TEACHING

STRATEGIES

It refers to the science of

developing a plan to attain goal and
to the guard against and desirable
result. It means the art of using
psychological plan in order to
increase the probabilities and
consequences and to gain success in
teaching.
1. Active Learning
Is anything that students do in a classroom other than merely passively listening
to an instructor’s lecture. Research shows that active learning improves
students’ understanding and retention of information and can be very effective
in developing higher order cognitive skills such as problem solving and critical
thinking.
Process:
a. Try a Think-Pair-Share activity to encourage all students to interact with the material. In this
activity, the instructor states an open-ended question. Ask students to spend a minute or two
thinking about and writing a response. Then ask students to pair with a partner to discuss their
responses. Reconvene the class after a few minutes, and call on individual students to share the
pair’s responses.
b. Use a One Minute Paper or Muddiest Point Paper in your class as a formative
assessment. At the end of class or just before a break, ask either: “What are the two most
important points from today’s session?” or “What was the muddiest (least clear) point from
today’s session?” Give students 1-2 minutes to write brief responses to turn in anonymously as
they leave the classroom. Address student responses either during the next class or online.
c. With Peer Instruction, you pause during class and ask students a conceptual question. Give
students a few minutes to think about the question, and then have them provide answers,
possibly using clickers. Then, have students spend a few minutes talking about their answers,
usually in pairs, and try to convince each other that their answer is correct. Then have students
answer again.
d. Asking students to work together in groups is a very effective way to actively engage them
with your course.
e. Student groups can discuss case studies to apply course content to solve real world problems.
2. Assigned Questions
Are those prepared by the teacher to be answered by individuals or small groups
of students.
Process:
 Answer the question yourself. This strategy is best when you have little time remaining in
class. The disadvantage of this approach is that you do not encourage student-to-student
interaction or independent learning.
 Redirect the question to the class. This strategy helps to encourage student-to-student
interaction and to lessen reliance on the instructor for all information.
 Attempt to help the student answer his own question. This may require prompting
through reminders of pertinent previously learned information. Or this strategy may
require you to ask the student a lower-level question or a related question to begin his
thought process. The advantage of this strategy, as in redirecting, is that the student may
learn the process of searching for answers to his own questions rather than relying on the
teacher. The risk is that the process can be embarrassing or so threatening that the student
will be too intimidated to ask questions in the future. Obviously some human compassion
is called for when using this strategy.
 Ask the student to stop after class to discuss the question. This strategy is most
appropriate when a student raises complicated, tangential questions or when a student is
obviously the only one who does not understand a point and a simple answer does not
clarify it for the student. Even in these situations there are risks in using this strategy.
Students may be intimidated from raising questions in class. The instructor may think that
only the questioning student does not understand when actually a number of students are
having the same problem.
 Refer the student to a resource where she can find the answer.
 Defer the question until a more appropriate time if the question is not connected to the
material you're covering. Be sure to note the question and the student, and to return to
the question at a more appropriate time.
3. Assigned Roles
Many teachers find that assigning students’ particular roles is an effective way to
structure group work. Sometimes certain students tend to assume too much
responsibility for the groups’ work, while other students may be reluctant to
contribute to the group’s activity. As students practice different roles, they have
the opportunity to develop a variety of skills.
Process:
 Determine the Roles You Need
The roles most often needed for group work include facilitator, recorder, presenter, timekeeper,
and artist.
 Provide Students with Expectations for Roles
When you first introduce roles, provide clear instructions for the responsibilities that come with
each assignment. You might want to make lists of what it looks like when the role is performed
well and when it is not performed well.
 Debrief and Evaluate
In writing or through a discussion, ask students to reflect on their experiences working in
groups. Which roles do they feel most comfortable in? Which are most challenging for them?
Students may also have ideas about new roles that should be assigned.
4. Brainstorming
The teacher may begin by posing a question or a problem, or by introducing a
topic. Students then express possible answer, relevant words and ideas.
Contributions are accepted without criticism or judgement.
Process:
 First, a small group of students is formed. They are asked to sit in a group and are provided with
a particular issue or topic.
 Teacher, as the group leader, then ask group members to think about the problem and give
their ideas. They are advised to find as many solutions to the problem as they can find. They are
instructed not to criticize others ideas but they are free to make attentions to others ideas.
Students are encouraged to put forward suggestions without hesitation even if they seem to
come up with unusual and unorthodox ideas.
 Students ideas are to be listened and accepted patiently, without passing any judgment or
comment of any sort until the session is over.
5. Peer Partner Learning
Students work together as partner, one functioning as “doer” and the other as a
“helper”.
Process:
Students work together as partners, one functioning as a "doer" and the other as a
"helper". The doer performs a task or answers questions; the helper observes and provides
feedback and helping information. The doer is the student and the helper takes on the role of
teacher. Later, the partners reverse roles.
6. Discussion
All learners need frequent opportunities to generate and share their questions
and ideas in small and whole settings.
Process:
 At this point, we’ve identified the more talkative students as extroverted and/or
auditory learners who enjoy discussing matters that are meaningful to them. It’s highly
likely that these are the same students who help you drive class discussions, but also
derail them when they veer off topic.
 So what can you do to manage and redirect this enthusiasm?
Here are some ideas on how to manage talkative students during academic
classroom discussions.
 Identify the objective
Before starting any classroom discussion, be sure to write the objective where everyone
can see it. Read it out loud before the discussion, and refer to it as needed throughout
to keep the conversation on topic.
 Establish clear guidelines and parameters for class discussions
These guidelines might specify how many times a student may or should contribute and
a maximum time frame for sharing. While these guidelines may help you manage the
noise in your classroom, they may also produce a more rigid environment in which
students are less willing to speak freely.
 Take note of students’ interests and weave them into the beginning of a discussion
For example, you could begin a discussion on World War 2 by referencing Captain
America, or discussing the Avengers’ dilemma concerning the Sokovia Accords with the
follow-up question of whether it’s better to always follow the law or to do what you
think is right, even if there are consequences.
 Provide opportunities for students to prepare for the discussion
Give them a variety of ways to prepare: reading, listening, watching. Students are much
more likely to participate if they’re familiar with the topic of your discussion. After all,
nobody wants to speak up and end up humiliating themselves in front of others if it
becomes evident that they don’t know what they’re talking about.
 Incorporate engaging student discussion strategies
We want our students to have the ability to articulate their thoughts, analyze the points
made by their instructors or peers, and discuss any new information they acquire. We
also want them to know how to disagree in a healthy and respectful manner, and
 perhaps come to some sort of a consensus. Engaging student discussions is the answer
to creating a culture of speakers, listeners, and learners.
 Affirm, summarize, and redirect as needed
When the discussion starts to veer off topic, or a student begins to ever so
enthusiastically wax poetic (or not so poetic), you may want to let it run for a short
while — but not too long — to see if any relevant or valuable segway presents itself. If it
does, affirm the idea, mention the segway, and then redirect the conversation back to
main objective.
 Offer alternative times for off-topic discussions
Oftentimes, kids just want to be heard. When a student veers off topic, affirm their ideas
and suggest an alternative time to discuss those topics further. This could be a lunch
period, study hall, recess time, or whatever other time you’re willing to devote to the
student.
 Call upon the quieter students to share
Doing this breaks the momentum of the noise. Often, quieter students tend to think
independently and have some kind of insight that will contribute value to the discussion.
 Think-pair-share
1. This is a popular learning strategy that’s broken up into three parts:
2. The students think about (and often answer on paper) the discussion questions.
3. The student are divided into pairs or small groups.
4. The students share their ideas with their partner or group.
 Divide and conquer
There may be times when you don’t want to go through the full think-pair-share format
and just want to put students in groups for the sake of more manageable discussion. For
these groups, you might want to separate the extroverts to keep them from feeding off
of each other too much and raising the volume of the classroom. To do this, you could
pair extroverts with introverts (the introverts may not love you for this) or auditory
learners with visual or kinesthetic learners. This helps encourage the less avid speakers
to gradually leave their comfort zone and open up. You may also want to provide
speaking and note-taking guidelines for these groups to keep their discussions focused.
7. Laboratory Groups
Is a strategy and innovations driven creative hub by its relevant in-house field
specialties.
Process:
Best practices to follow that can help laboratory sessions run smoothly
Potential goals of laboratory classes:
o Develop intuition and deepen understanding of concepts.
o Apply concepts learned in class to new situations.
o Experience basic phenomena.
o Develop critical, quantitative thinking.
o Develop experimental and data analysis skills.
o Learn to use scientific apparatus.
o Learn to estimate statistical errors and recognize systematic errors.
o Develop reporting skills (written and oral).
 o Practice collaborative problem solving.
o Exercise curiosity and creativity by designing a procedure to test a hypothesis.
o Better appreciate the role of experimentation in science.
o Test important laws and rules.
As you prepare to conduct a lab, consider the following questions:
o Will I be able to do the lab myself before class?
o Am I familiar with the materials and equipment?
o What are the safety considerations?
o Would it help if I gave my students a handout highlighting key theoretical, procedural, and safety
points?
o How can I link this lab to the professor’s lecture?
o How can I clearly communicate the criteria used in grading the lab reports?
o What kind of preparation should my students do before they come to lab?
o What tips can I give my students, so they can complete the lab successfully within the time
allotted?
o Would it be helpful if I demonstrated new techniques to the students?
o How will I monitor student progress in the lab?
o Where might my students run into difficulty completing the experiment?
o What kinds of questions should I ask my students to stimulate their thinking and to encourage
deeper understanding of the experiment?
o How can I help the lab pairs/groups to work together well?
o (from the University of Washington’s Center for Instructional Development and Research)
During the lab:
o Establish the specific goals of the lab (write them on the board)
o Prepare an outline (on the board) of the lab activities
o Do not hesitate to explain things more than once or answer questions that you may consider
simple (this will likely save you from headaches later on)
o Demonstrate new techniques to the class or small groups
o Review safety issues for the lab
o Visit with each student individually during the lab
o Ask specific questions of the students in order to monitor their progress during the lab
o Provide ample feedback to students during the lab
After the lab: Grading Lab Reports (suggestions for providing constructive, formative feedback)
 Ensure that your grading scheme is consistent with course policy.
 Determine whether students understood the lab.
o Assess whether many students missed a critical concept.
o Evaluate whether students drew reasonable conclusions from the data they collected.
o Reward creative and rational but unconventional thought in application of principles.
 Read, evaluate and return lab reports in a timely manner with cogent feedback.
o Help students improve by telling them how they could have done better.
o Focus comments in specific areas rather than on the report as a whole.
8. Think, Pair, Share
Designed to provide students with “food for thoughts” on a given topics enabling
them to formulate individuals’ ideas and share these ideas with another
students.
Process:
 Decide upon the text to be read and develop the set of questions or prompts that target key
content concepts.
 Describe the purpose of the strategy and provide guidelines for discussions.
 Model the procedure to ensure that students understand how to use the strategy.
 Monitor and support students as they work through the following:
T : (Think) Teachers begin by asking a specific question about the text. Students "think" about
what they know or have learned about the topic.

P : (Pair) Each student should be paired with another student or a small group.

