v or as OA, where OA is the line representing the vector and the arrow above letters OA means that
the direction of the vector is from O to A. The magnitude of the vector v is written as v.
a b a
a = -b
(a) (b) b (c)
Figure 16.1
2 vectors a and b are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction, as shown in
Figure 16.1b. Vectors a and b are equal and opposite (Figure 16.1c) if they have the same magnitude
but act in opposite direction.
230 16 Vectors
Example 16.1
A 50 N force acts upwards and is inclined at an angle of 30º to the horizontal. Draw the vector.
Solution:
The first step is to choose a suitable scale, say 1 mm = 1 Newton. Using this scale, 50 N = 50 mm.
Next, draw a horizontal line as the reference line. Draw line AB = 50 mm, inclined at 30º to the reference
line, as shown in Figure 16.2. Draw an arrow at point B to show the direction of the force. AB is the
required vector.
50 N
30°
A
Figure 16.2
16.2 Addition of vectors

Figure 16.3a shows 2 vectors F 1 and F 2 acting at point O. The resultant of adding vectors F 1
and F 2 can be obtained by drawing OP to represent F 1, and PQ to represent F 2 as shown in
Figure 16.3b. OP║F 1, and PQ║F 2. Line OQ, which represents the vector F, is drawn to complete
the triangle QOP.
F = F1 + F2
F is the resultant vector that replaces F1 and F2. The magnitude of F (written as F) and its direction are
obtained from triangle QOP, either by drawing the triangle to scale or by calculations using the sine and
cosine rules. The magnitude of F in Figure 16.3b is given by:
F2 = F12 +F22 – 2 F1 F2cos θ
The direction of F may be found by the sine rule.
The resultant of vectors F1 and F2 may also be determined by the parallelogram law. A parallelogram
is drawn which is based on the 2 vectors. The diagonal of the parallelogram represents the resultant, as
illustrated in example 16.2.
Figure 16.3
Vectors 16 231
If there are more than 2 vectors the resultant of the vectors may be determined graphically. Consider 4
vectors a, b, c and d as shown in Figure 16.4a. Select a suitable scale and draw line OM to scale and parallel
to vector a, as shown in Figure 16.4b. At the end of vector a, i.e. at point M, line MN is drawn to scale and
parallel to vector b of Figure 16.4a. Similarly the remaining 2 vectors are drawn and finally from point Q line
QO is drawn to represent the resultant of the 4 vectors. Figure 16.4b is called the polygon of vectors.
P
d c
Q
b
N
c
b
a
R
M
d a
Figure 16.4 Polygon of vectors
Example 16.2
2 forces act at a point as shown in Figure 16.5a. Find the magnitude and the direction of the resultant
of the 2 forces.
N N
8N
nt
ulta 8N
Res
40° 40°
M
O M O
6N 6N
(a) (b)
N P
8N
nt
ulta
Res
40°
O M
6N
(c)
Figure 16.5
Solution:
Select a suitable scale, i.e. 1 N = 6 mm (1 mm = 1 ÷ 6 = 0.1666 N).
Draw, line OM = 36 mm, and parallel to the 6 N force, as shown in Figure 16.5b. At point M draw
line MN = 48 mm and parallel to the 8 N force. Join ON to represent the resultant. Measure the length
of line ON:
232 16 Vectors
ON = 79 mm. 79 mm converted into Newtons equal 13.17 N.

79 48 36
Use the sine rule to determine ∠O: ο
= = (∠M =140º)
sin140 sinO sinN
79 48 48 × sin140ο
ο
= which gives, sinO = = 0.39055
sin140 sinO 79
∠O = sin−1 0.39055 = 22.99º
The resultant (13.17 N) acts at angle of 22.99º to the 6 N force.

The resultant of the 2 vectors can also be determined by drawing a parallelogram, as shown in Figure
16.5c. The diagonal which represents the resultant, is 79 mm in length, and hence equals 13.17 N after
using the scaling factor.
Example 16.3
Use a graphical method to determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the 3 forces
shown in Figure 16.6a.
P
42 N
20° N
F2
40 N 75.5 N
40 N
F1
F3
42 N 90° 30 N (b)
20° 40° M
O
(a) 103° 30 N
40°
O
Figure 16.6
Solution:
Select a suitable scale, i.e. 1 N = 1 mm.
Line OM is drawn parallel to force F1 so that it can represent the force. Therefore, draw line
OM, 30 mm long, at an angle of 40º to the horizontal, as shown in Figure 16.6b. At point M draw,
line MN = 40 mm and parallel to the 40 N force (F2). Draw line NP, 42 mm long and parallel to the 42 N
force (F3). Draw line PO to represent the resultant of the three forces. Measure the length of line PO:
Resultant PO = 75.5 mm. 75.5 mm converted into Newtons equal 75.5 N.
The resultant is inclined at 103º to the horizontal or 63º to the 30N force.
16.3 Subtraction of vectors

Consider 2 vectors a and b shown in Figure 16.7a. To find the difference between b and a (i.e. find b – a)
vector b is drawn from point O, as shown in Figure 16.7b. Then at the end of vector b, vector a is
drawn, its direction being opposite to the direction shown in Figure 16.7a.
Vectors 16 233
b + (– a) = ON
ON is equal to vector PQ, drawn across the ends of the 2 vectors, as illustrated in Figure 16.7c. Therefore,
subtraction of 2 vectors may also be achieved by drawing a vector across their ends. The direction of the
resultant vector is away from the subtracted vector.
b P
a O M
a
b-a
b-a -a
b Q
N b
(a) (b) (c)
a-b
b
(d)
Figure 16.7
To find a – b, the process is similar to the determination of b – a, the only difference is that the
direction of vector a – b is opposite to the direction of vector b – a (Figure 16.7d).
16.4 Unit vectors

A vector whose magnitude is 1 is known as a unit vector. In Cartesian axis, as shown in Figure 16.8, the
unit vector along x-direction is called i. Similarly, the unit vectors along y-direction and z-direction are
called j and k respectively.
3j
j 4i
i
x
Figure 16.8
234 16 Vectors
A vector of magnitude 4 along the x-direction will be 4i, similarly, a vector of magnitude 3 in the
y-direction is 3j.
16.5 Resolution of vectors

In section 16.2 it was shown that 2 vectors can be combined into a resultant vector. Similarly a vector
may be expressed in terms of its 2 components. Consider vector AC making an angle of 40º to the
horizontal. The vector can be described by resolving it into horizontal component AB, and vertical
component BC as shown in Figure 16.9.
AC = v = AB + BC
Writing AB = xi, and BC = yj:
v = AC = xi + yj
40°
A B
Figure 16.9
We can obtain the magnitude of ‘v’ in terms of x and y by Pythagorus’ theorem:

v2 = x2 + y2
v = x2 + y2
A vector can also be written as a column matrix. If the horizontal and the vertical components of a vector
4
(u) are 4 and 3 respectively, we can write the vector as: u =  
3
Example 16.4
A force (F) of magnitude 50 N acts along a direction of 38º to the horizontal. Calculate its horizontal and
vertical components and hence express F in terms of the unit vectors i and j.
Solution:
Let the horizontal component of the force be xi and the vertical component be yj.
F = xi + yj
Triangle AOB (Figure 16.10) is a right-angled triangle, therefore:
Vectors 16 235
OB = x = F cos 38º

= 50 × cos 38º = 39.4 N
BA = y = F sin 38º
= 50 × sin 38º = 30.78 N
Hence, F = 39.4i + 30.78j
F
yj
38˚
O B
xi
Figure 16.10
Example 16.5
With reference to the x – axis, find the magnitude and direction of a = 3i + 4j.
Solution:
a
4j
θ B
O X
3i
Figure 16.11
x = 3; y = 4; a = x 2 + y 2
Refer to Figure 16.11, | a | = 32 + 42 = 25 = 5N
4 4
In ΔAOB, tan θ = , therefore θ = tan-1   = 53.13ο
3 3
The resultant vector a has a magnitude of 5.0 N, and acts at an angle of 53.13º to the horizontal.
236 16 Vectors
16.6 Addition and subtraction of two vectors in

Cartesian form
Consider 2 vectors u and v; their resultant (w) is: w = u + v (Figure 16.12). In terms of Cartesian
components, this becomes:
u = x1i + y1j, and v = x2i + y2j
w = u + v = (x1 + x2)i + (y1 + y2)j
Similarly, u – v = (x1 – x2)i + (y1 – y2)j
v y2 j
w
u x2 i
y1 j
O B
x1 i
Figure 16.12
Example 16.6
Find the resultant of: u = 5i + 3j, and v = 3i + 4j, and check the answer from graphical solution.
Solution:
Resultant w = u + v = (x1 + x2)i + (y1 + y2)j
= (5 + 3)i + (3 + 4)j
= 8i + 7j
= w =
8 2 + 72 113 = 10.63

7 7
tan θ = , therefore θ = tan−1   = 41.19ο
8 8
The magnitude of the resultant is 10.63 units, and it acts at 41.19º to the horizontal
Figure 16.13 illustrates the problem. From this figure:
Magnitude of the resultant, w = 10.6 units; θ = 41º
Vectors 16 237
Figure 16.13
Exercise 16.1
1. 2 forces act at a point as shown in Figure 16.14. Find the magnitude and the direction of the
resultant of the 2 forces.
6.5 N
60°
O 6N
Figure 16.14
2. Use the parallelogram law to determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the forces
shown in Figure 16.15.
6N
45°
O
7N
Figure 16.15
238 16 Vectors
3. Use a graphical method to determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the forces
shown in Figure 16.16.
F2
F3 30 N
40 N F1
85° 25 N
30° 36°
O
Figure 16.16
6
4. Find the magnitude and the direction of the vector, v =   .
4
5. A force (F) of magnitude 55 N acts along a direction of 46º to the horizontal. Calculate its horizontal
and vertical components and hence express F in terms of the unit vectors i and j.
6. Find the magnitude and direction of the vector: a = 5i + 6j, with reference to the x-axis.
7. Find the horizontal and vertical components of the vectors shown in Figure 16.17, and write each of
them in the equivalent component form, i.e. as column matrices.
10
(b)
8
(c)
6
(a)
4 (d)
2
x
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Figure 16.17
8. Find the magnitude and direction of the vector: v = 5i – 3j.

Vectors 16 239
1. 10.83 N acts at 31.31º to 6N force

2. 12 N acts at 21º to the horizontal
3. 65.5 N acts at 65º to 25N force
4. 7.21 units acts at 33.69º to the horizontal
5. F = 38.21i + 39.56j
6. 7.81 units acts at 50.19º to the horizontal
0 6 6 6
7. a )   b)   c)   d)  
6 4 0  −2 
8. 5.83 units acts at –30.96º to the horizontal
CHAPTER
17
Statistics

• Averages: mean, mode and median of the given data
• Statistical diagrams
• Variance and standard deviation
• Binomial, Poisson and normal distributions
17.1 Introduction
Statistics is a branch of mathematics that involves the collection, preparation, analysis, presentation
and interpretation of data. Whenever we want to carry out an investigation we can do that by
acquiring primary or secondary data. Primary data is obtained from people by carrying out surveys
via questionnaires and interviews. Primary data is published in many newspapers, journals,
magazines and websites; the Office for National Statistics (ONS) publishes data on construction
related activities. If primary data is extracted from websites, journals and other sources then it is
known as secondary data.
17.2 Types of data

Depending on the subject of the investigation, the data collected may be either discrete data or
continuous data.
17.2.1 Discrete data

Data collected as integers (whole numbers) is known as discrete data.
For example, number of employees in a company, number of bedrooms in buildings, number of
children per family, number of cars per family etc.
242 17 Statistics
17.2.2 Continuous data

Unlike discrete data, continuous data does not increase in jumps, but can have any value between
the given limits. For example, cost of building materials, labour costs, daily temperatures etc.
17.2.3 Raw data

Data shown in the manner in which it was collected is known as raw data. For example, the following
data shows the crushing strength of 50 concrete cubes and is shown as it was obtained; it has not
been re-arranged into any order:
46 40 37 40 35 40 42 43 40 45 39 38
46 45 44 50 45 35 39 38 35 48 37 42
50 39 46 41 44 41 51 42 47 49 36 47
53 48 49 50 37 44 44 43 51 54 53 42
38 41 N/mm2
17.2.4 Grouped data

Sometimes we have to deal with a very large set of data, therefore, the data may be arranged in groups
or classes so that the analysis and then the presentation of results become convenient. The data given
in section 17.2.3 show that the crushing strengths of concrete cubes vary between 35 N/mm2 and 54
N/mm2. In order to present and understand the information easily, the data may be arranged in groups.
The number of groups will depend on the amount of the data; for a small set of data, i.e. 25 to 50 items,
the number of groups may be 5 to 10. For larger amounts of data the upper limit should be 20. The
following groups may be used for the data in section 17.2.3:
35−37, 38−40, 41−43, 44−46, 47−49, 50−52, 53−55
A group is called a class and each class is specified by 2 limits, the lower class limit and the upper
class limit. For the first class, 35 is the lower and 37 the upper class limit.
Example 17.1
The crushing strengths of 50 concrete cubes are given in section 17.2.3. Group the data into 7 classes
and find the frequency of each class.
Solution:
The minimum and the maximum strengths are 35 N/mm2 and 54 N/mm2 respectively. The 7 classes and
their frequencies are shown in Table 17.1. A tally is prepared using a vertical bar for each value and for
the fifth value a crossing diagonal/horizontal bar is used.
Statistics 17 243
Table 17.1
Class interval Tally Frequency
35−37 llll ll 7
38−40 llll llll 10
41−43 llll lll 8
44−46 llll llll 10
47−49 llll l 6
50−52 llll l 6
53−55 lll 3
Total = 50
17.3 Averages
Having collected the data, it is often necessary to calculate the average result. In statistics there are 3
types of average, i.e. mean, mode and median.
The mean, also called the arithmetic mean, is calculated by dividing the sum of all values of the data
by the number of values:
Sum of all values of data
Mean=
Number of values in the data
Σx
This can also be written as: x =
n
Where x (read as x bar) is the mean value
Σ x means the sum of all values of the data.
n denotes the number of values in the data set.
In the case of grouped data it is necessary to determine the class mid-point for each class. The class
mid-point is the average of the lower class boundary and the upper class boundary. For grouped data:
Σfx
Mean, x =
Σf
Where, x = class mid-point
f = frequency of each class.
The number that occurs most often in a set of data is called its mode. For grouped data, the class
having the highest frequency is called the modal class. In some cases the data may not have a clear
mode or there may be more than one mode.
If the data is arranged in ascending or descending order, the middle number is called the median.
17.3.1 Comparison of mean, mode and median

The mean is the most commonly used average and is the only average that involves all values in the
data set, but its value is easily affected if some of the values are extremely high or low as compared to
the rest of the data. It can also give an answer that may be impossible, e.g. 2.4 children per family.
244 17 Statistics
The median is not affected by the extreme values as its calculation does not involve all data values.
However, a large data set is required for the median value to be reliable.
The mode is easy to determine and is useful where the mean gives meaningless results. Some data
sets may show no mode or more than 1 mode, and like the median, the mode does not involve all
values of the data.
Example 17.2
The compressive strengths of 13 bricks are given below. Calculate the mean, median and mode
strengths.
33, 31, 29, 30, 40, 36, 39, 32, 41, 37, 35, 36 and 38 N/mm2
Calculate the mean, mode and median strengths.
Solution:
Σx
a) Mean, x =
n
33 + 31 + 29 + 30 + 40 + 36 + 39 + 32 + 41+ 37 + 35 + 36 + 38
=
13
457
= = 35.15 N / mm2
13
The mean can be calculated using the calculator functions. The procedure given here is based on
Casio fx-83GT PLUS, for other models the user manual should be referred to.
Press Mode and select 2 for statistics. Select 1 for ‘1-VAR’ and then start inputting the
numbers (data). Remember to press ‘=’ after each number.
Now press AC to clear the table. Press shift and 1. From the list of options, press 4 for VAR and
3 for x . x is the mean.
Answer from calculator operation = 35.15 N/mm2
b) The data has been arranged in an ascending order to find the median (middle number):
29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41
The middle number is 36, therefore the median = 36 N/mm2
c) Number 36 occurs twice, all other numbers occur once. Therefore, the mode = 36 N/mm2
Example 17.3
Consider the grouped data of example 17.1 and calculate the mean compressive strength.
Solution:
In the case of grouped data the actual values are not known, therefore, it is necessary to determine the
class mid-point for each class, as shown in Table 17.2. The class mid-point gives the average value of
the data within a class.
Σ fx
For grouped data: Mean,x = , where x = class mid-point
Σf
f = frequency of each class.
Statistics 17 245
Table 17.2
Class interval Class mid-point (x) Frequency (f) F×x
35−37 36 7 36 × 7 = 252
38−40 39 10 39 × 10 = 390
41−43 42 8 42 × 8 = 336
44−46 45 10 45 × 10 = 450
47−49 48 6 48 × 6 = 288
50−52 51 6 51 × 6 = 306
53−55 54 3 54 × 3 = 162
Σ f = 50 Σ fx = 2184
Σfx 2184
Mean, x = = = 43.68 N / mm2
Σf 50
17.4 Statistical diagrams

After the collection and analysis of data it becomes necessary to present the results. Different types of
statistical diagrams may be used to present the results so that the technical as well as non-technical
readers can understand the information and the obvious trends. Some commonly used diagrams are:
pictograms, bar charts, pie charts and line graphs.
Pictograms use different types of pictures to show the information. The pictures should be able to
represent all features of the data.
Bar charts consist of data represented in the form of vertical or horizontal bars of equal width
with some space in-between 2 bars. Their heights or lengths depend on the quantity they represent.
A bar chart may consist of single bars, multiple bars, component bars, Gantt-charts and back-to-
back bars.
A pie chart is a circle of convenient diameter which is divided into a number of sectors, each sector
representing 1 portion of the data. The angle of each sector is calculated in accordance with the
quantity they represent; the total angle of all portions of the data should be 360º. Several types of pie
charts are used, e.g. simple pie, exploded pie, 3-dimensional pie etc.
Line graphs are invariably used to present the data from experimental work, and have already been
dealt with in chapter 5.
Example 17.4
A civil engineering company employs 4 directors, 10 civil engineers, 5 structural engineers, 10
technician engineers, 6 technicians and 5 administrative staff. Represent the data as:
a) a vertical bar chart, b) a horizontal bar chart c) a pie chart
Solution:
a) In Figure 17.1a the x-axis represent the staff and the y-axis represent their numbers or frequency.
The width of a bar is not important, but to avoid confusion all bars in a chart should be of the same
width.
246 17 Statistics
(a) Bar chart
12
10 10
10
Frequency
8
5 6 5
6
4
4
2
0
(b) Horizontal bar chart
Administrative staff 5
Technicians 6
Technician engineers 10
Structural engineers 5
Civil engineers 10
Directors 4
0 5 10 15
Frequency
Figure 17.1a and 17.1b
b) In a horizontal bar chart (Figure 17.1b) the length of a bar is proportional to the number or frequency
it represents.
c) The total number of employees is 40, which the pie (circle) will represent. The total angle at the
 360 
centre of a circle is 360°, therefore 9º will represent one employee  = 9°  . Table 17.3 shows
 40 
the angles representing the different categories of employees.
Statistics 17 247
Table 17.3
Category of employee Number of employees Angle representing each
category
Directors 4 = 9 × 4 = 36°
Civil engineer 10 = 9 × 10 = 90°
Structural engineers 5 = 9 × 5 = 45°
Technician engineers 10 = 9 × 10 = 90°
Technicians 6 = 9 × 6 = 54°
Administrative staff 5 = 9 × 5 = 45°
The pie chart can be drawn manually using the angles for the relevant sector, however the chart
shown in Figure 17.1c has been produced with the Microsoft Excel program.
(c) Pie chart
Administrative
staff, 5 Directors, 4
Technicians, 6
Civil
engineers, 10
Technician Structural
engineers, 10 engineers, 5
Figure 17.1c
17.5 Frequency distributions

The frequency of a particular observation is the number of times it occurs in the survey. The
frequency distribution of the data may be represented by frequency tables, histograms, frequency
polygons and cumulative frequency polygons. The frequency tables are the same as tally charts, as
shown in Table 17.1. A histogram is similar to a vertical bar chart except that the bars are without
248 17 Statistics
any gaps. In a histogram (Figure 17.2) scales are used for both axes, which means that it can be
used to display continuous data. The area of a bar is equal to the frequency multiplied by the class
interval, hence the bars of a histogram can be of different widths. The mode of grouped data can be
determined from a histogram.
A frequency polygon can also be used to show a frequency distribution. It is drawn by plotting the
frequencies at the mid-points of the class intervals, and joining the points by straight lines (Figure 17.3).
As a polygon should be closed, extra class intervals are added and the straight lines extended to meet
the x-axis.
A cumulative frequency curve, also known as an ogive, may also be used to represent a
frequency distribution. The cumulative frequency for each class is obtained by adding all
frequencies up to that class and plotted against corresponding upper class boundaries. The
points are joined by a smooth curve to get the cumulative frequency curve or ogive, as shown
in example 17.5. Cumulative frequency curves may be used to determine the median and the
dispersion of the data. The values, which divide the data into 4 equal parts, are called quartiles
and denoted by Q1, Q2 and Q3.
Q1 = the lower quartile or first quartile
Q2 = the middle quartile or second quartile
Q3 = the upper quartile or third quartile. The difference between the upper and lower quartiles is called
the interquartile range:
Interquartile range = Q3 − Q1
Interquartile range is one of the measures used to determine the dispersion of the data. The main
advantage of using the interquartile range is that only the middle half of the data is used and thus this
measure is considered to be more representative than the range.
Example 17.5
The table below shows the compressive strength of 52 bricks. Display the results as a histogram,
frequency polygon and cumulative frequency polygon. From the cumulative frequency curve,
determine:
a) the median of the data b) the number of samples that had strength between 41 N/mm2 and
50 N/mm2.
Compressive strength 35−37 38−40 41−43 44−46 47−49 50−52 53−55

(N/mm2)
Frequency 5 10 13 10 6 5 3
Solution:
Figure 17.2 shows the histogram in which the compressive strength is taken on the x-axis and the
frequency on the y-axis. As the class intervals are the same, bars of equal width have been used. The
first bar is produced by drawing vertical lines at the lower class boundary and the upper class boundary
of the 35−37 class and drawing horizontal line at frequency equal to 5. Other bars are produced by
repetition of this process.
Statistics 17 249
14
12
10
Frequency
8
0
34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56
Compressive strength (N/mm ) 2
Figure 17.2 Histogram
For the frequency polygon the points are plotted between class mid-point and the frequency for each
class. The points are joined by straight lines. Extra class intervals are added so that a closed polygon is
produced by drawing 2 lines, as shown by dashed lines in Figure 17.3.
14
12
10
Frequency
0
33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57
Compressive strength (N/mm2)
Figure 17.3 Frequency polygon
For producing the cumulative frequency curve we need to find the cumulative frequency for each
class, as shown in Table 17.4.
250 17 Statistics
Table 17.4
Class interval Frequency Moisture content − Cumulative
(Moisture content) less than Frequency
34.5 0
35−37 5 37.5 5
38−40 10 40.5 5 + 10 = 15
41−43 13 43.5 15 + 13 = 28
44−46 10 46.5 28 + 10 = 38
47−49 6 49.5 38 + 6 = 44
50−52 5 52.5 44 + 5 = 49
53−55 3 55.5 49 + 3 = 52
The cumulative frequencies are plotted against the upper class boundaries and a smooth curve is
drawn through all points (Figure 17.4). The cumulative frequency is divided into 4 parts by Q1, Q2 and Q3.
a) Q2 = Median = 43.1 N/mm2
60
45
Cumulative Frequency
30
26
15
Median = 43.1 N/mm2
32 35 38 41 44 47 50 53 56
Compressive strength (N/mm ) 2
Figure 17.4 Cumulative frequency curve
b) The cumulative frequencies corresponding to 41 N/mm2 and 50 N/mm2 are 16.9 and 45 respectively.
Therefore, the number of samples having strength between 41 and 50 N/mm2 are:
45 − 16.9 = 28.1, say 28.
Statistics 17 251
17.6 Measures of dispersion

The range is the simplest method to find the spread or dispersion of data and is defined as the
difference between the highest and the lowest values.
Range = maximum value − minimum value
The interquartile range contains the middle 50% of the data, therefore the minimum and maximum
values which are not representative, are ignored. For grouped data the interquartile range can be
determined from the value of Q3 and Q1 that can be obtained from the cumulative frequency curve.
The mean deviation uses all values of the data and is determined by finding the mean of the deviations
from the mean, ignoring the negative signs:
Σ(x − x)
Mean deviation =
Σf
The standard deviation overcomes the problem of signs encountered in the calculation of mean
deviation. The values of (x − x) are squared to get rid of the negative signs of some of the values. Finally
the square root is determined to cancel out the squaring done earlier.
Σ(x − x)2
Variance =mean of the squared deviations =
n
Σ(x − x)2
Standard deviation = ( variance ) =
n
Σf(x − x)2
For grouped data, standard deviation =
Σf
For grouped data, the mid-class value is taken as representative of each group, as done in example 17.3.
A low value of standard deviation means that the data points are very close to the mean whereas high
standard deviation indicates that the data points are dispersed over a large range of values.
Example 17.6
Consider the grouped data of example 17.5, which has 35 N/mm2 and 54 N/mm2 as the minimum and
maximum compressive strengths. Calculate the range and the interquartile range.
Solution:
Range = maximum value − minimum value

= 54 − 35 = 19 N/mm2
For the interquartile range the data from Table 17.4 been used to produce Figure 17.5. From
Figure 17.5:
Q1 = 40 and Q3 = 46.8
Hence interquartile range = 46.8 − 40 = 6.8 N/mm2
252 17 Statistics
60
50
Q3
40
30
20
Q1
10
32 36 40 44 48 52 56
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)
Figure 17.5
17.6.1 Standard deviation

Standard deviation is one of the methods to determine the dispersion of data, however, it measures the
spread of the data about the mean value.
Consider 6 bricks having strengths of 40, 44, 45, 47, 50 and 50 N/mm2. The mean strength of these
bricks is 46 mm2. The deviation of each value from the mean is shown in Figure 17.6.
x 1
1
x
2
x
4 x
6
x
4 x
40 42 44 46 48 50
Mean
Figure 17.6
The data and their deviation from the mean are also shown in Table 17.5.
Statistics 17 253
Table 17.5
Strength (mm2) Mean (x) Deviation ( x - x)
40 46 40 − 46 = − 6
44 46 44 − 46 = − 2
45 46 45 − 46 = − 1
47 46 47 − 46 = 1
50 46 50 − 46 = 4
50 46 50 − 46 = 4
The average of the deviations from the mean, known as mean deviation, is calculated by ignoring
their negative signs:
6 + 2 + 1+ 1+ 4 + 4
Mean deviation = =3
6
Another method to get positive values of the deviations is to square these values and find their mean.
The mean of the squares of the deviations is called the variance.
Σ( x − x ) 2
Variance =
n
A column is added to Table 17.5 to show the squares of the deviations in Table 17.6:
Table 17.6
Strength (N/mm2) Mean (x) Deviation ( x − x) (x − x)2
40 46 40 − 46 = − 6 36
44 46 44 − 46 = − 2 4
45 46 45 − 46 = − 1 1
47 46 47 − 46 = 1 1
50 46 50 − 46 = 4 16
50 46 50 − 46 = 4 16
Σ = 74
Σ( x − x )2 74
Variance = = = 12.33
n 6
This result is totally different from the mean deviation. However if we take square root of 12.33, the answer is
3.5 which is close to the mean deviation. The square root of variance is called the standard deviation (σ).
Standard deviation, σ = 12.33 = 3.51 N / mm2

