PSYCHOLINGUISTICS SUMMARY

&
QUESTION AND ANSWER

ARRANGED BY:

CLASS B
1. Salsabila BZ A320170056
2. Rizaldhi Vigarsa A320170064
3. Khusnun Afifah A320170065
4. Achmad Dzaky M A320170073
5. Tanzihan Kuntadewa Al Murtadho A320170074
6. Aditya Alex Sandra A320170076
7. Mamduh Muh Yazid N E A B A320170080
8. Irwan A320170085
9. Vanina Amalia A320170087
10. Ridwan Pambudi A320170088

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH EDUCATION

UNIVERSITAS MUHAMMADIYAH SURAKARTA

1. THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE

Introduction
It is started previously that the psycholinguistic endeavor is to uncover the mental
processes that are implicated in the comprehension, production, and acquisition of
language. In so doing, we have to begin with the study of language, namely, its structure
and functions. In addition, it also discusses the concept of competence and
performance.
1. Language structure
The elements and rules have been traditionally called the grammar of a language. A
grammar is then “a system of rules” (clark and clark, 1977:5) to understand the
nature of language we must understand the nature of this internalized, unconscious
set of rules which is part of every grammar of every language. In general, there are
grammatical rules to deal with three major aspects of language: 1. Phonology 2.
Morphology, syntax and 3. Semantics.

• Phonology
Phonology is the study of the sound patters found in human language. Phonology
is often discussed in tandem with phonetics.

• Morphology
Morphology deals with words, their internal structure, and how they are formed
or word formation, the ways in which new words are made on the basic of other
words or morphemes. Some common types of word formation are affixation;
affixation is the most common way of making new words in English. Back
formation, back formation is the process of forming a new word. Clipping is the
word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its
parts, known as “truncation” or “shortening”. Compounding is the process of
combining two words to create new word. Conversion is the word formation
process in which a word of one grammatical fom becomes a word of another
grammatical from without any changes to spelling or pronunciation. A domical
adjective is an adjective formed from a noun, usually with the addition of a suffix.
A derivation morpheme is an affix that’s added to a word to create a new word
or a new form of a word. An inflectional morpheme is a suffix that’s added to a
word to assign a particular grammatical property to that word. A loan translation
is a compound in English that literally translate a foreign expression.

• Syntax
That part of linguistic knowledge which concerns the structure of sentences is
called syntax. Part of the meaning of a sentence is revealed by the particular
morphemes of which it is composed, but sentence meaning is more than the sum
of the meaning of morphemes. The study of linguistic meaning of words,
phrases, and sentences is called semantics.

2. Language function
 These three aspects of language function have been studied under the labels of
speech acts, proposition content, and thematic structure

3. Competence and performance

The major interest in psycholinguistics in the 1960s and 1970 was on syntactic
organization. In linguistics, Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar was
posed as a solution to problem found in dealing with sentences relationships,
ambiguity, and general lack of semantics answers.

The study of language

Structure function

Phonology morphology syntax semantics symbolic

interactive

Deep structure survace structure speech act proposional thematic

content

structure

Summary

Psycholinguistics attempts to find out the mental processes that are implicated in the
comprehension, production, and acquisition of language. In general, there are
grammatical rules to deal with three major aspects of language: phonology, syntax and
semantics. With language we can accomplish all the things which basically can be
categorized into two key functions, namely: the symbolic function (used is to express
thoughts and ideas) and the interactive function in our everyday social interactions.

2. THE PROCESS OF SPEECH COMPREHENSION

Clark and Clark (1977) tell about the definition of comprehension which indicates that
comprehension divides naturally into two processes, namely: the construction process
and the utilization process. The construction process refers to the process in which the
listeners construct an interpretation of what they hear and the utilization process in
which the listeners utilize this interpretation for further purposes.
a. The Construction Process

In constructing an interpretation or guess, listeners normally depend very much

on what they expect to hear. Bever in Aitchison (1998) has given some
explanations on the kind of expectation listeners to bring in comprehending
speech and what kind of clues they look for. He has proposed four assumptions
about how listeners approach speech. He assumes that listeners also devise
strategies for comprehending speech. These assumptions and linked strategies
will be labeled first, second, third and fourth. This does not mean to refer to the
order in which they are used, since all these four may be working
simultaneously. The discussion on these assumptions is largely based on Bever’s
work (in Aitchison, 1998: 207-216).