S : (Share) Students share their thinking with their partner. Teachers expand the "share" into a
whole-class discussion.
9. Cooperative Learning Groups
Students groups are small, usually consisting of two to six members. Grouping is
heterogeneous with respect to students’ characteristics. Groups member share
the various roles and are interdependent in achieving the group learning goal.
Process:
sometimes called small-group learning, is an instructional strategy in which small
groups of students work together on a common task. The task can be as simple as solving
a multi-step math problem together, or as complex as developing a design for a new kind
of school. In some cases, each group member is individually accountable for part of the
task; in other cases, group members work together without formal role assignments.
10. Jigsaw
Students meet with members from other groups who are assigned the same
aspect, and after mastering the material, return to the “home” group and teach
the material to their group members.
Process:
 Step One
Divide students into 5- or 6-person jigsaw groups.
The groups should be diverse in terms of gender, ethnicity, race, and ability.
 Step Two
Appoint one student from each group as the leader.
Initially, this person should be the most mature student in the group.
 Step Three
Divide the day’s lesson into 5-6 segments.
For example, if you want history students to learn about Eleanor Roosevelt, you might divide a
short biography of her into stand-alone segments on: (1) Her childhood, (2) Her family life with
Franklin and their children, (3) Her life after Franklin contracted polio, (4) Her work in the White
House as First Lady, and (5) Her life and work after Franklin's death.
 Step Four
Assign each student to learn one segment.
Make sure students have direct access only to their own segment.
 Step Five
Give students time to read over their segment at least twice and become familiar with it.
There is no need for them to memorize it.
 Step Six
 Form temporary “expert groups” by having one student from each jigsaw group join other
students assigned to the same segment.
Give students in these expert groups time to discuss the main points of their segment and to
rehearse the presentations they will make to their jigsaw group.
 Step Seven
Bring the students back into their jigsaw groups.
 Step Eight
Ask each student to present her or his segment to the group.
Encourage others in the group to ask questions for clarification.
 Step Nine
Float from group to group, observing the process.
If any group is having trouble (e.g., a member is dominating or disruptive), make an appropriate
intervention. Eventually, it's best for the group leader to handle this task. Leaders can be trained
by whispering an instruction on how to intervene, until the leader gets the hang of it.
 Step Ten
At the end of the session, give a quiz on the material.
Students quickly come to realize that these sessions are not just fun and games but really count.
11. Problem Solving
Once you have broken the students into groups, the students define to the
problem, analyze the problem, establish the criteria for evaluating solutions, propose
solutions and take actions.
Process:
Effective use of Problem-solving method
 Ask questions and make suggestions. Ask students to predict “what would happen if
…” or explain why something happened. This will help them to develop analytical and
deductive thinking skills. . Do this by providing positive reinforcement to let students know
when they have mastered a new concept or skill.
 Don’t fear group work.Students can frequently help each other, and talking about a
problem helps them think more critically about the steps needed to solve the problem.
 Help students understand the problem. In order to solve problems, students need to
define the end goal. If you succeed at helping students answer the questions “what?” and
“why?”, finding the answer to “how?” will be easier. Have students identify specific
problems, difficulties, or confusions. Don’t waste time working through problems that
students already understand?
 If students are unable to articulate their concerns, determine where they are having
trouble. Identify the specific concepts or principles associated with the problem. Make
students articulate their problem solving process. In a one-on-one tutoring session, ask the
student to work his/her problem out loud. This slows down the thinking process, making it
more accurate and allowing you to access understanding.
 Link errors to misconceptions. Use errors as evidence of misconceptions, not
carelessness or random guessing. Make an effort to isolate the misconception and correct it,
then teach students to do this by themselves. We can all learn from mistakes. Try to
communicate that the process is more important than the answer so that the student learns
that it is OK to not have an instant solution.
 Model the problem solving process rather than just giving students the answer. As
you work through the problem, consider how a novice might struggle with the concepts and
 make your thinking clear .Provide only minimal assistance and only when needed to
overcome obstacles.
 Take enough time. Budget enough time for: understanding the problem and defining the
goal, both individually and as a class; dealing with questions from you and your students;
making, finding, and fixing mistakes; and solving entire problems in a single session.
 Teach within a specific context. Teach problem-solving skills in the context in which
they will be used .Use real-life problems in explanations, examples, and exams. Do not teach
problem solving as an independent, abstract skill.
 Work as a facilitator. Teacher must keep in mind that if in a child-directed learning not
teacher-directed. He must be alert and active to arouse interest among students. Must provide
democratic atmosphere. Teacher must provide situation for all students to come formed and
contribute towards the success of the activity.
12. Structured Controversy
Providing students with a limited amount of background information and asking
them to construct an argument based on this information.
Process:
Effective Structured Academic Controversies
 Be respectful of each other.
 Disagree with another person's position and ideas but don't be critical of the person.
 Don't take criticism of your ideas as a personal attack.
 Listen to everyone's ideas, especially if you don't agree with them.
 Change your mind when the evidence supports this.
 Try to understand both sides of the controversy.
 Understand the position differences before trying to reach consensus.
 Focus on reaching the best outcome, not on winning.
General Protocol for Cooperative Group Strategies for Structured Academic Controversy
 Form cooperative teams of 3- 4.
 Define the issue or problem and identify the two positions.
 Assign each team a unique position, if possible.
 Each team researches their position and articulates the main ideas and details.
 Questions go back and forth among the teams.
 Each team switches perspectives, summarizes the others' positions.
 All teams come together to state a consensus position, based on information and perspectives of
each team.
 Each individual writes a justified personal opinion as to which position to support.
13. Tutorial Groups
Are set up to help students who need remediation or additional practice, or for
students who can benefit from enrichment.
Process:
Planning
 Tutorials should have their own learning goals. Check that your goals are congruent with those of
the course instructor and that they clearly define what students will do. Communicate these goals
to your students. Focus not on “covering material” but rather encourage active learning among
your students.
 Define guidelines from the beginning. Devote time early in the term to familiarizing students with
your guidelines for how the tutorial will be run. Ask for their input. You might have non-
negotiable rules (e.g., late policies), but be flexible when possible (e.g., provide time for
submitting assignments, locations for assignment submission, etc.). Be sure to provide students
with a copy of these guidelines. Make sure that the penalties for infringement are clearly
explained (e.g., how many marks will be lost).
 Prepare a lesson plan for each session. Begin with your learning objectives for the session as a
way to help you limit your content to 2-3 main concepts for a 50-minute session. Make sure to
include time estimates for each section of the tutorial.
 Have your supporting materials ready. If you plan to use visual aids (i.e., overheads, handouts),
make sure they are legible and concise. If you plan to use the chalkboard, determine how to
partition and use it. It’s also a good idea to prepare a few extra problems and examples in case
students need additional practice. If you need to demonstrate equipment use, practice before the
tutorial.
Communicating
 Encourage students to participate. Mention explicitly that you expect students to participate and
that they should feel free to make comments and ask questions. Provide opportunities for
participation.
 Give students feedback. With large classes, tutorials may be the only time when students can get
expert feedback on their work. Explain what’s wrong, where and why. Put it in writing, if
possible. 
 Make an effort to learn students’ names and use them. You could use name tents, ask students to
say their name when asking questions, or return assignments to them personally. Students will
regard the tutorial as more important if they feel that they are known to you, and that you will
notice if they are absent.
 Act in a professional manner. Some tutorial leaders may feel nervous and behave in an overly
strict or stand-offish manner. Assess your work climate by watching how your colleagues relate
to students. Try to act naturally. If you are close to students in age, you may be tempted to
socialize too much with them. Faculties have codes of conduct between staff and students.
Remember that your job may require assessment and that you need to ensure that students do not
question your objectivity.
 Address disruptive student behaviour. Although dealing with it can be awkward, you need to
resolve it as soon as possible because it can deprive other students of their right to learn. Ask the
disruptive students if they have questions. Remind students of expected classroom behaviour
stated on the first day of class. You may also need to speak to the student(s) involved outside of
class.
Delivery
 Keep pace with lecture progress. Tutorials typicall follow up on a lecture. Try to attend lectures
yourself (seek the instructor's consent first). Alternatively, arrange for students to bring you a
copy of their notes, so that you have a better picture of what students have learned.
 Make connections between the tutorial and the course. Help students visualize the "big
picture"and integrate the tutorial with the rest of their experiences in the course. Make statements
like, “remember when we learned how to calculate x earlier in the term?” or “later on in the term,
you will learn about…” You may also ask students to make such links.
 Use relevant examples. Illustrate points with examples taken from the field under study. When
possible, share personal, research, or real-world experiences to help students visualize practical
applications of concepts.
 Engage your students. Maintain eye contact during your tutorials so you can see raised hands and
develop a rapport with your students. Speak loud enough and with enthusiasm to keep students'
 attention. Circulating around the room when students are engaged in individual or group work;
this allows them to ask questions easily.
 Avoid speaking to your visuals. Whether you use the blackboard or a screen, you may be tempted
to look at and speak to your visuals. Remember to point your toes to the back of the room before
you speak so that students can hear  and see you and so that you can see their responses to your
teaching.
Questions
 Tutorials are the best times to ask detailed questions. Make sure that students are aware of this.
Suggest that they jot down questions and issues as they arise during lectures and bring their lists
to the tutorial. Also let them know that you expect them to search for answers by themselves
before coming to you.
 Prepare questions in advance. Challenge students to venture beyond their current knowledge . To
help accomplish this, carefully design questions before the tutorial sessions. Even when you
expect students to have questions during the tutorials, having prepared your own set of questions
(and answers) can help you to improve their learning and increase your confidence.
 "Are there any questions?" Such inquiries are often viewed by students as a "ritualistic" exercise
on the instructor's part and are usually met with silence. When asking for questions, be sure that
your question is genuine and has a clear purpose. Ask for questions on specific topic areas. If
your question is met with no response, be prepared to use follow-up probing questions, such as:
"So if I were to ask you on an exam whether … , how would you answer it?" This usually
increases students’ desire to understand the concept and elicits questions. Be sure to wait 10
seconds or more for a response.
 Before answering, repeat questions. By doing this, you will ensure that everybody has a context
for your answer. An additional point to remember is to look at the whole class when responding,
not just at the questioner. 
 Admit when you don't know the answer. You will lose more credibility by trying to fake an
answer than by stating that you don't know. Compliment the student on the question, then ask the
class if anyone knows the answer (be sure to verify any responses). If there are no answers,
volunteer to find the answer yourself and report back at the next class or ask the student to do
this.
Activities
 Favour active learning activities. Some activities to engage students and that can help students to
learn by doing are: solving problems, discussing different perspectives, asking questions,
answering questions, working out different approaches to problems or case studies, and engaging
in debates.
 Give clear instructions. Before starting an activity, make sure that students understand what to do.
Explain the goals and provide time breakdowns, then form groups if necessary. Write the
instructions on the board, or consider providing printed instructions. When an activity is over, be
sure to debrief to reinforce the goals and the “take home” message.
 Avoid the temptation to turn tutorials into lectures. You may decide to expand on lecture topics
from time to time; however, if this becomes a trend in your tutorials, it may indicate that the
learning goals are not being met during lectures. If you suspect this is the case, talk to the
instructor.
Motivation
 Be sure your tutorials add value to the course. Students can regard tutorials as optional and their
attendance may be erratic. If it is possible to divert some of the course content and
assessments into academic tutorial times, it is more likely that students will take tutorials more
seriously.
 Never put students down. Showing respect for all students is critical. Students can be highly
sensitive to snubs or sarcasm, especially if they are feeling insecure. 
  Acknowledge and thank participation. Short phrases such as, “that’s a good point” or “I see what
you’re saying, but have you considered…?” allow students to develop insight instead of feel
inadequate or foolish. Acknowledge all answers whether they are accurate or not. Students get
disheartened if their response is passed over without comment because it is not what the tutor
wants to hear. However, be sure to provide or elicit an accurate response so the class has correct
information.
 Commend good performance. Receiving praise for doing something well is highly motivating.
Sincere praise from a tutor for insight, achievement, participation, or helpfulness will make
students feel good and more likely to participate again.
Other strategies
 Set office hours. If you need to be available to students outside of class, set up office hours, post
them on your office door or website, and make sure you are present. Office hours can minimize
the interruptions to your research work that can occur when students do not know when best to
approach you.
 If you need help, ask somebody. Your first resource should be the course instructor or
coordinator. Whether it is a fellow TA or a faculty member, she/he/they will most likely have
accumulated experience and insight to share with you as well as suggestions
 Keep good records. Make notes about attendance, topics covered, questions asked and student
difficulties with the material. Such records will be very helpful if you are involved in running the
same tutorial again and may provide useful feedback to the course instructor.
 Solicit student feedback. Ask how they are finding their learning experience and what they think
you should stop, start, and continue doing (and you can choose to do this anonymously through a
survey). Check whether or not they have mastered concepts that have been covered already. 
 Don’t wait until after the midterm or end of the term to get feedback. The instructor evaluation
forms will not help you address problem areas in real-time. Monitoring how your tutorials are
impacting students will help you address issues right away. Evaluation data are also helpful for
overall reflection on your teaching and they provide evidence of your teaching effectiveness.
14. Interviewing
Emphasized the need for cultural sensitivity and cultural specific care in assisting
supporting, facilitating, and/or enabling “individuals or groups to maintain or
regain their well-being in culturally meaningful and beneficial ways.
Process:
For the three-step interview, students are grouped into small groups of three. Each member in the
group assumes the role of interviewer, interviewee and reporter/note-taker; and each student should get
an opportunity to play each role. To help explain the process, each student will be named as A, B and C.
The interviewing process is conducted in three steps:
Steps Interviewer Interviewee Reporter
Step 1 Student A Student B Student C
Step 2 Student C Student A Student B
Step 3 Student B Student C Student A
 
 After the three-step interview process is completed, the students are given extra time to share
and consolidate the information. Some points that are to be considered for this process include:
 Purpose of the activity: The three-step interview can be used as an entrance activity to
introduce the topic and to activate past knowledge; an in-between activity to encourage
students to analyze and understand the topic in depth; and an exit task to review the
information taught in the class.
 Questions: Teachers can provide a general topic statement or question around which the
individual student’s questions are to be formed. This general statement can be framed to reflect
the purpose of the activity.
 Interviewing: Students need to be familiarized with the method of interviewing. Using video
clips, teachers can point out these various facets of an interview including the importance of
“taking time” to think before answering a question. They can also be given the freedom to
choose whether or not to answer a particular question as in real interviews.
 Timing: Teachers need to plan for three key time durations. One, after presenting the general
topic, students can be given around 2-3 minutes to prepare their thoughts and questions. Two,
interviewing time can be a fixed time of 3-4 minutes, after which an extra minute is given to
prepare for the next role. Three, after the interviews are conducted 2 minutes can be provided
for the students to share and consolidate the information.
 Recording: Teachers can create a template of a recording sheet and hand them out to the
students. The same sheet can be used to record questions and answers from all three students.
It can also include a space for noting down the consolidated and summarized information.
15. Conferencing
Methods of instructions vary with the subject matter of the course, the number
in the class, and the judgment and personality of the instructors. Most Reed
courses are taught as conferences, in which the students and faculty work
closely together.
Process:
 Compliment the writer: Try to make compliments focused around the teaching point of the day’s
lesson.
 State the Teaching Point: Make this teaching point specific to what you notice with the students’
reading and writing. Examples include: meaning, structure, detail, etc…
 Provide a Metaphor: Focus the students by bringing the text back to something meaningful in
their life.
 Study a Mentor Text: Show examples of strategies.
 Teach the Strategy: Show students how strategies can be applied in their reading or writing.
 Practice: Ensure comprehension of the strategy.
 Keep Notes: Record the teaching point and goals, and return to it again.
16.Lecture
Method should include the types of experiences students will be afforded and
the kinds of learning outcomes expected.
Process:
An effective lecture includes the use of images that illustrate the concepts and ideas being
discussed. Images are among the most powerful teaching tools as 70% of the sensory cortex of
the brain is made up of the visual cortex.
 Know your audience (students)
 Have a map to follow (lecture outline)
 Grab the students’ attention (have a beginning)
 Recognize students’ attention span
 Plan an activity for students (have a middle)
 Use visual aids/voice and movements
 Have a conclusion (an end)
  Have students do something with the lecture material (accountability)
17.Structured Overview
May used by verbal summary at the start of a new concept. The teacher starts by
highlighting the new ideas to be learned in a few simple sentences.
Process:
is a graphic organizer used to arrange the key words and concepts on a topic. They may be
completed individually or collaboratively. The words are organized in a hierarchical structure, beginning
with the topic heading. Lines connect the words or subtopics showing their relationship to the central idea
and to each other.

The conceptual map is like a tree diagram with the most general terms at the top moving down to
the details or examples at the bottom. Once completed they are shared with their partner or with the class.
Students using structured overviews: link new information to existing knowledge; think about
relationships between ideas; learn to categorize ideas; clarify their thoughts and learn key vocabulary.
18.Explicit Teaching
Begins with setting the stage for learning, followed by a clear explanation of
what to do, followed by modeling of the process followed by multiple
opportunities for practice until independence is attained.
Process:
Explicit teaching is useful for introducing topics and specific skills. It provides guided instruction
in the basic understanding of required skills, which students can then build on through practice,
collaboration, repetition, hands on activities and developmental play.
 Explicit teaching is a sequence of supports:
 setting a purpose for learning
 telling students what to do
 showing them how to do it
 guiding their hands-on application of the new learning.
Explicit teaching begins with setting the stage for learning, followed by a clear explanation of
what to do (telling), followed by modeling of the process (showing), followed by multiple
opportunities for practice (guiding) until independence is attained. Explicit instruction moves
systematically from extensive teacher input and little student responsibility initially � to total
student responsibility and minimal teacher involvement at the conclusion of the learning cycle.
19. Drill & Practice
Use games to increase motivation.
Process:
 Drill and practice activities offer the benefits of improved learning transfer to the performance
context. There are three basic steps to achieve this activity: assigning a task, performing a task, and
providing feedback.
Drill and practice activities repeatedly exercise a simple or small area of knowledge. The activity
starts with an introduction that welcomes learners and describes how the activity works. For example,
if the activity is about reinforcing a leadership style, the introduction will review a few facts from the
topic.
It will then explain how to complete the activity. If it is a scenario, the context and the
character will be introduced. The role of the eLearner as a problem-solver is clearly defined.
Once the activity is performed, the system needs to display the feedback. Depending on the success
level of the activity, the learner is requested to keep practicing until satisfied. Towards the end, learners
review what they have learned and try applying it in a more realistic situation. This could, and preferably
should, be their job context.
20. Compare & Contrast
The paper is divided down the middle and the two columns have specific
functions. The comparison side is used to list similarities between two things and
the differences are listed in the contrast column.
Process:
are comparing, classifying, creating analogies, and creating metaphors. When
using Comparison and Contrast, the teacher will model how to analyze, qualify, and organize
subtle and significant similarities or differences.
21. Didactic Questions
Often begin with “what,” “when”, where” “how” and “why”.
Process:
 In didactic method of teaching, the teacher gives instructions to the students and the students are
mostly passive listeners. It is a teacher-centered method of teaching and is content oriented. The
content or knowledge of the teacher is not questioned.
 The process of teaching involves the teacher who gives instructions, commands, delivers content,
and provides necessary information. The pupil activity involves listening and memorization of the
content. In the modern education system, lecture method which is one of the most commonly
used methods is a form of didactic teaching.
22. Demonstration
Involves showing by reason or proof, explaining or making clear use of examples
or experiments. Put more simply, demonstration means to clearly show.
Process:
Carefully plan the demonstration:
Like all other methods of teaching, the teacher must know exactly what s/he is doing. This is
particularly true of the demonstration, where precision and clarity are crucial to the students’ ability to
understand what they see. Careful thought and research are needed to make sure that all phases of the
demonstration are accurately and logically presented.
Practice the demonstration:
Once a well thought out plan has been developed, ample time should be set aside to
practice the demonstration. It is very risky to give a demonstration without having practiced it
beforehand, especially when the procedure or topic is relatively complex or unfamiliar.
Develop an outline to guide the demonstration:
 To ensure that the demonstration goes smoothly it is a good idea to have an outline that
lists the steps to follow, the materials to use, the questions to ask and the important points to
make. Developing such an outline provides the teacher not only a guide for carrying out the
demonstration but also with a well designed framework into which spontaneous ideas can be
incorporated as the situation demands.