254 17 Statistics
Example 17.7
10 bricks were tested to determine their crushing strength. The results are:
40, 35, 31, 32, 36, 38, 38, 40, 34, 36 N/mm2
a) Calculate the standard deviation of the results.
b) Use the functions of a scientific calculator to verify the answer.
Solution:
a) Mean strength = 36 N/mm2
The deviations from the mean and their squares are shown in Table 17.7.
Table 17.7
Sample No. Strength (x) Mean (x) ( x − x) (x − x)2
1 40 36 4 16
2 35 36 −1 1
3 31 36 −5 25
4 32 36 −4 16
5 36 36 0 0
6 38 36 2 4
7 38 36 2 4
8 40 36 4 16
9 34 36 −2 4
10 36 36 0 0
Σ = 86
Σ(x − x )2 86
Standard deviation, σ = = = 2.93N / mm2
n 10
b) The procedure given here is based on Casio fx-83GT PLUS.
Press Mode and select 2 for statistics. Select 1 for ‘1-VAR’ and then start inputting the numbers (data).
Remember to press ‘=’ after each number.
Now press AC to clear the table. Press shift and 1. From the list of options, press 4 for VAR and 3 for
σx. σx is the standard deviation.
Answer from calculator operation = 2.93 N/mm2
Example 17.8
Find the standard deviation of the data given in example 17.5, and compare the answer to the
interquartile range and range.
Solution:
Table 17.8 shows the different values that are needed for calculating the standard deviation.
Table 17.8
Moisture Frequency Class mid- f×x Mean (x) ( x − x) (x − x)2 f × (x − x) 2
content (class (f) point (x)
interval
35−37 5 36 180 43.7 − 7.7 59.29 296.45
38−40 10 39 390 43.7 − 4.7 22.09 220.9
41−43 13 42 546 43.7 − 1.7 2.89 37.57
44−46 10 45 450 43.7 1.3 1.69 16.9
47−49 6 48 288 43.7 4.3 18.49 110.94
50−52 5 51 255 43.7 7.3 53.29 266.45
53−55 3 54 162 43.7 10.3 106.09 318.27
∑ f = 52 ∑fx =2271 Σ f × (x − x)2 =1267.48
256 17 Statistics
Σfx 2271
Mean = = = 43.7 N / mm2
Σf 52
Σf (x − x )2 1267.48
Standard deviation, σ = = = 4.94 N / mm2
Σf 52
Comparison: From example 17.6: Interquartile range = 7 N/mm2

Range = highest value − lowest value = 19 N/mm2
17.7 Distribution curves

Depending on the data, a frequency distribution curve can have several shapes; some are
symmetrical about a central value whereas the others are not symmetrical (or asymmetric).
Negative Skew Positive Skew
Figure 17.7
34.1%
34.1%
Mean
a) Normal distribution Curve x−σ x x+σ
34.1% 34.1%
13.6% 13.6%
2.2% 2.2%
x−3σ x−2σ x−σ x x+σ x+2σ x+3σ
Figure 17.8
Statistics 17 257
Asymmetric curves can have many shapes due to the majority of the data values being skewed to
the left or the right. Some of these curves are shown in Figure 17.7. When a data set contains a
large number of values and the values are plotted to produce a frequency curve, it is found that a
bell shaped curve results. This is known as the normal distribution curve, as shown in Figure 17.8a.
If a vertical line is drawn from the mean value, it is found that the line passes through the highest
point of the distribution curve. The standard deviation is related to the area under the curve; if
vertical lines are drawn at distances ± 1σ then the area between the curve and the vertical lines
is 68.2% of the total area under the curve (Figure 17.8b). This also means that 68.2% of the total
frequency also lies between these values of standard deviation. Similarly, areas at mean ± 2σ and
mean ± 3σ are also shown in Figure 17.8c.
Example 17.9:
The mean water absorption of 99 bricks is 10%, and the standard deviation is 1.0%. Assuming that the
results are normally distributed, determine how many bricks have water absorption:
a) less than 9%
b) more than 12%
c) between 8% and 11%
Solution:
Mean + 1 σ = 10 + 1 = 11%
Mean − 1 σ = 10 − 1 = 9%
Similarly Mean + 2 σ = 10 + 2 = 12%, and Mean − 2 σ = 10 − 2 = 8%
Mean + 3 σ = 10 + 3 = 13%, and Mean − 3 σ = 10 − 3 = 7%
These values are shown on the x-axis in Figure 17.9.
34.1 34.1
13.6 13.6
2.2 2.2
7% 8% 9% x=10% 11% 12% 13%
Figure 17.9
a) less than 9% = 2.2 + 13.6 = 15.8% of the total sample

Therefore, the number of bricks having water absorption less than 9%
15.8
= × 99 = 15.64,say 16
100
258 17 Statistics
b) more than 12% = 2.2% of the total sample

Therefore, the number of bricks having water absorption more than 12%
2 .2
= × 99 = 2.18,say 2
100
c) between 8% and 11% = 13.6 + 34.1 + 34.1 = 81.8% of the total sample
81.8
= × 99 = 80.98, say 81
100
17.8 Probability
The likelihood of an event happening is known as probability. A probability of 0 means that the event will
not happen, and a probability of 1 means that the event is certain to happen. The result can be shown as
a percentage, a fraction or a decimal number. When we know the probability of an event happening, we
can use its value to predict the future results. Many organisations use the statistical figures from the past to
predict what is likely to happen in the future and thus can plan their work in a more satisfactory manner.
number of successful trials/outcomes
Probability =
total number of trials/outcomes
Example 17.10
There are 6 defective tiles in a sample of 200 floor tiles.
a) If 1 tile is picked at random, find the probability that it is:
i) a defective tile
ii) not a defective tile
b) If the first tile was defective and not put back into the sample, then find the probability that the
second tile, picked at random, is:
i) a defective tile
ii) not a defective tile
Solution:
6
a) i) The probability of picking a defective tile is or 0.03
200
194
ii) The probability of not picking a defective tile is or 0.97
200
5
b) i) The probability of picking a defective tile is or 0.025
199
194
ii) The probability of not picking a defective tile is or 0.975
199
17.8.1 Mutually exclusive events (the OR rule)

If there are 2 mutually exclusive events A and B (i.e. either event can occur without the other event
occurring), then the probability of either A or B occurring is equal to the sum of individual probabilities:
Statistics 17 259
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B)
Example 17.11
In a sample of 100 bricks there are 4 defective bricks, 1 overburnt brick and 95 good bricks. If 1 brick is
picked from the sample, at random, calculate the probability that it is:
i) a defective brick
ii) a good brick
iii) a defective or overburnt brick
Solution:
4
i) The probability of picking a defective brick is, or 0.04
100
95
ii) The probability of picking a good brick is, or 0.95
100
4 1 5
iii) The probability of picking a defective or an overburnt bric
ck is, + = or 0.05
100 100 100
17.8.2 Independent events (the AND rule)

Two events, where the outcome of 1 event does not depend on the outcome of the other event, are
known as independent events. If there are 2 independent events A and B, then the probability of both
occurring is:
P (A and B) = P(A) × P(B)
Example 17.12
In a warehouse building 2 smoke alarms are situated very close to each other. The probability of each
detecting smoke in the building is 0.85. What is the probability that the alarm will sound when there is
smoke in the building?
Solution:
Let us suppose that there are alarms A and B in the building.
If N stands for ‘not detected’ and D for ‘detected’, then the possible outcomes for alarms A and B
are: NN, ND, DN, DD.
The probability of a smoke alarm detecting smoke = 0.85
The probability of a smoke alarm not detecting smoke = 0.15
Probability of both alarms not detecting = NN = 0.15 × 0.15 = 0.0225
Probability of Alarm A sounding = DN = 0.85 × 0.15 = 0.1275
Probability of Alarm B sounding = ND = 0.15 × 0.85 = 0.1275
Probability of both alarms sounding = DD = 0.85 × 0.85 = 0.7225
Probability of at least 1 smoke alarm detecting smoke = 0.1275 + 0.1275 + 0.7225
= 0.9775
Alternatively, no alarm sounding, NN = 0.0225
The probability of 1 alarm sounding = 1 − 0.0225 = 0.9775
260 17 Statistics
17.8.3 Tree diagrams

The combined results of an investigation can be shown on a tree diagram when there are 2 or more
independent events.
Example 17.13
A large batch of light bulbs, manufactured by Roshni Industries has 8% defective bulbs. If the quality
control technician picks 3 bulbs at random, produce a tree diagram and hence find the probability of
selecting, with replacement:
a) no defective bulb
b) 1 defective bulb
c) 2 defective bulbs
Solution:
Let, D = defective bulb; N = not defective bulb. The tree diagram is shown in Figure 17.10.
First bulb Second bulb Third bulb Outcome Probability

8 D
0.0
D 0.9
8 2
0.0 N DDN 0.08 x 0.08 x 0.92 = 0.005888
D 0.9
2 8 D DND 0.08 x 0.92 x 0.08 = 0.005888
N 0.0
0 .08
0.9
2 N DNN 0.08 x 0.92 x 0.92 = 0.067712
8 D NDD 0.92 x 0.08 x 0.08 = 0.005888

0.0
0.9
2
D 0.9
8 2
N 0.0 N
NDN 0.92 x 0.08 x 0.92 = 0.067712
0.9 8 D NND 0.92 x 0.92 x 0.08 = 0.067712

2 0.0
N
0.9
2 N NNN 0.92 x 0.92 x 0.92 = 0.778688
Figure 17.10 Tree diagram
a) From the tree diagram, probability of no defective bulb = NNN = 0.7787

b) 1 defective bulb = DNN + NDN + NND = (0.067712) × 3 = 0.2031
c) 2 defective bulbs = DDN + DND + NDD = (0.005888) × 3 = 0.0177
17.9 Binomial distribution

The binomial distribution deals with the probability of a success or failure outcome in an experiment/
investigation that is repeated several times. There are only 2 possible outcomes, for example when
Statistics 17 261
a coin is tossed there are only 2 possible outcomes, heads or tails. If p is the probability of getting a
head and q is the probability of getting a tail, then p + q = 1. When a coin is tossed several times, the
probabilities can be determined using a tree diagram. However, as the number of tosses increases, the
difficulty of using a tree diagram increases as well. The use of binomial distribution is much easier and
will give the probability of discrete events, provided:
•• the number of trials is constant
•• each trial or observation can result in only 2 possible outcomes, i.e. 1 of the outcomes is known as
a success and the other a failure.
•• the probability of success or failure is the same in each trial
•• the outcome of 1 trial (success or failure) does not affect the outcome of other trials.
The probabilities of getting 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 ……. successes in n trials are given by the binomial expansion
of (q + p)n:
n(n − 1) n − 2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n − 3 3
( q+p )
n
= qn +nqn – 1p + q p + q p + …… + pn
2! 3!
Example 17.14
In a compression test involving concrete cubes, it is found that the 5% fail to meet the required
strength. If 7 cubes are selected at random, determine the probabilities that:
a) all cubes have the required strength
b) the strength of 1 cube is less than the required strength
c) the strength of 2 cubes is less than the required strength
Solution:
The probability of a cube failing to meet the required strength, p, is 5% or 0.05.
The probability of a cube having the required strength, q, is 1 − 0.05, or 0.95
The probability of 0, 1, 2, 3, …… cubes failing to meet the required strength is given by the
successive terms of (q + p)7:
7(7 − 1) 7 − 2 2 7(7 − 1)(7 − 2) 7 − 3 3
(q + p ) = q7 + 7q7 – 1p +
7
q p + q p + ……
2! 3!
= q7 + 7q6 p + 21q5p2+ 35q4p3+ ……
a) The probability of all cubes having the required strength = q7 = 0.957 = 0.6983
b) The probability of 1 cube having strength less than the required = 7q6 p
= 7 × 0.956 × 0.05 = 0.2573
c) The probability of 2 cubes having strength less than the required = 21q5 p2
= 21 × 0.955 × 0.052 = 0.0406
17.10 Poisson distribution

When the number of trials, n, is very large (> 50) and the probability of an event occurring is very small
(p < 0.1), it is not easy and very time consuming to evaluate the terms of binomial distribution. In this
situation, Poisson distribution can be used to get a good approximation to a binomial distribution,
provided the following conditions are satisfied:
262 17 Statistics
•• the events are independent

•• 2 or more events cannot occur simultaneously
•• the mean number of events in a given interval is constant
The average number of events in an interval is x and is equal to the product of n and p. The Binomial
and Poisson distributions are both discrete probability distributions, and in some circumstances they
are very similar. The probabilities that an event will happen 0, 1, 2, ….. n times in n trials are given by
the terms of the expression:
 x (x)2 (x)3 
e − x 1+ + + + ...... 
 1! 2! 3! 
1 = P(0) + P(1) + P(2) + P(3) + ……..
Example 17.15
A company manufactures bolts for structural steel frames, and finds that 2% are defective. They are
packed in boxes containing 100 bolts. What is the probability that each box will contain a) 0 b) 1 c) 2
defective and d) more than 2 defective bolts.
Solution:
x = np =100 × 0.02= 2
a) Probability of 0 defective =P ( 0 ) = e − x = e − 2 = 0.1353

x x 2
b) Probability of 1 defective = P (1) = e − x = e − x = e − 2 = 0.270
06
1! 1! 1!
(x)2 (x)2 22
c) Probability of 2 defective =P ( 2) = e − x = e− x = e− 2 = 0.2706
2! 2×1 2×1
d) Probability of more than 2 defective = 1 − [P(0) + P(1) + P(2)]
= 1 − [0.1353 + 0.2706 + 0.2706]
= 1 − 0.6765 = 0.3235
17.11 Normal distribution

When the number of trials is very large, the frequency polygon shown in Figure 17.3 will become a
curve that has a characteristic bell shape, as shown in Figure 17.8a. A continuous curve cannot be
drawn for a discrete variable such as number of goals scored by a team, but it can be drawn for a
continuous variable such as height of people. The curve is symmetrical about the mean value of the
data, and is also the highest at the mean value. The curve tends to zero as the value of x increases
or decreases from the mean and can be described in terms of its mean and standard deviation. The
equation of the normal curve is:
Statistics 17 263
1
y=
2 2
e − (x − x) /2σ
σ 2π
where x is the variable, x is the mean value and σ is the standard deviation.
The shape of the curve and the area enclosed by the curve depend on the value of standard
deviation. The area under the curve can be calculated by integration, however, tables of results are
available (see Table 17.9) to make the calculations much easier. To avoid the use of several tables, as
the area under the curve depends on the value of σ, the curve is standardised in terms of the value
( x − x ) / σ, which commonly is designated by the symbol z. The total area under the curve between
z = − ∞ and z = + ∞ is equal to unity, and the area between any 2 values, e.g. z1 and z2 represents the
probability of the variable occurring between these values.
Example 17.16
The mean crushing strength of 120 concrete cubes is 24 N/mm2 and the standard deviation of the
results is 3 N/mm2. Assuming the results are normally distributed, calculate the number of concrete
cubes likely to have:
a) strength < 20 N/mm2
b) strength between 22 and 30 N/mm2
c) strength > 25 N/mm2
Solution:
Mean crushing strength, x = 24 N / mm2 . Its z value is 0 on the standardized normal curve
x − x 24 − 24
(z = = = 0; here x is also = 24)
σ 3
x − x 20 − 24 4
a) z-value of 20 N/mm2 = = = − = −1.33
σ 3 3
The negative value shows that it lies to the left of z = 0, i.e. the mean value.
The area between z = 0 and z = − 1.33, from Table 17.9 is 0.4082
The area under the curve (Figure 17.11a) up to the z-value of − 1.33 represents the number of concrete
cubes having strength < 20 N/mm2. This is equal to:
0.5 − 0.4082 = 0.0918. Therefore the number of samples having crushing strength < 20 N/mm2 is:
120 × 0.0918 = 11 samples.
x − x 22 − 24 2
b) z-value of 22 N/mm2 = = = − = − 0.67
s 3 3
x − x 30 − 24 6
z-value of 30 N/mm2 = = = =2
σ 3 3
Using Table 17.9, z-value of − 0.67 corresponds to an area of 0.2486 between the mean value and the
vertical line at − 0.67. The negative value shows that it lies to the left of z = 0, i.e. the mean value.
264 17 Statistics
Table 17.9 Areas under the standard normal curve
0 z
z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0159 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.l 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0678 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1388 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2086 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2760 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3451 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4430 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4762 0.4767
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4785 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 0.4955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4980 0.4980 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990
3.1 0.4990 0.4991 0.4991 0.4991 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4993 0.4993
3.2 0.4993 0.4993 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995
3.3 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4997
3.4 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4998
3.5 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998 0.4998
3.6 0.4998 0.4998 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.7 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.8 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999 0.4999
3.9 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000 0.5000
Statistics 17 265
30 N/mm2 has a z-value of 2 standard deviations. From Table 17.9 the area under the curve is
0.4772; the positive value shows that it lies to the right of the mean value, as shown in Figure 17.11b
and 17.11c.
a b
−1.33 Z-Value −0.67 0 Z-Value
c d
2.0 Z-Value −0.67 0 2.0 Z-Value
Figure 17.11
The total area under the curve is: 0.2486 + 0.4772 = 0.7258 (Figure 17.11d)
This area is directly proportional to probability. Thus the probability that the crushing strength of
concrete cubes lies between 22 N/mm2 and 30 N/mm2 is 0.7258.
Therefore, from 120 cubes, 120 × 0.7258 or 87 cubes are likely to have strength between 22 N/mm2
and 30 N/mm2.
x − x 25 − 24 1
c) z-value of 25 N/mm2 = = = = 0.33
s 3 3
Using Table 17.9, z-value of 0.33 corresponds to an area of 0.1293 between the mean value and the
vertical line at 0.33. The positive value shows that it lies to the right of z = 0, i.e. the mean value, as shown
in Figure 17.12a. The shaded portion of Figure 17.12b corresponds to an area of 0.3707 (0.5 − 0.1293 =
0.3707). This area represents the probability that the crushing strength of a concrete cube is more than 25
N/mm2. For 120 concrete cubes, the number of cubes having strength more than 25 N/mm2 is:
120 × 0.3707 = 44.48, say 45
0 0.33 Z-value
266 17 Statistics
0 0.33 Z-value
Figure 17.12
17.12 Normal distribution test

In example 17.5 we have seen that the data, which appears to be normally distributed, produces an
ogive. To check that the data is actually normally distributed it is plotted on the probability paper. The
probability paper is a special paper which has normal scale on the x-axis but a non-linear scale on
the y-axis. From the given data, percentage cumulative frequency (PCF) is determined and plotted
against the x values on the probability paper. If the data is normally distributed, the points either lie on a
straight line or will be very close.
The mean occurs at 50% PCF
The standard deviation = x s − x, x s is the x value at 84.13 PCF.
Example 17.17
The following data shows the compressive strength of 52 bricks. Use normal probability paper to check
if the results have a normal distribution. If the data is normally distributed, use the graph to find the
mean and the standard deviation.
Compressive strength 35−37 38−40 41−43 44−46 47−49 50−52 53−55

(N/mm2)
Frequency 5 10 13 10 6 5 3
Solution:
The cumulative frequency and percentage cumulative frequency are shown in Table 17.10.
Table 17.10
Class interval Frequency Cumulative Percentage cumulative
(Compressive strength) frequency frequency
35−37 5 5 5×100 ÷ 52 = 9.6
38−40 10 5 + 10 = 15 28.8
Statistics 17 267

(Compressive strength) frequency frequency
41−43 13 15 + 13 = 28 53.8
44−46 10 28 + 10 = 38 73.1
47−49 6 38 + 6 = 44 84.6
50−52 5 44 + 5 = 49 94.2
53−55 3 49 + 3 = 52 100
The percentage cumulative frequencies are plotted against the upper class boundaries and a best fit
straight line drawn as illustrated in Figure 17.13. Since the points lie close to the straight line, the results
may be considered to be normally distributed.
99.99
99.9
99.8
99.5
99
98
95
Percentage Cumulative Frequency
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5.0
2.0
1.0
0.5
0.1
0.05
0.01
37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 53 55 57
Compressive Strength (N/mm2)
Figure 17.13
268 17 Statistics
From the graph, Mean(x) = 43.8N / mm2 (mean at 50% PCF)

xs (at 84.13% PCF) = 48.9 N/mm2
Therefore,standard deviation = x s − x = 48.9 − 43.8 = 5.1N / mm2
Exercise 17.1
1. The moisture contents (%) of 12 samples of aggregates are shown below. Calculate the mean,
mode, median and range:
11.4, 13.0, 11.0, 12.2, 13.9, 10, 12.0, 12.2, 13.0, 12.3, 10.4 and 10.8
2. The crushing strengths (unit: N/mm2) of 40 bricks are given below. Group the data into 6 classes and find:
a) the frequency of each class
b) the mean crushing strength
c) the median crushing strength from the grouped data
d) the number of bricks having strength less than 44 N/mm2
34 40 45 39 35 38 46 45 44 50 45 38 43 48 37 42 50 39 46 41
44 41 51 42 47 36 47 48 49 38 44 44 43 34 41 37 42 40 42 40 N/mm2
3. On analysing the data from the tensile testing of steel, an engineer finds the values of Young’s
modulus to be:
200, 198, 210, 215, 202, 195, 200, 205, 203, 212, 214, 203 kN/mm2
Find the standard deviation of the results.
4. Group the data given in question 2 into appropriate number of classes and determine the standard
deviation. Compare the answer to the range and the interquartile range.
5. A machine makes components for use in air-conditioning systems. The probabilities of the number
of faults per component from a large batch are:
Probability of zero fault, P(0 fault) = 0.82
P(1 fault) = 0.10
P(2 faults) = 0.05
The remaining components have more than 2 faults. What is the probability that a component picked
at random has:
a) 1 or 2 faults b) more than 2 faults c) at least 1 fault
6. A component used in heating appliances is manufactured by 3 companies, company A, B and
C. Company A produces 10% defective components, company B produces 20% defective and
company C produces 25% defective. Large samples are procured from these companies, and if 1
component is picked from each sample simultaneously, what is the probability that only 1 defective
component will be picked?
1
7. The probability that the delivery of materials to a construction site will be late on any day is .
Produce a tree diagram for Monday and Tuesday, and find the probability that: 5
a) the delivery is late on both Monday and Tuesday
b) the delivery is late on just 1 of the 2 days
c) the delivery is on time on Monday and Tuesday
Statistics 17 269
8. A machine making bridge components produces 3 defective components out of a batch of 75. If a
sample of 5 components is chosen at random, what are the chances that the sample contains a) no
defective component b) 2 defective components.
9. Sunbeam manufacturing company produces kitchen units, 10% of which are found to be defective.
The quality control unit selects 20 units out of a large batch, and rejects the whole batch if 3 or
more units are defective. Find the probability that the batch is rejected.
10. A company manufactures PTFE bearings for use in bridge construction, and finds that 2% are
defective. They are packed in boxes containing 75 bearings. What is the probability that each box
will contain a) 0 b) 1 c) 2 defective bearings
11. A factory produces components which are used in the construction of steel bridges. The mean
diameter of the component is 22 mm and the standard deviation is 0.2 mm. Assuming the data to
be normally distributed, calculate the proportion of the components which have a diameter:
a) less than 21.6 mm
b) between 21.7 mm and 22.2 mm
12. The following data shows the compressive strength of 85 bricks. Use normal probability paper to
check if the results have a normal distribution. If the data is normally distributed, use the graph to
find the mean and the standard deviation.
Compressive 32−34 35−37 38−40 41−43 44−46 47−49 50−52

strength (N/mm2)
Frequency 4 12 16 20 17 13 3
1. Mean = 11.85; Median = 12.1; Mode = 12.2 and 13.0

2. b) Mean = 42.35 N/mm2 c) Median = 42.3 N/mm2 d) 26
3. 6.26
4. σ = 4.34 N/mm2; Range = 17 N/mm2; Interquartile range = 6.4 N/mm2
5. a) 0.15 b) 0.03 c) 0.18
6. 0.375
7. a) 0.04 b) 0.32 c) 0.64
8. a) 0.8154 b) 0.0142
9. 0.3230
10. a) 0.2231 b) 0.3347 c) 0.251
11. a) 2% b) 77%
12. σ = 4.5 N/mm ; Mean = 41.9 N/mm2
2
CHAPTER
18
Computer techniques

• Calculations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
• Mean, range and standard deviation
• Solution of problems involving matrices, centroids etc.
18.1 Introduction
We have at our disposal many devices like programmable calculators and computers to make
mathematical calculations easier and faster than the manual techniques. There are many computer
software available as well, especially in statistics, to make complex problems easier to solve. In this
chapter only Microsoft Excel software will be used to solve a range of problems.
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet programme that lets us work with numbers and text. An Excel file is
known as a workbook, and one workbook can hold several sheets, e.g. sheet 1, sheet 2, sheet 3 etc. Each
sheet is divided into rows and columns and their intersections create cells which are known by a reference.
A cell reference is a combination of letter/s and number, e.g. B10, AA5 etc. to signify the intersection of a
column and a row. Figure 18.1 shows a spreadsheet in which the reference of the selected cell is C7.
Each cell can hold text or a number or a formula. A formula is a special way to tell Excel to perform
a calculation using information present in other cells. Formulae can use not only the normal arithmetic
operations like plus (+), minus (−), multiply (∗) and divide (/) but also the built in functions to find square
roots, average, sine of an angle etc. A brief selection of these is given in Table 18.1.
Table 18.1
Symbol/Function Action
+ Addition
− Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
(continued)
272 18 Computer techniques
Symbol/Function Action
= Equal to
^ Raised to a power
Sum The sum of the values
Average The average (or mean) of the values
Figure 18.1
MS Excel can be used to perform calculations in mathematics, structural mechanics, construction