The first assumption is that “Every sentence consists of one or more sentoids or
sentence like chinks, and each sentoid normally includes a noun phrase followed
by a verb optionally followed by another noun phrase”. Thus, a sentence will
either be simple (i.e. Fian plays a guitar in his room) or complex, containing more
than one sentoids (for example it is NOT surprising that the fact that Fian sings in
his room disturbs his mother). The strategy or working principle which follows
these assumptions is that the listeners divide each sentence into sentoids by
looking for noun phrase- verb- noun phrase sequences. This is sometimes
referred to as canonical sentoid strategy, since noun phrase-verb-noun phrase is
the ‘canonical’. The standard form of an English sentence.

The second assumptions says that in “a noun phrase-verb-noun phrase

sequence, the first noun is usually the actor and the seconds the object. In other
words, English sentence normally has the word order ‘ actor-action object’ with
the person doing the action coming first as in Fian plas a guitar.

The strategy which stems from assumptions two is as follows: “Interpret an NP-
V-NP sequence as actor-action object unless we have strong indication to the
contrary.

NP V NP

Actor Action Object

Fian plays a guitar

 them, then they build an interpretation for the whole sentence. In semantic
approach, listeners are assumed to work on the interpretation of the sentence
would be conveying. They work on the assumption that the sentence refers to
entities, events, states, and facts. Then they actively search for sounds, words
and constituents that satisfy these assumptions and expectations (Clark and
Clark, 1977: 57). Listeners, however, may use some mixture of these two
approaches.

1) Syntactic Approach
The major proposal in syntactic approach is that “listeners have at their
command a battery of mental strategies by which they segment sentences into
constituents, classify the constituents, and construct semantic representation
from them” (Clark and Clark, 1977: 58). These strategies rely on the fact that
sentences contain elements which can be used as clues to proper segmentation.

2) Semantic Approach
In semantic approach, listeners are presumed to work from the interpretation of
a sentence that will be conveying. They work on the assumption that the
sentence refers to entities, events, states, and facts. Then they actively search for
sounds, words, and constituents that satisfy these assumptions and expectations.
The basic premise of the semantic approach is that the listeners’ goal is to
determine how each sentence is meant to be utilized. They achieve the goal by
following two working principles, namely: reality and cooperative. The reality
principle is concerned with the “substance of a sentence or the ideas being
talked about, and the cooperative principle is concerned with they way these
ideas are expressed (Clark and Clark, 1977: 72).

Thus, semantic approach exploits the core of a sentence-the content words and
their meaning. Listeners know that sentences make sense and refer to their
surroundings. Yet, a pure semantic approach will not work well to account for
sentences which are difficult to understand because they difficult to comprehend
the sentences the flower the girl picked was red and the cat chased and ate it
was dead.

3) The Utilization Process

Speakers talk for a purposes such as to assert beliefs, request, help, promise
action, express congratulation, and ask information etc. They convey their
purpose in three separable parts of utterance: the speech act, the propositional
content and the thematic structure.

1) Speech Act
A speech act is an utterance that serves a function in communication. In
real life interactions, we perform speech act when we offer an apology,
greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, refusal etc. Speakers
commonly expect listeners to recognize the function or the communicate
intention of the utterances they produce and to act accordingly. They are
 usually helped by the circumstances surrounding the utterances or the
speech event (Yule, 1999: 47). Both the speakers and listeners require not
only knowledge of the language but also appropriate use of that language
within a given culture.

2) Propositional Content
Propositional is the “unit of meaning which constitutes the subject matter
of a statement and which is asserted to be true or false” (Crystal, 2000:
316). It is a component of the underlying representation of a sentence
which usually takes the form of a simple declarative sentence.
Propositional content is the proposition which is directly expressed by a
sentence, so a very important function of sentences is to specify the ideas
around which a speech act is built. These ideas are conveyed by the
propositional content, or the ideational content of structure. The
propositional content of a sentence is the combination of propositions it
expresses.