Make sure everyone can see the demonstration:

It seems obvious that the teacher would make sure that all students can see the demonstration.
Unfortunately, teachers sometimes fail to do this causing a situation which results in student’s loss of
interest and misbehavior.
Introduce the demonstration to focus attention:
Students are likely to be interested in the demonstration and to understand it if they have at
least a general idea of what to look for as it proceeds. A few introductory comments emphasizing the
essential features and key terms of the demonstration can serve this purpose as an outline or diagram
on the chalkboard. It is however unproductive to use a worksheet as a means of orienting students
because it tends to draw their attention away from the demonstration.
Ask and encourage questioning:
“Students should be encouraged to ask questions so that their verbal experiences are integrated
with their visual ones” (Crawford, 1938). Also students should be asked questions at key points as a
way of assessing how well they understand the demonstration.
Plan a follow up to the demonstration:
A demonstration should be followed by activities that help students interpret and further
understand the important points that were presented. Such activities could include a discussion or a
writing exercise in which students can describe what they have observed.
23. Guide & Shared
Reading, listening, viewing, thinking
Process:
 24. Debates
Contest of argumentation in which two opposing individuals or teams defend
and attack a given proposition.
Process:
Debate in its simplest form requires a question, statement or idea with at least two opposing
positions, each of which is defended against the others by an advocate, often with an impartial
moderator ensuring that the discussion remains focused. This simplicity means that the approach can be
used in a wide variety of settings and disciplines. While the advocates should be knowledgeable about
the position they are defending, it is not necessary for that position to be their own – in fact, making
students research and defend a position they do not personally hold is a powerful learning opportunity
in itself. The approach can be used with individuals or groups as the advocate(s) for each position, with
the advantage of turning the debate into a group activity being that more students can be involved and
a more comprehensive argument can be developed. If using group debates, it is necessary to allow time
for participants to confer between their opponent’s remarks and delivering their own rebuttal.
Debates can be competitive, where participants aim to create a consensus for their position
among the audience, or non-competitive, where the discussion of the merits of different positions is
most important. It is useful for all debates, but essential for competitive ones, to have some way of
measuring the audience’s overall view after the debate in order to see which argument was the most
persuasive. It is also important that the moderator ensures that the discussion does not become
personal and that the participants remain focused and composed, and a set of ground rules is useful to
reduce the possibility and impact of any problems.
While some disciplines lend themselves particularly well to debates, either through the nature
of the subject itself or through current and past controversies, there are ways to start a debate in any
discipline. For example, photography students could debate a statement such as “digital manipulation of
images has no place in artistic endeavors and should be banned”; software engineering students might
debate “object-oriented programming is a failed paradigm and should be abandoned”; or nursing
students could have “with limited resources and increasing demand on time, nurses should prioritize the
least sick patients over those who need more care”. It is unlikely that anyone in these disciplines would
(completely) agree with these statements, but making students defend and attack the
statements encourages them to explore their own views and understand the reasons why others could
hold opposing views.
An important point to remember with debating is that the medium can often be more influential
than the message – that is, a charismatic or slick advocate can be extremely persuasive regardless of the
quality of their argument (the amount of money spent on ‘media training’ for politicians is a clear
indication of this). Therefore, it is essential that the students are aware of this phenomenon and so can
learn to either use it to their advantage or look beyond it.
25. Role Playing
Students act out characters in a predefined situation.
Process:
Participants are given particular roles to play in a conversation or other interaction, such as an
email exchange, typical of their discipline. They may be given specific instructions on how to act or
what to say, as an aggressive client or patient in denial, for example, or required to act and react in
their own way depending on the requirements of the exercise. The participants will then act out the
scenario and afterwards there will be reflection and discussion about the interactions, such
as alternative ways of dealing with the situation. The scenario can then be acted out again with
changes based on the outcome of the reflection and discussion.
26. Panel Discussion
A nonfiction book about the developing movement in sequential art and
narrative literature. It focuses on the consistent development of skills through
experience and the value of understanding what it refers to as “visual
vocabulary”.
Process:
There are three sets of participants in a panel discussion.
They are :
 The panel members who consist of experts in the field concerned.
 The audience of selected students/trainees/participants and teachers. who ask questions of the
panelist.
 The moderator who initiates the discussion, questions, synthesizes and summarizes the key
points.
The word ‘panel’ means a group of experts. The discussion held among these expert members
in front of an audience could be called panel discussion.
The panel would change from subject to subject, but there would be an anchor person, who
would introduce the panelists, receive questions and distribute them to the panelists upon their
specialization.
27.Case Studies
Is a presentation of students with a problem to solve that revolves around a
story (the case).
Process:
 In the most straightforward application, the presentation of the case study establishes a
framework for analysis. It is helpful if the statement of the case provides enough information for the
students to figure out solutions and then to identify how to apply those solutions in other similar
situations. Instructors may choose to use several cases so that students can identify both the
similarities and differences among the cases.
Depending on the course objectives, the instructor may encourage students to follow a
systematic approach to their analysis.  For example:
 What is the issue?
 What is the goal of the analysis?
 What is the context of the problem?
 What key facts should be considered?
 What alternatives are available to the decision-maker?
 What would you recommend — and why?
An innovative approach to case analysis might be to have students  role-play the part of the
people involved in the case. This not only actively engages students, but forces them to really
understand the perspectives of the case characters. Videos or even field trips showing the venue
in which the case is situated can help students to visualize the situation that they need to
analyze.
28.Reading for Meaning
Construct meaning from various types of print material.
Process:
Identify a short text that you want students to "read for meaning." Any kind of text is fine—a
poem, an article, a blog post, a primary document, a fable, or a scene from a play. Mathematical word
problems, data charts, and visual sources like paintings and photographs also work well. The "Other
Considerations" section of this chapter (p. 15) provides more details on nontextual applications.
 Generate a list of statements about the text. Students will ultimately search the text for evidence
that supports or refutes each statement. Statements can be objectively true or false, or they can be
open to interpretation and designed to provoke discussion and debate. They can be customized to
fit whichever skills, standards, or objectives you're working on—for example, identifying main
ideas or analyzing characters and ideas. (See Figure 1.2 on page 14 for details.)
 Introduce the topic of the text and have students preview the statements before they begin
reading. Encourage students to think about what they already know about the topic and to use the
statements to make some predictions about the text.
 Have students record evidence for and against each statement while (or after) they read.
 Have students discuss their evidence in pairs or small groups. Encourage groups to reach
consensus about which statements are supported and which are refuted by the text. If they are
stuck, have them rewrite any problematic statements in a way that enables them to reach
consensus.
 Conduct a whole-class discussion in which students share and justify their positions. If necessary,
help students clarify their thinking and call their attention to evidence that they might have
missed or misinterpreted.
 Use students' responses to evaluate their understanding of the reading and their ability to support
a position with evidence.
29. Inquiry
Act upon their curiosity and interest; develop questions; think their way through
controversies or dilemmas; look at problems analytically; inquire into their
 preconceptions and what they already know; develop, clarity, and test
hypotheses; and, draw inferences and generate possible solutions.
Process:
 Engagement
Each investigation begins with an activity that provides an opportunity for students to share what
they already know about the topic being introduced, and engages them in thinking about new
ideas, questions, and/or explorations that are possible.
 Exploration
Students explore the concept or skill by conducting experiments, completing research, engaging
in activities or simulations, or design and implement an investigation.
 Explanation
This phase occurs after the exploration of the concept. Teachers may provide opportunities for
students to explain their knowledge of the concept, or use this phase to offer more explanation to
students to allow them to develop deeper understanding.
 Elaboration
It is important for students to be able to apply what they have learned to new situations and
experiences, so they can continue to develop a firm understanding of the concept. Opportunities
for students to discuss, share, and communicate their skills, knowledge and understanding.
 Evaluation
This phase allows students to demonstrate their understanding of the topic in authentic and
meaningful ways. It is also a time for student reflection. Teacher can evaluate student progress
toward achieving the enduring understandings of the unit.
30.Reflective Discussion
The teacher initiates the discussion by asking a question that requires students
to reflect upon and interpret films, experiences, read or recorded stories, or
illustrations.
Process:
Many teachers already think about their teaching and talk to colleagues about it too. You might
think or tell someone that "My lesson went well" or "My students didn't seem to understand" or "My
students were so badly behaved today."
However, without more time spent focusing on or discussing what has happened, we may tend to
jump to conclusions about why things are happening. We may only notice reactions of the louder
students. Reflective teaching therefore implies a more systematic process of collecting, recording and
analyzing our thoughts and observations, as well as those of our students, and then going on to making
changes.
 If a lesson went well we can describe it and think about why it was successful.
 If the students didn't understand a language point we introduced we need to think about what we
did and why it may have been unclear.
 If students are misbehaving - what were they doing, when and why?
31. Writing to Inform
Students must have opportunities to read a variety of resources and printed
materials for information. During writing, students can apply their knowledge of
the structures and formats of these materials to organize and convey
information.
Process:
 Planning and rehearsing: the generation, selection and sorting of ideas to write about,
consideration of purpose and audience which will influence genre selection and organization.
 Drafting or composing: the recording of ideas with attention to meaning making, grammar,
spelling, punctuation and handwriting (or keyboarding).
 Revising: the revisiting of the text (often as a result of feedback from peers and/or the teacher) to
improve and enhance the writing.
 Editing and proofreading: the polishing of the draft in readiness for publication, which includes
editing for spelling, text layout, grammar, capitalization and punctuation. 
 Publishing: the preparation of the text for sharing with an audience, with attention given to the
form and style of the text.
32. Concept Formation
Students are provided with data about a particular concept. These data may be
generated by the teacher or by the students themselves. Students are
encouraged to classify or a group the information and to give descriptive labels
to their groupings.
Process:
 Select a concept. Choose one that is at the core of your curriculum. It might be one of the five
themes of geography (movement, region, human-environmental interaction, location, or place) or
a key tool of historical reasoning (thesis, evidence, sourcing, contextualizing, corroborating). It
could be a concept used to understand media (advertisement, documentary, home page) or the
economy (good, service, production, distribution, money).
 List the critical characteristics of the concept. Check several sources to find the clearest set of
characteristics. For example, Democracy is (1) a kind of government in which (2) the majority
rules (rules and laws are made by all citizens or their representatives), (3) minority rights and
individual liberties are protected, and (4) rules and laws are written down.
Or, modernization involves (1) the use of technology to control nature’s resources, (2) the use of
inanimate (non-animal) sources of power and energy, and (3) the use of tools to multiply the
effects of human energy. Be sure to list the critical characteristics. This will help you and your
students more easily see which characteristics are present or missing in a particular case.
 Assemble a good set of examples. A good set of examples is small in number (3–4), varied
(shows the array of differences allowable within the concept), and developmentally and culturally
appropriate (know your students). Be sure that each example has all the critical characteristics
required for the concept. Furthermore, select examples for which plenty of up-to-date information
is available.
 Make a data-organization chart. Down the left side, present the 3–4 examples. Across the top,
ask 3–5 focus questions. These questions help focus your students' data-gathering on the critical
information in each example. Each student will need a copy of the chart; also, post a chart on the
wall or project it onto a screen.
 Assemble a good set of non-examples. Identify 2–3 non-examples that can be used to help
students classify after they have formed the concept. A non-example has some, but not all, of the
critical characteristics that define the concept. Non-examples make great practice items.
33. Concept mapping
Select
Focus on a theme then identity related keywords or phrases.
Rank
 Rank the concept (key words) from the most abstract and inclusive to
the most concrete and specific.
Cluster
Concept that functions at similar level of abstraction and those that
interrelate closely.
Arrange concept in to a diagrammatic representation.
Link and add proposition