science, land surveying and many other subjects. Examples 18.1 to 18.8 illustrate how MS Excel can
be used to perform mathematical calculations.
Example 18.1
Anisha is planning to renovate her house and wants to replace the old carpets with laminated flooring
in 2 rooms. If the rooms measure 5.8 m x 4.2.m and 4.5 m x 4.1 m, and 1 pack of the laminated boards
covers 2.106 m2, find the number of packs required. Consider wastage @ 10%.
Solution:
The cells are labelled as length, width, area etc. on Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, as shown in Figure 18.2.
The length and the width of Room 1 are entered and multiplied to determine the floor area. The formula
Computer techniques 18 273
Figure 18.2a
Figure 18.2b
for the floor area (= B5*C5) is entered in cell D5. It is necessary to use the equal sign before a formula
otherwise the computer will not do the required calculation. The area (cell D5) is divided by 2.106 to
calculate the number of packs required, as shown in cell E5. Cell F5 shows the formula to work out the
wastage, 10/100 representing 10%. The total number of packs required (cell G5) is the sum of the answers
in cells E5 and F5, i.e. the number of actual packs required plus the wastage.
Enter the dimensions of Room 2, and replicate all the formulae. The total number of packs is the sum
of cells E6 and F6.
Figure 18.2a shows the results and Figure 18.2b shows the formulae used.
Example 18.2
5 groups of students were asked to prepare concrete cubes and test them to failure for determining the
crushing strength. The test results were:
Group 1: 50, 52, 53, 53, 55, 57, 60, 54, 54, 55 N/mm2
Group 2: 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 58, 61, 54, 54, 55 N/mm2
Group 3: 49, 52, 52, 53, 55, 58, 60, 55, 54, 56 N/mm2
Group 4: 50, 52, 53, 60, 55, 59, 62, 54, 54, 55 N/mm2
Group 5: 48, 52, 52, 53, 55, 57, 58, 54, 53, 55 N/mm2
Find the mean and the range of each group’s data.
Solution:
The data of all the groups are entered as shown in Figure 18.3a. To find the mean, the formula is: =average
(first cell:last cell). For Group 1, this is: =average(B5:K5). The formula is entered without any spaces. The
range of a set of data is equal to the maximum value minus the minimum value. Max(B5:K5) means the
maximum value from the cells ranging between B5 and K5. Similarly, Min(B5:K5) means the minimum value
from the cells ranging between B5 and K5. The formula to find the range is entered in cell M5 and replicated
in cells M6, M7, M8 and M9.
The results are shown in Figure 18.3a and the formulae used in Figure 18.3b.
Example 18.3
26 bricks were tested to determine their compressive strength in N/mm2. The results are:
49 50 55 54 51 52 56 55 53 54 54 53
60 55 53 58 61 56 57 52 54 57 55 58
56 59
Arrange the data into 5 groups and calculate the mean compressive strength.
Solution:
The data have been arranged into 5 groups as shown in Figure 18.4a. The class mid-points
are entered in cells C6 to C10. As the mean of grouped data is determined by the formula:
Figure 18.3a
Figure 18.3b
Figure 18.4a
Figure 18.4b
Σfx
Mean = , the next step is to find the product of frequency (f) and class mid-point (x).
Σf
The formula to determine fx is entered in cell D6 and replicated for the other cells. The sum
of the frequencies (Σ f) and the sum of fx (Σ fx) is found by entering the formulae shown in
Figure 18.4b. Finally, the mean is shown in cell E13.
Example 18.4
10 bricks were tested to determine their crushing strength; the results are:
40, 35, 31, 32, 36, 38, 38, 40, 34, 36 N/mm2
Find: a) the median, b) the standard deviation of the data.
Solution:
The data are entered as shown in Figure 18.5a.
The formula for determining the median of the data is: =median(B5:K5), and it has been entered in
cell M5.
The formula for determining the standard deviation of the data is: =stdev(B5:K5), and it has been
entered in cell N5.
The results are shown in Figure 18.5a and the formulae used in Figure 18.5b.
Figure 18.5a
Figure 18.5b
Example 18.5
Find the position of the centroid of the section shown in Figure 14.19a (refer to chapter 14).
Solution:
The retaining wall is divided into 3 parts. The area, distance from y-axis and distance from x-axis for each
part are entered as shown in Figure 18.6a. Appropriate formulae are entered as shown in Figure 18.6b to
determine the position of the centroid.
Example 18.6
 2 4 6 2
 3 5 0 5
Solution:
This question has already been solved by manual technique − see example 15.3 in chapter 15. The
solution of matrices by spreadsheet is far quicker than the manual techniques. Enter the matrices
as shown in Figure 18.7a. Highlight the cells where the answer will be shown, making sure that their
dimension is same as the answer matrix. In this example the answer will be a 2 × 2 matrix, therefore
cells H5, I5, H6, I6 will be highlighted.
The following formula is entered only once, not 4 times as shown in Figure 18.7b.
=MMULT(B5:C6,E5:F6) (the cell references are dependent on the data)
After entering the formula press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER keys to get the answer.
Figure 18.6a
Figure 18.6b
Figure 18.7a
Figure 18.7b
Figure 18.8a
Figure 18.8b
Example 18.7
4 1 5
Evaluate the determinant 2 −1 2
−1 2 0
Solution:
This question has been solved as example 15.6 by manual technique.
Enter the data as shown in Figure 18.8a. Highlight a cell near the matrix and enter the syntax:
=MDETERM(B4:D6). The cell references correspond to the matrix.
Figure 18.8b shows how to enter the above formula.
Exercise 18.1
1. Jane is planning to renovate her house and has decided to replace the old carpets with laminated
flooring in the dining room, living room and the hall. The dining room measures 3.5 m x 3.5 m, the
living room 6.1 m x 4.2 m and the hall 4 m x 2 m. If one pack of the laminated boards covers 2.106 m2,
find the number of packs required. Consider wastage @ 10%.
2. The heat loss from a room is given by:
Heat loss = U x A x T (U = U-value; A = area)
If the temperature difference (T) between the inside and outside air is 20 °C, find the heat loss from
a room given that:
U-values (W/m2 °C)
Cavity wall = 0.25; floor = 0.25; roof = 0.25; door = 0.46; patio door = 2.0
Areas (m2)
Walls = 54 (gross); floor = 20; roof = 20; door = 1.7; patio door = 5.0
3. A group of students was asked to perform tensile tests on 15 samples of steel and find the
maximum tensile force in kN, taken by each sample. The test results were:
9.9, 12.1, 10.0, 12.0, 10.2, 11.9, 10.3, 11.6, 10.5, 11.5, 11.3, 10.9, 11.3, 11.6 and 11.0 kN.
Find the mean tensile force and the range of the data.
4. 25 samples of PVC were tested to determine their coefficient of linear thermal expansion. The
results were:
63 70 66 70 74 71 67 77 78 72 66 76 64 69 73 82 69 76 70 65 71
72 74 78 73 x10−6/°C
Arrange the data into a number of appropriate groups and calculate the mean coefficient of thermal
expansion.
5. 15 concrete cubes were tested to determine their crushing strength; the results are:
25, 27, 31, 32, 30, 26, 29, 24, 25, 27, 32, 31, 30, 27, 29 N/mm2
Find the standard deviation of the data.
 3 2  5 3
 6 1  6 0 
−2 3 0
7. Evaluate the determinant −3 1 1
−2 3 4
8. Refer to Figure 14.19b (chapter 14) that shows a retaining wall. Find the position of its centroid.
1. 24 packs
2. 685.64 W
3. Mean = 11.07 N; Range = 2.2 N
4. 71.4 × 10−6/°C
5. 2.66
 27 9 
6.  
 36 18 
7. 28
8. x = 1.826 m; y = 2.522m
End of unit assignment
w R
1. Transpose =w− to make w the subject.
G 1000
M
2. The area of steel (A) in a reinforced concrete beam is given by A = . Find the approximate
tjd
percentage change in the area of steel if M increases by 3% and t decreases by 2%.
3.
a) Solve simultaneously: 5y = 0.5 − 4x and 2x = 4 − 4y
b) The perimeter of a rectangular plot of land is 84 m and the length of its diagonal is 30 m. Calculate
the dimensions of the plot.
4. A pitched roof is 12 m long, 4 m high and has a span of 14 m. Calculate:
a) Pitch of the roof
b) True lengths of the common rafters
c) Surface area of the roof
5. A surveyor wants to find the distance between 2 buildings A and B. However, the distance cannot
be calculated directly as there is a small lake between the 2 buildings. The surveyor sets up a station
at point C and measures angle ACB to be 120º. If distances AC and CB are 220 m and 260 m
respectively, find the distance between the two buildings.
sec A
6. Show that = sin A
tan A + cot A
7. An oscillating mechanism in a machine has a maximum displacement of 0.5 m and a frequency
of 40 Hz. The displacement at time t = 0 is 20 cm. Express the displacement in the general form:
displacement = A sin (ωt ± α)
8. Solve: a) log(x2 − 1) = log (3x − 3)
9. The city council of a town needs to predict the future population of the city so that the road
network and other facilities could be planned. If the population increases at a rate of 1.6% each
year, what will be the town’s population after 25 years. The current population is 100 000 and
assume that it increases continuously.
10. Solve the following equation:
2.4 cosh x + 5 sinh x = 7.5
11. Differentiate: a) y = (z2 + 2z − 2) sin z
cos x
b) y =
x
12. A steel plate, 700 mm wide, is used to manufacture a hollow beam having a width of b mm
and depth of h mm in cross-section. If the strength of this beam is proportional to bh3, find the
dimensions of the strongest beam.
2 2 log x
13. Evaluate ∫ e
dx
1 x
286 End of unit assignment
14. A retaining wall is to be designed to retain a 6 m deep soil deposit. If the unit weight of the retained
soil is 18.0 kN/m3 and the coefficient of active earth pressure is 0.33, calculate the force on the wall
due to the soil deposit at a depth of 4 m.
15. Find the position of the centroid of the area shown in Figure Asn1.

Figure Asn1
16. Determine IXX and IYY of the channel section shown in Figure Asn2.
8 cm
Y
1 cm
G 13 cm
X X
1 cm
1 cm
O A
Y
Figure Asn2
17. Use matrices to solve the simultaneous equations, 2x + 3y = 4 and x − y = −3

End of unit assignment 287
18. Use a graphical method to determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the forces
shown in Figure Asn3.
F2
F3 30 N
40 N F1
85° 25 N
30° 36°
O
Figure Asn3
19. The data from a tensile test was analysed to determine the values of Young’s modulus, which are
given below:
200, 198, 210, 215, 202, 195, 200, 205, 203, 212, 214, 203 kN/mm2
Find the standard deviation of the results.
20. A factory produces components which are used in the construction of bridges. The mean diameter
of the component is 22 mm and the standard deviation is 0.2 mm. Assuming the data to be
normally distributed, calculate the proportion of the components which have a diameter between
21.7 mm and 22.2 mm
Answers
R G
1. w = ×
1000 G − 1
2. +5%
3. x = − 3; y = 2.5 Length = 24 m; width = 18 m
4. a) 29.745º b) 8.062 m c) 193.488 m2
5. 416.173 m
7. Displacement = 0.5 sin(80 πt + 0.412) m
8. x = 2 or x = 1
9. 149182
10. 0.7828
11. a) (2z + 2)sin z + (z2 + 2z − 2)cos z b)
x2
12. b = 87.5 mm, h = 262.5 mm
13. 0.48
14. 47.52 kN
288 End of unit assignment
= =
15. x 35 .0 mm, y 60.38mm
16. Ixx = 968.42 cm, Iyy = 174.43 cm4
17. x = −1, y = 2
18. 65.5 N acts at 65º to 25 N force
19. 6.26
20. 77%
APPENDIX
1
Bending moment and
shear force
1. Moment of a force
A force or a system of forces causes deflection in beams and other elements of a building. The
deflection of a beam is due to the turning or rotational effect of a force; this turning effect is known as
the moment of a force or bending moment:
Moment of a force = Force × distance
Figure A1.1 shows 2 cantilevers (beams with 1 support) each acted upon by force F. The force will
cause the rotation of the cantilevers about their supports.
Force F Force F
Cantilever Cantilever
x x
L L
(a) (b)
Figure A1.1
The moment of force F, about point x = F × L

where L is the perpendicular distance between the force and point x
In Figure A1.1a, the effect of the force is to cause clockwise rotation of the cantilever as shown by the
arrow. The moment in this case is known as clockwise moment. The cantilever shown in Figure 11.1b will be
subjected to anti-clockwise rotation due to the action of force F, and hence the moment is anti-clockwise.
290 1 Bending moment and shear force
2. Sign convention
Clockwise (CW) moments are considered positive.
Anti-clockwise (ACW) moments are considered negative.
3. Laws of equilibrium
Building elements such as beams, slabs, walls and columns are acted upon by a number of external
forces. An element is in equilibrium if it is not disturbed from its state of rest by the external forces.
There are 3 conditions for maintaining the equilibrium of a body:
a) the sum of vertical forces is 0, i.e. Σ V = 0
b) the sum of horizontal forces is 0, i.e. Σ H = 0
c) the sum of moments about any point is 0, i.e. Σ M = 0
4. Beam reactions
Newton’s third law of motion states that: to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
In the case of a beam the action is due to the dead, imposed and other loads acting on it. Since
beams are supported on walls or columns, the reactions are provided by these supports.
If the loading is symmetrical, then the reactions must be equal. Figure A1.2a shows a simply
supported beam, resting on two walls, which is acted upon by 16 kN force at its centre. For structural
calculations line diagrams of beams are used rather than the 3-D diagrams. Figure A1.2b shows the
line diagram of the beam shown in Figure A1.2a. As the beam is resting on walls, the reactions offered
by the walls (R1 and R2) must be equal to 16 kN (the action) for the stability of the beam. The downward
acting force must be equal to the sum of upward acting forces.
16 kN = R1 + R2
As 16 kN force acts at the centre of the beam, R1 must be equal to R2.
or R1 = R2 = 8 kN
The beam shown in Figure A1.3 is not symmetrically loaded. In this case the magnitude of the
reactions will not be the same and cannot be calculated as easily as done before. However a simple
method, shown in example 1, may be used.
Example 1
Figure A1.3 shows the line diagram of a beam and the force acting on it. Calculate reactions R1
and R2.
Bending moment and shear force 1 291
16 kN
Beam
Wall Wall
(a)
16 kN
R1 R2
(b)
Figure A1.2
12 kN
2m 4m
R1 R2
Figure A1.3
Solution:
As the loading is not symmetrical, R1 and R2 will be unequal, but can be determined as shown below:
12kN × 4m
Calculation of reaction R1 : R1 = = 8 kN
6m
12kN × 2m
Calculation of reaction R 2 : R2 = = 4 kN
6m
Check: R1 + R2 = 8 + 4 =12 kN (this is equal to the force acting on the beam)

Example 2
Calculate reactions R1 and R2 for the beam shown in Figure A1.4a. A uniformly distributed load (udl) of
2 kN/m acts on the beam.
Solution:
2.0 kN/m (udl)
8m
R1 (a) R2
16 kN
8m
R1 (b) R2
Figure A1.4
In this example the loading is symmetrical which means the reactions will be equal. The total load
acting on the beam is 2 kN/m × 8 m = 16 kN (uniformly distributed load is changed into a point load)
16
Therefore R1 = R 2 = = 8kN
2
(Note: The total load (point load) is assumed to act at the centre of the distance over which the udl
acts, as shown in Figure A1.4b)
5. Shear force (SF)

Shear force causes or tends to cause the horizontal or vertical movement of a part of the material
against the rest. The shear force at any point on a beam is defined as the algebraic sum of all the forces
acting on one side of the beam. Figure A1.5 shows the sections of a typical beam where failure due to
vertical shear may occur.
Shear force at point A = algebraic sum of all forces to the left of point A = Reaction R1
Shear force at point B = algebraic sum of all forces to the left of point B = R1 − F
Sign convention: The use of sign convention is important in drawing the shear force diagrams.
Shear force is considered positive if the forces act ‘up on the left and down on the right’. This can also
be represented as ↑↓.
Shear force is negative if the forces act down on the left and up on the right (↓↑).
For producing a shear force diagram, a base line is drawn first and lines are drawn up for upward
acting forces, down for downward acting forces.
Force F
Beam
A B
Possibility of shear
R1 R2
failure near supports
Figure A1.5
Example A1.3
Draw the shear force diagram for the beam shown in Figure A1.3.
Solution:
Before producing the shear force (SF) diagram we need to calculate reactions R1 and R2. This is already
done: R1 = 8 kN and R2 = 4 kN.
To draw the SF diagram, draw up for upward acting forces and down for downward acting forces.
The process is explained below:
1) Select a suitable scale, e.g. 1 kN = 5 mm (see Figure A1.6).

2) As shown in Figure A1.6b, draw base line ab; although its length is not important, usually it is drawn
below the beam. As 8 kN force (R1) acts upwards at A, draw line ac = 40 mm
(8 kN = 8 × 5 mm = 40 mm) vertically up from the base line.
12 kN
A C B
2m 4m
R1 R2
(a)
c d
8 kN
a e b
_
4 kN
f g
(b) Shear force diagram
Figure A1.6
3) Immediately after reaction R1 there is no force, therefore draw a horizontal line up to the 12 kN
force. Stop when the 12 kN force is reached and draw a vertical line downwards to represent the
12 kN force. As 12 kN is equivalent to 60 mm, line df should be 60 mm long.
4) There is no force just after the 12 kN force, so draw a horizontal line up to reaction R2. As R2 acts
in the upward direction, draw line gb vertically up. Line gb should be 20 mm long to represent
reaction R2.
5) The sign is decided by following the sign convention already discussed
Example A1.4
Draw the shear force diagram for the beam shown in Figure A1.4.
Solution:
1) The beam reactions have already been determined: R1 = R2 = 8 kN.
2) Use a convenient scale, say 1 kN = 3 mm.
3) As a udl is similar to closely spaced point loads (Figure A1.7b), it is necessary to convert it to a point
load for calculating the shear force at a point. Draw horizontal line ab as the base line (Figure A1.7c).
As reaction R1 acts upwards, draw vertical line af up from point a. Measure af = 24 mm to represent
R1 (8 kN × 3 mm = 24 mm) and hence the shear force at A.
2.0 kN/m (udl)

A C D E B
8m
R1 (a) R2
R1 (b) R2
f
g
8 kN
+
d e b
a
c _
8 kN
h
j
(c) Shear force diagram
Figure A1.7
4) SF at point C = net vertical force to the left of C (AC = CD = 2 m)
= R1 − downward acting force between A and C
= 8 kN − (2 kN/m × 2 m) = 4 kN.
5) Mark point g vertically below C to represent the SF at C. Distance gc should be 12 mm.
6) Shear force at D = net vertical force to the left of point D
= R1 − downward acting force between A and D
= 8 kN − (2 kN/m × 4 m) = 0 kN
Mark point d on the base line, vertically below D.
7) Shear force at E = net vertical force to the left of point E
= R1 − downward acting force between A and E
= 8 kN − (2 kN/m × 6 m) = − 4 kN.
As the SF is negative, this part of the SF diagram will be drawn below the base line. Mark point h so
that eh = 12 mm (4 kN × 3 mm = 12 mm)
9) Repeat the procedure to complete the SF. Join points f, g, d, h and j, to produce a straight line.
6. Bending Moment (BM)

The bending moment is a measure of the amount of bending at a point on the beam. It is calculated by
taking algebraic sum of moments about the point under consideration. Depending on the type of the
beam the forces can cause either sagging or hogging of the beam. In producing the BM diagrams:
i) sagging moment is considered positive
ii) hogging moment is considered negative
Also, as described before, clockwise (CW) moments are taken positive; anti-clockwise (ACW)
moments are taken negative.
The structural design of a beam is based on the maximum bending moment which can be
determined from the BM diagram.
Example A1.5
Draw bending moment diagram for the beam shown in Figure A1.3.
Solution:
Before the BM diagram can be drawn we need to calculate the bending moment at various points i.e.
at points A, C and B. To determine BM at any point take moments of all forces to its left and find their
algebraic sum.
1) Determine reactions R1 and R2, as explained earlier. R1 = 8 kN and R2 = 4 kN.

2) BM at A: To calculate the bending moment at point A, we need to take moments of all forces to its
left. As there is no force to the left of point A, the BM at A is zero. Although reaction R1 acts at A, the
moment produced is 0:
Moment about A (MA) due to R1 = Force R1 × distance between R1 and A
= 8 kN × 0 = 0 kNm
3) BM at C: Consider all forces to the left of point C and take the algebraic sum of their moments
about C. There is only R1 that acts on the left of C, and it produces a clockwise moment (positive):
Moment about C (MC) due to R1 = Force R1 × perpendicular distance between R1 and point C
= 8 kN × 2 m = 16 kNm
12 kN
A C B
2m 4m
R1 = 8 R2 = 4
(a)
16 kNm
+
a c b
(b) Bending moment diagram
Figure A1.8
4) BM at B: Consider all forces to the left of point B. R1 and 12 kN act to the left of B; they produce
clockwise and anti-clockwise moments, respectively.
Clockwise moment about B = R1 × perpendicular distance between R1 and point B
= 8 kN × 6 m = 48 kNm (CW moment is positive)
Anti-clockwise moment about B = 12 kN × perpendicular distance between 12 kN force and B
= 12 kN × 4 m = − 48 kNm (ACW moment is considered negative)
R2 will produce 0 moment about B as its distance from B is 0.
B.M. at B (MB) = algebraic sum of moments about B
= CW moment + ACW moment
= 40 + (−40) = 0 kNm.
5) Select a suitable scale, say 1 kNm = 2 mm

Bending moment at C = 16 kNm; this is equivalent to 32 mm (16 kN × 2 mm = 32 mm)
Draw base line acb and mark point d so that cd = 32 mm. Complete the BM diagram as shown in
Figure A1.8b. The bending moment is positive as the force will cause sagging of the beam.
Example A1.6
Draw the bending moment diagram for an 8 m long beam carrying a udl of 2 kN/m.
Solution:
The beam is shown in Figure A1.9a. Distances AC = CD = DE = EB = 2 m
1) Calculate reactions R1 and R2 as explained earlier
R1 = R2 = 8 kN
2) BM at A: As explained in the previous example, the bending moment at A is 0 as there is no force

acting to the left of point A.
3) BM at C: Take moments about point C, of all forces acting to its left, and find their algebraic sum.
Before the moments can be taken the udl needs to be converted to a point load. The udl acting to
the left of C is equivalent to a point load of:
2.0 kN/m (udl)

A C D E B
8m
R1 (a) R2
4 kN 8 kN
A C A D
1m 1m 2m 2m
R1 R1
(b) Bending moment at C (c) Bending moment at D
16 kNm
12 kNm 12 kNm
A C D E B
(d) Bending moment diagram
Figure A1.9
2 kN/m × 2 m = 4 kN
The force of 4 kN is supposed to act at the mid-point of AC, as shown in Figure A1.9b.
B.M. at C = R1 × distance AC − 4 kN × 1 m
= 8 kN × 2 m − 4 kN × 1 m = 12 kNm
4) BM at D: Repeat step 3 to determine the bending moment at point D. The udl acting to the left of D
(between A and D) is equivalent to a point load of 8 kN (2 kN/m × 4 m = 8 kN). This is also assumed
to act at the mid-point of AD.
BM at D = R1 × distance AD − 8 kN × 2 m
= 8 kN × 4 m − 8 kN × 2 m = 16 kNm
Similarly BM at other points may also be calculated.

The BM diagram is shown in Figure A1.9d.
References/further reading
1. Virdi, S., and Waters, R. (2017). Construction Science and Materials. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
2. Durka, F., Al Nageim, H., Morgan, W. and Williams, D. (2002). Structural Mechanics. Harlow:
Prentice Hall.
APPENDIX
2
Frame analysis
1. Triangle of forces
A force can be represented in both magnitude and direction, therefore, it is a vector quantity. Units of
Newton (N), kiloNewton (kN), or MegaNewton (MN) are used to show the magnitude and the direction
shown by using short lines with arrowheads.
Forces meeting at a point are known as concurrent forces. Forces whose line of action lies in the
same plane are called coplanar forces. If a body is in equilibrium under the action of 3 concurrent,
coplanar forces, then these forces can be represented by a triangle, with its sides drawn parallel to the
direction of the forces. This is known as the law of the triangle of forces and can be used to determine
the unknown magnitude and/or direction of 1 or 2 forces.
If the force system consists of more than 3 forces, then the law of polygon of forces can be used
which is similar to the law of the triangle of forces.
If a member is subjected to compression or tension, then the internal resistance of the material acts
in the opposite direction as shown in Figure A2.1. In all problems where we use the triangle of forces
or the polygon of forces, we use the direction of internal resistance to show compression or tension.
External force External force
Internal resistance Internal resistance

(a) Members in compression (b) Members in tension
Compression in frame Tension in frame
Figure A2.1
300 2 Frame analysis
11.4.1 Bow’s Notation

Bow’s notation is used to identify forces in frames and force systems. It involves marking the spaces in
the space diagram with capital letters, as shown in Figure A2.2. Any force and any member of the frame
can be identified by letters, on either side. For example, reaction R1 is identified as AB as it has spaces
A and B on either side. Similarly 5 kN force is identified as BC.
12 kN
12 kN D
E
5 kN C H 8 kN
J
G
B F
A
R1 R2
Figure A2.2
It is usual practice to start from the left hand support, and move in the clockwise direction at each joint
(node). Although it is not necessary, the first few letters are used exclusively for reactions and external
forces.
References/further reading
Virdi, S., and Waters, R. (2017). Construction Science and Materials. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
APPENDIX
3
Solutions − Exercise 1.1 to
Exercise 18.1
Solutions – Exercise 1.1

1. a) 6 + 5 × 4 − 20 + 2 × 3 = 6 + 20 − 20 + 6 = 12
b) 5 − 6 × 1.5 − 3 × 2.5 + 5 ×6 × 1.5 = 5 − 9 − 7.5 + 45 = 33.5
The solutions for questions 2, 3 and 4 are very straightforward
5. a) 620 − 380 − 120 can be approximated to 600 − 400 − 100 = 100
45 × 20 50 × 20
b) can be approximated to = 20
50 50
39 × 89 × 143 50 × 100 × 100
6. = = 100 ( estimated )
43 × 108 50 × 100
Accurate answer = 106.88 (2 d.p.)
Absolute error = 106.88 − 100 = 6.88
Relative error = 6.88 × 100 = 6.88%
100
7. Simplify/solve
a) 4 × 42 × 34 × 32 = 43 × 36 = 64 × 729 = 46656
x 6 × x 2 × x 2 x10 −2
b) 3 = 2 = x10 = x 8
x × x × x −2 x
c) (22)3 + (2x2)2 = 22 x 3 + 22 x2 x 2 = 26 + 4 x4
= 64 + 4 x4
m6 × m4 × m2 m12
d) 3 = = m12 − 2 = m0 = 1
m × m5 × m4 m12
Solutions − Exercise 2.1

1. i) 1.5x y2 × 6x y z = 1.5 × 6 × x × x × y2 × y × z
= 9x2 y3 z
ii) 2a2 b2 c × 4a b2 c3 = 2 × 4 × a2 × a × b2 × b2 × c × c3
= 8a3 b4 c4
302 3 Solutions − Exercise 1.1 to Exercise 18.1
4× x × x × x × x × x × x × y × y × y × y × z× z× z
2. i) 4x y z ÷ 2x y z =
6 4 3 4 2 2
2× x × x × x × x × y × y × z × z
= 2x y z
2 2
2 × x 8 × y 3 × z3
ii) 2x y z ÷ x y z =
8 3 3 4 3 -2
x 4 × y 3 × z −2
2 × x 8 × y 3 × z3 × z2
= = 2x 4 z 5
x4 × y3
3. i) 3 + (2a + 5b − 20) = 3 + 2a + 5b − 20 = 2a + 5b − 17
ii) 6 − (3a − 2b − 10) = 6 − 3a + 2b + 10 = 16 − 3a + 2b
iii) 2(2a + 2.5b) = 2 × 2a + 2 × 2.5b = 4a + 5b
iv) 1.5(2a − 3b − 5) = 1.5 × 2a − 1.5 × 3b − 1.5 × 5
= 3a − 4.5b −7.5
4. i) 5xz − 15yz = 5z(x − 3y)
ii) 4xy2 + 8x2y = 4xy(y + 2x)
iii) x3 + 3x2 + x = x(x2 + 3x + 1)
5. i) 3x − 3 = x + 7, 3x − x = 7 + 3
10
2x = 10, or x = =5
2
ii) 5x + 2 = 12, 5x = 12 − 2 = 10, x = 2
2x
iii) = 3.2 − x , 2x = 3 × 3.2 − 3x,
3
9.6
2x + 3x = 9.6, x= = 1.92
5
1
6. i) 2( x + 4 ) + 4( x + 1) = 6( 2x + )
2
2x + 8 + 4x + 4 = 12x + 3
−9
2x − 12x + 4x = 3 − 4 − 8, − 6x = − 9, x= = 1.5
−6
6−A A−5 5
ii) + =
2 3 4
Multiply both sides by 12 to simplify the fractions:
6−A A−5 5
12 × + 12 × = 12 ×
2 3 4
6(6 − A) + 4 (A − 5) = 15, 36 − 6A + 4A − 20 = 15
− 6A + 4A = 15 − 36 + 20, − 2A = -1, Hence A = 0.5
3Y Y 5
iii) = −
10 3 6
Multiply both sides of the equation by 30
3Y Y 5
30 × = 30 × − 30 ×
10 3 6
9Y = 10Y − 25, 9Y − 10Y = − 25, Y = 25
7. Let x (kg) be the quantity of cement
Quantity of sand = 1.5x
Quantity of gravel = 1.5x + 200
50
Quantity of water = × x = 0.5x
100
Solutions − Exercise 1.1 to Exercise 18.1 3 303
x + 1.5x + 1.5x + 200 + 0.5x = 1100

900
4.5x = 1100 − 200 = 900, x = = 200 kg
4 .5
Cement = 200 kg; Sand = 300 kg; Gravel = 500 kg; Water = 100 kg
8. Let x cm be the length of the rectangle
Width of the rectangle = x − 4 cm
Perimeter = 2(length + width) = 32
2(x + x − 4) = 32, 4x − 8 = 32, 4x = 40, x = 10
Length = 10 cm, Width = 10 − 4 = 6 cm
9. Let x cm be the width of the rectangle
Length of the rectangle = 1.5x
x + 1.5x + x + 1.5x = 40, 5x = 40, x = 8 cm
Width = 8 cm, Length = 1.5 × 8 = 12 cm
10. a) Potential energy = mgh = mass × m/sec2 ×height
L
Potential energy  = M T 2 L = ML T
2 −2
b) Work = force × distance

[Work] = MLT-2 × L = ML2T-2
Work
Power =
c)
Time
ML2T −2
Power  = = ML2T −3
T
11. a) v2 = u2 + 2as
Dimensions of ‘u’ and ‘v’ are LT-1, dimensions of ‘a’ are: LT-2, and dimension of ‘s’ is L.
[LT-1]2 = [LT-1]2 + [2 × LT-2 × L]
[L2T-2] = [L2T-2] + [2 L2T-2] = [3 L2T-2]
We can ignore 3 from the RHS as it has no dimension.
As LHS = RHS, the formula is dimensionally correct.
b) v = u + at2
Replace the symbols by their dimensions:
[LT-1] = [LT-1] + [LT-2 × T2]
= [LT-1] + [L]
Here the LHS is not equal to RHS (LHS ≠ RHS)
The formula is dimensionally incorrect.
1
c ) s = ut + at2
2
[L] = [LT-1 × T] + [0.5 LT-2 × T2]
= [L] + [0.5L] = [1.5 L]
Ignore 1.5; LHS = RHS, therefore the formula is dimensionally correct.
∆L
12. ∆L = αL∆T; therefore α =
L ∆T
= ΔLΔT-1L-1
[α] = [L][T-1][ L-1] = [ L1-1][T-1]