3) Thematic Structure
Theme is the first major constituent of a sentence, an important element
in the sentence’s thematic structure (Crystal, 2000: 389). Thematic
structure refers to “those aspects of sentence structure that relate a
sentence to the context in which it is uttered (Clark and Clark, 1877: 567).
Effective speakers have to pay close attention to their listeners. They have
to pay close attention to their listeners. They have to keep track of what
their listeners do and do not know. They have to refer to things they
know and tell things they do not know. The speakers’ judgment about the
listeners’ current mental states is reflected in thematic structure (Clark
and Clark, 1977: 31). Thematic structure has three mains functions: to
convey given and new information, to convey the subject and predicate,
and to convey the frame and insert.

3. MEMORY AND COMPREHENSION

Introduction: memory is a label for a diverse set of cognitive capacities by which humans
and perhaps other animals retain information and reconstruct past experiences, usually
for present purposes. Experiences and events which are not happening now, so memory
seems to differ from perception. Sometimes, memory is a permanent record for our
experiences. In this view, we believe that nothing is lost. Everything is permanently
stored somewhere in our brain, which is memory. Memory must play a very important
role in language use. It’s a temporary place where sounds and words are stored, and it’s
a permanent place to store propositions and ideas constructed from them.
1. Human memory: there are generally 3 types of memory of memory involved,
namely; sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.
The sensory memories act as a memory storage for stimuli received through the
sense, it holds the stimulus in raw, unanalyzed state for a fraction of a second. A
sensory memory exists for each sensory named: iconic memory for visual (the
graph), echoic memory (the sound), and haptic memory for touch.
2. Short-term memory: based on Clark and Clark (1977) state that short term memory
is a place where exact wording is stored for a brief period of time. Words or items
can e maintained in STM only through active rehearsal or maintenance rehearsal,
the act of mentally repeating the information to be maintained. According to
Baddeley 1999, has introduced the powerful concept that the appropriate way to
characterize STM is as a working memory system. Working memory is conceived of
as a short duration limited capacity memory system capable of simultaneously
storing and manipulating information in the service of accomplishing a task. STM
also called working memory based on Taylor 1996 and Baddeley 1999.

3. Long term memory: LTM is a place where information is stored more permanently.
It consists of large member of facts and autobiographical events are maintained for
up to years. It can store a very large quantity of information and can maintain that
information for very long period time. It holds many different kinds of information
including: facts, events, motor perceptual skills, knowledge of physical laws, spatial
models of familiar environments, attitudes and beliefs about ourselves and others.
It has unlimited capacity and generally stores meaning rather that wording or
sounds it based on Squire and Zola 1999. There are 2 types of LTM: episodic
memory and semantic memory according to Kess 1999. Episodic memory
represents our memory of events and experiences in a serial form. An episodic
memory which comprises of the past events in an individual’s life represents
information concerning temporarily dated episodes that can later be recorded.
Semantic memory is a structured record of facts, concepts, vocabulary, and skills
that we have acquired. The information in semantic memory is derived from that in
our own episodic memory, such that we can learn new facts or concepts from our
experiences. Semantic memory contains information which deals with that people
know about the real world. There are 2 keys factor to get information remembered
by the LTM, there are association and interaction. With regard to association, we
normally learn new information by tying it to something we already know a thing
we already know, an experience we have had. There are 3 main activities or
processes related to LTM, those are storage, deletion and retrieval. Information
from STM is stored in LTM by rehearsal. The repeated exposure to a stimulus or the
rehearsal of a piece of information transfers it into LTM. Deletion is mainly caused
by decay and interference. Emotional factors also affect LTM. There are 2 types of
information retrieval: recall and recognition. In recall, the information is reproduced
from memory. In recognition the presentation of the information provides the
knowledge that the information has been seen before. However, the recall can be
assisted by the provision of retrieval cues which enable the subject to quickly access
the information in memory.