Link concept with linking lines and label each line with proposition.
Process:
 Use as an in-class pre-assessment. Prior to discussing a topic, ask students to create a concept
map. Then, as you discuss the information, they can add to or modify their map to reflect their
understanding about the topic.
 Do as a small group activity. Give your students a problem, case study, or question about a key
concept. Divide them into small groups of 4-5 students. Have each group create a concept map
as they analyze and synthesize previously learned information into this new scenario. Have the
groups present their conclusions.
 Do as a whole class activity. As a class, create, a concept map and use it as a springboard to
discuss relationships among the concepts and ideas listed in the map.
 Fill in the blanks. Before class, create a concept map of the material you want to cover in class.
Then, remove some of the concepts and labels. Show the partially completed map to the class
and have them fill in the blank spots and label the relationships.
 Organize your research. Use a concept map to build and organize your ideas, layer details, and
find connections and relationships that might never have occurred to you before.
34. Concept Attainment
Select and define a concept
Select the attributes
Develops positive and negative examples
Introduction the process to the students
Present the examples and list the attributes
Develop a concept definition
Give additional examples
Discuss the process with the class
Evaluate
Process:
Select and define a concept
Select the attributes
Develop positive and negative examples
Introduce the process to the students
Present the examples and list the attributes
Develop a concept definition
Give additional examples
Discuss the process with the class
Evaluate
 35.Cloze procedure
A technique in which word are deleted from a passage according to a word-
count formula or various other criteria. The passage is presented to students,
who insert words as they read to complete and construct meaning from the text.
Process:
1. To set up this strategy in the classroom, begin first by selecting a contained passage for a book or
text that is both appropriate length and reading level for the age of the students. 
2. After selecting your passage remember to leave the first and last sentence of the passage in tact
with all punctuation and grammar.
3. Cover up some of the words or parts of words from the text. Focus the strategy on one reading
strategy, whether that be meaning, syntax, or the like.  
4. Assist the students as they use the passages cues and structure to figure out the missing words. 
36. Scaffolding
Provides individualized support based on the learners ZPD. In scaffolding
instruction, a more knowledgeable other provides scaffolds or support to
facilitate the learner’s development. The scaffolds facilitate a student’s ability to
build on prior knowledge and internalize new information.
Process:
A teacher begins teaching at the level the students can understand, and then she builds on that
understanding. She then presents the problem and thinks aloud as she goes about solving it. In the
process, she shows how a solution is arrived at by combining actions, images, and language. She then
does the following:
 She repeats this process two more times, asking questions of the students along the way.
 Each answer, right or wrong, receives a positive response from her, to encourage participation.
 More students are asked to respond to the question each time it is repeated.
 Correction is provided as needed but reinforced positively.
 When understanding appears to be achieved, students join her in solving a new problem.
 Understanding is checked as they solve problems. If more instruction is needed, more modeling is
provided.
 If students then demonstrate knowledge, she fades, or steps away, and allows students to work
independently, offering support as needed.
37.Computer Assisted Instruction
Computer programs can allow students to progress at their own pace and work
individually or problem solve in a group. Computers provide immediate
feedback, letting students know whether their answer is correct.
Process:
Teachers should review the computer program or the online activity or game to understand the
context of the lessons and determine which ones fit the needs of their students and how they may enhance
instruction.
 Can this program supplement the lesson, give basic skills practice, or be used as an educational
reward for students?
 Is the material presented so that students will remain interested yet not lose valuable
instruction time trying to figure out how to operate the program? Does the program waste time
with too much animation?
  Is the program at the correct level for the class or the individual student?
 Teachers should also review all Web sites and links immediately before directing students to
them. Web addresses and links frequently change and become inactive. Students might become
frustrated when links are no longer available.
 Reading programs are beneficial to reading instruction because they allow students to learn at
their own pace; teach phonics with sound, student interaction, and immediate feedback; and
allow students to read animated books. Some programs read stories that students write on the
computer. Students may be scheduled for instructional or remedial time with the computer. The
computer program may also be a station in a classroom learning center or used as a reward for
positive behavior or work completion.
38. Journals
Students use the journals to write about topics of personal interest, to note their
observations, to imagine, to wonder and to connect new information with things
they already know.
Process:
Are a great way for teachers to see what their students are thinking, and they can be an excellent
assessment tool as well. Here are a few ways you can incorporate journal writing into the classroom.
 Use journals as a class start-up activity. When students enter the classroom, allow them time to
reflect upon a personal goal or issue. They can also use their journal to respond to a writing
prompt that is on the front board.
 Summarize opinions before or after instruction. Give students the opportunity to write about
their ideas, experiences, and what they know about the topic before you teach it. Journals can
also be used to reflect upon what students have learned about the topic after it has been
taught.
 Create a personal journal. Personal journals allow students the freedom to write about
whatever they wish. They can express their feelings, opinions, and emotions about any topic
that interests them.
 Create a dialogue journal. Dialogue journals are interactive journals between the teacher and
student. Teachers can comment on what the student writes, and vice versa. This is a great way
for teachers to learn about their students, while students get the opportunity to express
themselves to their teacher in an informal way.
 Double entry journal. Use a double entry journal to improve students' comprehension, and help
them organize their thoughts. To create this type of journal, have students fold their paper in
half. Then on the left side of the paper have them write down a phrase or sentence. On the right
side of the paper is where they write their reaction to that passage.
39. Learning logs
The common application is to have students make entries in their logs during the
last five minutes of class or after completed week of class. The message here is
that short, frequent bursts of writing are more productive over time than are
infrequent, longer assignments.
Process:
 The teacher must decide if binders, notebooks, folders, etc. should be used.
 The teacher prepares ‘Learning Log’ entries. These may be process entries that reflect on what
students have learned. They may also be reaction entries that measure what students have learned.
 40. Reports
The teacher gives a task to the students and then the students should study the
task given because he will be going to report it to the class, the students may
serve as the source of the knowledge that are covered to the report given.
Process:
Step 1
Make a schedule of progress. Avoid procrastination by plotting out a timetable of tasks needed for
completion of your report. Write down when you will do research, when you will write a first draft, when
you will have a final product, and when the report is due. It is better to make a hard copy because it not
only reminds you of the due dates but it keeps you accountable. Stick to this schedule.
Step 2
Make an outline of your report. Include a strong thesis statement, an introduction, at least two paragraphs
that support your introduction, and a conclusion. Check your assignment to make sure your outline
includes all points that are mandatory.
Step 3
Research your subject. Include quotes and references, being careful to cite them properly within your
report. Excellent references can make for an excellent assignment.
Step 4
Write a first draft of your report. Follow the writing prompt and your outline. Cite references to make
your points stronger.
Step 5
Proofread your paper. Check for any awkward phrases or spelling errors. Give a copy of your report to
two friends and have them proofread it.
Step 6
Make any edits to your first draft and print out a final copy of your report. Make one final check for
spelling and grammar. Check your writing prompt and be sure that your paper conforms with the
guidelines. Also make sure that your references are cited correctly.
41. Learning Activity Package
A planned series of activities that involve the student in exploring a topic, skill, or
concept.
Process:
 Informative, engaging student narrative
 Learning objectives to guide student focus
 Individual and group activities
 Ready-to-use assessments
 Customizable discussion guides
 Editable PowerPoint presentations
 Videos and links to extend instruction
 Ethical case studies
42. Learning Contracts
As students become more experienced with learning contracts, the teacher may
choose to involve them in setting learning objectives. Learning contracts usually
require that students demonstrate the new learning in some meaningful way,
but students are provided choice in the selection of a method or activity.
Process:
 Learning contracts are generally constructed by the student and reviewed by the teacher, with the
final version being negotiated and signed by both parties.   Learning contracts can be created in a few
simple steps.
The steps in creating a learning contract are:
 Determine learning objectives based on student learning needs
 Choose learning resources and activities
 Select learning products that will demonstrate learning
 Set completion dates
 Determine assessment strategies
 Review, revise and implement the contract
43.Homework
Refers to tasks assigned to students by their teacher to be completed outside of
class. Common homework assignment may include a writing or typing to be
completed, problem be solved, a school projects to be built, or other skills to be
practiced.
Process:
Teachers need to take special care when assigning homework. If the homework assignment is too
hard, is perceived as busy work, or takes too long to complete, students might tune out and resist doing it.
Never send home any assignment that students cannot do. Homework should be an extension of what
students have learned in class. To ensure that homework is clear and appropriate, consider the following
tips from teachers for assigning homework:
 Make sure students and parents have information regarding the policy on missed and late
assignments, extra credit, and available adaptations
 Establish a set homework routine at the beginning of the year
 Assign work that the students can do
 Assign homework in small units
 Explain the assignment clearly
 Write the assignment on the chalkboard and leave it there until the assignment is due
 Remind students of due dates periodically
 Coordinate with other teachers to prevent homework overload
Students concur with these tips. They add that teachers can:
 Establish a routine at the beginning of the year for how homework will be assigned
 Assign homework toward the beginning of class
 Relate homework to classwork or real life (and/or inform students how they will use the content
of the homework in real life)
 Explain how to do the homework, provide examples and write directions on the chalkboard
 Have students begin the homework in class, check that they understand, and provide assistance
as necessary
 Allow students to work together on homework
44. Research Projects
While ding research, students practice reading for specific purposes, recording
information sequencing and organizing ideas, and using language to inform.
Process:
o Develop a Research Question
 o Find Sources: Reading and Note Taking
o Evaluate Sources
o Establish a Working Bibliography
o Prepare to Write: Consider Audience and Purpose
o Put It All Together
o Final Steps
45. Learner Centers
Students use instructional material to explore alone or in groups, and how to
incorporate them in to your instructional routine.
Process:
Creating a great learning center is to figure out what skills you want your students to learn or
practice. Centers can be used for any subject but experiential learning and discovery should be the focus.
Students need to be engaged even if they are practicing old skills.
Once you have your focus, you can determine how many centers you will need and get to
work designing and organizing them. Gather the materials, write out directions, and set behavioral
expectations.
Gather Student Materials
You can pull materials from your curriculum or do a little digging if you don't think those will be
engaging or meaningful enough. Scaffold the work that students will be doing and don't forget the
graphic organizers. Put everything neatly in one place so you don't have to worry about materials
management.
Write out Clear Directions With Visuals
Students should not need to raise their hand and ask you how to complete a task because the answers
should already be there for them. Spend time designing task cards and anchor charts that provide step-by-
step instructions so that you don't have to repeat yourself.
Set Behavioral Goals and Expectations
This one is especially important if your students have not had practice with learning centers. Teach them
that they will need to cooperate with each other in order to learn and explain that most of their learning
will be independent from you as they work together to solve problems. Be explicit about how exactly they
should work together and behave. Stress to them that the ability to work collaboratively fosters incredible
experiences but that centers are a privilege that they must earn with responsible behavior. Write these
goals somewhere for easy reference.
46. Field Trips
Structured activity that occurs outside the classroom. It can be brief
observational activity or a longer sustained investigation or project.
Process:
1. Trip Selection.
•      Identify objectives and plan of evaluation for the field trip.
•      Select site to be visited and arrange date and time.
•      Conduct pre-visit to familiarize yourself with the major features of the field and obtain
address, directions, contact person and mobile numbers.
2. Logistics Planning
•      Apply for administrative approval and file requisition for transportation.
•      Make arrangement for meals and develop schedule for the day.
•       Arrange special equipments like cameras and collect money for admission fees if the site
demands.
•      Inform parents about the trips.
•      Create a list of student names and home phone number for emergency.
3. Field Trip Preparation/Pre-trip discussion
•       Discuss the purpose of the field trip.
•      Show photographs or posters of the site.
•      Set a standard conduct and discuss money usage, lunch plans, dress code and other
necessary things.
•      Discuss how to ask good questions and make a list of open-ended observation questions to
gather information.
•      Overview the field trip schedule.