= [T-1]
The dimension of α is: T-1
13. The dimensions of Q (heat energy) are the same as other forms of energy, i.e.
ML2T-2. The dimensions of A, (θ2 − θ1), t, and d are L2, K, T and L respectively.
Qd
Transposing the given formula,λ = = QdA −1(θ2 − θ1 )−1t −1
A(θ2 − θ1 )t
[λ] = [ML2T-2] [L] [L2]-1 [K]-1 [T]-1
= [ML2T-2] [L] [L-2] [K-1] [T-1]
= [ML2+1-2T-2-1K-1] = [MLT-3K-1]
14. Centripetal force, F ∝ ma vb r c
F = k ma vb rc (k = constant)
Leaving the constant and replacing the other symbols with their dimensions:
MLT-2 = [M]a [LT-1]b [L]c
= Ma Lb+c T-1b
Comparing the two sides of the equation, a = 1; b = 2 and c = -1
kmv 2
Finally, k m1 v 2 r −1 or F =
r

1. Let T12 be the twelfth term, therefore T12 = a + (n − 1)d
n = 12, a = 1 (first term of the series),
d (the common difference) = 3.5 − 1 = 2.5
T12 = 1 + (12 − 1)2.5
= 1 + (11)2.5 = 28.5
n
The sum of first 12 terms is given by, S12 = ( 2a + (n − 1)d)
2
12
= ( 2 × 1+ (12 − 1)2.5 )
2
= 6 (2 + 27.5) = 177
2. Let T5 be the fifth term and T12 be the twelfth term
T5 = 28 = a + (5 − 1)d, therefore a + 4d = 28 (1)
T12 = 63 = a + (12 − 1)d, therefore a + 11d = 63 (2)
Solving the above equations simultaneously gives, d = 5
Put d = 5 in either of the above equations:
a + 4d = 28, Hence a (first term) = 28 − 20 = 8
3. The first term, a = 52 dB; n = 6
T6 = 52 + (6 − 1)d
90 − 52 38
90 − 52 = 5d, therefore d = = = 7.6
5 5
Hence the noise levels are: 52, 59.6, 67.2, 74.8, 82.4 and 90.0 dB
4. a) a = 4000; d = 50; n = 8

T8 = 4000 + (8 − 1)50
= 4000 + 350 = 4350 doors
n
S20 =
b) ( 2a + (n − 1)d)
2
20
= ( 2 × 4000 + (20 − 1)50 )
2
= 10 (8000 + 950) = 89500 doors
c) Increase in production = 25%
4000 × 25
Production after increase = 4000 + = 5000
100
a + (n − 1)d = 5000
4000 + (n − 1)50 = 5000
50n = 5000 − 4000 + 50; hence n = 21 years
10
5. a ) S10 = ( 2a + (10 − 1)d) =137500
2
5 ( 2a + 9d) = 137500
10a + 45d = 137500 (1)
18
S18 = ( 2a + (18 − 1)d) = 427500
2
9 ( 2a + 17d) = 427500
18a + 153d = 427500 (2)
Solving equations (1) and (2) we have, a = 2500
Thus the production after the first year = 2500 floor units
b) Put a = 2500 in equation (1)
10 × 2500 + 45d = 137500
45d = 137500 − 25000, or d = 2500
Therefore, the yearly increase in production is 2500 units
40
c) S40 = ( 2a + (40 − 1)d) = 2 050 000
2
S40 = 20(2 × 2500 + 39 × 2500)
= 20(102500) = 2 050 000
Total production in 40 years is 2 050 000 units
6. The first term, a = 2.2
4 .4
Common ratio= ,r = 2
2 .2
The seventh term = ar 7 − 1 = ar 6
= 2.2 × 26 = 140.8
7. The first term, a = 1
4
Common ratio, r= = 4
1
a(1 − r 8 )
Sum of 8 terms, S8 =
(1− r)
1(1 − 48 ) 1(1 − 65536 )

= = = 21845
(1− 4) −3
8. The third term = ar 3 − 1 = ar 2 = 22.5 (1)
The sixth term = ar 6 − 1 = ar 5 = 607.5 (2)
ar 5 607.5
Divide equation ( 2) by (1) , =
ar 2 22.5
r3 = 27, hence r = 3
22.5 22.5
From equation (1) , ar 2 = 22.5, therefore, a = = = 2.5
r2 9
The eleventh term = ar10 = 2.5 × 310 = 147622.5
9. a) Second blow of the hammer = ar 2 − 1 = ar = 18.4 (1)
eleventh blow of the hammer = ar11− 1 = ar10 = 2.47 (2)
ar10 2.47
Divide equation ( 2) by (1) , ar = 18.4
1
r 9 0=
= .13424, hence r (0.13424 ) 9 = 0.8
18.4 18.4
From equation (1) , a = = = 23
r 0.8
Penetration due to the seventh blow = ar6 = 23 × (0.8)6 = 6.03 mm
a(1 − r15 )
b ) Total penetration after 15 blows = S15 =
(1− r)
23(1 − 0.815 ) 23(1 − 0.03518 )
= = = 110.95 mm
(1− 0.8) 0.2
10. First year rent, a = 6000
 10 
Second year rent, ar = 6000 +  6000 ×  = 6600
 100 
6600
=
Common ratio, r = 1 .1
6000
Rent in the tenth year = ar9 = 6000 × (1.1)9 = £14 147.69
a(1 − r10 )
Total rent in 10 years = S10 =
(1− r)
6000(1 − 1.110 )
=
(1− 1.1)
6000(1 − 1.110 ) 6000( − 1.59374 )
= =
(1− 1.1) −0.1
= £95 624.40

1. f = c + d − e or e = c + d − f
2. mx + c = y or mx + c = y
y -c
mx = y − c x =
m
Qd
3. a) k = Qd = kAT
AT
Q = kAT
d
0.8 × 10 × 40
b) Q = = 6400
0.5
2
= 4. P V= , V 2 PR, V = PR
R
A A
5. a) A = 2
π r 2, 2π r 2 = A, r2 = , r=
2π 2π
8000
b) r = = 35.68 cm
2π
1
6. a ) A=
(a + b ) × d, (a + b )d = 2A
2
2A
d =
a +b
2A 2A
b) (a + b )d = 2A, a +b = , b= −a
d d
v2
7. a ) Square both sides, v 2 = c2 × RS, R= 2
c S
( 2.5 )
2
b)
R= = 0.125
502 × 0.02
e
8. 1+ e = n, e = n(1 + e ), e = n + ne, e − ne = n
n
e(1 − n) = n e=
1-n
5 wL3 384 dEI
=
9. d=
, 5wL3 384 dEI, L3 =
384EI 5w
384 dEI
L= 3
5w
1 32 21 2 1 2
vn
10. =
a) R S v=R3 S2 v n R3 = 1
n
3
S2
 vn  2
R =  1 
 2
S 
3
 2.75 × 0.01  2 3
R=
b)  = ( 0.1945 ) 2
 1

 0.02 2 
R = 0.0857
11. B(T + A(S − T)) = U
B(T + AS − AT) = U
BT +BAS − BAT = U
T(B − BA) = U − BAS

U - BAS
T=
B - BA
(G + e)d
12. D =
1+ e
D + De = Gd + ed
De − ed = Gd − D
Gd − D
e(D − d) = Gd − D, e=
D−d
A1
13. a ) A 2 =
h
1−
H
 h h A1
A 2  1−  = A 1, 1− =
 H H A2
A1 h  A 
1 − = , H  1− 1  = h
A2 H  A2 
 A 
or h = H  1− 1 
 A2 
 5 
b ) h = 5  1−  = 5 × 0.5 = 2.5
 10 
R w w R
14. w − = w − =
1000 G G 1000
 wG − w  R  G − 1 R
  = 1000 w =
 G   G  1000
R G
w= ×
1000 G-1
n 
15. a) C × log10  2  = w1 − w 2
 n1 
 n  w -w
log10  2  = 1 2
 n1  C
  n2    w1 − w 2 
antilog log10  n   = antilog  C 
  1    
 n2   w1 -w 2 
  = antilog  
n
 1  C 
 w − w2 
n2 = n1 × antilog  1 
 C 
 25 − 24 
b ) n2 = n1 × antilog  
 4.34 
= 20 × antilog (0.2304) = 20 × 1.7 = 34
16. I2 = 1 × 10 × antilog 
97 

−12
 10 
= 1×10 × antilog 9.7
-12
= 5.01 × 10-3

1. Expansion of (2m − 3n)4
This question can be written as expansion of (2m + (-3n))4
Comparing (2m + (-3n))4 with (a + x)4 shows that a = 2m, and x = -3n
From Pascal’s triangle, (a + x)4 = a4 + 4a3 x + 6a2 x2 + 4ax3 + x4
∴ (2m + (-3n))4 = (2m)4 + 4(2m)3(-3n) + 6(2m)2(-3n)2 + 4(2m)(-3n)3 + (-3n)4
= 16m4 − 96m3 n + 216m2 n2 − 216mn3 + 81n4
2. Expansion of (3 + x)3
( 3 + x )3 = ( 3 )3 + 3 ( 3 )3 − 1 ( x ) + 3(3-1) ( 3 )3 − 2 ( x )2 + 3(3 − 1)(3- 2) ( 3 )3 − 3 ( x )3
2! 3!
= 27 + 3(3)2 (x) + 3(3)1 (x)2 + (3)0 (x)3
= 27 + 27x + 9x2 + x3
3. Expansion of (2p + q)5
5(5 − 1) 5(5 − 1)(5 - 2)
( 2p + q)5 = ( 2p ) + 5 ( 2p ) ( q) + ( 2p ) ( q) + ( 2p ) ( q) +
5 5 −1 5 −2 2 5 −3 3

2! 3!
5(5 − 1)(5 − 2)(5 − 3) 5(5 − 1)(5- 2)(5- 3)(5- 4)
( 2p ) ( q) + ( 2p ) ( q)
5 −4 5 −5
4 5
4! 5!
= (2p)5 + 5(2p)4 (q) + 10(2p)3 (q)2 + 10(2p)2 (q)3 + 5(2p)1 (q)4 + (2p)0 (q)5
= 32p5 + 80p4 q + 80p3 q2 + 40p2 q3 + 10pq4 + q5
4. Without expanding (3 + 2x)8 determine the fifth term
Here n = 8; a = 3; x = 2x; r = 5 and r − 1 = 4
Substituting these values, the fifth term of (3 + 2x)8 is:
8 (8 − 1)(8 − 2)(8 − 3)
( 3) ( 2x )
8 − ( 5 −1) 5 −1

4!
= 70×(3)4 (2x)4 = 90 720 x4
5. Without expanding (2 − 3x)7 determine the fourth term
n(n − 1)(n − 2) n − ( r −1) r − 1
Fourth term = a x
3!
Here n = 7; a = 2; x = -3x; r = 4 and r − 1 = 3
7(7 − 1)(7 − 2)
( 2) ( −3x )
7 − ( 4 −1) 4 −1
Fourth term =
3 × 2×1
= -15 120 x3
1
6. Expansion of to 4 terms
3
1+ 2x
1 1
= = (1 + 2x )−1/ 3
3
1+ 2x +
(1 2x)1/3
 1  ( −1/ 3 −1) ( − 1 / 3)(-1/3 - 1) ( −1/ 3 − 2 )
Expansion of (1 + 2x )−1/ 3 = 1 +  −  (1) ( 2x ) + (1)
 3 2!
(-1/3)(-1/3 − 1)(-1/3- 2) −1/ 3 − 3
( 2x ) (1) ( 2x )
2 3
+
3!
2 8 112 3
= 1 − x + x2 − x
3 9 81
1 1 1
or x < ; i.e. − < x <
2 2 2
7. Expansion of (3 − 2x)3/2
(3 − 2x)3/2 = (3 + (− 2x))3/2
3 (3/2)(3/2 − 1)
( 3 + ( −2x ))3 / 2 = ( 3 ) + ( 3 ) ( −2x ) + ( 3) ( −2x ) +
3/ 2 3/ 2 −1 3/ 2 − 2 2

2 2!
(3/2)(3/2 − 1)(3/2 − 2)
( 3) ( −2x )
3/ 2 − 3 3

3!
3 ×1 3 × 1× −1
= ( 3) − 3 ( 3) ( x ) + ( 3 ) ( 4x 2 ) + ( 3 ) ( −8x 3 )
3/ 2 1/ 2 −1/ 2 −3 / 2

4 × ( 2 × 1) 8( 3 × 2 × 1)
31/ 2 2 3-3 / 2 3
= (3) − (3)
3/ 2 3/ 2
x+
x + x
2 2
3
or x < ; i.e. − 15
. < x < 15
.
2
8. Let Q’ be the new quantity.
2 2 3
k [m(1− )] t(1+ )
Q’ = 100 100
2
L(1+ )
100
2 2 3
k m2 t (1− ) (1+ )
= 100 100
2
L (1+ )
100
2 1 −1
k m2 t  2   3   2 
=  1−   1+   1+ 
L  100   100   100 
k m2 t  4 3 2 × ( −1) 
=  1− + + 
L  100 100 100 
k m2 t  4 3 2  k m2 t  3 
=  1− + − =  1− 
L  100 100 100  L  100 
 3 
= Q  1−  , Therefore the percentage error in Q is - 3%
 100 
9. Let δ’ be the new deflection

3
 2   2 
K w  1+  L  1− 100  
 100   
δ’ = 4
  1.5  
d  1− 
  100  
1 3 −4
K wL3  2   2   1 .5 
= 4  1+   1−   1− 
d  100   100   100 
K wL 
3
2 2 × 3 1.5 × ( −4 ) 
= 4  1+ − − 
d  100 100 100 
 2 6 6   2 
= δ  1+ − +  = δ  1+ 
 100 100 100   100 
From the above answer it can be concluded that the deflection increases by 2%.
 3 
M  1+
M  100 
10. A = and A’ =
tjd  2 
t  1−  jd
 100 
1 −1
M 3   2 
A’ = 1+ 1−
tjd  100   100 
  
M 3  2  M 3 2 
= 1+ 1+ = 1+ +
tjd  100   100  tjd  100 100 
    
 5 
= A  1+  , hence, area A increases by 5%
 100 

1. a) x + y = 3 ……(1) and x − y = -1 ……..(2)
From equation (1) x = 3 − y
Substitute value of x in equation (2), 3 − y − y = -1
-2y = −−4 or y = 2
Substitute the value of y in equation 1 to give x = 1
b) 2x + y = -1 ……(1) and x + 2y = 1 ……..(2)
From equation (2) x = 1 − 2y
Substitute value of x in equation (1), 2(1 − 2y) + y = -1
2 − 4y + y = -1 or y = 1
Substitute the value of y in equation 1 to give x = -1
2. a) x + y = 5 …………(1) 3x − 2y = −5 …………(2)
Multiply equation (1) by 3 and subtract from equation (2)
3x - 2y = - 5
3x + 3y = 15
(Eq.1× 3) (the new signs are shown in bold; they
- - - supersede the original signs)
- 5y = - 20
∴ y = -20/−5 = 4
Substitute the value of y in any equation, say equation (1):
x + 4 = 5, Hence x = 1
b) x + y = 1 …………(1) 3x − y = −5 …………(2)
+y will cancel − y, therefore add equations (1) and (2)
x + y =1
3x − y = − 5
− − −
4x =−4
∴ x = −4/4 = -1
Substitute the value of x in any equation, say equation (1):

−1 + y = 1, Hence y = 2
c) 2x − y = 1 …………(1) x − 2y = -2.5 …………(2)
2x − y = 1
2x − 4y = − 5 (Eq.2 × 2) (the new signs are shown in bold; they supersede the

− + + original signs)
3y = 6
∴y=2
2x − 2 = 1, hence x = 1.5
d) Rearrange the equations: 4x + 5y = 0.5 ……(1), 2x + 4y = 4 ……(2)
4x + 5y = 0.5
4x + 8y = 8
− − − (Eq.2 × 2)
− 3y = − 7.5
∴ y = −7.5/-3 = 2.5
4x + 5 × 2.5 = 0.5, Hence x = -3
e) 1.5a + 2.5b = 3 …………(1) 2a + 3.5b = 5 …………(2)
Multiply equation (1) by 4 and equation (2) by 3 and subtract
6a + 10b = 12
6a + 10.5b = 15

− − −
− 0.5b = − 3
∴ b = -3/-0.5 = 6
Substitute the value of b in any equation, say equation (1):
1.5a + 2.5 × 6 = 3, Hence a = −8
3. 2d + 1w = 260 ………… (1)
3d + 2w = 430 ………… (2) (d= door; w = window)
Multiply equation (1) by 2 and subtract equation (2) from it:
4d + 2w = 520
3d + 2w = 430
− − −
d = 90
Substitute the value of d in any equation: w = 80
One door costs £90.00, and one window costs £80.00
4. P + 29 Q = 800 000 (1)

P − 27 Q = 100 000 ( 2)
− + −
56 Q = 700 000 or Q = 12 500
Substitute the value of Q in equation (1)

P = 800 000 − 29 × 12 500 = £437 500
5. Test 1: 320 = c + 310 R …… (1)
Test 2: 200 = c + 110 R …… (2)
These are simultaneous equations. Subtract equation (2) from equation (1)
120 = 200 R or R = 0.6
Substitute the value of R in equation (1)
320 = c + 310 × 0.6 or c = 134 kN/m2
6. N = a D + e (1)
After 2 days: 22 000 = a × 2 + e or 22 000 = 2a + e (2)
After 5 days: 40 000 = a × 5 + e or 40 000 = 5a + e (3)
Solution of equations (2) and (3) gives a = 6000 and e = 10 000
Substitute the values of a and e in equation (1): N = 6000 D + 10 000
After 8 days, number of bricks N = 6000 × 8 + 10 000 = 58 000

1. a) x2 − 4x + 3 = (x − 3)(x − 1) = 0
x − 3 = 0, or x = 3; x − 1 = 0, or x = 1
b) x2 + x − 20 = (x + 5)(x − 4) = 0
x + 5 = 0, or x = −5; x − 4 = 0, or x = 4
c) x2 + 8x + 12 = (x + 6)(x + 2) = 0
x + 6 = 0, or x = −6; x + 2 = 0, or x = -2
d) 4x2 − 4x − 3 = (2x − 3)(2x + 1) = 0
2x − 3 = 0, or x = 1.5; 2x + 1 = 0, or x = -0.5
2. a) a = 3, b = 10, c = −8
− 10 ± 102 − 4( 3)( −8 ) − 10 ± 14
x = =
2× 3 6
x = 4/6 = 2/3 or x = -24/6 = −4
b) a = 6, b = 9, c = −6
− 9 ± 92 − 4(6 )( −6 ) − 9 ± 15
x = =
2× 6 12
x = 6/12 = 0.5 or x = −24/12 = −2
c) a = 2, b = -3, c = −5
− ( −3) ± ( −3)2 − 4( 2)( −5) 3 ± 7
x = =
2× 2 4
x = 10/4 = 2.5 or x = −4/4 = -1
d) a = 4, b = 8, c = 3
− 8 ± 82 − 4( 4 )( 3) −8 ± 4
x = =
2× 4 8
x = −4/8 = − 0.5 or x = -12/8 = -1.5
e) a = 1, b = 5, c = 6
− 5 ± 52 − 4(1)(6 ) −5 ± 1
x = =
2×1 2
x = −4/2 = -2 or x = −6/2 = -3
3. a) (x + 2)2 − 4 = 5
(x + 2)2 = 5 + 4 = 9
(x + 2)2 = 32 or x + 2 = ± 3
x = +3 − 2 = 1 or x = -3 -2 = −5
b) (x + 1)2 − 1 = 3
(x + 1)2 = 3 + 1 = 4
(x + 1)2 = 22 or x + 1 = ± 2
x = +2 − 1 = 1 or x = -2 -1 = -3
c) (x − 3)2 − 9 = 7
(x − 3)2 = 7 + 9 = 16
(x − 3)2 = 42 or x − 3 = ± 4
x = +4 + 3 = 7 or x = −4 +3 = -1
4. Perimeter = 2l + 2w = 84 (l = length; w = width)
l + w = 42 or w = 42 − l ………….. (1)
Also, l2 + w2 = 302 ……… (2) (Pythagoras’ theorem)
From equations (1) and (2) l2 + (42 − l)2 = 900
2 l2 − 84 l + 864 = 0
−( − 84 ) ± ( −84 )2 − 4( 2)(864 ) 84 ± 12
l= =
2× 2 4
Either l = 24 m or l = 18 m
length, l = 24 m; and width, w = 42 − l = 18 m.
5. Perimeter = 2l + 2w = 21 (l = length; w = width)
l + w = 10.5 ………….. (1)
Also, l × w = 24.5 or l = 24.5/w ……..…… (2)
24.5
From equations (1) and (2): + w = 10.5
w
Multiply both sides by w: 24.5 + w2 = 10.5 w
After transposition, w2 − 10.5w + 24.5 = 0
−( − 10.5) ± ( −10.5)2 − 4(1)( 24.5) 10.5 ± 3.5
w= =
2×1 2
w = 7 m or w = 3.5 m
l = 10.5 − w = 10.5 − 3.5 = 7 m
6. length = x; width = y (refer to Figure 4.2)
2x + y = 121 …………….. (1)
x × y = 605; or y = 605/x ……………..(2)
From equations (1) and (2): 2x + 605 = 121

x
Multiply both sides by x, 2x2 + 605 = 121x
After transposition, 2x2 − 121x + 605 = 0
−( − 121) ± ( −121)2 − 4( 2)(605) 121± 99
x= =
2× 2 4
x = 55 m (length) or x = 5.5 m
y = width = 605/55 = 11 m
7. M = 12 = 9x − 1.5x2
After transposition, 1.5x2 − 9x + 12 = 0
−( − 9) ± ( −9)2 − 4(1.5)(12) 9 ± 3
x= =
2 × 1 .5 3
x = 4 m or x = 2 m
OC FE
8. a) Refer to Figure S4.1: =
OA FA
3 FE
=
5 5 − x
3(5 − x) = 5 × FE or FE = 3 − 0.6x
DE = 2(3 − 0.6x) = 6 − 1.2x
DE × FA (Area of ∆ = Base × Height
Cross-sectional area of flow = 2
2
(6 − 1.2x)(5 − x)
=
2
= 0.6x2 − 6x + 15
b) 0.6x2 − 6x + 15 = 5.4
After transposition, 0.6x2 − 6x + 9.6 = 0
This is a quadratic equation; it can be solved by the quadratic formula. The solution gives
two values of x, i.e. x = 8 m and x = 2 m. Rejecting x = 8m, as x cannot be more than 5 m, the
answer is x = 2 m.
O 3m C
x
D F E
5m
5-x
Figure S4.1 Irrigation canal


1. See Figure S5.1
1880
1860
Density (kg/m3)
1840
1820
1800
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Water Content (%)
Figure S5.1
2. Co-ordinates of points for equation: y = 2x − 3
x −1 1 4
y −5 −1 5
Co-ordinates of points for equation: y = 4 − 0.5x
x −2 2 4
y 5 3 2
These points are plotted to get a straight line graph, as shown in Figure S5.2.
5
−3
4
2x
y=
3
y=
4−
0.5
2 x
x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
y
Figure S5.2
3.
5 A
Force, F (N)
4
m = AC
3 BC
B = 2.4
2 20
C
= 0.12
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Extension, L (mm)
Figure S5.3
a) From Figure S5.3, gradient, m = 0.12

b) As the straight line passes through the origin, intercept c = 0
Therefore the law connecting F and L is: F = mL
Replacing m by its value, we have F = 0.12L
4. a) Equation 1: x + y = 5 or y = 5 − x
Equation 1 x 1 3 5
y=5−x 4 2 0
3x + 5
Equation 2: 3x − 2y = −5, 3x + 5 = 2y, y =
2
Equation 2 x −1 1 3
3x + 5 1 4 7
y=
2
The graphs are shown in Figure S5.4a. Answer: x = 1, y = 4

b) Equation 1: x + y = 1, y = 1 − x
Equation 1 x −3 −1 2
y=1−x 4 2 −1
Equation 2: 3x − y = −5, y = 3x + 5
Equation 2 x −3 −1 1
y = 3x + 5 −4 2 8
The graphs are shown in Figure S5.4b. Answer: x = -1, y = 2
8
−5
=
− 2y
6
3x x=1
4 y=4
x+
y=
5
x x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−2
y
(a)
6 x = −1
x+
y= y=2
1 4
x x
−4 −3 −1 1 3
−2
5
=−
−4
−y
3x
y
(b)
Figure S5.4
5. a) Assume any reasonable values of x, for example we can start off by assuming −6, −5, −4, etc.,
and then the corresponding values of y are calculated. Depending on the shape of the graph
further points may be necessary to find the solution.
x −6 −5 −4 −2 0 2 4 5
x2 36 25 16 4 0 4 16 25
x −6 −5 −4 −2 0 2 4 5
−20 −20 −20 −20 −20 −20 −20 −20 −20
y = x2 + 10 0 −8 −18 −20 −14 0 10
x − 20
We have 8 points: (−6, 10), (−5, 0), (−4, −8), (-2, -18), (0, -20), (2, -14), (4, 0) and (5, 10). The points
are joined by a smooth curve (see Figure S5.5a). The curve crosses the x-axis at x = −5 and x = 4.
Therefore the solution of x2 + x − 20 =0 is: either x = −5 or x = 4
15
10
X X
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
−5
−10
−15
−20
y
(a)
24
20
16
12
X X
−6 −5 −3 −2 −1 1 2
−4
−8
−16
y
(b)
Figure S5.5
b)
x −6 −5 −4 −2 0 1 2
3x 2
108 75 48 12 0 3 12
10x −60 −50 −40 −20 0 10 20
−8 −8 −8 −8 −8 −8 −8 −8
y = 3x +2
40 17 0 −16 −8 5 24
10x − 8
The points are plotted as before (see Figure S5.5b). The solution is:
x = −4, or x = 0.7
6. y = 0.5x3 − 2x2 − 6x + 6 = 0. A number of values of x are assumed (say -3, -2,
-1, 0, etc.) and the corresponding values of y are determined, as shown:
x = -3, y = 0.5(-3)3 − 2(-3)2 − 6(-3) + 6 = −7.5
x = -2, y = 0.5(-2)3 − 2(-2)2 − 6(-2) + 6 = 6
x = -1, y = 0.5(-1)3 − 2(-1)2 − 6(-1) + 6 = 9.5
x = 0, y = 0.5(0)3 − 2(0)2 − 6(0) + 6 = 6
x = 2, y = 0.5(2)3 − 2(2)2 − 6(2) + 6 = -10
x = 4, y = 0.5(4)3 − 2(4)2 − 6(4) + 6 = -18
x = 6, y = 0.5(6)3 − 2(6)2 − 6(6) + 6 = 6
The points are plotted as shown in Figure S5.6 and a smooth curve drawn through the points.
Answer: x = -2.5 or 0.8 or 5.7
12
x x
−4 −3 −2 −1 2 3 4 5 6
−4
−8
−12
−16
−20
y
Figure S5.6
7. a) The scatter diagram is shown in Figure S5.7

ΣY = a N + b Σ X …………. (1); Σ XY = a Σ X + b Σ X2 ………….. (2)
b)
The Table below shows the calculation of Σ X, Σ Y, Σ XY and Σ X2:
X Y X2 XY
0 110 0 0
100 190 10000 19000
200 220 40000 44000
300 280 90000 84000
400 380 160000 152000
500 430 250000 215000
Σ X = 1500 Σ Y = 1610 Σ X2 = 550 000 Σ XY = 514 000
The above values are substituted in equations 1 and 2:

1610 = a × 6 + b × 1500
514 000 = a × 1500 + b × 550 000
Solving these equations simultaneously, a = 109.08 and, b = 0.637
The equation of the least squares line is: Y = 109.08 + 0.637 X
c) We need the co-ordinates of two points to draw the best-fit line:
When X = 100, Y = 172.78
When X = 450, Y = 395.73
The points are plotted on the graph and a straight line drawn. This line is the least squares line (or
Regression line), as shown in Figure S5.7.
500
400
Shear Stress (KN/m2)
300 Least squares line
200
100
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Normal Stress (KN/m2)
Figure S5.7

π
1. a) 1° = radians
180
π
35.5° = 35.5 × = 0.6196 radian
180
180°
1 radian =
b) degrees
π
2π 2 π 180°
radians = × = 72°°
5 5 π
2. Lines AB and CD are parallel
∠c = ∠b = 80º
∠d = 180º − ∠c = 180 − 80 = 100º
∠f = ∠a = 120º
∠e = 180º − 120º = 60º
∠g = ∠e = 60º
3. In the isosceles ΔDCF, ∠5 = ∠F = 30º
∠7 = ∠8; and ∠7 + ∠8 = 180 − 30 − 30 = 120º
Therefore, ∠7 = ∠8 = 60º
∠6 = 180 − (∠7 + ∠8) = 180 − 120 = 60º
∠4 = 90 − ∠5 = 90 − 30 = 60º
In ΔACD, ∠3 = 180 − (∠4 + ∠6) = 180 − (60 + 60) = 60º
∠2 = 90 − ∠3 = 90 − 60 = 30º
In ΔABC, ∠1 = 180 − (∠2 + 90) = 180 − 120 = 60º
4. Imagine ΔACD, in which ∠ACD = 45°
AD = CD = 5m
Side
= AC =
52 + 52 7.071m
BD = 132 − 52 = 12 m
Side BC = BD − CD = 12 − 5 = 7 m
5. ΔABC is an isosceles triangle; side AB = side AC
and ∠2 = ∠B = 45º
∠1 = 180 − 45 − 45 = 90º
∠3 = ∠2 = 45º
ΔCED is an isosceles triangle, ∠4 = ∠5
Also, ∠4 + ∠5 = 180 − 45 = 135º
135
Therefore, ∠4 = ∠5 = = 67.5°
2
6. Diameter = 12.0 m; therefore, radius = 6.0 m
a) Circumference = 2πr = 2π × 6.0 = 37.699 m
60o
b) Area of the minor sector = πr ×
2
360o
60ο
= π ( 6.0 ) ×
2
= 18.85 m2
360ο
300o
Area of the major sector = πr 2 ×
360o
300ο
= p ( 6.0 ) ×
2
= 94.248 m2
360ο
ο
c) Length of arc ACB = Circumference × 60
360ο
60ο
= 2πr × = 6.283 m
360ο
base × height
7. Method 1: Area of a triangle =
2
Base = 12 cm; Vertical height = 152 − 62 = 13.748 cm
12 × 13.748
Area = = 82.49 cm2
2
Method 2 : Area of a triangle = s(s -a)(s -b)(s -c)
12+15+15
=
s = 21
2
Area of the triangle = 21(21-12)(21-15)(21-15)
= =21(9)(6)(6) 6804 = 82.49 cm2

1 1 13.748
Method 3 : Area of the triangle = ac sin θ = × 12 × 15 ×
2 2 15
13.748
= 82.49 cm2 (a = 12; c = 15; sin θ = )
15
8. Area of top and bottom plates = 2 × (500 × 20) = 20 000 mm2
Area of the vertical plate = 800 × 30 = 24 000 mm2
Area of one angle section = 150 × 18 + (150 − 18) × 18 = 5076 mm2
Area of 4 angle section (Figure 6.27b) = 4 × 5076 = 20 304 mm2
Total area = 20 000 + 24 000 + 20 304 = 64304 mm2 or 643.04 cm2
9. Cross-sectional area of the dry part of the drain
= Area of sector OAB − Area of ΔOAB
= 1 r 2 ( θ - sin θ)
2
For calculating angle θ, consider right-angled triangle OAD:
θ OD 100
cos = = = 0.44444 (OD = 225 − 125 = 100 mm)
2 OA 225
θ
= cos −10.44444 = 1.11024 radians
2
Therefore, ∠θ = 2.2205 radians
1
Cross-sectional area of the dry part of the drain = × 2252 × (2.2205 − sin 2.2205)
2
= 25312.5 × (2.2205 − 0.79626) = 36051.08 mm2
Cross-sectional area of water flow = Cross-sectional area of the drain − 36 051.08

= π × 2252 − 36 051.08
= 159 043.13 − 36 051.08 = 122 992.05 mm2
10. Let R be the radius of the arch
OA = R metres; OD = (R − 1) metres
(OA) − (OD) = 4 ; or
2 2 2
R2 − (R − 1)2 = 16
R2 − (R2 −2R + 1) = 16; Therefore R = 8.5 m
56
Area of sector OABC = π × ( 8.5 ) ×
2
= 35.308 m2
360
8 × 7.5
Area of ∆OAC = = 30 m2
2
Area of the shaded part = 35.308 − 30.0 = 5.308 m2
11. y1 = 30 + 16 = 46 m, y2 = 29 + 18 = 47 m, y3 = 52 m, y4 = 55 m, y5 = 51 m
y6 = 48 m, y7 = 42 m
Mid-ordinate Rule: Area = 10[46.5 + 49.5 + 53.5 + 53 + 49.5 + 45]
= 10[297] = 2970 m2
46 + 42
Trapezoidal Rule : Area = 10[ + 47 + 52 + 55 + 51 + 48]
2
= 10[297] = 2970 m2
10
Simpson’s rule: Area = (46 + 42) + 4(47 + 55 + 48) + 2(52 + 51)
3 
10
= 88 + 600 + 206  = 2980 m2
3 
12. Radius of the top hemispherical portion = 600 ÷ 2 = 300 mm or 0.3 m
1 4 3 1 4 3
Volume =  π r  =  π (0.3)  = 0.05655 m
3
23  2  3 
Volume of the cylindrical portion = πr2 h = π(0.3)2 × 0.9 = 0.25447 m3
Volume of the cylinder = 0.05655 + 0.25447 = 0.311 m3 (3 d.p.)
= 0.31102 × 1000 = 311.02 litres
13. A1 = 1.7 m , A2 = 1.68 m2, A3 = 1.63 m2, A4 = 1.75 m2, A5 = 1.8 m2
2
1.7 + 1.8
Trapezoidal Rule : Volume = 10[ + 1.68 + 1.63 + 1.75]
2
= 10[6.81] = 68.1 m3
10
Simpson’ s rule : Area = (1.7 + 1.8) + 4(1.68 + 1.75) + 2(1.63)
3 
10
= 3.5 + 13.72 + 3.26  = 68.27 m3
3 
14. There are 5 sections in the vertical direction and 5 in the horizontal direction. The solution here is
based on the sections in the vertical direction, but sections in the horizontal direction may also be
used. Figure S6.1 shows the spot levels and the depth of the excavation for 2 sections, Sections
A−A and B−B. Similar figures may be produced for sections C−C, D−D and E−E.
99.8 99.8 100.0 100.0 m

99.7
2.7 m 2.8 2.8 3.0 3.0 m
97 97 97 97 97 m
10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m
a) Section A-A
99.8 99.85 100.1 100.14 m

99.7
2.7 m 2.8 2.85 3.1 3.14 m
97 97 97 97 97 m
10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m
b) Section B-B
Figure S6.1
The table below shows the depth of the excavation at points where the ground level have been
taken (for all sections):
Section A−A 2.7 2.8 2.8 3.0 3.0

Section B−B 2.7 2.8 2.85 3.1 3.14
Section C−C 2.7 2.9 2.9 3.1 3.16
Section D−D 2.6 2.95 3.0 3.15 3.2
Section E−E 2.6 3.0 3.08 3.2 3.3
The area of each section could be calculated by any method (mid-ordinate rule, trapezoidal rule or
Simpson’s rule). Here trapezoidal rule will be used for area as well as volume calculation.
2.7 + 3.0
Section A - A : Area = 10[ + 2.8 + 2.8 + 3.0] = 114.5 m2
2
Similarly the areas of Sections B−B, C−C, D−D and E−E can be calculated. These are: 116.7, 118.3,
120.0 and 122.3 m2, respectively.
The volume (V) of the excavation can also be calculated by any method (mid-ordinate rule,
trapezoidal rule or Simpson’s rule). Here, the trapezoidal rule is used:
Area of first + Area of last section
V = 10[ + Sum of areas of remaining sections]
2
114.5 + 122.3
= 10[ + 116.7 + 118.3 + 120.0] = 4734.0 m3
2
15. Volume of the wall base = 3.0 × 0.4 × 8.0 = 9.6 m3

Volume of the vertical part = (3.5 − 0.4) × 0.4 × 8.0 = 9.92 m3
The counterforts are basically triangular prisms (V = A × thickness)
base × height
Volume of one counterfort = × thickness
2
base × height
Volume of 2 counterforts = × thickness × 2
2
2.6 × 3.1
= × 0.3 × 2 = 2.418 m3
2
Total volume = 9.6 + 9.92 + 2.418 = 21.938 m3
16. a) The void is basically a double trapezium
Net area of the plate = 5213 × 384 − (area of voids)
 1 
= 2001792 −  2 × (212.48 + 64) × 128 × 18 
 2 
= 2 001 792 − 637 009.92 = 1 364 782.08 mm2 = 1.365 m2
b) Volume of the plate = 1.365 m2 × 30 mm = 1.365 m2 × 0.03 m = 0.041 m3
17. Area of the top flange (horizontal part) = 125.4 × 8.5 = 1065.9 mm2
Area of the bottom flange = 1065.9 mm2
Area of the web (vertical part) = (349 − 8.5 − 8.5) × 6 = 1992.0 mm2
Extra steel where the web meets the flange (as shown in Figure 9.35b)
π × 10.22
= 10.2 × 10.2 − = 22.327 mm2
4
As there are 4 points where the web meets the flange:
Extra steel area = 4 × 22.327 = 89.31 mm2
Cross-sectional area = 1065.9 + 1065.9 + 1992.0 + 89.31 = 4213.11 mm2
Mass/metre = Volume × density
4213.11
= × 1.0 × 7850 = 33.073 kg
1000 × 1000
18. The solid wall is generated by rotating trapezium ABCD about axis x-x through 90º as shown in
Figure 6.36.
The position of the centroid (x) of the wall, from point D, can be determined by taking the moment
of areas about point D:
2 
Total area × x = Area of the rectangular part × 0.8 + Area of the triangular part ×  × 0.6 
3 
1 1 2 
(1.0 + 0.4) × 2 × x = 0.4 × 2 × 0.8 + × 0.6 × 2 ×  × 0.6 
2 2 3 
1.4x = 0.88
x = 0.629
Distance of the centroid from face BC of the wall is:
1.0 m − 0.629 m = 0.371 m
Distance between axis x-x and the centroid of the wall = 75 − 0.371 = 74.629 m
1
Area of the wall = (1.0 + 0.4) × 2 = 1.4 m2
2
90o
Volume = 2πyA × (y = 74.629 m)
360o
90ο
= 2π × 74.629 × 1.4 × = 164.118 m3
360ο

1. Refer to Figure S7.1
CB
= tan7ο (CB = 8.0 − 1.35 = 6.65 m)
AB
6.65 6.65
= tan7ο , AB = = 54.16 m
AB tan7ο
Building
Building C
8m
A 7 B
G.L. Instrument 1.35 m
Figure S7.1
2. Refer to Figure S7.2; Let BC be the distance between the foot of the ladder and the wall.
BC
= cos 75o
AB
BC
= cos 75ο , Therefore BC = 6 × cos 75º = 1.553 m
6
A
Ladder
6m Building
75
B C
Figure S7.2
3. Width of the river = distance TS, as shown in Figure 7.17.

TS
= tan60ο
60
TS = 60 × tan 60º = 103.923 m
4. Refer to Figure 7.18.
Height of the building = AB
BC
= tan20ο , BC = 100 × tan 20° = 36.397 m
100
AC
= tan60ο , AC = 100 × tan 60° = 173.205 m
100
Height of the building (AB) = AC − BC = 173.205 − 36.397 = 136.808 m
5. Height of the building = CE (as shown in Figure S7.3)
Building C
A 20 B 42 D
1.4 m
G.L.
100 m x E
Figure S7.3
Let distance BD = x metres

CD
In ΔCAD, = tan20ο
(100 + x)
Therefore, CD = 0.36397 (100 + x) (1)
CD
In ΔCBD, = tan42ο
x
Therefore, CD = 0.9004 x (2)
From (1) and (2) 0.9004 x = 0.36397 (100 + x)
0.9004 x = 36.397 + 0.36397 x
0.53643 x = 36.397, therefore x = 67.85 m
CD
= tan42ο ; CD = 67.85 × tan 42º = 61.092 m
67.85
Height of the building = CD + DE = 61.092 + 1.4 = 62.492 m
4
6. Refer to Figure S7.4; tan x =
7
4
∠x = tan-1( ) = 29.745°
7
a) Pitch of the roof = 29.745º
b) Let L be the length of common rafters
4 4
= sin 29.745° Therefore, L = = 8.062 m
L sin 29.745ο
c) Surface area of the roof = (12 × 8.062) × 2 = 193.488 m2
Common rafter
L
L 4m L
x
12 m
7m 7m
Figure S7.4
7. Refer to Figure 7.19

AJ
In ΔABJ, = tan 30ο , therefore AJ = 5 × tan 30º = 2.887 m
5
AJ AJ
In ΔAHJ, = sin60ο or = AH
AH sin 60ο
2.887
Length of member AH = = 3.334 m
sin 60ο
2.887 2.887
In ΔAHJ, = tan60ο , or HJ = = 1.667 m
HJ tan 60ο
BH = 5.0 − HJ = 5.0 − 1.667 = 3.333 m
In ΔDBH, HD = sin30ο , or HD = 3.333 × sin 30º = 1.667 m
3.333
Member HE = 3.333 × tan 30º = 1.924 m
At joint (JT.) 1: Resolve forces in the members vertically, and put their algebraic sum equal to 0:
Vertical component of FBF − R1 = 0 (1)
Vertical component of FBF = FBF × sin θ (explained earlier in section 7.6)
= FBF × sin 30º = 0.5 FBF
Putting values in equation (1), 0.5 FBF − 15 = 0 or FBF = 30 kN
Horizontal component of FBF − FFA = 0 (2)
Horizontal component of FBF = FBF × cos θ
= 30 × cos 30º = 25.98 or 26.0 kN (1 d.p.)
From equation (2), 26 − FFA = 0 or FFA = 26 kN
At joint 2: Resolve forces in the members horizontally, and put their algebraic sum equal to 0:
Horizontal component of FBF = Horizontal component of FCG + Horizontal component of FGF
FBF × cos 30º = FCG × cos 30º + FGF × cos 60º
30 × 0.866 = FCG × 0.866 + FGF × 0.5
or 0.866 FCG + 0.5 FGF = 26 (3)

Resolve forces vertically:
FBF × sin 30º + FGF × sin 60º = FCG × sin 30º + 10
30 × 0.5 + FGF × 0.866 = FCG × 0.5 + 10
0.5 FCG − 0.866 FGF = 5 (4)
Equations (3) and (4) can be solved simultaneously:
FGF = 8.67 (8.7 kN: 1 d.p.) FCG = 25 kN
At Joint 3: Resolve forces vertically:
FGF × sin 60º − FGH × sin 60º = 0
8.7 × 0.866 − FGH × sin 60º = 0, ∴ FGH = 8.7 kN
FFA = FGF × cos 60º + FGH × cos 60º + FHA
26 = 8.7 × 0.5 + 8.7 × 0.5 + FHA ∴ FHA = 17.3 kN
As the frame is symmetrical, force in member EK is equal to the force in member BF; force in
member DJ is equal to the force in member CG. Similarly, the forces in other members can be
deduced as well.

1. ∠P = 180º − 50º − 70º = 60º
p q 75
Using the sine rule, = =
sin60ο sin50ο sin70ο
75 × sin60ο
p ( side QR ) = = 69.12 cm
sin70ο
75 × sin50ο
q ( side PR ) = = 61.14 cm
sin70ο
2. a = 8 cm, b = 7 cm, c = 5 cm
Using the cosine rule, b2 = c2 + a2 − 2ac cos B
72 = 52 + 82 − 2 × 8 × 5 × cos B
49 = 25 + 64 − 80 cos B
80 cos B = 40, cos B = 0.5
Therefore ∠B = cos−1 0.5 = 60º
3. Let AB be the distance between the two buildings. Another point C will form a triangle with A and B.
Side c of triangle CAB will represent the distance between the 2 buildings.
From the cosine rule, c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C
c2 = 2602 + 2202 − 2 × 260 × 220 × cos 120º
= 67 600 + 48 400 − (− 57 200) = 173 200
c = √173200 = 416.173 m
3.5 b 2.5
Using the sine rule, = =
sin55ο sinB sinC
2.5 × sin55ο
sin C = = 0.58511
3.5
∠C = sin−1 0.58511 = 35.81º or 144.19º (144.19º is not possible)
The strut makes an angle of 35.81º with the wall
∠B = 180º − 55º − 35.81º = 89.19º
3.5 b
=
sin55ο sin89.19ο
3.5 × sin89.19ο
b (Length of the strut ) = = 4.272 m
sin55o
5. Refer to Figure 7.22, which shows the parallelogram of forces.
∠C + ∠D = 180º, therefore ∠C = 180º − 70º = 110º
In ΔBDC, c2 = d2 + b2 − 2db cos C
= 402 + 702 − 2 × 40 × 70 × cos 110º
= 8415.3128
c (Resultant) = √8415.3128 = 91.735 kN
In ΔBDC, = b c d
=
sinB sinC sin X
c d
From above = , or sin X = d × sin C
sinC sin X c
40 × sin 110ο
= = 0.40974
91.735
∠X = sin−1 0.40974 = 24.19º
6. Refer to Figure 7.23 and Figure S7.5.
A c = 59
.258 m
B

°
b
=
10
0 a
m
Figure S7.5
ΔADC is a right-angled triangle

(AC)2 = 802 + 602 = 10 000
AC = √10 000 = 100 m

100 59.258
In ΔABC, =
sin117ο sinC
59.258 × sin 117ο
sin C = = 0.528
100
∠C = 31.87º and ∠A = 180º − 117º − 31.87º = 31.13º
60 × 80
Area of ∆ADC = = 2400 m2
2
1 1
Area of ∆ABC = × bc sin A = × 100 × 59.258 × sin31.13ο = 1531.765m2
2 2
Area of the building site (ABCD) = 2400 + 1531.765 = 3931.765 m2
7. Refer to Figure S7.6: Distance AB = c.
C AC = d metres
CB = 2d metres
X AB = c
d 2d
Obstruction
A B
c
Figure S7.6
From Cosine rule: c2 = d2 + (2d)2 − 2 × d × 2d × cos Xº

c2 = 5 d2 − 4 d2 cos Xº
= d2 (5 − 4 cos Xº)
( AB) or c = d (5 − 4 cos X ο
8. Refer to Figure S7.7.
70 m
A B
50 m
D C
35.31 m
44.8 m
79.29°
66.71°
J
93.977 m
K
Figure S7.7
In ΔDJK, j2 = d2 + k2 − 2dk cos J

= 93.9772 + 35.312 − 2 × 93.977 × 35.31 × cos 79.29º
= 8831.6765 + 1246.7961 − 1233.3436 = 8845.129
j = √8845.129 = 94.049 m = Distance DK
In ΔCJK, k2 = c2 + j2 − 2cj cos K
k2 = 93.9772 + 44.82 − 2 × 93.977 × 44.8 × cos 66.71º
k2 = 2007.04 + 8831.6765 − 3329.2775 = 7509.439
k (CJ) = 86.657 m
94.049 93.977
In ΔDJK, =
sin79.29 sinD
93.977 × sin79.29ο
sin D = = 0.98183
94.049
∠D (or ∠JDK) = sin−1 0.98183 = 79.06º

∠DKJ = 180 − 79.29 − 79.06 = 21.65º
∠DKC = 66.71 − 21.65 = 45.06º
70 44.8
In ΔDCK, =
sin45.06 sinD
44.8 × sin45.06ο
sin D = = 0.45302
70
∠D (or ∠KDC) = sin−1 0.45302 = 26.94º
In ΔADK, ∠ADK (or ∠D) = ∠ADC + ∠KDC = 90 + 26.94 = 116.94º
Side AK = d; Side AD = k; Side DK = a
d2 = a2 + k2 − 2ak cos D
d2 = 94.0492 + 502 − 2 × 94.049 × 50 × cos 116.94º
d2 = 8845.2144 + 2500 + 4260.9576 = 15606.172
d = 124.925 m = Distance AK
In ΔDCJ, ∠JDC (or ∠D) = ∠JDK + ∠KDC = 79.06 + 26.94 = 106º
35.31 86.657
=
sinC sin106
35.31× sin106ο
sin C = = 0.391684
86.657
∠C (or ∠DCJ) = 23.06º
In ΔBCJ ∠C (or ∠DCJ) = ∠BCD + ∠DCJ = 90 + 23.06 = 113.06º
c2 = b2 + j2 − 2bj cos 113.06
c2 = 86.6572 + 502 − 2 × 86.657 × 50 × cos 113.06º
c2 = 7509.4356 + 2500 + 3394.3102 = 13403.7458
c = 115.775 m = Distance BJ
9. Refer to Figure S7.8.
B C
70 m
128
60 m D
A
38 69.22
38.673 m
58.729 m 20.78°
69.22°
38°
308° T
Figure S7.8
In ΔABT, ∠BAT = 90 + 38 = 128º
a2 = b2 + t2 − 2bt cos A
= 58.2792 + 702 − 2 × 58.279 × 70 × cos 128º
= 3449.0954 + 4900 − (− 5061.9935) = 13411.0889
a = √13411.0889 = 115.806 m = Distance BT
a b t
Again in ΔABT, = =
sin A sinB sin T
115.806 58.729 70
= =
sin128ο sinB sin T
70 × sin128ο
sin T =
115.806
∠T (or ∠ATB) = sin−1 0.47632 = 28.45º
In ΔCTD, d2 = 38.6732 + 702 − 2 × 38.673 × 70 × cos 159.22º
= 1495.6009 + 4900 − (− 5062.0227) = 11 457.6236
d = √11457.6236 = 107.0403 m = Distance CT
107.0403 38.673 70
Again in ΔCTD, = =
sin159.22ο sinC sin T
70 × sin159.22ο
sin T = = 0.23201
107.0403
∠T (∠CTD) = sin−1 0.23201 = 13.42º

sin A
cos A ×
1. a) cos A tan A cos A
=
2
sin A sin A × sin A
sin A 1
= = = cosec A
sin A × sin A sin A
cos A
b) sin A cos A cot A = sin A cos A
sin A
= cos A × cos A = cos2 A
2. Refer to Figure 8.2 that shows a right-angled triangle ABC. Using Pythagoras’ theorem:
a2 + b2 = c2
2 2 2
Divide both sides by b2: a + b = c
b2 b2 b2
2 2
a c
  + 1=  
b b
2 2
 1   1 
  + 1=  
 tan θ   sin θ 
cot2 θ + 1 = cosec2 θ or 1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ
b b ab + bc
+
sin θ + tan θ
3. = c a = ca
cot θ + cosec θ a + c a+c
b b b
ab + bc b
= ×
ca (a + c)
b(a + c) b b ×b
= × =
ca (a + c) c × a
b b
× = sin θ tan θ
c a
sin A cos A
4. a) tan A + cot A = +
cos A sin A
sin2 A + cos2 A
=
sin A cos A
1
=
= cosec A sec A
sin A cos A
cos A cos A 1− sin A
b) = ×
1+ sin A 1+ sin A 1− sin A
cos A (1− sin A)
=
(1+ sin A)(1− sin A)
cos A (1− sin A)
=
1− sin2 A
cos A (1− sin A) 1− sin A

= =
cos 2 A cos A
sec A sec A
=
c) tan A + cot A 1
tan A +
tan A
sec A sec A × tan A
= =
1 tan2 A + 1
tan A +
tan A
sec A × tan A sec A × tan A
= = (1 + tan2 A = sec2 A)
tan2 A + 1 sec2 A
tan A sin A × cos A
= = = sin A
sec A cos A
1+cos θ sin θ (1+cos θ)2 + sin2 θ
5. + =
sin θ 1+cos θ (sin θ)(1+cos θ)
1+ 2cos θ + cos2 θ + sin2 θ
=
(sin θ)(1 + cos θ)
1+ 2cos θ + 1
=
(sin θ)(1+cos θ)
2 + 2cos θ 2(1+ cos θ)
= =
(sin θ)(1+cos θ) (sin θ)(1+cos θ)
2
=
sinθ
sin(A + B)
6. tan(A + B) =
cos(A + B)
sin A cosB + cos A sinB
=
cos A cosB − sin A sinB
sin A cosB cos A sinB
+
cos A cosB cos A cosB (divide all terms by cos A cos B)
=
cos A cosB B
sin A sinB
−
cos A cosB cos A cosB
sin A sinB
+
cos A cosB tan A + tanB
= =
sin A sinB 1 − tan A tanB
1−
cos A cosB
7. a) Let θ = 2x, therefore, cos 2x becomes cos θ
Now cos θ = 0.5
Therefore θ = cos−1 0.5; hence θ = 60º
θ
∠x = = 30°
2
Since the cosine is positive, the solution must be in quadrants 1 and 4.
∴ θ = 30º and θ = 360 − 30º = 330º
b) After transposition, 2.5 tan x = 2.5

∴ tan x = 1, or x = tan−1 1
Angle x = 45º
Tangent is positive in the first and third quadrants
Therefore x = 45º
and x = 180 + 45 = 225º
c) After transposition 4.5 sec x = 5.2
5.2
∴ sec x = = 1.1556
4.5
1 1
=
cos x = = 0.8654
sec x 1.1556
Angle x = cos−1 0.8654 = 30.07 º
As cosine (and secant) is positive in the first and fourth quadrants, x = 30.07 º and x = 360 − 30.07
= 329.93º
8. After transposition, 2 cosec2 B = 6 − 4 = 2
or cosec2 B = 1
1
From the above = 1, sin2 B = 1
sin2 B
sin B = 1 = ± 1 , ∠B = ± 90º
sine (and cosec of ∠B) is positive in first and second quadrants, and negative in the third and
fourth quadrants
Therefore, B = 90º, and B = 360 − 90 = 270º
9. 2 cos2 x + sin2 x = 2(1 − sin2 x) + sin2 x = 1
2 − 2 sin2 x + sin2 x = 1
2 − 1 = 2 sin2 x − sin2 x
sin2 x = 1, therefore sin x = 1 = ±1
When sin x = +1, x = 90º
When sin x = −1, x = −90º, or x = 360 − 90 = 270º
10. 2(1 + tan2 θ) + tan θ − 3 = 0 (1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ)
2 + 2 tan2 θ + tan θ − 3 = 0
After simplifying the above, 2 tan2 θ + tan θ − 1 = 0
Solving the above equation by the quadratic formula:
−1± 1− 4(2)( −1)
tan θ =
2× 2
−1± 9 −1± 3
= =
4 4
−1− 3 −1+ 3
tan θ = = − 1 , and tan θ = = 0.5
4 4
If tan θ = −1 , then θ = − 45º
tangent is negative in the second and fourth quadrants
Therefore, θ = 180 − 45 = 135º, and θ = 360 − 45 = 315º

If tan θ = 0.5 , θ = 26.57º
tangent is positive in the first and third quadrants
Therefore, θ = 26.57º, and θ = 180 + 26.57 = 206.57º
11. a) Amplitude = 330 V
b) Angular velocity, ω = 100 π
Periodic time, T = 2π = 2π = 0.02 s
ω 100 π
c) Frequency, = 1 1
f = = 50 Hz
T 0.02
d) Phase angle, α = 0.5 rad. (or 28.65º) e) lagging
180
(angle in degrees = radians × )
π
12. Maximum displacement = Amplitude = 0.5 m
Angular velocity, ω = 2πf = 2π × 40 = 80π rad/s
Now, displacement = 0.5 sin(80πt + α)
0.2 = 0.5 sin(80π × 0 + α) (20 cm = 0.2 m)
0.2 = 0.5 sin α, from which α = 0.412 rad.
Thus, displacement = 0.5 sin(80πt + 0.412) m
13. a) Angular velocity, ω = 2πf = 2π × 0.4 = 0.8π rad/s
b) At time t = 0.4 s, displacement of the building = 6.75 cm (or 0.0675 m)
0.0675 = A sin(0.8π × 0.4) = A sin(0.32π)
0.0675 = A × 0.844
0.0675
=
Therefore, maximum displacement, A = 0.08 m
0.8443
c) Displacement of the building = A sin(ωt) m
= 0.08 sin(0.8πt) m
14. The graphs of y1 and y2 are shown in Figure S8.1; the data have been plotted for 1 cycle of 360º.
The ordinates of the combined graph can be determined either from the graph or from Table S8.1.
Because the 2 sine waves have the same frequency, the combined graph will be a sine wave with
the same frequency. The phase angle of the combined graph is 13.3º and its peak value is 14.75
mm. The formula of the combined wave is: y3 = 14.75 sin(θ + 13.3º).
Table S8.1
θº 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
sin θ 0 0.5 0.866 1.0 0.866 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.866 −1.0 −0.866 −0.5 0
5 sin θ 0 2.5 4.33 5 4.33 2.5 0 −2.5 −4.33 −5 −4.33 −2.5 0
(θ + 20º) 20 50 80 110 140 170 200 230 260 290 320 350 380
sin (θ + 20) 0.342 0.766 0.985 0.94 0.643 0.174 −0.342 −0.766 −0.985 −0.94 −0.643 −0.174 0.342
10 sin (θ + 20) 3.42 7.66 9.85 9.4 6.43 1.74 −3.42 −7.66 −7.66 −12.99 −15 −1.74 −7.5
y1 + y2 −7.5 5 16.16 22.99 23.66 17.99 7.5 −5 −16.16 −22.99 −23.66 −17.99 −7.5
20 y3 = 14.75 sin(θ + 13.3°)