4.  The Field Trip

•      Let students to sketch if it is necessary.
•      Ask prepared questions and note the answers.
•      Do things that you have planned.

5.  Post-field Trip
•      Let student to share their observations and reactions to field trip experiences.
•      Create classroom bulletin board displaying materials collected while on field trip.
•      Let class to compose thank-you letter to those who helped during the field trip. Include
special
information learned.

6.  Evaluating Field trip

•      What was the unique educational value in this trip?
•      Did students meet the objectives?
•      Was there adequate time?
•       Was there adequate staff and adult supervision?
•      What might be done differently to be better?
•      What points to be emphasized next time?
•       What problems should be addressed in the future?
47. Narratives
Students can tell what happened by introducing the situation (who, where, and
when); relaying events in a logical order (firstly, after that, next, etc.); and
concluding by giving the last important event.
Process:
 A student might tell a true story from their own experience, but write it as if it were a fiction
piece, with fictional characters, in third person.
 A student might create a completely fictional story, but tell it in first person, which would give it
the same feel as a personal narrative.
 A student might tell a true story that happened to someone else, but write it in first person, as if
they were that person. For example, I could write about my grandmother’s experience of getting
lost as a child, but I might write it in her voice.

48. Conducting Experiments

 Conducting experiments such as science experimentations.
Process:
1.Instructor Preparation
Instructors routinely tailor classes to their own students. Some issues you may encounter when using
classroom experiments include:
 Deciding how to best incorporate experiments into class content
 Designating an appropriate amount of time for the experiment - some experiments might be
adapted to take more than one class period while others may be adapted to take only a few
minutes. For more information see How Much Time Does it Take?
 Matching the experiment to the class level, course atmosphere and the personalities and learning
styles of your students
 Choosing a strategy for dealing with the classroom environment: room layout, number of
students, online courses
2. Student Preparation
Helping the students prepare for the experiment is key to them having a successful learning experience.
You might ask your students to do the following before starting the experiment:
 Read instructions that explain the experiment and the student's role
 Complete a pre-class reading and/or write about their role in the experiment
 Make predictions about the outcome of the experiment
3. Conducting the experiment and collecting data (with an example of an experiment)
Working through the logistics of carrying out the experiment can be key to students having a successful
experience. It is often helpful to have a teaching assistant present during an experiment to help answer
questions and keep things moving. You will want to consider:
 Developing a streamlined process for answering questions and collecting data
 Adapting experiments for very large classes, perhaps using computers or clickers
 Modifying experiments so that they will work in an online class
4. Analyzing the data and Extending the Experience
Once you collect the data, communicating the results to students and linking it to what they are learning
in class is very important. Just doing the experiment isn't enough - you need to guide students through the
process of interpreting and learning from what happened.
 The classroom experiment experience isn't just about that moment in class. It can often be
successfully used as a shared experience that anchors material that is covered later in the course.
It also can be a catalyst to help students start thinking beyond the course material.
5. Assessing student achievement of learning goals
Standard tests, quizzes and homework assignments can be used to measure what students are learning in
class. You might consider adding additional assessment measures, for example ask students
 Test questions about the experiment itself
 Open Ended questions that allow students to reflect on their experience and give you an idea of
what they did and did not get from the experiment. These are useful in fine tuning the experiment
for the next semester.
49. Games
Teaches may use quiz games to motivate student’s alertness, minds, and etc.
Process:
1. Determine the Purpose of Game-Based Learning
Deciding how you’ll use a game will narrow your search, helping you find an appropriate one.
Before researching, determine if you want to use a game for:
 Intervention — If a student is struggling to demonstrate understanding of core material, you
may consider using a game to address his or her trouble spots. The game you choose should
 therefore deliver content that adjusts itself to player knowledge and learning style. This
should help the student gain a better understanding of difficult material.
 Enrichment — As students master core material, you may want a game that presents content
through different media. For example, it may give questions through text, audio, images and
more. This should encourage students to challenge themselves as they explore new ways to
process the content.
 Reinforcement — Instead of using games to teach and engage individual students, entire classes
can play to reinforce curriculum content. This can also make game-based learning a group
activity. Some games have multiplayer features and students may naturally compete against
each other to earn higher scores.
Keeping these factors in mind will likely hasten the process of finding a game that meets both
teacher and student needs.
2. Play the Game Yourself, Making Sure It Is Aligned with Learning Goals
Playing the game in question will help you determine if it’s aligned with learning goals you’ve set.
After finding a game you think is appropriate, play it and make note of:
 Teacher Control — Many educational games offer teachers the ability to control content and
adjust settings for individual students. For example, some let you match questions to in-class
material, delivering them to specific players.
 Intuitiveness — Whether it’s a physical or video game, it should be easy to use. Students should
challenge themselves by processing and demonstrating knowledge of the content — not by
stressing over how the game works.
 Engagement — Based on the content and how it’s presented, determine if students will enjoy
the game. If it’s engaging, students should inherently want to play and, as a result, learn.
 Content Types — To accommodate diverse learning styles, the game should offer different types
of content. For example, an educational math video game may present questions as graphs,
numbers and word problems.
 Content Levels — To address diverse trouble spots and aptitudes, the game should use
differentiated instruction principles to adapt content to each player. For example, a language
video game may focus more on pronouns with one student than another.
Paying attention to these criteria while playing should help you decide if the game properly
supports learning goals.
3. Ensure It Meets Expectations from Parents
Getting buy-in from other teachers or admins may be needed before finalizing your game selection,
but parents should also know about your game-based learning plans.
Providing this sort of clear communication should smooth the implementation process from both a
teacher and administrative perspective.
4. Dedicate Time to Consistent In-Class Play
Sporadic game-based learning may not allow students to reach learning goals as effectively as
consistent, scheduled play time. What’s more, it may not be as engaging as possible.
In a classroom with 1:1 device use, make time for game-based learning activities by:
 Including game time as a designated activity in your lesson plan, not an afterthought
 Using a game as an entry ticket, drawing student attention to the lesson’s topic
 Using a game as an exit ticket, allowing students to reflect
In a classroom with limited device use, make time for game-based learning activities by:
 Focusing more on non-digital games, such as board games with educational value
 Creating learning stations, one of which is playing a device-based game
  Playing team games, letting students play in pairs or groups
These options should make it easier to designate time for educational play, seamlessly
incorporating game-based instruction into class.
5. Assess Progress Throughout Play, Informing Instruction
Collecting data from the games you implement can uncover student trouble spots and aptitudes, helping
you shape in-class instruction.
Data collection will vary depending on the purpose and nature of a game in question.
Usually, it involves a following method:
 In-Game Reports — Some educational video games feature in-game reports for teachers,
which record student performance. For example, charts will contain each player’s marks for a
series of questions, letting you click to see more details.
 Self-Reports — For physical games, or video games without reporting features, you can
encourage students to take ownership of their progress through self-reporting. Create a Google
Forms spreadsheet for each student. Then, ask them to provide updates.
 Class Discussions — After playing team games, conducting a class-wide discussion allows each
group to share difficulties, progress and accomplishments.
This final step of incorporating game-based learning will give you the information needed to adjust
lessons and activities, addressing trouble spots and building on new knowledge.
50.Simulations
Instructional scenarios where the learner is placed in a “word” defined by the
teacher. They represent a reality within which students interact. The teacher
controls the parameters of this “world” and uses it to achieve the desired
instructional results.
Process:
(1) Assignment of role
The student teachers are assigned the roles of teachers and observe resp. It is done rotation basis.
(2) Deciding skill to be practiced
At this stage, the skill to be practiced is decided and planning and preparation for it are done. Each trainee
selects the topic according to his interest and intelligence.
(3) Preparation of work schedule
At this stage, it is decided who will teach first and who will observe and how everyone would be teaching
/observing one by one.
(4) Determining technique of observation
In this stage, the decision is taken about the type of observation technique to be adopted. It also includes
which type of data is to be collected and how these data are to be intercepted.
(5) Organization of first practice session
The first practice session is started and its observations are recorded for judging the teaching behavior.
This followed by feedback and suggestions for further improvement.
(6) Alteration of procedure
The whole procedure is changed at this stage. There is a change of teacher, change of observers, change
of teaching skill and change in topic to be taught. Every student is given the opportunity to play the role
of teacher, a student, and a teacher.
51. Storytelling
Teacher read story to catch pupil’s attention and to practice their imagination
skills.
Process:
  Select a story you want to tell.
 Learn the structure and block the story.
 Visualize the settings and characters.
 See the action taking place as if you're watching a silent movie.
 Tell the story aloud, using your voice to project the images you've visualized.
 Learn the story by heart, not word for word.
 Practice telling the story until it comes naturally.
52.Focused Imaging
Imaging, the process of internally visualizing an object, event, or situation, has
the potential to nurture and enhance a student’s creativity.
Process:
Imaging, the process of internally visualizing an object, event, or situation, has the potential to
nurture and enhance a student's creativity (Bagley & Hess, 1987). Imaging enables students to relax and
allow their imaginations to take them on journeys, to "experience" situations first hand, and to respond
with their senses to the mental images formed.
In the classroom, imaging exercises nurture and develop students' creative potentials. Teachers
can encourage divergent thinking by asking students to transform a teacher guided image into several
others of their own creation, to imagine various solutions for spatial or design problems, or to visualize a
particular scene or event and then imagine what might happen next.
Imaging provides a focus and an opportunity for open-minded exploration of new concepts in all
areas of study. It can help broaden students' conceptual understanding of subject area material, especially
complex concepts and processes. Imaging allows students to connect their prior experiences to new ideas
under investigation.
53.Field observation
This type of strategies commonly happened in tertiary level; it may help students
to observe their desired goal. In lower levels it can be a field trip or an
exploration study.
Process:
 You have to have a permission to observe in the location that you have selected. You should be
open with your purposes, but be careful not to disturb people.
 You should familiarize yourself with location personally and observe the actions that take place.
 While observing, make notes of what you have seen and heard (pen & paper). In addition to
written notes, you can also record your observations by using a video camera or an audio recorder
(if you have permission).
 Try to separate the ‘roles’ of an observer and a project manager. When you are in the field, you
shouldn’t let your preconceptions skew your observations. At this point, your aim is only to
understand the locations and situations. Only after that you should ‘return’ to your role as a
project manager, and try to solve the problems etc. that you encountered in the field.
 After your field observations, you should also analyze your data so that you can get meaningful
information out of it.
 Field observations are not necessarily sufficient source of data, you might have to do also
interviews to understand the reasons behind people’s actions.
54.Role-playing
Role playing allows students to take risk-free positions by acting out characters
in hypothetical situations.
Process:
 Participants are given particular roles to play in a conversation or other interaction, such as an
email exchange, typical of their discipline. They may be given specific instructions on how to act or what
to say, as an aggressive client or patient in denial, for example, or required to act and react in their own
way depending on the requirements of the exercise. The participants will then act out the scenario and
afterwards there will be reflection and discussion about the interactions, such as alternative ways of
dealing with the situation. The scenario can then be acted out again with changes based on the outcome of
the reflection and discussion.
55.Surveys
Useful when a researcher wants to collect data on phenomena that cannot be
directly observed (such as opinions on library services). Surveys are used to
extensively in library and information science to assess attitudes and
characteristics of a wide range of subjects, from the quality of user-system
interfaces to library user reading habits.
Process:
1. Defining the purpose and objective of the study i.e. the problem, why to conduct a research and
what is its worth, the clear objectives formulation etc. are included in the first step of survey
research.
2. Selecting and defining the target population, i.e. upon which the study is based.
3. Choosing and selecting techniques for data gathering. (i.e. the instrument like interview,
questionnaire etc. to be used for data collection). The selection of instrument depends upon the
cost, applicability and the research design.
4. A major and good representative (sample) of the population is to be taken (i.e. this is the step of
sampling).
5. The process of data gathering (or simply the step of executing the research), where the interviews,
questionnaires or any other instrument is used for which the questions are pre designed.
6. The questionnaire (if used) is then followed up. The questions asked from the interviewee are
answered, evaluated and hence the process of data gathering is completed.
7. The data gathered is processed, analyzed, and interpreted, from which the results are concluded
and the findings are then generalized.
8. The whole study is then presented in the form of research report (called survey report) for the
purpose of transmission and further study. Thus the survey type of research is completed while
following the above 8 steps.
56.Explaining
Explanation are given to help students acquire or deepen their understanding of
a concept, while others helps students understanding generalizations.
Process:
Getting Started
First, you must decide how much you are planning to write.
Complicated processes or events require long explanations.
You should choose a topic that fits the length of composition you plan to write. For example, you would
need a book-length composition to explain how to craft a violin. However, you could explain how to
change a violin's strings in a page or two.
Making Notes
Before you begin to write, make a list of the important parts of the process. Consider the following
areas:
What tools, supplies, or materials do you use to complete the process?
Be sure to define any special vocabulary your reader needs to know.
Where does the process usually take place?
How long does it take to complete the process?
What kind of examples or comparisons can you use to explain what you are doing clearly?
Organizing Your Notes
Group the parts of the process that should be together.
Organize the points chronologically (in order of time).
Writing Your Explanation
Begin with a good topic sentence or sentences which state clearly what you will be explaining. For
example: Christmas is one of the most important celebrations of the year for my family, and so our
preparations are spread out over the month or so before Christmas.
Continue writing in chronological order.
Use transitional expressions to smooth the flow of your writing and show connections between the parts
of you explanation.
Keep asking yourself if you have included all the important details.
Revising Your Writing
After you finish your first draft, go back, reread what you have written, and ask yourself the following
questions:
Have I started with a clear statement that tells what this composition is about?
Have I defined the terms my readers will need to understand the process?
Have I used paragraphs for the major points?
Have I used chronological order to make it easy for my reader to follow the process?
Have I used transitions to show how ideas and steps are related?
Have I used examples to explain my process?
Have I used a variety of sentences?
57.Demonstrating
The teacher spends much classroom time explaining or demonstrating
something to the whole class, a small group, or an individual.
Process:
(1) Planning and preparation
proper planning is required for good demonstration. For this following points should be kept in
mind.
 Through the preparation of subject matter.
 lesson planning
 collection of material related to the demonstration.
 rehearsal of demonstration.
In order to ensure the success of demonstration, the teacher should prepare lesson minutely and
very seriously.
(2) Introducing the lesson
 The teacher should motivate students and prepare them mentally for the demonstration.
 The teacher should introduce the lesson to students keeping in mind the following things.
 individual differences
  Environment
 Experiences
 The lesson can also be started with some simple and interesting experiments. Very
common event or some internal story.
 The experiment should be able to hold the attention of students.
(3) Presentation of subject matter
 In demonstration presentation of subject matter is very important.
 The principle of reflecting thinking should be kept in mind.
 The teacher should teach the student in such a way that their previous knowledge can be
attached to their new knowledge.
(4) Demonstration
 The performance in the demonstration table should be ideal for the student.
 The demonstration should be neat and clean.
(5) Teaching Aids
 The teacher can use various teaching aids like models, blackboard, graphs etc. During
demonstration.
(6) Evaluation
 In this last step, evaluation of the whole demonstration should be done, so that it can be
made more effective.
58.Questioning
The teacher may need to ask question in order to evaluate the student’s level of
comprehension.
Process:
 Decide on your goal or purpose for asking questions. Your goal should help you determine what
levels of questions you will ask.
 Select the content for questioning. Choose material which you consider important rather than
trivial. Students will study and learn based on the questions you ask. Do not mislead them by
emphasizing less important material.
 Ask questions that require an extended response or at least a "content" answer. Avoid questions
that can be answered "yes" or "no" unless you are going to follow with more questions to explore
reasoning.
 Until you are quite skilled at classroom questioning you should write your main questions in
advance. This is called "scripting."  Arrange your list in some logical sequence (specific to
general, lower level to higher level, a sequence related to content). Should you think of additional
or better questions during the questioning process, you can be flexible and add those or substitute
them for some of your planned questions. However, having a prepared list of questions will help
to assure that you ask questions appropriate for your goals and representative of the important
material.
 Phrase your questions so that the task is clear to students. Questions such as "What about foreign
affairs?" do not often lead to productive answers and discussion. "What did we say about
 chemical bonding?" is too general unless you are only seeking a review of any material the
students remember.
 Your questions should not contain the answers. Avoid implied response questions when you are
genuinely seeking an answer from the class. A question such as "Don't we all agree that the
author of the article exaggerated the dangers of agent orange to strengthen his viewpoint?" will
not encourage student response.
 When planning your questions, try to anticipate possible student responses. Anticipating student
responses should help in your planning by forcing you to consider whether the phrasing is
accurate, whether questions focus on the goal you have in mind, and whether you have enough
flexibility to allow students to express ideas in their own words. You might consider the
following:
o What are some typical misconceptions that might lead students to incorrect
answers?
o Am I asking an open or closed question?
o What type of response do I expect from students, a definition? Example?
Solution?
o Will I accept the answer in the students' language or am I expecting the textbooks'
words or my own terms?
o What will my strategy be for handling incorrect answers?
o What will I do if students do not answer?

59. Questioning Technique

The questions should be addressed to the entire class before a specific student is
asked to respond. Calls for responses should be distributed among volunteers
and non-volunteers, and the teacher should encourage students to speak to the
whole class when responding.
Process:
 diagnose students’ level of understanding
 help students retain material but putting into words otherwise unarticulated thoughts
 involve and engage students in their learning process, especially critical thinking and reflection
 test students’ knowledge
 dispel misconceptions
 summarize and review key points and highlighting main themes, ideas and skills
 stimulate creativity
 modifying students’ perception of the subject
 encourage students to become self-directed learners
60.Wait Time
Wait time is defined as the pause between asking to questions and soliciting a
response. Providing additional wait time after a student response also allows all
students o reflect on the response prior to further discussion.
Process:
This depends on the complexity of the question, the ability of the students and the clarity with
which the question was asked. In general, recall and lower-level questions will take most students 1-3
seconds to answer. Questions that require calculation, such as 11 x 3, usually take 4-6 seconds to generate
a response. Higher-order questions that require more thought than the simple recall questions, could take
anywhere from 6 to 10 seconds to formulate a reply.
61.Levels of Questions
Teaches also need to challenge students with higher level questions requiring
analysis, synthesis, or evaluation.
Process:
People often refer to "lower-level" and "higher-level" questions or behaviors, rather than
assigning a specific level to those questions or behaviors. Lower-level questions are typically at the
remember, understand, and apply levels of the taxonomy and are most appropriate for:
 evaluating students' preparation and comprehension
 diagnosing students' strengths and weaknesses
 reviewing and/or summarizing content
Higher-level questions involve the ability to analyze, evaluate, or create, and are most
appropriate for:
 encouraging students to think more deeply and critically
 problem solving
 encouraging discussions
 stimulating students to seek information on their own
62.Gallery Walk
A cooperative learning strategy in which the instructor devises several
questions/problems and post each question/problem at a different table or at a
different place on the walls (hence the name “gallery”). Students from as many
groups as there are questions, and each group moves from question to question
(hence the names “walk”). After writing the group’s response to the first
questions, the group rotates to the next position, adding to what is already
there. At the last question, it is the group’s responsibility to summarize and
report the class.
Process:
o Select Texts
Select the texts (e.g., quotations, images, documents, and/or student work) you will be using for
the gallery work. You could also have the students themselves, working individually or in small
groups, select the texts.
o Display Texts around the Classroom
Texts should be displayed “gallery style,” in a way that allows students to disperse themselves
around the room, with several students clustering around each particular text. Texts can be hung
on walls or placed on tables. The most important factor is that the texts are spread far enough
apart to reduce significant crowding.
o Explore Texts
Viewing instructions will depend on your goals for the activity. If the purpose of the gallery
walk is to introduce students to new material, you might want them to take informal notes as
they walk around the room. If the purpose is for students to take away particular information,
you can create a graphic organizer for them to complete as they view the “exhibit,” or compile a
list of questions for them to answer based on the texts on display. Sometimes teachers ask
students to identify similarities and differences among a collection of texts. Or teachers give
 students a few minutes to tour the room and then, once seated, ask them to record impressions
about what they saw. Students can take a gallery walk on their own or with a partner. You can
also have them travel in small groups, announcing when groups should move to the next piece
in the exhibit. One direction that should be emphasized is that students are supposed to disperse
around the room. When too many students cluster around one text, it not only makes it difficult
for students to view the text but also increases the likelihood of off-task behavior.
o Debrief the Gallery Walk
Once students have had a chance to view a sufficient number of the texts around the room,
debrief the activity as a class. Depending on the goals of the gallery walk, this debrief can take a
variety of forms. You might ask students to share the information they collected, or you might
ask students what conclusions they can draw about a larger question from the evidence they
examined.
63.Just-in-time teaching
Just-in-time Teaching (JiTT) was developed as a way of engaging students in
course material before class and preparing them to come to class and participate
actively during class.
Process:
Just-in-time teaching actively involves students in the learning process through a two-step series
of learning activities. In the first step, students complete a focused set of activities outside of class
(usually via interactive Web documents) and submit their work to the instructor. In the second step, the
instructor (often just hours before the next lecture) collects the students' responses and identifies areas
of understanding and misunderstanding to adjust the next lesson so that students can receive specific
“just-in-time” feedback on those particular areas.
 Create an assignment drop box. Give it a title (say, “Week 4's Muddiest Point”) and type a
question (for example, “As you worked through this week's readings, what point did you
understand the least?”). Set both the due date and the cutoff date to around four hours before
your class meets.
 Next, around two hours before the class meets, collect all the responses. Every student has
turned in a paragraph or so thinking “out loud” about the readings. WebCT allows you to create
a “Printable View.” This gives you a concise list of what your students are most concerned with,
which you can easily skim.
64.Concept test
Used during class that provides immediate assessment od student
understanding. Using electronic response system provide the instructor with
immediate feedback about the distribution of answer in the class.
Process:
Creating a good concept test can be time-consuming, so you might want to see if question
repositories or fully developed concept tests already exist in your field.
If you create your own, you need to begin with a clear understanding of the knowledge and skills
that you want your students to acquire. The questions should probe a student's comprehension or
application of a concept rather than factual recall.