15
y2 = 10 sin(θ + 20°)
10
5 y1 = 5 sinθ
θ°
−30 0 30 60 90 120 150 210 240 270 300 360
−5
−10
−15
−20
Figure S8.1

1. a) From section 9.1, 2x = 32 = 25
Therefore x = 5
Hence log2 32 = 5
b) 10x = 10000 = 104
Therefore x = 4
Hence log10 10000 = 4
2.
a)
log 2 5 = 1.3979
b)
log 1 5 0 = 2.1761
3.
a)
ln 2 5 = 3.2189
b)
ln 1 5 0 = 5.0106
4.
a)
SHIFT LOG 2 . 5 = 316.2278

b)
SHIFT LOG 0 . 0 0 1 4 = 1.0032
5.
x
a) log = log x − log (x + 1)
x +1
b) 1 1
log 2x + 1 = log(2x + 1) 2 = log(2x + 1)

2
c) ln x(x + 4) = ln x + ln (x + 4)
6. a) log 81 − log 27 = log (3 × 3 × 3 × 3) − log (3 × 3 × 3)
= log 3 + log 3 + log 3 + log 3 − log 3 − log 3 − log 3 = log 3
b) log 81 − log 9 − log 3 = log (3 × 3 × 3 × 3) − log (3 × 3) − log (3)
= log 3
7. a) log10 x = 3 can be written as 103 = x, Hence x = 1000
b) x2.5 = 15.598
Take logarithms (base10) of both sides, log x2.5 = log 15.598
2.5 log x = 1.19307
1.19307

= log x = 0.47723
2.5
Take antilogarithms of both sides, antilog (log x) = antilog 0.47723
Hence x = 3.001
c) 3x − 1 = 2x + 3
Take logarithms of both sides, log 3x − 1 = log 2x + 3
(x − 1) log 3 = (x + 3) log 2
(x − 1) × 0.477 = (x + 3) × 0.301
0.477 x − 0.477 = 0.301 x + 0.903, Therefore x = 7.84
8. a) log (x2 − 1) = log (3x − 3)
Take antilogarithms of both sides, x2 − 1 = 3x − 3
After simplification the above equation becomes, x2 − 3x + 2 = 0
Use quadratic formula, x =

−( −3) ± ( −3)2 − 4(1)(2) (a = 1; b = −3; c = 2)
2×1
3± 9−8 3± 1
x = =
2 2
3 +1 3 −1
Now x = or x =
2 2
Hence, either x = 2, or x = 1
b) log (x + 3) + log (x − 4) = 2 log (x − 1)
The above can be written as log (x + 3)(x − 4) = log (x − 1)2
Take antilogarithms of both sides, (x + 3)(x − 4) = (x − 1)2
x2 + 3x − 4x − 12 = x2 − x − x + 1
After simplification, 3x − 4x + 2x = 1 + 12, hence x = 13

1.2
=
1. a) e
2t
= 0.4
3
Taking logarithms of both sides, ln ( e2t ) = ln(0.4)
2t = − 0.9163, therefore t = − 0.458
5.1
b) e − 1.5x =
2.2
2.2
e=
1.5x
= 0.43137
5.1
Taking logarithms of both sides, ln ( e ) = ln(0.43137)
1.5x
1.5x = –0.84079, therefore, x = − 0.5605

c) −
x
10
1− e 2 =
14
−
x
10 4
e 2 = 1− =
14 14
e=
x
14
2
= 3.5
4
 x
Taking logarithms of both sides, ln  e 2  = ln(3.5)
 
x
= 1.25276, therefore, x = 2.506
2
2. Y = the value of the matured account = £100 000
P = principal (original) amount = £80 000
r = 5.5%; n = 4; t = term of the deposit in years
4t
 5.5 
100 000 = 80 000  1+ 
 100 × 4 
10 0000
= (1.01375 )
4t

80 000
.
1.25 = (1.01375 )
4t

Take logarithms of both sides
ln (1.25) = 4t(ln 1.01375)
0.2231436 = 4t × 0.013656
0.2231436 = t × 0.0546253
0.2231436
= t = 4.08 years
0.0546253
3. a) T (t) = Ts + (T0 − Ts )e−kt
T (t) = 70 ºC; Ts = 20 ºC; T0 = 86 ºC; t = 6 minutes
70 = 20 + (86 − 20)e−6k
50
50 = 66e −6k which gives
= e −6k
66
Take logarithm of both sides, ln  50  = lne −6k
 66 
− 0.277632 = − 6k, therefore k = 0.04627
b) T (t) = 60 ºC
60 = 20 + (86 − 20)e−0.04627 t
40
40 = 66e = e −0.04627 t
−0.04627 t
which gives
66
 40 
 = lne
−0.04627 t
Take logarithm of both sides, ln 
 66 
− 0.5007753 = − 0.04627 t, therefore t = 10.82 minutes
4. L = L 0 en(t − t )
0
L0 = 8.0 m; α = 7×10−5/ºC; t0 = 15 ºC; t = 30 ºC L = 8.0 e7×10 = 8.0 e1.05×10

-5 -3
(30 − 15)
L = 8 × 1.00105 = 8.0084 m
The linear expansion of the PVC guttering = L − L0 = 8.0084 − 8.0
= 0.0084 m or 8.4 mm
5. Population after growth, P = P0 ert
P0 = 100 000; r = 1.6% or 0.016; t = 25 years
P = 100 000 × e0.016×25 = 100 000 × e0.4
= 100 000 × 1.4918247 = 149,182
6. Population after reduction, P = P0 e−rt
P0 = 20 000 000; r = −1.3% or −0.013; t = 20 years
P = 20 000 000 × e −0.013×20
= 20 000 000 × e−0.26
= 20 000 000 × 0.771051586 = 15 421 032
7. a) Time, t, between points A and B = 1.0 − 0.2 = 0.8 s
S (at point B) = 46 dB; S0 (at point A) = 72 dB;
0.8
−
Put these values in the equation, 46 = 72e c
0.8
46 −
=e c
72
−0.8
Take logarithms of both sides, ln ( 0.63888 ) =
c
−0.8
c= = 1.7856
t ln (0.63888)
Therefore, S = S e − 1.7856
0
b) S = 72 dB; t (between points C and A) = 0.2 − 0 = 0.2
t
−
S = S0 e 1.7856
0.2
72 = S e − 1.7856
0
72 = S0 × 0.894038; therefore, S0 = 80.5 dB
c) t = 0.6 s; S0 = 80.5 dB; S = sound level after 0.6 seconds
t
S = S e − 1.7856
0
0.6
−
S = 80.5 e 1.7856
S = 80.5 × 0.7146 = 57.5 dB


1. Simplify cosh x − sinh x
 e x + e-x   e x − e-x 
cosh x − sinh x =   − 
 2   2 
1
= ( ex + e− x − ex + e− x )
2
1
= ( 2e − x ) = e − x
2
2. Prove that cosh 2x = (cosh x)2 + (sinh x)2
cosh 2x = e + e
2x −2x
2
2 2
 ex + e− x   ex − e− x 
( cosh x ) + ( sinh x )
2 2
=  + 
 2   2 
e2x + 2 + e-2x e2x − 2 + e −2x
= +
4 4
1 2x
= ( e + 2 + e + e − 2 + e −2x )
−2x 2x
4
1
= ( 2e2x + 2e −2x )
4
e2x + e −2x
=
2
e2x + e −2x
= cosh 2x , Hence cosh 2x = (cosh x)2 + (sinh x)2
2
3. Prove that coth2 x − cosech2 x = 1
2 2
 ex + e− x   2 
coth x − cosech x =  x − x  −  x − x 
2 2
 e − e   e − e 
e2x + 2 + e −2x 4
= −
e2x − 2 + e −2x e2x − 2 + e −2x
e2x + 2 + e −2x − 4 e2x − 2 + e −2x
= = 2x =1
e2x − 2 + e −2x e − 2 + e −2x
3
4. sinh x =
5
 ex − e− x  3
sinh x =  =
 2  5
Multiply the equation by 5, 2.5e x − 2.5 e − x − 3 = 0
Multiply the equation by ex, 2.5 (ex )2 − 2.5 (e−x )( ex ) − 3 ex = 0
2.5 (ex )2 − 3 ex − 2.5 = 0
This can be solved as a quadratic equation; a = 2.5, b = −3, c = −2.5
−( −3) ± ( −3)2 − 4(2.5)( −2.5)

ex =
2 × 2.5
3 ± 9 + 25 3 ± 5.83
= =
5 5
ex = 1.766 or −0.566
ex is always positive, therefore ex = 1.766
Take logarithms of both sides, ln (ex) = ln (1.766)
x = 0.5687 (logarithm and ex cancel out to leave behind x)
5. 2 cosh x = 3.4, therefore, cosh x = 1.7
ex + e− x
= 1.7
2
e x + e − x − 3.4 = 0
Multiply the equation by ex, (ex )2 + (e−x)( ex) − 3.4 ex = 0
(ex )2 − 3.4 ex + 1 = 0
This can be solved as a quadratic equation; a = 1, b = −3.4, c = 1
−( −3.4) ± ( −3.4)2 − 4(1)(1)

ex =
1
3.4 ± 7.56 3.4 ± 2.7495
= =
2 2
ex = 3.0748 or − 0.3253
6. a) 2 sech x − 1 = 0
2 sech x − 1 = 0
2
2 × x − 1= 0
e + e− x
4
= 1, or 4 =e x + e − x
ex + e− x
Multiply by ex and transpose, (ex)2 + (ex )(e−x) − 4 ex = 0
(ex)2 − 4 ex + 1= 0
−( −4) ± ( −4)2 − 4(1)(1)
e x =
2
= 4 ± 12 = 4 ± 3.464
2 2
e = 3.732 or e = 0.268
x x
Take logarithms of both sides of ex = 3.732

ln (ex) = ln (3.732), therefore, x = 1.317
similarly, ln (ex) = ln (0.268), therefore, x = − 1.317
b) 2.4 cosh x + 5 sinh x = 7.5

 ex + e− x   ex − e− x 
2.4 cosh x + 5 sinh x = 2.4   + 5 
 2   2 
 ex + e− x   ex − e− x 
Therefore, 2.4   + 5  = 7.5
 2   2 
1.2 ex + 1.2 e−x + 2.5ex − 2.5e−x − 7.5 = 0
3.7 ex − 7.5 − 1.3 e−x = 0
Multiply by ex: 3.7 (ex)2 − 7.5 (ex) − 1.3 (e−x)(ex) = 0
3.7 (ex)2 − 7.5 (ex) − 1.3 = 0
Solve for ex using the quadratic formula:
−( −7.5) ± ( −7.5)2 − 4(3.7)( −1.3)
e =
x
2 × 3.7
= 7.5 ± 75.49 = 7.5 ± 8.6885

7.4 7.4
ex = 2.1876 or − 0.1606

1. y = 2x
Let x increase by a small amount δx and the corresponding increase in y be δy
y + δy = 2(x + δx)
or y + δy = 2x + 2δx
As y = 2x, the above equation becomes:
2x + δy = 2x + 2δx
or δy = 2δx
δy
=2
δx
δy dy
Limit δx → 0( ) = =2
δx dx
2. y = 3x + 5
Let x increase by a small amount δx and the corresponding increase in y be δy
y + δy = 3(x + δx) + 5
or y + δy = 3x + 3δx + 5
As y = 3x + 5, the above equation becomes:
3x + 5 + δy = 3x + 3δx + 5
or δy = 3δx
δy
=3
δx
δy dy
Limit δx → 0( )= =3
δx dx
3. y = 3x2 + 2
dy
= 6x 2-1 + 0 = 6x 1 = 6x
dx
−6 −6
4. y = = 1/ 2 = −6x -½
x x
dy 1
= −6 × − x -½ -1
dx 2
3
= 3x −3/ 2= 3 / 2
x
2
5. y = 5x + 2x + + 5 = 5x + 2x + 2x + 5
2 2 −1
x
dy
= 10x + 2 + (2 × − 1x −1−1 ) + 0
dx
2
= 10x + 2 − 2x −2 = 10x + 2 − 2
x
6. Let y = 2 sin 3x
a = 3 in this question
d
( sin ax ) = a cos ax
dx
d
Therefore, ( 2 sin 3x ) = 2 ( 3 cos 3x ) = 6 cos 3x
dx
7. Let y = cos 2θ − 3 sin 4θ
d d
( sin aθ ) = a cos aθ, and ( cos aθ ) = − a sin aθ
dθ dθ
dy
= −2 sin 2θ − 3(cos 4θ × 4) = −2 sin 2θ − 12 cos 4 θ
dθ
8. 4z2 − 2 cos 2z
Let y = 4z2 − 2 cos 2z
dy
= 8z − 2( −sin 2z × 2) = 8z + 4 sin 2z
dz
9. Let y = 1 log 2x
e
2
dy 1 1 1
= × ×2=
dx 2 2x 2x
10. Let y = e7x
dy
= e7x × 7 = 7e 7x
dx
11. Let y = 12x = e −2x

e
dy
= e −2x × ( − 2) = −2e −2x
dx

1. Let y = (x2 + x)5
Let u = x2 + x, so that y = (u)5
du dy
= 2x + 1, and = 5u5 −1 = 5u4
dx du
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= 5u4 × (2x + 1)
Now replace u with x2 + x
dy
= 5(x 2 + x)4 ( 2x + 1)
dx
2. Let y = (2x − 3x + 1) = (2x − 3x + 1)
2 2 ½
dy 1 d
Using the chain rule, = (2x 2 − 3x + 1)½ − 1 (2x 2 − 3x + 1)
dx 2 dx
1
= (2x 2 − 3x + 1)−½ (4x − 3)
2
1
3. Let y = = (2x + 5)−3
(2x + 5)3
Let u = 2x + 5, so that y = (u)− 3
du dy
=2 and = − 3u −3 −1= −3u−4
dx du
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= −3u − 4 × 2 = −6u − 4
Now replace u with 2x + 5
dy
= −6(2x + 5)−4
dx
4. Let y = tan (2x + 4)
dy d
Using the chain rule, = sec2 (2x + 4) × (2x + 4)
dx dx
= sec2 (2x + 4) × 2 = 2 sec2 (2x + 4)
5. Let y = cos 4x
Let u = 4x, so that y = cos u
du dy
= 4, and = −sin u
dx du
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= − sin u × 4 = − 4 sin u
Now replace u with 4x
dy
= −4 sin 4x
dx
6. y = sin5 x = (sin x)5
dy d
= 5 ( sin x ) × ( sin x )
4
Using the chain rule,
dx dx
= 5(sin x) × cos x
4
= 5 cos x × (sin x)4

= 5 cos x sin4 x
7. y = cos3 3x = (cos 3x)3
dy d
= 3 ( cos 3x ) × ( cos 3x )
2
Using the chain rule,
dx dx
= 3(cos 3x)2 × (− sin 3x × 3)
= − 9 cos2 3x sin 3x
8. Let y = sin(3x + 8)
Let u = 3x + 8, so that y = sin u

du dy
=
=
3, and cos u
dx du
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= cos u × 3 = 3 cos u
Now replace u with 3x + 8
dy
= 3 cos (3x + 8)
dx
1
9. Let y =
sin2 x
1
= ( sin x )
-2
= 2
(sin x)
dy d
= −2 ( sin x ) × ( sin x )
−3
Using the chain rule:
dx dx
= − 2(sin x)− 3 × cos x
− 2cos x
=
sin3 x
10. Let y = loge (7 − 3x)
Let u = 7 − 3x, so that y = loge u
du dy 1
= −3, and =
dx du u
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
1 −3
= × ( −3) =
u u
Now replace u with 7 − 3x
dy −3
=
dx 7 − 3x
11. Let y = 4e2x − 1

Let u = 2x − 1, so that y = 4eu
du dy
= =
2, and 4eu
dx du
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= 4eu × 2 = 8eu
Now replace u with 2x − 1
dy
= 8e 2x -1
dx
1
12. Let y = = e −2x − 4
e2x + 4
Using the chain rule: dy = e −2x − 4 × d ( −2x − 4 )

dx dx
= e− 2x − 4 × (− 2)
dy
= −2e −2x − 4
dx
−2
=
e2x + 4

1. y = x cos x
dy du dv
Product rule : =v +u
dx dx dx
Let u = x and v = cos x
du dv
= 1 and = −sin x
dx dx
dy
= cos x × 1 + x × ( −sin x )
dx
= cos x − x sin x
2. y = x2 loge x
Let u = x2 and v = loge x
du dv 1
= 2x and =
dx dx x
dy 1
= loge x × 2x + x 2 ×
dx x
= 2x loge x + x
3. y = e2x sin 3x
Let u = e2x and v = sin 3x
du dv
=
2e 2x
and 3 cos 3x
dx dx
dy
= sin 3x × 2e2x + e2x × 3 cos 3x
dx
= e2x (2 sin 3x + 3 cos 3x)
4. y = (2x + 1) tan x
Let u = 2x + 1 and v = tan x

du dv
= 2= and sec2 x
dx dx
dy
= tan x × 2 + ( 2x + 1) × sec2 x
dx
= 2 tan x + (2x + 1) sec2 x
5. y = 3(x2 + 3) sin x
Let u = 3(x2 + 3) and v = sin x
du dv
= 3 × 2x and = cos x
dx dx
dy
= sin x × ( 3 × 2x ) + 3( x 2 + 3) × cos x
dx
= 6x sin x + 3(x2 + 3) cos x
6. y = 4 sin θ cos θ
Let u = 4 sin θ and v = cos θ
du dv
= 4 cos θ and = −sin θ
dθ dθ
dy
= cos θ × 4 cos θ + 4 sin θ × ( −sin θ )
dθ
= 4 cos2 θ − 4 sin2 θ = 4(cos2 θ − sin2 θ)
7. y = (z2 + 2z − 2) sin z
Let u = (z2 + 2z − 2) and v = sin z
du dv
= 2z + 2 and = cos z
dz dz
dy
= sin z × ( 2z + 2) + ( z 2 + 2z − 2) cos z
dz
= (2z + 2) sin z + (z2 + 2z − 2) cos z
cos x
8. y =
x
Let u = cos x and v = x
du dv
= −sin x and =1
dx dx
du dv
v −u
dy dx dx
=
dx v2
x × ( −sin x) − cos x × 1
=
x2
=
x2
2x
9. y =
x+4
Let u = 2x and v = x + 4
du dv
= 2=
and 1
dx dx
du dv
v −u
dy dx dx
=
dx v2
(x + 4) × 2 − 2x × 1
=
(x + 4)2
2x + 8 − 2x 8
= =
(x + 4)2 (x + 4)2
x+3
10. y =
sin x
Let u = x + 3 and v = sin x
du dv

= 1= and cos x
dx dx
du dv
v −u
dy dx dx
=
dx v2
sin x × 1− (x + 3) × cos x
=
(sin x)2
sin x − (x + 3) cos x
=
sin2 x
1
=
11. =
y sec x
cos x
Let u = 1 and v = cos x
du dv
= 0 and = −sin x
dx dx
dy cos x × 0 − 1× ( − sin x)
=
dx (cos x)2
sin x sin x 1
= = ×
cos 2 x cos x cos x
= tan x sec x
1
=
12. y c=
osec x
sin x
Let u = 1 and v = sin x

du dv
= 0 and = cos x
dx dx
dy sin x × 0 -1× (cos x)
=
dx (sin x)2
− cos x cos x 1
= =− ×
sin2 x sin x sin x
= − cot x cosec x
2x
13. y = e 2
x
Let u = e2x and v = x2
du dv
= =
2e 2x
and 2x
dx dx
dy x 2 × 2e2x − e2x × 2x
=
dx (x 2 )2
2x 2 e2x − 2x e2x 2x e2x (x − 1)

= 4
=
x x4
2 logex
14. y =
sin 2x
Let u = 2 logex and v = sin 2x
du 2 dv

= =and 2 cos 2x
dx x dx
2
dy sin2x × x − 2 loge x × 2cos 2x
=
dx (sin2x)2
2
sin2x − 4 loge x cos 2x
x
=
sin2 2x
2sin2x − 4x loge x cos 2x

=
x sin2 2x

The first step for solving the questions in this exercise is to differentiate them. The questions in this
exercise have been taken from Exercises 10.1 and 10.2. So for the first part of the solution, refer to the
solutions of questions: 4, 5, 7 and 8 in Exercise 10.1 and questions 10, 11 and 12 in Exercise 10.2.
−6
1. a) y =
x
dy 3
= 3/2
dx x
dy 3 3
= =
At x 15
. , 3/2
= = 1.633
dx x 1.53/2
2
b) y = 5x 2 + 2x + +5
x
dy 2
= 10x + 2 − 2
dx x
dy 2
At x = 15
. , = 10 × 15
. +2−
dx 1 .5 2
= 15 + 2 − 0.889 = 16.111
2. If y = 4z2 − 2 cos 2z
dy
= 8z + 4 sin 2z
dz
dy
At z = 0.3, = 8 × 0.3 + ( 4 × sin 2 × 0.3)
dz
= 2.4 + (4 × sin 0.6) (sin 0.6 = 0.5646)
= 2.4 + 2.259 = 4.659
3. Let y = cos 2θ − 3 sin 4θ
dy
= −2 sin 2θ − 3(cos 4θ × 4 ) = −2 sin 2θ − 12 cos 4θ
dθ
π dy 2× π 4×π
At θ = , = −2 sin − 12 cos
5 dθ 5 5
= −2 sin 1.2566 − 12 cos 2.5133
= −2 × 0.951 − 12 × (−0.809) = 7.806
4. y = loge (7 − 3x)
dy −3
=
dx 7 − 3x
dy −3
At x = 0.4, = = − 0.5172
dx 7 − 3 × 0.4
5. Let y = 4e2x − 1
dy
= 8e2x −1
dx
dy
At x = 0.4, = 8e2×0.4 −1
dx
= 8e− 0.2 = 8 × 0.8187 = 6.5496
1
6. y = = e −2x − 4
e2x + 4
dy
= −2e −2x − 4
dx
= −2e− 2 × 0.4 − 4 = −2e− 2 × 0.4 − 4
= −2e− 4.8 = −2 × 0.00823 = − 0.01646

1. i) y = 2x3 − 3x2 + 2x
dy = 6x 2 − 6x + 2
dx
d2 y
= 12x − 6
dx 2
ii) y = 3 sin 2x + cos 5x
dy
= 3 × cos 2x × 2 + ( −sin 5x ) × 5 ( chain rule )
dx
= 6 cos 2x − 5 sin 5x
d2 y
= 6 × ( −sin 2x ) × 2 − 5 × cos 5x × 5
dx 2
= −12 sin 2x − 25 cos 5x
iii) y = e2x − loge 7x
dy 1 1
= 2e2x − × 7 = 2e 2x − = 2e 2x − x −1
dx 7x x
d2 y
= 2 × 2e2x − ( −1) × x −2
dx 2
= 4e2x + x-2
2. s = 0.5t3 − 2t2 + 2t + 5
ds
Differentiate with respect to s, = 15t
. 2 − 4t + 2
dt
ds
a) Velocity = = 15t
. 2 − 4t + 2
dt
ds
. (4) − 4 (4) + 2
2
When t = 4 s, = 15
dt
= 24 − 16 + 2 = 10 m/s
ds
b) or the velocity is zero when the vehicle comes to rest
dt
Therefore, ds = 15t
. 2 − 4t + 2 = 0
dt
This is a quadratic equation, its solution will give the value of time t.
−( −4 ) ± ( −4 )2 − 4 × 1.5 × 2
t =
2 × 1 .5
4± 4 4±2
= =
3 3
4+2
t = = 2.0 seconds
3
4−2
or t = = 0.67 second
3
d2s
c) The second derivative, i.e. , gives the acceleration.
dt2
ds
From part ( a ) , = 15t
. 2 − 4t + 2
dt
d2s
= 3t − 4
dt2
Acceleration at the end of t seconds = 8 m/s2
Therefore, 3t − 4 = 8
12
or= t = 4 seconds
3
After 4 seconds, the acceleration of the vehicle is 8 m/s2.
3. Let us assume that the maximum BM occurs at point C, x metres from A, as shown in Figure 11.5.
Bending moment at this point is given by:
x
Mx = R1 × x − 2 × x ×
2
= 7.5x − x2
dMx
At maximum BM the slope of the curve is zero, therefore =0
dx
dMx
= 7.5 − 2x
dx
7 .5
7.5 − 2x = 0 or=
x = 3.75 m
2
Mx = 7.5 × 3.75 − (3.75)2 = 14.06 kNm
4. y = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 6
dy
Therefore = 3x 2 − 12x + 9
dx
d2 y
= 6x − 12
dx 2
dy
At a turning point =0
dx
dy
= 3x 2 − 12x + 9 = 0
dx
The above equation is a quadratic equation and may solved using the quadratic
formula:
−( −12) ± ( −12)2 − 4 ( 3)(9)
x=
2× 3
12 ± 6
=
6
12 + 6 12 − 6
Either x = = 3, or x = =1
6 6
2
d y
When x = 3, 2 = 6x − 12 = 6 × 3 − 12 = 6
dx
Since 6 is positive, the turning point at x = 3 is a minimum.

y (minimum) = (3)3 − 6(3)2 + 9 × 3 + 6 = 6
d2 y
When x = 1, = 6x − 12 = 6 × (1) − 12 = −6
dx 2
Since 6 is negative, the turning point at x = 1 is a maximum.
y (maximum) = (1)3 − 6(1)2 + 9 × 1 + 6 = 10
5. Profit, P = 20x − 0.04x2
dP
For finding the best output, is determined and equated to 0.
dx
dP
= 20 − 0.04 × 2x = 20 − 0.08x
dx
20
20 − 0.08x = 0, Therefore, x = = 250
0.08
d2P
Test for maximum / minimum : = −0.08
dx 2
As ths value is negative, therefore, x = 250 makes P (profit) a maximum.
6. i) Total cost of producing x number of a roof component = Fixed cost +Variable cost
= 25000 + 0.05x2 + 20x
Average cost (CAV) = Total cost ÷ x
25000 0.05 x 2
= + + 20x
x x
= 25000 +0.05x + 20 = 25000x −1 + 0.05x + 20
x
Differentiating the above, dCAv = 25000 ( −1) x −2 + 0.05
dx
For maximum / minimum, dCAv must be equal to 0
dx
25000(-1)x-2 + 0.05 = 0
25000
0.05 = 25000x −2 or 0.05 =
x2
25000
=
Therefore , x2 = or x 500000 = 707
0.05
d2CAv 50000
= −25000 ( −2) x −3 =
dx 2 x3
This will be positive for all values of x, therefore, x =707 is a minimum.
25000
ii) Average cost per component = +0.05x + 20
x
25000
= + 0.05 × 707 + 20 = £90.71
707
7. Perimeter of the beam = 2b + 2h = 700
or b + h = 350, Therefore b = 350 − h
Strength, S = bh3
= (350 − h)h3 = 350 h3 − h4
dS
= 350 × 3h2 − 4h3 = 1050 h2 − 4h3
dh
d2S
= 2100 h − 12 h2
dh2
dS
At a turning point, =0
dh
1050 h2 − 4h3 = 0
After transposition, 4h3 = 1050 h2
4h = 1050, Therefore h = 262.5 mm
2
Test for maximum / minimum : d S = 2100 h − 12 h2
dh2
= 2100 × 262.5 − 12(262.5)2 = -275625
As ths value is negative, therefore h = 262.5 makes S a maximum.
b = 350 − h = 350 − 262.5 = 87.5 mm
Dimensions of the strongest beam are: 87.5 × 262.5 mm deep
8. Let w be the width and h be the depth of the channel (see Figure S11.1).
Figure S11.1 Open rectangular channel
Cross-sectional area, A = wh (1)

Perimeter of the channel = 200 = h + w + h
200 − w
2h + w = 200, or h = = 100 − 0.5w (2)
2
From equations 1 and 2, A = w(100 − 0.5w)
= 100w − 0.5w2
dA
= 100 − 0.5 × 2w = 100 − w
dw
dA
At a turning point, =0
dw
Therefore 100 − w = 0 or w = 100 mm
d2 A
Test for maximum / minimum : = −1, so the turning point is a maximum
dw 2
Therefore A is maximum when w = 100 mm
100
2h + 100 = 200, =h = 50 mm
2
Width = 100 mm, Depth = 50 mm
9. Let 2x be the width at the top and h be the depth of the channel
x x
h
20
m
0m
0m
20
m
Figure S11.2 Open triangular channel
Using Theorem of Pythagoras, (200)2 = x2 + h2 (see Figure S11.2)