Concept test questions often describe a problem, event, or situation. Examples of appropriate types
of questions include:
o asking students to predict the outcome of an event (e.g., What would happen in this
experiment? How would changing one variable affect others?)  
o asking students to apply rules or principles to new situations (e.g., Which concept is
relevant here? How would you apply it?)
o asking students to solve a problem using a known equation or select a procedure to
complete a new task (e.g., What procedure would be appropriate to solve this problem?)
65.Minute papers
Minute paper can used at the end of the class by asking students to write on one
of the following questions.
What was the most important thing you learned in today’s class?
What question do you have about today’s class?
What was the muddiest point of today’s class?
Process:
 Ask the right questions: Not all questions used as prompts in the minute paper need to focus on
just assessment and feedback.  We can frame questions that focus on what captured the interest of
the class, relevance of the material or its usefulness in relation to the outside world, to understand
the student’s opinions regarding certain topics, to facilitate reflection and analysis of the lesson
learned and also to bridge the old and new concepts.
 At the right time: Minute papers can be used before, during and after a lecture. This depends on
what purpose you would like to achieve within the class. When handed out during the start of a
lecture, the questions can cover the material taught in the previous class and check for
understanding and retention of the material. This provides the teacher with a feedback on whether
to proceed with the class or to correct any misunderstandings of the topic. It can also serve as an
opening question and stimulate the students’ to anticipate for and prepare them for the upcoming
lesson.
When used as a closure activity, it helps the students to consolidate the information and to store
them for longer retention.  Also it is quite useful to use the minute papers “During” the lecture, to
drive home the key point and to allow students’ to reflect on them before proceeding to the next
point.  The quick in between activity also serves to break the monotony of the class proceedings
and helps to regain the focus of all the students.
 Change the format: The minute paper need not always be in the question answer format. You
can try out forming a quick crossword with clues regarding the concepts, or identifying from a list
of words the concepts that were introduced for the day. The minute paper can also be a jumbled
puzzle, requiring the students to put together the concept in the right order.
66.Humor in the classroom
Using humor in the classroom can enhance student learning by improving
understanding and retention.
Process:
1. Keeping your students engaged
2. When students are laughing, they are paying attention. Humor keeps students on their toes, and if
they know something funny is coming, they are more likely to remain on the same page as you.
3. Showing your students that you're a person, too
 4. Sometimes the teacher seems so much like the wise, distant person. A little laughter shows your
students that you have the same feelings they do, and this makes you more trustworthy. The
ability to laugh at your own mistakes, in particular, shows that you are humble and real.
5. Helping create community in your classroom
6. Nothing feels quite so good as laughing alongside other people. Sharing jokes and funny
moments will also give your students good memories to look back on.
7. Lightening the mood when things feel too hard
8. Stressful math problem? Big research paper due next week? Of course it's important to honor
your students' feelings of stress, but a good laugh really helps everyone maintain perspective and
remember that in the grand scheme of things, minor stressors are not such a big deal.
67.Mobile learning
Mobile learning is any type of learning that happens when the learner is not at a
fixed location.
Process:
Mobile learning is not just online learning on a smaller screen. Smartphones have some
limitations compared to computers but also unique affordances that can allow for new kinds of learning
experiences. These affordances have been identified as the five “C’s” of Mobile Learning by  Clark
Quinn:
 Content: Providing instructional materials that students can access anywhere, or in specific
contexts (like instructor commentary for a museum trip).
 Capture: Using mobile devices to capture images, video, sound, GPS coordinates, and ideas (as
notes).
 Communicate: Being able to stay in touch with classmates anywhere or during specific field
activities.
 Compute: Using devices to assist in calculating, language translating, and other computational
tasks.
 Combine: Using the previous four functions together in interesting ways, like augmented-reality
experiences that capture GPS location, orientation, and images, and supply relevant content to
the learner.
68.Problem-based learning
Program-based Learning (PBL) is an instructional method that challenges
students to “learn to learn,” working in groups to seek solution to real world
problems. The process replicates the commonly used systemic approach to
resolving problems or meeting challenges that are encountered in life, and will
help prefer students for their careers.
Process:
 Articulate the learning outcomes of the project. What do you want students to know or be able
to do as a result of participating in the assignment?
 Create the problem. Ideally, this will be a real-world situation that resembles something students
may encounter in their future careers or lives.
 Establish ground rules at the beginning to prepare students to work effectively in groups.
 Introduce students to group processes and do some warm up exercises to allow them to practice
assessing both their own work and that of their peers.
 Consider having students take on different roles or divide up the work up amongst themselves.
Alternatively, the project might require students to assume various perspectives, such as those of
government officials, local business owners, etc.
  Establish how you will evaluate and assess the assignment. Consider making the self and peer
assessments a part of the assignment grade.
69.Team-based learning
Team-based learning (TBL) is a fairly new approach to teaching in which students
rely on each other for their own learning and are held accountable for coming to
class prepared.
1. Process:
2. The teacher is a guide to facilitate learning.
3. Learners should encounter inconsistencies between preconceptions and new experiences to
provide a basis for development of new understandings.
4. A focus on relevant problems accompanied by group interaction promotes learning.
5. Learning requires reflection.
Team-based learning is consistent with all of these elements. The teacher establishes the learning
objectives and chooses the problems on which the students will focus but then acts as a guide while
teams work toward their solution to the problem. A careful choice of problems can help reveal common
student misconceptions, and the constant interaction and debate among team members allows learners
to compare their current understandings with those of other team members and to construct new
understandings. Group interaction and a focus on relevant problems is an inherent element of team-
based learning. Finally, team-based learning provides several opportunities for reflection: during the
group readiness assessment test; while hearing other teams’ reports of their conclusions; and during the
peer evaluation process, which often includes self-evaluation.
70.Clicker
Clicker enable instructors to rapidly collect and summarize student responses to
multiple choice questions they ask of student in class.
Process:
 A teacher poses a multiple-choice question to his or her students via an overhead or computer
projector.
 Each student submits an answer to the question using a handheld transmitter (a
“clicker”) that beams a radio-frequency signal to a receiver attached to the teacher’s computer.
 Software on the teacher’s computer collects the students’ answers and produces a bar
chart showing how many students chose each of the answer choices.
 The teacher makes “on the fly” instructional choices in response to the bar chart by, for
example, leading students in a discussion of the merits of each answer choice or asking students
to discuss the question in small groups.
71.Contexts-rich problem
Are short realistic scenarios giving the students a plausible motivation for solving
the Problem.
Process:
 Decide on the goals of the problem
Context-rich problems help students to apply discipline specific knowledge thus moving
beyond novice skills of memorization. Decide on an outcome you want students to accomplish
rather than the content you want students to learn. For example, in a principles of
microeconomics class your learning goal might be, 'Students will be able to apply the profit-
maximizing condition in a realistic setting.
You may want to start with a traditional problem you have used before (or one from a
textbook) and build that problem into a context-rich problem by adding context and varying
the degree of difficulty. More details about these approaches are provided below.
 Provide a context for the problem
The context gives the students a reason to want to solve the problem. The context needs to be
realistic. The students need to be able to put themselves into the scenario. Starting the context-
rich problem with "You" will personalize and motivate the problem for the students. The
following prompts can help you think about how to start your context-rich problem:
1. You are . . . (in some everyday situation) and need to figure out . . .
2. You are on vacation and observe/notice . . . and wonder . . .
3. You are watching TV or reading an article about . . . and wonder . . .
4. Because of your knowledge of economics, your friend asks you to help him/her . . .
5. You are writing a science fiction or adventure story for your English class about . . . and
need to figure out . . .
6. Because of your interest in the environment and your knowledge of physics, you are a
member of a Citizen's Committee investigating . . .
7. You have a summer job with a company that . . . . Because of your knowledge of
economics, your boss asks you to . . .
8. You have been hired by a College research group that is investigating . . . . Your job is to
determine . . .
9. You have been hired as a technical advisor for a TV (or movie) production to make sure
the science is correct. In the script . . ., but is this correct?
10. You have been hired to write scripts of short dramatizations that will teach high school
students important concepts. The concept for this script is . . .

 Determine the level of difficulty or complexity

The desired level of difficulty of the context-rich problem depends on the setting for the
students. Will the students be working on the problem in groups or individually? How much time
will they have to work on the problem? How much experience do they have with context-rich
problems? The complexity of each problem can be adjusted by varying the degree to which each
of the following traits is incorporated.
 The unknown quantity is not explicitly specified in the problem statement
More information is given in the problem statement than is required to solve the problems
 Unusual assumptions are necessary to solve the problem
 The problem requires more than one core concept for a solution
 The context is very unfamiliar
 Not enough information is given and reasonable assumptions need to be made
 Including extra information someone in the situation would be likely to have, but is
not necessary to solve the problem
 Leaving out common knowledge information that the student should know from prior
work in the course, or a parameter that the student should be able to estimate from
prior experience
 Writing the problem so the target variable is not explicitly stated by asking a question
such as "What should be done?"
72.Peer-led team learning
Engages teams of six eight student in learning sciences, mathematics and other
undergraduate disciplines guided by a peer leader. Peer leaders are drawn from
the pool of students who have done well in the course previously.
Process:
1. It is essential that the workshops are closely integrated with the course and all its elements.
2. Faculty teaching these courses must be actively involved with the workshops and with the peer
leaders.
3. Peer leaders are students who have taken the course, who have good people skills, and who are
well-trained and supervised in facilitating small-group collaborative-learning sessions.
4. Workshop problems must be appropriately challenging and designed for use in collaborative
group learning settings.
5. Organizational arrangements must ensure adequate and appropriate rooms for conducting
workshop sessions.
6. Institutional and departmental support of innovative teaching methods is essential, including
logistical and financial support.
73.Chunking
Chunking is an example of a strategy that helps student’s breakdown difficult
text into more manageable pieces. Dividing content into smaller part helps
student’s identity key words and ideas, develops student’s ability to paraphrase,
and makes it easier for students to organize and synthesize information.
Process:

1. Preparation
Chunking can be used with challenging texts of any length. A paragraph can be
chunked into phrases and sentences, while a reading of several pages can be chunked
into paragraphs or sections. It is often helpful to have students record information
about each “chunk” in a graphic organizer, which you may want to prepare in
advance.
2. Review Reading Strategies
Before having students work on paraphrasing the text, it is helpful to go over specific
decoding strategies. You may want to post the following “reading reminders” on the
board:

a. Circle words that are unfamiliar.

b. Use context clues to help define these words.
 c. Look up the meaning of unknown words.
d. Write synonyms for these new words in the text.
e. Underline important places and people and identify them.
f. Read aloud.
g. Read multiple times.

74.Fishbowl
Students ask questions, present opinions, and share information when they sit in
the “fishbowl” circle, while students on the outside of the circle listen carefully
to the ideas presented and pay attention to process. Then leave the class.
Process:
1. Select a Topic
Almost any topic is suitable for a Fishbowl discussion. The most effective prompts (questions or
texts) do not have one right answer or interpretation, but rather allow for multiple perspectives
and opinions. The Fishbowl strategy is excellent for discussing dilemmas, for example.
2. Set Up the Room
A Fishbowl discussion requires a circle of chairs (“the fishbowl”) and enough room around the
circle for the remaining students to observe what is happening in the “fishbowl.” Sometimes
teachers place enough chairs for half of the students in the class to sit in the fishbowl, while other
times teachers limit the chairs further. Typically, six to 12 chairs allows for a range of
perspectives while still giving each student an opportunity to speak. The observing students often
stand around the fishbowl.
3. Prepare for the Discussion
Like many structured conversations, Fishbowl discussions are most effective when students have
had a few minutes to prepare ideas and questions in advance.
4. Discuss Norms and Rules
5. There are many ways to structure a Fishbowl discussion. Sometimes teachers have half the class
sit in the fishbowl for ten to 15 minutes before announcing “Switch,” at which point the listeners
enter the fishbowl and the speakers become the audience. Another common Fishbowl discussion
format is the “tap” system, where students on the outside of the fishbowl gently tap a student on
the inside, indicating that they should switch roles. See the variations section below for more
ideas about how to structure this activity.
6. Regardless of the particular rules you establish, make sure they are explained to students
beforehand. You also want to provide instructions for the students in the audience. What should
they be listening for? Should they be taking notes? Before beginning the Fishbowl activity, you
may wish to review guidelines for having a respectful conversation. Sometimes teachers ask
audience members to pay attention to how these norms are followed by recording specific aspects
of the discussion process, such as the number of interruptions, examples of respectful or
disrespectful language being used, or speaking times (who is speaking the most or the least).
7. Debrief
After the discussion, you can ask students to reflect on how they think the discussion went and
what they learned from it. Students can also evaluate their performance as listeners and as
participants. They could also provide suggestions for how to improve the quality of discussion in
the future. These reflections can be in writing, or they can be structured as a small- or large-group
conversation.
75.Exit cards
 Require students to answer particular questions on a piece of paper that is
turned in before we leave the class.
Process:

1. Prepare
Students should have a pencil and paper. Teachers can prepare half-slips of paper with
typed questions or write questions on the board for students to answer.
2. Students Respond to Prompt
Often, teachers have students complete exit cards during the final five minutes of the
class period. Since exit cards must be turned in before students leave class, it is best if the
prompts are specific and brief. They typically refer directly to the content that was
studied, but they can also be general in nature, such as the following:

1. List three things you learned in class today.

2. What questions, ideas, and feelings did this lesson raise for you?
3. What was your favorite moment of class? Why? What was your least
favorite part of class? Why?
4. Evaluate your participation in class today. What did you do well? What
would you like to do differently next time?
5. Exit cards can be structured using the 3-2-1 format, as well. Depending
on the purpose for having students complete exit cards, teachers may
have students complete them anonymously.
. Reinforce Accountability
Students may leave class when they turn in an exit card to the teacher.
76.Socratic Questioning
A teaching strategy that turns a lecture into a guided discussion.
Process:
 Plan significant questions that provide meaning and direction to the dialogue
 Use wait time: Allow at least thirty seconds for students to respond
 Follow up on students’ responses
 Ask probing questions
 Periodically summarize in writing key points that have been discussed
 Draw as many students as possible into the discussion
 Let students discover knowledge on their own through the probing questions the teacher pose
77.Inquiry-guide learning
With the inquiry method of instruction, students arrive at an understanding of
concepts by themselves and the responsibility for learning rest with them. This
method encourages students to build research skills that can be used throughout
their educational experiences.
Process:

Inquiry-based learning includes the following steps:

1. Ask questions
2. Probe into various situations
3. Conduct analyses and provide descriptions
4. Communicate findings, verbally or in writing
5. Think about the information and knowledge obtained
78.Interdisciplinary teaching
Interdisciplinary teaching involves combining two different topics into one class.
Process:
1. Pre-Instructional Planning - Prior planning establishes the topics to be examined in an
interdisciplinary manner, and allows the educator to acquire the requisite knowledge, and to
develop an action plan--codified in a set of notes that may include open ended questions--to guide
the classroom experience.
2. Introduce the Methodology to Students - Explain to students the nature of interdisciplinary,
rather than discipline based learning. Impress upon them the importance of integrating insights
and approaches from multiple disciplines to form a framework of analysis that will lead to a rich
understanding of complex questions. Make clear that you will be modeling how to approach an
issue in an interdisciplinary manner, and that ultimately they will be asked to master this skill.
Allay student fears by noting they will be given assignments that help them reach this objective
by practicing approaching topics as interdisciplinary investigators.
3. Take it to the Classroom - Model how to explore questions from an interdisciplinary
perspective. Repko and Welch (2005), leading figures in the movement to promote
interdisciplinary education, identify 9-steps to follow to engage students in an interdisciplinary
exploration.
4. Practice Interdisciplinary Thinking - Students practicing interdisciplinary thinking by reenacting
what they observe in the classroom is an effective way to acquire this higher order cognitive
skill. Students can be assigned the task of rethinking an issue discussed in a discipline based
manner in class by bringing another discipline to bear and then attempting to synthesize and
integrate their analysis.
5. Provide Feedback - Extension and interdisciplinary position papers should be evaluated
regularly using a rubric.
6. The aim should be to provide the students with feedback on their ability to understand and
delineate the underlying structure and analytical framework of other relevant disciplines
(multidisciplinary thinking) and to produce an integrated analysis (interdisciplinary
thinking). Grading might best take the form of check, check plus, and check minus, so as to
simply identify the areas in need of additional skill development. Faculty student conferences
may be necessary for those students struggling to master the integration element of
interdisciplinary learning. The goal is for students to improve their capacity to think in an
interdisciplinary manner over the course of the term.
7. Assessment - Students should engage in self-evaluation periodically by rating their ability to: set
out the structure of multiple disciplines that are well suited to the problem of interests,
synthesize insights from multiple disciplines, and integrate ideas across disciplines. This
information will allow them to gauge their progress, identify challenging areas, to seek help, and
set goals for improvement.
79.Collaborative learning
 Cooperative and collaborative learning are instructional approaches in which
students work together in small groups to accomplish a common learning goal.
They need to be carefully planned and executed, but they don’t require
permanently formed groups.
Process:
Shorter in-class collaborative learning activities generally involve a three-step process. This process can
be as short as five minutes, but can be longer, depending on the task at hand.
o Introduce the task. This can be as simple as instructing students to turn to their neighbor to
discuss or debate a topic.
o Provide students with enough time to engage with the task. Walk around and address any
questions as needed.
o Debrief. Call on a few students to share a summary of their conclusions. Address any
misconceptions or clarify any confusing points. Open the floor for questions.

For larger group work projects, here are some strategies to help ensure productive group dynamics:
o Provide opportunities for students to develop rapport and group cohesion through  icebreakers,
team-building, and reflection exercises.
o Give students time to create a group work plan allowing them to plan for deadlines and divide up
their responsibilities.
o Have students  establish ground rules. Students can create a contract for each member to
sign. This contract can include agreed-upon penalties for those who fail to fulfill obligations.
o Assign roles to members of each group and change the roles periodically. For example, one
student can be the coordinator, another the note-taker, another the summarizer, and another the
planner of next steps.
o Allow students to rate each other’s quality and quantity of contributions. Use these evaluations
when giving individual grades, but do not let it weigh heavily on a student's final grade.
Communicate clearly how peer assessment will influence grades.
o Check in with groups intermittently but encourage students to handle their own issues before
coming to you for assistance.
80.Interdisciplinary teaching
Interdisciplinary teaching involves combining two different topics into one class.
Instructors who participate in interdisciplinary teaching find that students approach the
material differently.
Process:
Choosing a theme to focus interdisciplinary instruction is a key step in implementing this
approach. Themes should be of interest to students and relevant to the required curriculum. In some
situations, students might choose the thematic topic. Themes should also be topics of interest to the
teacher(s) because successful thematic instructions often requires additional research and preparation.
Interdisciplinary themes related to multiple academic disciplines can be reinforced in lessons throughout
the school day.
Essential questions are helpful in focusing the theme of interdisciplinary curriculum units. Essential
questions are open-ended, intellectually engaging questions that demand higher-order thinking.
Essential questions help teachers chose the most important facts and concepts relative to the theme
and serve to focus planning efforts. For students, essential questions highlight key facts and concepts
related to the interdisciplinary theme. They also serve as a focus for analysis and evaluation. Good
essential questions can not be answered with a simple yes/no or true/false; students must discuss,
defend, and debate issues related to the theme. Designing interdisciplinary instruction around essential
questions require students to learn both content and develop critical analysis skills.
81.Social networking tools
Enable faculty to engage students in new and different means of community.
Process:
 Set up a group for your class before it begins, helping students get to know each other ahead of
time.
 Students can create group chats, when they're working on group projects. They can also send each
other documents through many social sites’ chat functions.
 Teachers can share documents and other learning materials with their students before class, so
everyone has access to the material from their phone or mobile device.
 Discussion groups can be set up, allowing students to discuss the material from class in their own
time.
82.Teaching with cases
Case studies present students with real-life problem and enable them to apply
what they have learned in the classroom to real life situation.
Process:
1. Selecting a case
2. Preparation
3. In class
4. Leading class discussion
5. Support and feedback
83.Distance learning
Is not a new concept. We have all experienced learning outside of a structured
classroom setting though television, correspondence courses, etc.
Process:
1. Instructor enthusiasm. This requires animation and comfort in front of the camera,
or with the technology utilized. Faculty support and interest are critical to the
success of distance learning endeavors.
2. Organization. Teaching materials must be prepared in advance; timing, variation,
and smooth transitions must be planned. Instructors should allocate from 3 to 5
hours of preparation for each hour of distance instruction. Great attention to detail
is required long before the actual classroom activity occurs (Summers, 1997).
3. Strong commitment to student interaction. Whatever the modality used to teach at
a distance, the instructor must encourage and facilitate ongoing communication
between the students and the instructor.
4. Familiarity with the technology used in the class format. Faculty development is
important before beginning any distance activities, and instructors should be
trained in video use, computer use, or other forms of instructional technology
used.
 5. Critical support personnel. Production staff, graphic designers, and technical staff
members will help the instructional setting produce successful teaching at a
distance.
84.Comprehension strategy
Sets of steps that good readers use to make sense of text.
Process:
Activating and Using Background Knowledge
This strategy requires readers to activate their background knowledge and to use that knowledge to help
them understand what they are reading. Background knowledge is made up of a person's experiences with
the world (including what he or she has read), along with his or her concepts for how written text works,
including word identification, print concepts, word meaning, and how text is organized. Research has
established that readers' existing knowledge is critical in determining their ability to comprehend what
they read.2
One of the most important contributions made by cognitive scientists to the understanding of how
comprehension works is schema theory.[3] This theory is based on how people organize and activate their
knowledge.
According to schema theory, as people learn about the world, they develop a large network of knowledge
structures, or schemas, with each schema connected to many others. These schemas grow and change as a
person acquires new information through experience and reading. For example, a very young child's
schema for dog might contain only her or his understanding of the family pet — something white, furry,
and fun to play with. As the child gains more experiences with a variety of dogs in a variety of settings,
the dog schema will expand and be refined. It may connect to other schema — types of dogs; colors of
dogs; foods dogs eat; places where dogs stay when the family is on vacation; dangerous dogs; who
veterinarians are; and locations of important dog shows.
When they applied schema theory to reading comprehension, cognitive scientists found that good readers
constantly connect their background knowledge to the new knowledge they encounter in a text. In fact,
they appear to activate a schema as soon they begin to read. The initial schema then activates others, thus
directly affecting how readers understand and react to a text.4
Schemas that are related to text organization are especially important to comprehension. Having
knowledge of a text's organization improves students' understanding of that text.

Generating and Asking Questions

This strategy involves readers asking themselves questions throughout the reading of a text. The ability of
readers to ask themselves relevant questions as they read is especially valuable in helping them to
integrate information, identify main ideas, and summarize information. Asking the right questions allows
good readers to focus on the most important information in a text.6
Generating good questions may also lead readers to focus on problems with comprehension and to take
actions to deal with these problems.
Making Inferences
This strategy requires readers to evaluate or draw conclusions from information in a text. Authors do not
always provide complete descriptions of, or explicit information about a topic, setting, character, or event.
However, they often provide clues that readers can use to "read between the lines"-by making inferences
that combine information in the text with their background knowledge.
It has been shown that when readers are taught how to make inferences, they improve their abilities to
construct meaning. Indeed, research indicates that the ability to make inferences is crucial to successful
reading.8
Predicting
This strategy involves the ability of readers to get meaning from a text by making informed predictions.
Good readers use predicting as a way to connect their existing knowledge to new information from a text
to get meaning from what they read.9 Before reading, they may use what they know about an author to
predict what a text will be about. The title of a text may trigger memories of texts with similar content,
allowing them to predict the content of the new text.
During reading, good readers may make predictions about what is going to happen next, or what ideas or
evidence the author will present to support an argument. They tend to evaluate these predictions
continuously, and revise any prediction that is not confirmed by the reading.
Summarizing
This strategy involves the ability of readers to pull together, or synthesize information in a text so as to
explain in their own words what the text is about.
Summarizing is an important strategy because it can enable readers to recall text quickly. It also can make
readers more aware of text organization, of what is important in a text and of how ideas are related.
Effective summarizing of expository text may involve such things as condensing the steps in a scientific
process, the stages of development of an art movement, or the episodes that led to some major historical
event.
Effective summarizing of narrative text can involve such things as connecting and synthesizing events in
a story line or identifying the factors that motivate a character's actions and behavior.
Visualizing
This involves the ability of readers to make mental images of a text as a way to understand processes or
events they encounter during reading. This ability can be an indication that a reader understands a text.
Some research suggests that readers who visualize as they read are better able to recall what they have
read than are those who do not visualize.11
Visualizing is especially valuable when it is applied to narrative texts. In reading narratives, readers often
can develop a clear understanding of what is happening by visualizing the setting, characters, or actions in
the plot. However, visualizing can also be applied to the reading of expository texts, with readers
visualizing steps in a process or stages in an event or creating an image to help them remember some
abstract concept or important name.
Comprehension Monitoring
This involves the ability of readers to know when they understand what they read, when they do not
understand, and to use appropriate strategies to improve their understanding when it is
blocked.13 Comprehension monitoring is a form of metacognition. Good readers are aware of and
monitor their thought processes as they read. In contrast, poor readers "just do it." 14
The strategies employed by good readers to improve understanding are called "repair" or "fix-up"
strategies. Specific repair strategies include rereading, reading ahead, clarifying words by looking them
up in a dictionary or glossary, or asking someone for help. 15
In general, good readers use a variety of strategies such as the ones just discussed to construct meaning
as they read. However, not all good readers use the same strategies; good readers tend to develop and
practice those strategies that are most useful to them. Further, good readers are flexible in their
strategy use: they switch from strategy to strategy as they read; they use different strategies with
different kinds of texts.
The point is, because good readers have conscious control of their strategy use, they are able to make
decisions about which strategies to use and when to use them. Most good readers do this with little or
no explicit strategy instruction. Most students, however, can benefit greatly from organized, explicit
instruction that teaches them to use specific strategies for understanding text. The good news is that
specific comprehension strategies can be taught and learned - and that their deliberate use by readers
improves comprehension.
85.Metacognition
Can be defined as “thinking about thinking”. Good readers use metacognition
strategies to think about and have control over their reading.
 Process:
1. Develop a plan before approaching a learning task, such as reading for comprehension or solving
a math problem.
2. Monitor their understanding; use “fix-up” strategies when meaning breaks down.
3. Evaluate their thinking after completing the task.
86.Monitoring comprehension
Students who are good at monitoring their comprehension knows when they
understand what they read and when they do not.
Process:
 Noticing our thinking is the first step towards understanding what we read, so it is essential to any
other strategy.
 While research shows that proficient readers use specific strategies to read well, the most
important point is just to think. We set the stage for a more authentic, reader-driven use of
strategies when we introduce children to noticing what is going on in their own thinking before
we begin to label different kinds of thinking.
 Thinking when we read is a huge key to engagement. The child who monitors does not shrug her
shoulders and move on when text gets complicated, or sit frozen waiting for help, or abandon
reading to start annoying others. Nor does she just read the words to be the first one finished and
wonder what to do next. Children who stop, think, and react are much more fully involved with
their reading.
 Every child can be successful with monitoring his or her thinking. There isn’t one right answer
their teacher wants, and the diversity of thinking among the children is greatly valued. Children
thrive when they realize there are many paths to success.
87.Generating Questions
By generating questions, students become aware of whether they can answer
the questions and if they understand what they are reading.
Process:
1. Begin by reading OR have students listen to the text selection.
2. Engage students in the questioning activity and monitor comprehension, tailoring the activity to
individual students' needs.
3. Guide students throughout the questioning process and encourage involvement of passive
learners.
4. Provide students with feedback and allow for discussion.
88.Recognizing story structure
In story structure instruction, students learn to identify the categories of content
(characters, setting, events, problem, and, resolution).
Process:
1. Students learn to identify the categories of content (characters, setting, events, problem,
resolution)
2. Story grammar or tory map narrative organization
3. Best Practices
4. Make use of visuals and thinking maps or graphic organizers
 5. After teaching a mini lesson on each story element, students make their own "anchor charts" to
keep as they work on story retelling and recognizing story elements as they read.
6. Provide students with a consistent structure for "determining the importance." This will
familiarize them with the elements of a story to focus on when retelling a story.
7. Make use of familiar graphic organizers and thinking maps that help keep thoughts concise in
summarizing, such as flow maps and multi-flow maps. These help students sequence events and
visualize cause and effect
8. Somebody Wanted But So as a structure for summarizing in the typical "story structure" format
9. Most Important Word: students choose a word from the text they just read and relate it to the
characters, conflict, plot, setting and other story elements
89.Share intellectual control with student
Building a sense of shared ownership is an effective way of achieving high levels
of student interest and engagement.
Process:
1: Interest and explanation – “When our interest is aroused in something, whether it is an academic
subject or a hobby, we enjoy working hard at it. We come to feel that we can in some way own it and use
it to make sense of the world around us.” (p. 98). Coupled with the need to establish the relevance of
content, instructors need to craft explanations that enable students to understand the material. This
involves knowing what students understand and then forging connections between what is known and
what is new.
2: Concern and respect for students and student learning – Ramsden starts with the negative about
which he is assertive and unequivocal. “Truly awful teaching in higher education is most often revealed
by a sheer lack of interest in and compassion for students and student learning. It repeatedly displays the
classic symptom of making a subject seem more demanding than it actually is. Some people may get
pleasure from this kind of masquerade. They are teaching very badly if they do. Good teaching is nothing
to do with making things hard. It is nothing to do with frightening students. It is everything to do with
benevolence and humility; it always tries to help students feel that a subject can be mastered; it
encourages them to try things out for themselves and succeed at something quickly.” (p. 98)
3: Appropriate assessment and feedback – This principle involves using a variety of assessment
techniques and allowing students to demonstrate their mastery of the material in different ways. It avoids
those assessment methods that encourage students to memorize and regurgitate. It recognizes the power
of feedback to motivate more effort to learn.
4: Clear goals and intellectual challenge – Effective teachers set high standards for students. They also
articulate clear goals. Students should know up front what they will learn and what they will be expected
to do with what they know.
5: Independence, control and active engagement – “Good teaching fosters [a] sense of student control
over learning and interest in the subject matter.” (p. 100). Good teachers create learning tasks appropriate
to the student’s level of understanding. They also recognize the uniqueness of individual learners and
avoid the temptation to impose “mass production” standards that treat all learners as if they were exactly
the same. “It is worth stressing that we know that students who experience teaching of the kind that
permits control by the learner not only learn better, but that they enjoy learning more.” (p. 102)
6: Learning from students – “Effective teaching refuses to take its effect on students for granted. It sees
the relation between teaching and learning as problematic, uncertain and relative. Good teaching is open
to change: it involves constantly trying to find out what the effects of instruction are on learning, and
modifying the instruction in the light of the evidence collected.”
90.Lesson methodologies
 There are many different ways in which you can effectively teach your students.
Learn about many different methodologies here.
Process:
1. Knowing and responding to the background knowledge of the learner is necessary for an effective
lecture.
2. Having a clear understanding of the material is valuable in being able to explain it to others.
3. The physical design of the room and the placement of students impact the effectiveness of a
lecture.
91.Your secret weapons wait time
Give your students time to think about your questions before asking for an
answer; this is called “waits time”.
Process:
 Listen in on many classrooms at all levels, and you'll probably hear teachers asking question
after question. With so many questions coming at them, students have little time to think.
Looking at it another way: the more questions that are asked, the less thinking occurs. Classroom
observations reveal that teachers typically wait less than 1 second for students to respond to a
question. Teachers often conclude that students don't know the answer to a question if they don't
respond quickly. And when they do respond, they usually use knowledge-level responses.
 Classroom observations also reveal that if a student manages to get a response in, most teachers
tend to ask another question within an average time span of 9⁄10 of a second!
92.Coached problem solving
A class format in which professors provide a structured, guided context for
students working collaboratively to solve problems.
Process:
1. In Coached Problem Solving, small groups of students work on solving a
problem by applying concepts just taught.  The instructor facilitates, monitoring
group progress and offering just-in-time coaching at each stage of the problem
solving process. 
2. Embedded within a class, coached problem solving sessions are short, informal,
and ungraded.  Actively involving students in their own learning, such sessions
are designed to develop and deepen students’ understanding and application of
content just taught.  As coach, instructors encourage students, help with problem
solving strategies, and clear up misconceptions.  They can informally assess
individual and group understanding, and adapt instruction to enhance learning
before moving on to new material.
3. The value of coaching is not limited to in-class problem solving.   Many team-
based project courses rely on the guidance of team coaches who advise
throughout a project.  Peer coaches  also can be effective in helping each other to
solve problems.  Early research on automating coaching gave impetus to
development of more recent AI applications  in teaching and assessment.