1
h2 = 40000 − x 2 , therefore, h = 40000 − x 2 = (40000 − x 2 ) 2 (1)
2x × h
Cross − sectional area, A = = xh (2)
2
1
From (1) and (2), A = x × (40000 − x 2 ) 2
dA 1 1 −1 1
= x × (40000 − x 2 ) 2 × ( − 2x ) + 1× (40000 − x 2 ) 2
dx 2
−1 1
= − x 2 (40000 − x 2 ) 2 + (40000 − x 2 ) 2
dA
For maximum or minimum value of A, =0
dx
−1 1
Therefore, − x 2 (40000 − x 2 ) 2 + (40000 − x 2 ) 2 = 0
1 −1
(40000 − x 2 ) 2 = x 2 (40000 − x 2 ) 2
1
(40000 − x 2 ) 2 1+ 1
x2 = = (40000 − x 2 ) 2 2
−1
(40000 − x 2 ) 2
= 40000 − x 2 , or x 2 = 20000

Hence, x = 141.42 mm
d2 A 1 − 1 −1 −1
2
= − x 2 × ( − )(40000 − x 2 ) 2 × ( − 2x ) + (40000 − x 2 ) 2 × ( −2x ) +
dx 2
1 1 -1
(40000 - x 2 ) 2
2

−3 −1 1 −1
= − x 3 × (40000 − x 2 ) 2
− 2x(40000 − x 2 ) 2
+ (40000 − x 2 ) 2
2
Then above expression gives a negative answer when solved for x = 141.42.
Hence, the turning point at x = 141.42 is a maximum.
Width of the channel at the top is 282.84 mm

1 1
h = (40000 − x 2 ) 2 = (40000 − x 2 ) 2
1
= (40000 − 141.422 ) 2 = 141.42 mm
282.84 × 141.42
Area of the channel = = 20000 mm2
2
10. 210 litres = 0.210 m3

Let r be the radius and h be the height of the cylinder.
Surface area, S = πr2 + πr2 + 2πrh = 2πr2 + 2πrh ........................ (1)
Volume, V = πr2h = 0.210 m3
0.210
or h = ........................ (2)
πr 2
0.210
From equations 1 and 2 : S = 2πr 2 + 2πr = 2πr 2 + 0.42r −1
πr 2
dS 0.42
= 2 ( 2) πr + ( 0.42) ( −1) r −2 = 4πr − 2
dr r
dS
For the surface area to be maximum / minimum, =0
dr
0.42 0.42
4πr − = 0, or 4πr = 2
r2 r
0.42
r3 = or r = 0.32212 m = 322.12 mm
4π
0.210 0.210
h= = = 0.64422 m = 644.22 mm
πr 2 π(0.32212)2
Diameter of the cylinder = 2r = 2 × 322.12 = 644.24 mm
d2S
Test for a minimum : = 4π − 0.42 ( −2) r −3
dr 2
0.84
= 4π +
r 3 ; this will be positive for all values of r. Therefore, surface area S of the hot water
cylinder is minimum when: Diameter = 644.24 mm and height = 644.22 mm

1 1
1. ( 2x + 4 − ) dx = ∫ (2x + 4 − 2 )dx
x2 x
2x 2 x −1
= + 4x − +c
2 −1
1
= x 2 + 4x + x −1 + c or x 2 + 4x + +c
x
2. ( 2x + 1)2 dx = ∫ (2x + 1)2dx
= ∫ (4x 2 + 4x + 1) dx
4x 3 4x 2
= + +x +c
3 2
4x 3
= + 2x 2 + x + c
3
3. ( sin 3θ − cos 4θ ) dθ = ∫ (sin3θ − cos 4θ )dθ
−cos 3θ sin4θ
= − +c
3 4
1 2 1 2
4. (e x + 3x − ) dx = ∫ (e x + 3x − ) dx
e x e x
2
= ∫ (e + e − ) dx
x −3x
x
e −3x
=e +x
− 2 loge x + c
−3
-3x
e 1
= ex − − 2 loge x + c = e x − − 2 loge x + c
3 3e3x
5. ( x + 3)2 dx = ∫ (x + 6 x + 9)dx
x 2 6x 3/2
= + + 9x + c
2 3/2
x2
= + 4x 3/2 + 9x + c
2
2
2  2x 3 4x 2 
6. ∫ (2x 2 − 4x)dx =  − 
1  3 2 1
 2 × 23 4 × 22   2 × 13 4 × 12 
= − −  − 
 3 2   3 2 
 8  4 4
=  −  −  −  = − or − 1.33
 3   3  3
2 1 2
7. ∫ ( x + )dx = ∫ (x1/2 + x −1/2 )dx
1 x 1
2 2
 x 3/2 x1/2   2 x 3/2 
= +  = + 2 x1/2 
 3/2 1/2 1  3 1
 2 × 23 / 2   2 × 13 / 2 
= + 2 × 21/ 2  −  + 2 × 11/ 2 
 3   3 
= [1.886 + 2.828] − [0.667 + 2] = 2.047
π/2
π / /2
 2( − cos 3θ ) 
8. ∫ 2sin3θ dθ =  
0  3 0
 2( − cos 3 × π /2 )   2( − cos 3 × 0 ) 
= − 
 3   3 
 2( − cos 1.5 π )   2( − cos 0 ) 
= − 
 3   3 
 2( − 0 )   2( − 1)  2
= −  = or 0.67
 3   3  3
1
1 x  x 1
9. ∫ 2cos dx = 2sin ÷ 
0.5 2  2 2  0.5
1
 x  1 0 .5 
= 4 sin  = 4 sin − 4 sin
 2  0.5  2 2 
= 1.918 − 0.990 = 0.928
1 3 31
10. ∫ 3x
dx = ∫ e −3x dx
−1 2e 2 −1
1
3  e −3x  1 −3×1 −3×−1
=   = − e − e 
2  −3  −1 2
1
=− 0.04979 − 20.08554  = 10.018
2
3
3  e x/3 e − x/4 
11. ∫ (e x/3 + e − x/4 ) dx =  + 
2  1/3 −1/4  2
3
= 3e x/3 − 4 e − x/4 
2
= 3e 3/3
−4e −3/4
 − 3e2/3 − 4 e −2/4 
= [8.1548 − 1.8895] − [5.8432 − 2.4261] = 2.848

12. Find ∫ 4x ( (1 − x 2 ) dx
Let u = 1 − x2
du du
Differentiating u, = −2x or dx =
dx −2x
1/2 du
∫ 4x ( (1 − x ) dx = ∫ 4x (u)
2
−2x
 
 u3/2 
= −2∫ (u) du = −2 × 1/2
 +c
 3 
 2 
4
= − (1− x 2 )3/2 + c
3
1 x dx
13. Evaluate ∫
0 x2 +1
Let u = x2 + 1
du du
=
2x or dx
dx 2x
1 x dx 1 x du
After substitution, ∫ =∫ ×
0 x 2 + 1 0 u 2x
1 1 −1/2
= ∫ u du
20
1
1  u1/2  1
=  = (x + 1)  0
2 1/2

2  1/2  0 
= (12 + 1)1/2 − (02 + 1)1/2
= 1.414 − 1 = 0.414
1
14. Evaluate ∫tan x sec2x dx
0
Let u = tan x
du du
=
sec 2
x or dx
dx sec2x
1 1 du
∫ tanx sec x dx = ∫ u sec x
2 2

0 0 sec2x
1
1  u2  1 1
= ∫ udu =   = u2 
 2 0 2
0
0
1 1 1
= (tan x)2  0 = (tan 1)2 − (tan 0 )2 
2 2
1
= (1.5574 ) − (0 )  = 1.213
2 2
2
2
2loge x
15. Evaluate ∫ dx
1 x
Let u = loge x
du 1
Differentiating=
u, = or dx x du
dx x
2 2loge x 2 2u 2
∫ dx = ∫ x du = ∫ 2udu
1 x 1 x 1
2
 u2  2 2
= 2 ×  = u2  = (loge x)2 
 2 1 1 1
= (loge 2)2 − (loge 1)2  = 0.48045 − 0 = 0.48

2 2
−1
16. ∫ 2x e x dx
1
du du
Let u = x2 −=
1; =
2x or dx
dx 2x
Change limits: when x = 2, u = 22 − 1 = 3
When x = 1, u = 12 − 1 = 0
2 3 du 3 u
∫ 2x e
x 2 −1
dx = ∫ 2x eu = ∫ e du
1 0 2x 0
3
= eu  = e3 − e0 = 20.086 − 1 = 19.086
0
0.5
17. Evaluate ∫ sin(2x + 1)dx
0
du du
Let u = 2x + 1; = 2 or dx =
dx 2
Change limits: when x = 0.5, u = 2 × 0.5 + 1 = 2
When x = 0, u = 2 × 0 + 1 = 1
0.5 2 du 1 2
∫ sin(2x + 1)dx = ∫ sinu = ∫ sinu du
0 1 2 21
1 2 1
=  −cos u1 = ( − cos 2) − ( − cos 1)
2 2
1
= (0.416 ) − ( − 0.540 ) = 0.478
2
1
18. Evaluate ∫ x ( 1+ x 2 ) dx
0
du du
Let u = 1 + x 2 ; = 2x or dx =
dx 2x
Change limits: when x = 1, u = 1 + 12 = 2
When x = 0, u = 1 + 02 = 1
1 2 du 1 2 1/2
∫ x ( 1+ x ) dx = ∫ x (u) = ∫ (u) du
2 1/2

0 1 2x 2 1
2
 
1  u3/2  1 2 3/ 2 3/ 2
=   = × 2 − 1 
2 3  2 3
 2 1
1
= 2.828 − 1 = 0.609
3 
19. ∫ 2x loge x dx = ∫ loge x 2x dx
On comparing ∫2xlogexdx with the left side of the ‘integration by parts rule’
u = loge x and dv = 2x dx
du 1
= =
Differentiating u loge x, we have
dx x
Integrating ∫ dv = ∫ 2x dx, we have v = x 2
Substituting the above in the ‘integration by parts rule’ : ∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du
1
∫ loge x 2x dx = loge x × x − ∫ (x )(
2 2
)dx
x
= x 2 loge x − ∫ x dx
x2
= x 2 loge x − +c
2
20. ∫ x 3 loge x dx = ∫ loge x x 3 dx

On comparing ∫logex x3 dx with the left side of the ‘integration by parts rule’
u = loge x and dv = x3 dx
du 1
= =
dx x
x4
Integrating∫ dv = ∫ x 3 dx, we have v =
4
Substituting the above in the ‘integration by parts rule’ : ∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du
x4  x4   1 
∫ loge x x dx = loge x × − ∫     dx
3

4  4  x 
x4 1 3
= loge x − ∫ x dx
4 4
x4 x4
= loge x − +c
4 16
21. ∫x2 cos x dx
On comparing ∫x2 cos x dx with the left side of the ‘integration by parts rule’
u = x2 and dv = cos x dx
du
=
Differentiating u x=
2
, we have 2x
dx
Integrating∫ dv = ∫ cos x dx, we have v = sin x
Substituting the above in the ‘integration of parts rule’: ∫udv = uv-∫vdu
∫ x cos x dx = x (sin x) − ∫ (sin x)(2x)dx

2 2
= x 2 sin x − ∫ 2x sin x dx (i)

2x sin x is a product of 2 quantities, so it needs to be integrated again
Let u = 2x and dv = sin x dx
du
=
Differentiating =
u 2x, we have 2
dx
Integrating∫ dv = ∫ sin x dx, we have v = − cos x
Substituting the above in the ‘integration of parts rule’: ∫udv = uv-∫vdu
∫ 2x sin x dx = 2x( − cosx) − ∫ ( − cos x)(2)dx

= − 2x cos x − (− 2sin x) = 2sinx − 2x cos x (ii)
From (i ) and (ii ) : ∫ x 2 cos x dx = x 2 (sinx) − (2sinx − 2x cos x)
= (x2 − 2) sin x + 2x cos x + c
2 log x 2
22. ∫ e
2
dx = ∫ loge x × x −2 dx
1 x 1
On comparing ∫logex × x-2 dx with the left side of the ‘integration by parts rule’
u = loge x and dv = x-2 dx
du 1
= =
dx x
x −1 1
Integrating∫ dv = ∫ x −2 dx, we have v = =−
−1 x
Substituting the above in the ’integration by parts rule ’ : ∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du

2
 1 1 1
∫ loge x × x dx = loge x  −  − ∫ −   dx
−2
1  x xx
loge x
=− + ∫ x −2 dx
x
2
 loge x x −1 
= − + 
 x −1 1
2
 loge x 1 
= − − 
 x x 1
 loge 2 1   loge 1 1
= − −  − − − 
 2 2  1 1
= [− 0.3466 − 0.5] − [− 0 − 1] = 0.1534
1
23. ∫ x (x + 1)2 dx
0
Let u = x and dv = (x + 1)2 dx

du
=
Differentiating u x=
, we have 1
dx
For integrating∫ dv = ∫ (x + 1)2 dx, substitute : t = x + 1

dt
Differentiate t = x + 1, = 1, or dx = dt
dx
∫ dv = ∫ (x + 1) dx now becomes ∫ dv = ∫ (t) dt
2 2

t3 (x + 1)3
Integration of ∫ dv = ∫ (t)2 dtgives v = =
3 3
Substituting the above in the ’integration by parts rule ’ : ∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du

1 x (x + 1)3 (x + 1)3
∫0 x (x + 1) dx = −∫
2
(1)dx
3 3
x (x + 1)3 1
= − ∫ (x + 1)3 dx
3 3
1
∫ (x + 1) dxby substitution, we have :
3
After integrating
3
1
1  x (x + 1)3 1 
∫ x (x + 1) dx =  − (x + 1)4 
2
0  3 12 0

 1(1+ 1)3 1   0 (0 + 1)3 1 
= − (1+ 1)4  −  − (0 + 1)4 
 3 12   3 12 
 8 16  0 1 
= −  −  3 − 12  = 1.416
 3 12   

3
1. Area, A = ∫ y dx
1
3
= ∫ (3x + 1)dx ( y = 3x + 1, is the equation of the curve)
1
3
 3 x2   3 × 32   3 × 12 
= + x =  + 3 −  + 1
 2 1  2   2 
Therefore, Area = [13.5 + 3] − [1.5 + 1] = 14.0 square units
4
1
4
= ∫ (2x 2 + 5)dx ( y = 2x 2 + 5, is the equation of the curve)
1
4
 2 x3   2 × 43   2 × 13 
= + 5x  =  + 5 × 4 −  + 5 × 1
 3 1  3   3 
Therefore, Area = [42.67 + 20] − [0.67 + 5] = 57.0 square units
π /2
0
π /2
= ∫ sin θ dθ (y = sin θ , is the equation of the curve)
0
π
π /2
=  − cos θ  0 = − cos
− ( − cos 0)
2
Therefore, Area = − 0 + 1 = 1.0 square unit
4. The points of intersection of the 2 graphs are found by solving the equation:
7x − x2 = x + 5 or x2 − 6x + 5 = 0
(x − 1)(x − 5) = 0 Therefore x = 1 or x = 5
The above values of x are the limits of integration.
5 5
Area ABCDEF = ∫ y dx = ∫ (7x − x 2 )dx
1 1
5
 7x 2 x 3 
= − 
 2 3 1
 7 × 52 53   7 × 12 13 
= − − − 
 2 3  2 3
= [87.5 − 41.67] − [3.5 − 0.33] = 42.66
5 5
Area ABCGF = ∫ y dx = ∫ (x + 5)dx
1 1
5
 x2 
=  + 5x 
2 1
 52   12 
=  + 5 × 5 −  + 5 × 1
 2   2 
= [12.5 + 25] − [0.5 + 5] = 32.0
Enclosed area (shaded) = 42.66 − 32.0 = 10.66 square units (2 d.p.)
5. y = 3; limits: x = 0 and x = 4
4 4
Volume of revolution = ∫ π y 2 dx = ∫ π ( 3)2 dx
0 0
4
= ∫ 9π dx
0
4
= 9π  x  0
= 9π × 4 − 9π × 0 = 113.1 cubic units
6. y = 0.6x; limits: x = 0 and x = 10
10 10
Volume of revolution = ∫ πy 2 dx = ∫ π (0.6x)2 dx
0 0
10
= ∫ 0.36π x 2 dx
0
10
 x3 
= 0.36π  
 3 0
103
= 0.36π × − 0 = 376.99 cubic units
3
7. y = 2x2 + 3x; limits: x = 2 and x = 5
5 5
Volume of revolution = ∫ π y 2 dx = ∫ π (2x 2 + 3x)2 dx
2 2
5
= ∫ π (4x 4 + 12x 3 + 9x 2 )dx
2
5
 x5 x4 x3 
= π 4 + 12 + 9 
 5 4 3 2
 55 54 53   25 24 23 
= π 4 + 12 + 9  −π 4 + 12 + 9 
 5 4 3  5 4 3
= π[4750 − 97.6]
= 14615.95 cubic units
8. Figure S13.1a shows area OAB; if this area is rotated about the x-axis, it will produce a right circular
cone as shown in Figure S13.1b.
The first step is to write the equation of the top edge of area OAB, which is a straight line (OA).
AB 10 1
Slope of line OA ( m) = = =
OB 30 3
Equation of line OA becomes: y = mx + c
1 x
or y = x + 0 =
3 3
Area OAB generates the cone when it is rotated about the x-axis.
2
30 30
x
Volume of revolution = ∫ π y 2 dx = ∫ π   dx
0 0 3
π 30 2
= ∫ x dx
90
30
π  x3 
=  
9  3 0
π  303 03 
=  −  = 3141.59 cm3
9 3 3
y y
A A
10 cm 10 cm
30 cm B x 30 cm B x
O O
10 cm
(a)
(b) C
Figure S13.1
9. Figure S13.2 shows area OABD which will produce the slump cone when rotated about the x-axis.
The equation of the top edge AB, a straight line, is given by the equation y = mx + c.
BC 50
Slope of line AB ( m) = = = 0.16666
AC 300
Equation of line AB becomes: y = 0.16666x + 50 (c = OA = 50)
300 300 2
Volume of revolution = ∫ π y 2 dx = ∫ π ( 0.16666 x + 50 ) dx
0 0
= π ∫ ( 0.02778 x 2 + 16.6666 x + 2500 ) dx

300
0
300
 0.02778 x 3 16.6666 x 2 
= π + + 2500 x 
 3 2 0
 0.02778 × 3003 16.6666 × 3002 
= π + + 2500 × 300 
 3 2 
= 5 497 840.55 mm3 = 5.498 litres
OA = 50 mm BD = 100 mm
OD = 300 mm
B
A
C
O D x
Figure S13.2 The slump cone

H 4
10. a ) Force on the wall at a depth of 4 m = ∫ K a γy dy = ∫ 0.33 × 18.0 y dy
0 0
4
4  y2 
= 5.94 ∫ y dy = 5.94  
0  2 0
 42 02 
= 5.94  −  = 47.52 kN
2 2
6
b ) Force on the wall at a depth of 6 m = ∫ 0.33 × 18.0 y dy
0
6
6  y2 
= 5.94 ∫ y dy = 5.94  
0  2 0
 62 02 
= 5.94  −  = 106.92 kN
2 2
11. The shear force diagram (SFD) and the bending moment diagram (BMD) are shown in Figure S13.3.
udl
A B
R1 R2
C y=
-2.5
x+
10 kN 10
F D B
A 2.2 m G
10 kN
Shear force diagram
2.2 m E
Mx Max. B.M.
Bending moment diagram
Figure S13.3
As the bending moment is equal to the area of the SFD, therefore:

Bending moment at 2.2 m from A = Area ACFG of the SFD
2.2
= ∫ ( − 2.5 x + 10) dx
0
2.2
 −2.5 x 2 
= + 10x 
 2 0
 −2.5 × 2.22  0 
= + 10 × 2.2 −  + 0 
 2  2 
= − 6.05 + 22 = 15.95 kNm

1. a)
The shape has been divided into 2 parts, as shown in Figure S14.1; the centroids of both parts
(G1 and G2) are also shown in this diagram. Let G be the centroid of the whole section.

2

G2
x
G
y
G1 1

O x

Figure S14.1
A x y Ax Ay
1 100 × 10 =1000 50 5 1000 × 50 = 50 000 1000 × 5 = 5000
2 10 × 60 = 600 50 40 30 000 24 000
ΣA = 1600 ΣAx = 80 000 ΣAy = 29 000
ΣAx 80000
x= = = 50.0 mm
ΣA 1600
ΣAy 29000
y= = = 18.13 mm
ΣA 1600
1. b)
y

x G
2
y

x
O
Figure S14.2

The shape has been divided into 3 parts, as shown in Figure S14.2. The centroids of all parts are
also shown.

A x y Ax Ay
1 100 × 20 = 2000 50 110 2000 × 50 = 2000 × 110 =
100 000 220 000
2 70 × 30 = 2100 15 65 2100 × 15 = 31 500 2100 × 65 =
136 500
3 80 × 30 = 2400 40 15 2400 × 40 = 96 000 2400 × 15 = 36 000
ΣA = 6500 ΣAx = 227 500 ΣAy = 392 500
ΣAx 227 500

x= = = 35.0 mm
ΣA 6500
ΣAy 392 500

y= = = 60.38 mm
ΣA 6500
1. c)
The shape has been divided into 3 parts, as shown in Figure 14.3. The centroids of all parts are also
shown.

3

G1 G2 G G3
2

x
1
y
O x
Figure S14.3

A x y Ax Ay
1 20 × 90 = 1800 10 70 1800 × 10 = 18 000 1800 × 70 = 126 000
2 200 × 20 = 4000 120 70 4000 × 120 = 480 000 4000 × 70 = 280 000
3 60 × 140 = 8400 250 70 8400 × 250 = 2 100 000 8400 × 70 = 588 000
ΣA = 14 200 ΣAx = 2 598 000 ΣAy = 994 000
ΣAx 2598000
x= = = 182.96 mm
ΣA 14200
ΣAy 994000
y= = = 70.0 mm
ΣA 14200
1. d)
The shape has been divided into 2 parts, as shown in Figure S14.4. The centroids of both parts are
also shown.

Hole
Radius = 4
x G
G1

G2
y

Figure S14.4
A x y Ax Ay
1 30 × 20 = 600 10 15 6000 9000
2 - π × 42 = - 50.27 12 10 - 603.24 - 502.7
ΣA = 549.73 ΣAx = 5396.76 ΣAy = 8497.30
ΣAx 5396.76
x= = = 9.82 mm
ΣA 549.73
ΣAy 8497.30
y= = = 15.46 mm
ΣA 549.73
2.
The shape has been divided into 2 parts, as shown in Figure S14.5; the centroids of both parts (G1
and G2) are also shown in this diagram. Let G be the centroid of the whole section.

G2

x G
G1
O x

Figure S14.5
A x y Ax Ay
1 2.4 × 15 ÷ 2 = 18 1.6 5 18 × 1.6 = 28.8 18 × 5 = 90
2 15 × 2 = 30 3.4 7.5 102 225
ΣA = 48 ΣAx = 130.8 ΣAy = 315
ΣAx 130.8
x= = = 2.725 m
ΣA 48
ΣAy 315
y= = = 6.563 m
ΣA 48
3. a)
The shape has been divided into 3 parts, as shown in Figure S14.6. The centroids of all parts are
also shown.

G3

x G
G2

G1 y 3

2
1
x

Figure S14.6
A (m2) x y Ax Ay
1 2×1=2 0.5 1 2 × 0.5 = 1 2×1=2
2 4×1=4 1.5 2 4 × 1.5 = 6 4×2=8
3 6×1=6 2.5 3 6 × 2.5 = 15 6 × 3 = 18
ΣA = 12 ΣAx = 22 ΣAy = 28
ΣAx 22
x= = = 1.833 m
ΣA 12
ΣAy 28
y= = = 2.333 m
ΣA 12
3. b)
The shape has been divided into three parts, as shown in Figure S14.7. The centroids of all parts
are also shown.
y

G2

x G
G1 G3
y
O x

All dimensions in m
Figure S14.7

A (m2) x y Ax Ay
1 4.2 0.933 2 4.2 × 0.933 = 3.919 4.2 × 2 = 8.4

2 7.2 2.0 3 7.2 × 2.0 = 14.4 7.2 × 3 = 21.6
3 2.4 2.867 2 2.4 × 2.867 = 6.881 2.4 × 2 = 4.8
ΣA = 13.8 ΣAx = 25.2 ΣAy = 34.8
ΣAx 25.2
x= = = 1.826 m
ΣA 13.8
ΣAy 34.8
y= = = 2.522 m
ΣA 13.8
bd3
4. Second moment of area about AA , IAA =
3
8 × 123
= = 4608 cm4
3
8 × 63 8 × 63
Second moment of area about XX, IXX = +
3 3
= 576 + 576 = 1152 cm4
db3 db3
Second moment of area about YY, IYY = +
3 3
12 × 43 12 × 43
= + = 512 cm4
3 3
5. IAA = IG + Ah2
bd3
= +bd × h2
12
8 × 123
= + 8 × 12 × 82
12
= 1152 + 6144 = 7296 cm4
6.
2 cm
B Y
20 1
cm
G 2 cm
X X
2
O A
Y 20 cm
Figure S14.8
The section is divided into 2 parts, part 1 and part 2. The position of the centroid is determined by
taking moments about axes OA and OB (Figure S14.8)
Distance of centroid Moment of area
Area From axis OB From axis OA About OB About OA
A (cm2) x (cm) y (cm) Ax Ay
1 40 1 10 40 400
2 36 11 1 396 36
ΣA = 76 ΣAx = 436 Σay = 436
ΣAx 436
x= = = 5.74 cm
ΣA 76
As the section is symmetrical, centroid G is 5.74 cm from both OA and OB.
As axis OA coincides with one side of both part 1 and part 2:
b1d13 b2d23
IOA = +
3 3
2 × 203 18 × 23
= + = 538133
. cm4
3 3
IOA = IXX + Ah2
5381.33 = IXX + 76 × 5.742
IXX = 5381.33 − 2504.02 = 2877.3 cm4
Due to symmetry, IXX = IYY = 2877.3 cm4
7.
8 cm
Y
1
G1 1 cm
G2 G 13 cm
X X
2.43 cm
1 cm
G3 3 1 cm
O A
Y
Figure S14.9
The section is divided into 3 rectangles, 1, 2 and 3, and their centroids denoted by G1, G2 and G3
(Figure S14.9). The centroid of the whole section will lie on the axis of symmetry XX but its exact
position needs to be determined as the section is not perfectly symmetrical.

From axis OB About OB
A (cm2) x (cm) Ax
1 8 4 32
2 13 0.5 6.5
3 8 4 32
ΣA = 29 ΣAy = 70.5
ΣAx 70.5
x= = = 2.43 cm
ΣA 29
The centroid is positioned at mid-height, 2.43 cm from axis OB.
Second moment of area about axis OA
Area 1: The second moment of area of Area 1 about OA is given by:
IOA = IG1 + A1h12
8 × 13
= +8 × 14.52 ( A 1 = 8; h1 = 14.5)
12
= 1682.67 cm4
Area 2: The second moment of area of Area 2 about OA is given by:
IOA = IG2 + A2h22
1× 133
= +13 × 7.52 ( A 2 = 13; h2 = 7.5)
12
= 914.33 cm4
bd3
IOA =
3
8 × 13
= = 2.67 cm4
3
Therefore, IOA = 1682.67 + 914.33 + 2.67 = 2599.67 cm4
IOA = IXX + Ah2 (A = 29; h = 7.5 cm)
IXX = IOA − A × h2
= 2599.67 − 29 × 7.52 = 968.42 cm4
As 1 side of all 3 rectangles coincides with axis OB:
b1d13 b2d23 b3d3 3

IOB = + +
3 3 3
1× 83 13 × 13 1× 83
= + + = 345.67 cm4
3 3 3
IOB = IYY + Ah2 (A = 29; h = 2.43 cm)
IYY = IOB − A × h2
= 345.67 − 29 × 2.432 = 174.43 cm4
8.
10 cm
Y
G1 1 2 cm
G2 8 cm
X X
4 cm
G3 3 4 cm
A A
Y
12 cm
Figure S14.10
The section is divided into 3 rectangles, 1, 2 and 3, and their centroids denoted by G1, G2 and G3
(see Figure S14.10). The centroid of the whole section will lie on the axis of symmetry YY but its
exact position needs to be determined as the section is not perfectly symmetrical.

From axis AA About AA
A (cm2) y (cm) Ay
1 20 13 260
2 32 8 256
3 48 2 96
ΣA = 100 ΣAy = 612
ΣAy 612
y= = = 6.12 cm
ΣA 100
The centroid is positioned on axis YY at a distance of 6.12 cm from axis AA.
Second moment of area about axis AA
IAA = IG1 + A1h12
10 × 23
= +20 × 132 ( A 1 = 20; h1 = 4 + 8 + 1 = 13)
12
= 3386.67 cm4
IAA = IG2 + A2h22
4 × 83
= +32 × 82 ( A 2 = 32; h2 = 4 + 4 = 8 )
12
= 2218.67 cm4
bd3
IAA =
3
12 × 43
= = 256 cm4
3
Therefore, IAA = 3386.67 + 2218.67 + 256 = 5861.3 cm4
IAA = IXX + Ah2
IXX = IAA − A × h2
= 5861.3 − 100 × 6.122 = 5861.3 − 3745.4 = 2115.9 cm4
Axis YY passes through the centroids of all three parts
b1d13 b2d23 b3d3 3
IYY = + +
12 12 12
2 × 103 8 × 43 4 × 123
= + + = 166.67 + 42.67 + 576 = 785.3 cm4
12 12 12

 2 −3   −2 0   2 + ( −2) −3 + 0   0 −3 
1. a)  + =  = 
 6 4   −3 5   6 + ( −3) 4 + 5   3 9 
 3 2 −4   1 6 −5   3 + 1 2 + 6 −4 + ( −5) 
     
b)  3 4 1  +  −2 1 0  =  3 + ( −2) 4 + 1 1+ 0 
 2 3 −3   5 3 3   2 + 5 3 + 3 −3 + 3 
    
 4 8 −9 
 
= 1 5 1 
7 6 0 
 
 2 −3   −2 0   2 − ( −2) −3 − 0   4 −3 
2. a)  − = = 
 6 4   −3 5   6 − ( −3) 4 − 5   9 −1 1
 3 2 −4   1 6 −5   3 − 1 2 − 6 −4 − ( −5) 
     
b)  3 4 1  −  −2 1 0  =  3 − ( −2) 4 − 1 1− 0 
 2 3 −3   5 3 3   2 − 5 3 − 3 −3 − 3 
     
 2 −4 1 
 
= 5 3 1
 −3 0 −6 
 
 −2 0   −2 0   −4 0 
3. B =   ; 2B = 2  = 
 6 −3   6 −3   12 −6 
 2 −2   −4 0   2 − ( −4 ) −2 − 0   6 −2 
A − 2B =  − = =  
 −6 3   12 −6   −6 − (12 ) 3 − (− 6 )   −18 9
 2 5  6 15 
4. A =   , therefore 3A =  
 4 1  12 3 
 3 1   3 1   (3 × 3) + (1× 2) ( 3 × 1) + (1× 0 ) 
B2 =  ×  =  
 2 0   2 0   (2 × 3) + (0 × 2) ( 2 × 1) + (0 × 0 ) 
 11 3 
= 
 6 2
 6 15   11 3   17 18 
3A + B2 =  + =  
 12 3   6 2   18 5 
 5 3  2 4 
5. X −  =  
 7 0   1 −8 
 5 3  5 3  5 3  2 4   5 3
Add   to both sides, X −  + =  + 
 7 0   7 0   7 0   1 −8   7 0 
 2 4   5 3 7 7 
X = + =  
 1 −8   7 0   8 −8 
 3 2   5 3   (3 × 5) + ( 2 × 6) ( 3 × 3) + ( 2 × 0 ) 
6.  ×  =  
 6 1   6 0   (6 × 5) + (1× 6 ) (6 × 3) + (1× 0 ) 
 27 9 
= 
 36 18 
 3 4   5   (3 × 5) + ( 4 × 6)   39 
7.   ×   =  = 
 7 2   6   (7 × 5) + ( 2 × 6 )   47
7
−5 −6
8. a ) = −5 × 3 − 4 × ( −6 ) = 9
4 3
−2 3 0
1 1 −3 1 −3 1
b ) −3 1 1 = −2 − 3 +0
3 4 −2 4 −2 3
−2 3 4
= -2(4 - 3) - (3)(-12 + 2) + 0(-9 + 2) = 28
9. A = 3 × 2 − 1× 2 = 4
 2 −2 
  −0.5 
1  2 −2   4 4   0.5
A −1 =  = = 
4  −1 3  −1 3   −0.25 0.75 
 
 4 4 
 3 2   0.5 −0.5 
Verification: AA −1 =   
 1 2   −0.25 0.75 
 3 × 0.5 + 2 × ( − 0.25) 3 × ( −0.5) + 2 × 0.75 

= 
 1× 0.5 + 2 × ( − 0.25) 1× ( − 0.5) + 2 × 0.75 
 1.5 − 0.5 −1.5 + 1.5   1 0 
= =  = I
 0.5 − 0.5 −0.5 + 1.5   0 1 
10. 2x + 3y = 4 and
x − y = −3
2 3
det D = = −2 − 3 = −5
1 −1
4 3
det D x = = −4 − ( −9 ) = 5
−3 −1
2 4
det D y = = −6 − 4 = −10
1 −3
Dx 5 Dy −10
x= = = −1 y = = =2
D −5 D −5
11. 2x + 2y = -2 and
3x − y = 9
2 2
det D = = −2 − 6 = −8
3 −1
−2 2
det D x = = 2 − 18 = −16
9 −1
2 −2
det D y = = 18 − ( −6 ) = 24
3 9

Dx −16 Dy 24
x= = =2 y= = = −3
D −8 D −8
a1 b1 c1
b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2
12. det D = a2 b2 c2 = a1 − b1 +c1
b3 c3 a3 c3 a3 b3
a3 b3 c2
2 −1 2 −1 2 2
=1 −2 +1
−1 2 3 2 3 −1
= 1(4 − 1) − 2(4 + 3) +1(-2 − 6) = − 19
d1 b1 c1
b2 c2 d2 c2 d2 b2
D x = d2 b2 c2 = d1 − b1 +c1
b3 c3 d3 c3 d3 b3
d3 b3 c3
2 −1 9 −1 9 2
=6 −2 +1
−1 2 −2 2 − 2 −1
= 6(4 − 1) − 2(18 − 2) +1(−9 + 4) = − 19
a1 d1 c1
d2 c2 a2 c2 a2 d2
D y = a2 d2 c2 = a1 − d1 +c1
d3 c3 a3 c3 a3 d3
a3 d3 c3
9 −1 2 −1 2 9
=1 −6 +1
−2 2 3 2 3 −2
= 1(18 − 2) − 6(4 + 3 ) +1(−4 − 27) = − 57
a1 b1 d1
b2 d2 a2 d2 a2 b2
Dz = a2 b2 d2 = a1 − b1 + d1
b3 d3 a3 d3 a3 b3
a3 b3 d3
2 9 2 9 2 2
=1 −2 +6
−1 −2 3 −2 3 −1
= 1(−4 + 9) − 2(− 4 − 27) + 6(− 2 − 6) = 19
Dx −19 −57 19
x= = = 1; y = = 3; z = = −1
D −19 −19 −19

1. Select a suitable scale, i.e. 1 N = 6 mm. (1 mm = 1 ÷ 6 = 0.1666 N)
Draw, line OM = 36 mm, and parallel to the 6 N force, as shown in Figure S16.1b. At point M draw,
line MN = 39 mm and parallel to the 6.5 N force. Join ON to represent the resultant. Measure the
length of line ON:
Resultant ON = 65 mm. 65 mm converted into Newtons equal 10.83 N.
65 39 36
Use the sine rule to determine∠ O : = = (∠ M = 120º )
sin120 sinO sinN
65 39 39 × sin120
= ; therefore, sinO = = 0.51962
sin120 
sinO 65
∠O = sin-1 0.51962 = 31.31º

The resultant (10.83 N) acts at angle of 31.31º to the 6 N force.
.83N
6.5 N 10 6.5 N
60°
31.31°
O O M
6N 6N
(a) (b)
Figure S16.1
2. Select a suitable scale, i.e. 1 N = 6 mm. (7N = 42 mm; 6 N = 36 mm)

Draw line OM = 42 mm and parallel to the 7 N force (Figure S16.2b). Draw ON, 36 mm long and
parallel to the 6 N force. Draw line NP parallel to line OM and line MP parallel to line ON. Draw OP,
the diagonal of parallelogram OMPN, which is the resultant of the two forces, i.e. 7 N and 6 N force.
Resultant OP = 72 mm. 72 mm converted into Newtons equal 12 N.
The resultant is inclined at 21º to the horizontal.
3. Select a suitable scale, i.e. 1 N = 1 mm.
To represent the 25 N force (F1) draw line OM parallel to force F1. The length of line OM is 25 mm,
and it makes an angle of 36º with the horizontal, as shown in Figure S16.3b. At point M, draw line
MN = 30 mm and parallel to the 30 N force (F2). Draw line NP, 40 mm long, and parallel to the 40 N
force (F3). Draw line OP to represent the resultant of the three forces. Measure the length of line OP:
Resultant OP = 65.5 mm. 65.5 mm converted into Newtons equal 65.5 N.
The resultant is inclined at 65º to the 25N force.
N
P
6N 6N
12 N
45°
O O 21°
7N M
7N
(a) (b)
Figure S16.2
P
40 N
F2 30°
N
F3 30 N 65.5 N
F1 30 N
40 N
(b)
85° 25 N
30° 36°
O M
100° 25 N
(a)
36°
O
Figure S16.3
4. Figure S16.4 shows the vector
v = 62 + 42 = 52 = 7.21
4 4
tan θ = , therefore θ = tan−1 =   = 33.69°°
6 6
Magnitude = 7.21 units, acting at 33.69º to the horizontal
5. Let the horizontal component of the force be xi and the vertical component be yj
F = xi + yj
Triangle AOB (Figure S16.5) is a right-angled triangle, therefore:
│OB│ = x = │F│ cos 46º
= 55 × cos 46º = 38.21 N
│BA│ = y = │F│ sin 46º
y A
v
4j
θ
O x
6i
Figure S16.4
= 55 × sin 46º = 39.56 N

Hence, F = 38.21i + 39.56j
A
N
55
= yj
F
46°
O B
xi
Figure S16.5
6.
A (5,6)
a
6j
θ B
O x
5i
Figure S16.6
Refer to Figure S16.6, a = 52 + 62 = 61 = 7.81
6 6
In ∆AOB, tan θ = , therefore θ = tan−1 =   = 50.19°°
5 5
The magnitude of resultant vector a is 7.81 units that acts at an angle of 50.19º to the horizontal.
0 6 6  6

7. a )   b )   c )   d)  
6
  4
  0
   −2 
8. Refer to Figure S16.7, v = 5 + ( −3) = 34 = 5.83

2 2
−3  −3 
In ∆OAB, tan θ = , therefore θ = tan−1 =   = − 30.96°
5  5
The magnitude of vector v is 5.83 units that acts at an angle of -30.96º to the horizontal.
O 5i A x
θ
-3j
v
Figure S16.7
Solution − Exercise 17.1

Σx
1. a ) Mean, x =
n
142.2

= = 11.85
12
b) The data has been arranged in an ascending order to find the median (middle number):
10.0, 10.4, 10.8, 11.0, 11.4, 12.0, 12.2, 12.2, 12.3, 13.0, 13.0, 13.9
There are two middle numbers, 12.0 and 12.2, therefore:
12.0 + 12.2
Median = = 12.1
2
c) There are 2 modes, 12.2 and 13.0, as both of them occur twice
d) Range = maximum value − minimum value

= 13.9 − 10.0 = 3.9
2. The minimum and the maximum strengths are 34 N/mm2 and 51 N/mm2 respectively.
a) The 6 classes and their frequencies are shown in the following table:
Class interval Frequency (f) Class mid-point (x) f×x

(crushing strength)
34-36 4 35 4 × 35 = 140
37-39 7 38 7 × 38 = 266
40−42 10 41 10 × 41 = 410
43−45 9 44 9 × 44 = 396
46−48 6 47 6 × 47 = 282
49−51 4 50 4 × 50 = 200
Σ f = 40 Σ fx = 1694
b) To find the mean, the class mid-point and the product, f × x, are included the table.
Σ fx 1694
Mean, x = = = 42.35 N / mm2
Σf 40
c) For determining the median strength, cumulative frequencies are calculated as shown in the
following table, and the cumulative frequency curve (ogive) produced as shown in Figure S17.1.
Class interval Frequency (f) Crushing strength Cumulative

(Crushing strength) less than frequency
33.5 0
34-36 4 36.5 0+4=4
37-39 7 39.5 4 + 7 = 11
40−42 10 42.5 11 + 10 = 21
43−45 9 45.5 21 + 9 = 30
46−48 6 48.5 30 + 6 = 36
49−51 4 51.5 36 + 4 = 40
From the Ogive, Q2 = Median = 42.3 N/mm2
d) The cumulative frequency corresponding to 44 N/mm2 is 25.6, therefore
Number of bricks having strength less than 44 N/mm2 = 25.6 or 26.

40
30 25.6
Q2
20
10
Median = 42.3
0
33 35 37 39 41 43 44 45 47 49 51 53
Crushing strength (N/mm ) 2
Figure S17.1
Σ f (x − x )2 755.11
Σf 40
3. Mean strength = 204.75 kN/mm2

The deviations from the mean and their squares are shown in the following table
Sample No. Young’s modulus (x) Mean (x ) ( x - x )2
1 200 204.75 -4.75 22.56

2 198 204.75 -6.75 45.56
3 210 204.75 5.25 27.56
4 215 204.75 10.25 105.06
5 202 204.75 -2.75 7.56
6 195 204.75 -9.75 95.06
7 200 204.75 -4.75 22.56
8 205 204.75 0.25 0.063
9 203 204.75 -1.75 3.06
10 212 204.75 7.25 52.56
11 214 204.75 9.25 85.56
12 203 204.75 -1.75 3.06
Σ = 470.223
Σ (x − x )2 470.223
Standard deviation, σ = = = 6.26 kN / mm2
n 12
4. Some of the information from the solution of Q.2 has been reproduced in the table below. Mean of
the data = 42.35 N/mm2
Moisture Frequency Class f×x Mean (x ) ( x-x) ( x - x )2 f × ( x - x )2

content (f) mid-
(class interval point (x)
34−36 4 35 140 42.35 -7.35 54.02 216.09
37−39 7 38 266 42.35 -4.35 18.92 132.46
40−42 10 41 410 42.35 -1.35 1.82 18.23
43−45 9 44 396 42.35 1.65 2.72 24.50
46−48 6 47 282 42.35 4.65 21.62 129.74
49−51 4 50 200 42.35 7.65 58.52 234.09
Σ f = 40 Σ fx = Σ=
1694 755.11
Σ f (x − x )2 755.11
Σf 40
Range = 51 − 34 = 17 N/mm2
Interquartile range = Q3 − Q1 = 45.4 − 39.0 = 6.4 N/mm2
(Q3 and Q1 have been obtained from Figure S17.1)
5. a) P(1 fault) = 0.10 and P(2 faults) = 0.05
Probability of 1or 2 faults = 0.10 + 0.05 = 0.15
b) Probability of more than 2 faults = 1 − [P(0 fault) + P(1 fault) + P(2 faults)]
= 1 − [0.82 + 0.10 + 0.05] = 0.03
c) Probability of at least 1 fault = [P(1 fault) + P(2 faults) + P(>2 faults)]

= [0.10 + 0.05 + 0.03] = 0.18
6. The defective component can be picked from any sample, as shown:
(D = defective; ND = not defective)
Company A Company B Company C Outcome

D (0.1) ND (0.8) ND (0.75) 0.1×0.8×0.75 = 0.06
ND (0.9) D (0.2) ND (0.75) 0.9×0.2×0.75 = 0.135
ND (0.9) ND (0.8) D (0.25) 0.9×0.8×0.25 = 0.18
Probability of picking 1 defective component = 0.06 + 0.135 + 0.18 = 0.375
7. The tree diagram is shown in Figure S17.2

Monday Tuesday Outcome Probability

L
0.2 LL 0.2 x 0.2 = 0.04
L 0.8
LT 0.2 x 0.8 = 0.16
T
0.2
0.8
L
TL 0.8 x 0.2 = 0.16
T 0.2
0.8
TT 0.8 x 0.8 = 0.64
T
Figure S17.2 Tree diagram
Let L = late, T = on time

a) From the tree diagram: the probability that the delivery is late on both Monday and Tuesday is
LL or 0.04
b) Probability that the delivery is late on just one of the two days is:
(L × T) + (T × L) = 0.16 + 0.16 = 0.32
c) Probability that the delivery is on time on Monday and Tuesday is:
TT or 0.64
8. The probability of a component being defective, p, is 3 in 75 or 4 in 100. This is same as 4% or
0.04.
The probability of a component being non-defective, q, is 1 − 0.04, or 0.96
The probability of 0, 1, 2, 3, ….. defective components is given by the successive terms of (q + p)5
(the power 5 is same as the sample size of 5):
5(5 − 1) 5 − 2 2 5(5 − 1)(5 − 2) 5 − 3 3

(q + p )5 = q5 + 5q5 −1 p + q p + q p + ……
2! 3!
= q5 + 5q4 p + 10q3p2 + 10q2p3+ ……
a) The probability that no component is defective = q5 = 0.965 = 0.8154
b) The probability of 2 defective components = 10q3p2 = 10 × 0.963 × 0.042 = 0.0142
9. The probability of a unit being defective, p, is 10% or 0.1
The probability of a unit being non-defective, q, is 1 − 0.1, or 0.9
The probability of 0, 1, 2, 3, ….. defective components is given by the successive terms of (q + p)20:
20(20 − 1) 20 − 2 2 20(20 − 1)(20 − 2) 20 − 3 3
(q + p )20 = q20 + 20q20 −1 p + q p q p + .…
2! 3!
=q20 +20q19 p+190q18 p2 +1140q17 p3 +......
− The probability that no component is defective = q20 = 0.920 = 0.1216
− The probability of 1 defective components = 20 q19 p = 20 × 0.919 × 0.1 = 0.2702
− The probability of 2 defective components = 190 q18 p2 = 190 × 0.918 × 0.12 = 0.2852
− For determining the probability that 3 or more units are defective, the sum of the probabilities of 3
units, 4 units, 5 units etc. (up to 20 units) being defective can be calculated. A much easier method
to calculate this sum is to find 1− (sum of 0 unit, 1 unit and 2 units being defective). Therefore:
The probability of 3 or more units being defective = 1 − (0.1216 + 0.2702 + 0.2852)

= 0.3230
Hence the probability that the batch is rejected is: 0.3230.
10. x = np = 75 ×0.02 = 15
.
a) Probability of 0 defective = P ( 0 ) = e − x = e − 1.5 = 0.2231
b) Probability of 1 defective = P (1) = e − x x = e − 1.5 1.5 = 0.3347

1! 1!
(x)2 (x)2 1.52

c) Probability of 2 defective = P ( 2) = e − x = e− x =e − 1.5 = 0.251
2! 2×1 2×1
11. Mean diameter, x = 22 mm. Its z value is 0 on the standardised normal curve
x − x 22 − 22
(z = = = 0; here x is also = 22)
σ 0 .2
x − x 21.6 − 22 0 .4
z − value of 216
. mm = = =− =−2
σ 0 .2 0 .2
a) The area between z = 0 and z = − 2, from Table 17.9 is 0.4772
The area under the curve (Figure S17.3a ) up to the z-value of − 2 represents the number of
components having diameter < 21.6 mm. This is equal to:
0.5 − 0.4772 = 0.0228. Therefore the components having diameter less than 21.6 mm is: 2.28 or
2% (2% = 0.0228 × 100)
x − x 21.7 − 22
b) z − value of 217
. mm = = = − 1 .5
σ 0 .2
x - x 22.2 − 22
z − value of 22.2 mm = = = 1 .0
σ 0 .2
Using Table 17.9, z-value of − 1.5 corresponds to an area of 0.4332 between the mean value and the
vertical line at − 1.5. The negative value shows that it lies to the left of z = 0, i.e. the mean value.
22.2 mm has a z-value of 1.0 standard deviation. From Table 17.9 the area under the curve is 0.3413;
the positive value shows that it lies to the right of the mean value, as shown in Figure S17.3b.
The total area under the curve is: 0.4332 + 0.3413 = 0.7745.
Thus the probability that the diameter of the components lies between 21.7 mm and 22.2 mm is 0.7745.
Therefore the proportion of components having diameter between 21.7 mm and 22.2 mm is: 77.45
or 77% (77% = 0.7745 × 100).
−2.0 Z=0 Z-value
−1.5 Z=0 1.0 Z-value
Figure S17.3
12. The cumulative frequency and percentage cumulative frequency are shown in the table below:

(Compressive frequency frequency
strength)
32-34 4 4 4×100 ÷ 85 = 4.7
35-37 12 16 18.8
38-40 16 32 37.6
41-43 20 52 61.2
44-46 17 69 81.2
47-49 13 82 96.5
50-52 3 85 100
The percentage cumulative frequencies are plotted against the upper class boundaries and a best
fit straight line drawn as illustrated in Figure S17.4. Since the points lie close to the straight line, the
results may be considered to be normally distributed.
99.99
99.9
99.8
99.5
99
98
95
Percentage Cumulative Frequency
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
5.0
2.0
1.0
0.1
0.01
34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (N/mm ) 2
Figure S17.4
From the graph, Mean ( x ) = 41.9 N / mm2 ( mean at 50% PCF )
xs (at 84.13% PCF) = 46.4 N/mm2
Therefore, standard deviation = x s − x = 46.4 − 419

. = 4.5 N / mm2
Solution − Exercise 18.1

For questions 1 to 8 enter the data and the formulae as shown in the relevant figure.
1. Figure S18.1 shows the formulae to be used.

Figure S18.1
Figure S18.2
Figure S18.3
Figure S18.4
Figure S18.5
6. Figure S18.6 shows the formula to be used.
Figure S18.6
7. Figure S18.7 shows the formula to be used.
Figure S18.7
Figure S18.8
Index
absolute error 4 compound interest 138
addition of sine waves 127 computer techniques 271
addition of matrices 218 area 273
addition of vectors 230 centroids 278
algebra 9 determinants 281
brackets 11 matrices 278
division 9 median 277
multiplication 9 mean 275
angles 67 range 275
antilogarithm 134 standard deviation 277
application of differentiation 167 cone 84
maximum and minimum 171 continuous data 242
second derivatives 169 correlation 62
structural mechanics 167 cosine rule 104
velocity and acceleration 170 cubic equations 61
approximation 34 cuboid 83
area between a curve and a straight line 189 cumulative frequency curves 250
area under a curve 187 curve fitting 62
area 75 cylinder 83
circle 78
irregular shapes 80 decay of sound energy 141
mid-ordinate rule 80 definite integrals 180
Simpson’s rule 81 determinants 220
trapezoidal rule 81 properties of 222
regular shapes 76 diagonal matrix 218
quadrilaterals 77 differential coefficients 161
circle 78 differentiation 149
beams 77 chain rule 157
arithmetic progression 17 exponential function 157
averages 243 first principles 150
function of a function 155
bending moments 195, 289 logarithms 157
binomial distribution 260 of a product 159
binomial series for negative indices 33 of a quotient 160
binomial theorem 31; approximation 34; practical trigonometric functions 154
problems 35 dimensional analysis 14
brackets 11 discrete data 241
dispersion of data 251
centroids by integration 202 distribution curves 256
centroids of simple shapes 199
circle 71 earth pressure on retaining walls 192
major sector 72 equations 12
minor sector 72 estimation 4
major segment 72 evaluation of formulae 30
minor segment 72 exponential function 137
cofactors 220 compound interest 138
400 Index
decay of sound energy 141 maximum and minimum 171

growth and decay 140 mean 243
newton’s law of cooling 139 mean deviation 251
median 243
factorisation 12 mid-ordinate rule 80
frames 108 mode 243
frequency distribution 247
normal distribution 262
geometric progression 19 normal distribution test 266
sums of series 19
geometry 67 order of operation 1
angles 67
triangles 68 parallel axis theorem 209
circle 71 Pascal’s triangle 31
graph of sin x 124 permeability of soils 258
graph of cos x 124 Poisson distribution 260
graphical solutions 53 probability 258
cubic equations 61 independent events 259
linear equations 55 mutually exclusive events 258
quadratic equations 60 pyramid 84
simultaneous equations 56 Pythagoras’ theorem 71
straight line 58
grouped data 242 quadratic equations 45
application of 49
hot water cylinder 84 completing the square 48
hyperbolic functions 142 factorising 46
quadratic formula 48
indices 5
division 5 radius of gyration 234
multiplication 5 range 251
negative powers 6 raw data 242
power of a power 6 resolution of vectors 234
zero index 6 roof terminology 101
integration 177 rounding 2
applications of 187 significant figures 2
area under a curve 187 to nearest whole number 2
by parts 183 truncation 2
by substitution 181
change of limits 182 second derivatives 169
definite integrals 180 second moment of area 206
indefinite integrals 178 similar triangles 69
inverse of square matrix 221 simple equations 12
Simpson’s rule 81, 86
law of straight line 58 simultaneous equations 41
laws of growth and decay 140 application of 44
linear equation 55 elimination method 41
linear regression 63 substitution method 42
logarithmic function 133 sine rule 103
ambiguous case 107
mass-haul diagram 87 sine wave 124
matrices 217 amplitude 124
addition and subtraction 218 phase angle 124
application of 223 period 124
transpose 220 sinusoidal waveform 124
Index 401
spreadsheet 271 trigonometric graphs 124

square matrix 217 trigonometric identities 117
standard deviation 252 trigonometrical ratios 98
standard form 3 of compound angles 119
statistics 241 trigonometry 97
statistical diagrams 246
bar chart 246 unit vectors 233
frequency polygon 249
histogram 249 vectors 229
pie chart 247 addition of 230
polygon of 231
theorem of Pappus 88 resultant of 234
thermal movement of building subtraction of 232
components 140 variance 251
transposition of formulae 25 volume 83
trapezoidal rule 81, 86 irregular objects 86
tree diagrams 260 embankment 86
triangles 68 Simpson’s rule 86
acute-angled 69 trapezoidal rule 86
equilateral 69 regular objects 83
isosceles 69 hot water cylinder 84
obtuse angled 69 retaining wall 85
right-angled 69 volume of revolution 190
scalene 69 cone 190
trigonometric equations 121 slump cone 197

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Advanced Construction

First published 2019

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

The right of Surinder S. Virdi to be identified as author of this work has

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN: 978-0-367-00210-7 (hbk)

Visit the eResources: www.routledge.com/9780367002138

1 Introduction to some basic techniques 1

3.2.3 Transposition involving addition/subtraction and multiplication/division 27

4 Simultaneous and quadratic equations 41

6 Geometry, areas and volumes 67

9 Logarithmic, exponential and hyperbolic functions 133

9.2 Exponential function 137

11 Applications of differentiation 167

12.4 Integration by substitution 181

13 Applications of integration 187

14 Properties of sections 199

15 Matrices and determinants 217

16.5 Resolution of vectors 234

18 Computer techniques 271

End of unit assignment 285

Quantity Name of unit Symbol Quantity Name of unit Symbol

Name Symbol Factor Description Symbol

Topics covered in this chapter:

1.2 Order of operations

1.3.1 To the nearest whole number

1.3.3 Significant figures

1.4 Standard form

d) 0.25 = 2.5 = 2.51 = 2.5 × 10 −1

1.7.1 Laws of indices

Answers – Exercise 1.1

Topics covered in this chapter:

2.2 Multiplication and division

i) 3 × 3 = 32; similarly, x × x = x2 (refer to indices – chapter 1)

Dividing 8x2 by 2x gives 4x.

2.5 Simple equations

a) Multiply 2x + 4 by 3, x − 3 by 2 and 2x + 4 by 4, to simplify:

2.6 Dimensional analysis

2.6.2 Principle of homogeneity

2.6.3 Limitations of dimensional analysis

a) Force = mass × acceleration

2.7 Arithmetic progression (AP)

The sum of first 11 terms is given by, S11 = n ( 2a + (n − 1)d)

2.8 Geometric progression (GP)

The nth term is arn − 1

The first term, a = 2

The second term = ar2−1 = ar = 3 (1)

2.8.1 The sum of a series in GP

The last term is arn − 1

The first term, a = 2

2(1 − 37 ) 2(1 − 2187)

5. Solve the following equations:

6. Solve the following equations:

Answers – Exercise 2.1

1. i) 9x2 y3 z

Answers – Exercise 2.2

1. T12 = 28.5, S12 = 177