93.Documented problem solving

 Is an active learning assessment technique in which students become more
aware about their learning and their problem solving, resulting in a transition
from the “step used to solve a problem”.
Process:
Documented problem solving is a very flexible teaching and learning strategy that can be tailored
to fit a particular course or specific course content. It works especially well with topics that require
analysis, problem solving, and critical thinking skills. Instructors can easily transform assignments they
currently use to work with this approach. It can be structured so that it requires minimal effort on the part
of the instructor even in large classes. In order for students to benefit from the technique, an instructor
must explain the value of the approach to students, model the approach for students, and provide feedback
to students about their solution process.
94.Just in-time teaching
Is an active learning assessment technique in which students become more
aware about their learning and their problem-solving, resulting, in a transition
from the “step used to solve a problem” of analytical and critical thinking skills.
Process:
STEP 1: Getting Started with JiTT - Pre-planning is the Key to JiTT Success
 Some questions that you should consider before actually implementing JiTT in
your course:
In what course(s) do you want to use JiTT? What are the characteristics of those
courses (large or small classes, introductory or higher-level, theoretical or applied,
discussion or lecture-oriented)?
 What do you want your students to be able to do and know at the end of your
course? That is, what learning goals do you have for this course, and how will
JiTT help you and your students more effectively achieve those goals?
 How often will you use JiTT exercises? What percentage of the course grade will
JiTT account for?
 How will you use students' JiTT responses in class? What activities and teaching
strategies will you use as a follow-up to students' JiTT responses?
 How will you prepare students for completing JiTT exercises?

STEP 2: Developing Effective JiTT Questions

 The key to achieving success with JiTT is developing effective JiTT questions.
Making decisions about JiTT questions is somewhat different than writing
homework or exam questions because the intent is not to determine whether the
students have mastered the subject. Rather, the purpose is to elicit a rich set of
responses that illustrate students' thinking processes and inform follow-up in-class
activities.
 As a result, good JiTT questions are typically open-ended and leave room for
multiple explanations and interpretations; often, they ask students to apply new
concepts or ideas in ways that cannot simply be looked up in a textbook. From a
 pragmatic standpoint, JiTT questions should focus on key ideas to be discussed in
the upcoming class and allow students to answer with relatively short responses
so that you'll have time to read them prior to class.
 Effective JiTT questions align with student learning goals for your course,
facilitate higher-order thinking skills, and are grounded in learning sciences
research.

STEP 3: Reviewing Student Responses

 Timeline for Reviewing Student Responses
 You will need time to read and process student responses to the Just-in-Time
Teaching questions you've posed before the class period in which you will use
their answers. How much time that takes will depend on the complexity of the
questions, how many students are in the class, and how quickly you can process
the information.

 Using Student Responses to Inform In-Class Activities

 The most immediate task is to use student responses to inform the activities you
will include in your next class. You don't know how you're going to use students'
JiTT responses until you read them. Typically there are patterns in the responses
that allow you to cluster those responses in groups. These "response clusters"
provide valuable insights that can be used to develop in-class activities that
directly target learning gaps highlighted in the JiTT responses.
STEP 4: Implementing In-Class Follow-up Activities
 Implementing JiTT in the classroom can be as simple as showing a sample of
students' responses (anonymously) at the front of the room and following up with
classroom discussion asking students to point out incomplete or incorrect thought
processes, expand on submitted responses, or extend the highlighted concept.

However, JiTT is particularly effective when student responses are used to

develop interactive, cooperative-learning exercises that target learning gaps made
visible in students' responses or extend the concepts included in the exercise. The
student responses can be used directly to create small-group exercises ("Which
one of these is right? Why?" or "Use the sample of responses shown here to
develop a new, comprehensive response.") or used to inform both the form and
practice of the activity.

Maintaining a close linkage between out-of-class responses and in-class activities

provides motivation for students to complete JiTT exercises, supports ongoing
formative assessment in the classroom, and promotes learning while concepts are
fresh in students' minds.
95.Peer-led team learning
Engages teams of six to eight students in learning sciences, mathematics and
other undergraduate disciplines guided by a peer leader.
 Process:
1. It is essential that the workshops are closely integrated with the course and all its elements.
2. Faculty teaching these courses must be actively involved with the workshops and with the peer
leaders.
3. Peer leaders are students who have taken the course, who have good people skills, and who are
well-trained and supervised in facilitating small-group collaborative-learning sessions.
4. Workshop problems must be appropriately challenging and designed for use in collaborative
group learning settings.
5. Organizational arrangements must ensure adequate and appropriate rooms for conducting
workshop sessions.
6. Institutional and departmental support of innovative teaching methods is essential, including
logistical and financial support.
96.Exit cards
Requires students to answer the particular questions on an piece of paper that is
turned in before they the class.
Process:

1. Prepare
Students should have a pencil and paper. Teachers can prepare half-slips of paper with
typed questions or write questions on the board for students to answer.
2. Students Respond to Prompt
Often, teachers have students complete exit cards during the final five minutes of the
class period. Since exit cards must be turned in before students leave class, it is best if the
prompts are specific and brief. They typically refer directly to the content that was
studied, but they can also be general in nature, such as the following:

1. List three things you learned in class today.

2. What questions, ideas, and feelings did this lesson raise for you?
3. What was your favorite moment of class? Why? What was your least favorite part
of class? Why?
4. Evaluate your participation in class today. What did you do well? What would
you like to do differently next time?
5. Exit cards can be structured using the 3-2-1 format, as well. Depending on the
purpose for having students complete exit cards, teachers may have students
complete them anonymously.
. Reinforce Accountability
Students may leave class when they turn in an exit card to the teacher.

97.Exploding names
This activity is used as an ice-breaker to help students immediately connect their
personal identities to larger concepts of history, membership, ethnicity, and,
nationalism
Process:
1. Consider the Relationship between Names and Identity
In this brief activity, students will read through a list of famous people who have changed
their names. They will consider what choices these individuals were making about their
identities when they changed their names.

Share the reading Choosing Names. Ask students if they recognize any names
from the list and if they have any ideas about why those individuals might have changed
their names.

Lead a discussion about the choice to change a name, using the questions below:

1. What reasons might people have for changing their names?

2. Do any of these name changes surprise you? Why?
3. Most of the people on this list are celebrities. Why do you think these
people might have changed their names as they became more
recognizable? What image might they have been trying to convey?
4. The last two names on the list are of people who were emancipated from
slavery after the Civil War. Why might they have chosen to change their
names?
5. How are names related to our personal histories? How might they be
related to our national history?
6. Are names the same as who we are? How much of you changes when your
name changes?
. Explore the Broader Identity a Name Represents
Students will continue their discussion of names by reflecting on how well they think
their own name reflects who they are. They will then turn to other facets of identity, using
the metaphor of an online search results page to think about the characteristics that make
up who they are.

Give students five minutes to journal about their names, using one of the
following prompts:

 I was given my name because . . .

 I like/dislike my name because . . .
 My name is/isn’t a good fit for my personality because . . .
 Describe a time when someone made an assumption about you because of
your name.
 Describe a time when your name affected your behavior.

1. Provide students with copies of the reading Two Names, Two Worlds, and ask
them to follow along as you read the text aloud.
2. After reading the text, lead the class in a discussion based on the questions below.
You might consider using the Think, Pair, Share strategy for the final question to
offer students the opportunity to reflect more deeply.
 1. Introduce the concept of identity. Ask students: If names are one way we are
given an identity and our identity is introduced to the rest of the world, how else
do we become who we are?
2. Ask students what they do when they want to know who or what someone or
something “is.” Someone will likely say, “Google it!” If not, introduce this idea,
and then explain to students that you would like them to start thinking about their
own identities—“who they are”—by imagining what they would like to see
among the results if they were to do an online search for their own name.
3. As a class, brainstorm a list of what types of things determine someone’s identity.
Record these ideas, or categories, on the board. Examples might include:

 Religious/spiritual affiliation
 Culture, race, or ethnicity
 Appearance/style
 Language or nationality
 Hobbies/interests
 Gender
 Sexual orientation
 Beliefs and values

 Group/organization/community membership
 Personality traits

1. With these and other categories in mind, ask students to create a mock online-
search results page for themselves in their journals. They can use the
handout Online-Search Identity Chart to brainstorm ideas. On the page they
create, instruct students to show what they would like to see in the results if they
did an online search for themselves. Tell students that the “results” could include
websites, images, videos, shopping profiles or reviews, and other types of pages
or links. Consider creating a search results page for yourself as a model for your
students, including images representing one of your interests, the website of a
school you attended, and other basic information you are comfortable sharing.
2. For homework, ask students to reflect on this activity using the following
prompts:

 How does your mock online search page answer the question, “Who am
I?”
 In what ways do you think this activity failed to capture aspects of your
identity?
 What characteristics do you think are important to your identity?

98.Calibrated peer review

A web- based management tool that enables discipline- based writing with peer
review in classes of any size.
 Process:

99.On your own

Questions are answered based on a student prior knowledge and experiences.
Process:
 Describe your vision, focus, objectives, and student needs.
 Identify resources.
 Develop experiences that meet your objectives.
 Collect and devise materials.
 Lock down the specifics of your task.
 Develop plans, methods, and processes.
 Create your students' experience.
 Go!

100. What / When / Why Outlines

Write brief notes answering the what / how/ why questions when analyzing a
message.

Process:
WHY?

 understand why you need this solution

 define the need/problem you are trying to address

WHAT?

 design a solution (IT or not)

HOW?

 plan implementation of the solution

 develop and deploy
 measure/monitor, learn, train

101. Assigned Roles

Many teachers find that assigning students’ particular roles is an effective
way to structure group work. Sometimes certain students tend to assume too
much responsibility for the groups’ work, while other students may be reluctant
to contribute to the group’s activity. As students practice different roles, they
have the opportunity to develop a variety of skills.
Process:
 Determine the Roles You Need
The roles most often needed for group work include facilitator, recorder, presenter, timekeeper,
and artist.
 Provide Students with Expectations for Roles
When you first introduce roles, provide clear instructions for the responsibilities that come with
each assignment. You might want to make lists of what it looks like when the role is performed
well and when it is not performed well.
 Debrief and Evaluate
In writing or through a discussion, ask students to reflect on their experiences working in
groups. Which roles do they feel most comfortable in? Which are most challenging for them?
Students may also have ideas about new roles that should be assigned.