4. Remembering: there are 4 factors which may affect the content and accuracy of
what people remember, that are: type of language, input, retention interval, and
the output. The type of language such as a passage, an ordinary conversation a
formal lecture, a play and a poem. Remembering is a reconstructive process,
according to Clark and Clark 1977. In remembering people are making claims about
past events, not merely retrieving representation of the events themselves. Thus, as
a reconstructive process, people remember passages by piecing together what
 information they can retrieve, adding information, and making correction when
needed in order to make the sensible. The process of remembering involves 3
stages, namely: input, storage, and output. In remembering, people retrieve pieces
of information from memory in order to reconstruct sentences they claim to have
heard or read before. The depth of processing states that the more deeply people
comprehends a sentence, the more of it they will be able to recall. The focus of
processing sates that the aspect of a sentence people focus in the study will be
remembered better that e other aspects of the sentences. The basic principles
behind memorization are obvious. Passages will be easier to memorize if they are
meaningful, grammatical, written in the learners own native language and complete
with the rhyme and meter to anchor the surface structure according to Clark and
Clark 1977.

4. AMBIGUITY AND COMPREHENSION

Introduction

Knowing a word means knowing its sounds and meanings. Both aspects are very
important, since the same sounds may sometimes mean different things. Homophones
are sounds which have the same pronunciation but different spelling. For example, the
words to, too, and twoare all pronounced /tu/ but they’re refer to different things.
Whereas, homonyms are sounds which are pronounced and spelled identically, such as
un the word well in the following sentence, “Oh well, well, I will dig a well to see how
well the well water will well up”.

1. The notion of ambiguity

The study of ambiguity has been a central area of study in both linguistics and
psycholinguistics. Sentences can be ambiguity on the least three levels, namely on
lexical level (lexical ambiguity), on syntactic relationship with ambiguity in the
surface structures (surface structure ambiguity), and deep structure ambiguity (
Kess, 1999:133).
a. Lexical ambiguity
Lexical ambiguity is illustrated in the sentence, She cannot bear children. This
sentence may be understood to mean (1) She is unable to give birth to children
or (2) She cannot tolerate children, since they are noisy.
b. Surface structure ambiguity
Surface structure ambiguity is illustrated in the sentence, Old men and women
are advised to apply for their benefits. This sentence has two meaning (1) The old
men and the old women are advised to apply for their benefits and (2) The old
men and women are advised to apply for their benefits.
c. Deep structure ambiguity
Deep structure ambiguity is illustrated in the sentence; Cheating students will not
be tolerated. This sentence in ambiguous since it has two meanings (1) Someone
who is cheating students will not be tolerated and (2) Students who are cheating
will not be tolerated.

2. Comprehension of ambiguity sentences

 Ambiguity is also the concern of psycholinguistics. Three notable theories to discuss
here in the section are (1) the garden path theory, (2) the many meanings theory, (3)
the mixed-theory. (Clark and Clark, 1977:80)

3. Closing
Psychologists have great concern on ambiguity. They conducted experimental
research to find out how listeners process ambiguous sentences. The findings have
led to the emergence of the notable theories, namely: the garden path, the many
meanings, and the mixed theory.

5. THE PROCESS OF SPEECH PRODUCTION

Introduction :

Speaking seems to be a very instrumental act. Speakers talk in order ti has some effects
on their listeners. Producing speech seems require very little thought or effort. The
words produced flow effortlessly. Speakers think what they want to say and their
tongues automatically put their thoughts into words. They are not aware of how they
produce a sentence. However, such effortlessness of producing a speech is not true
when speakers try to talk something difficult such as giving a speech, telling a story
describing an object instructing someone on how to a ride a bike etc.

1. How is speech sound produced

Human speech is produced by vocal organs as presented in figure below. The
main energy source is the lungs with the diaphragm. Speaking the air flow is
forced through the glottis between the vocal tract, the pharynx and the oral and
nasal cavities. The V-shaped opening between the vocal cords, called the glottis
is the most important sound source in the vocal system. The vocal cords may act
in several different ways during speech. The most important, Function is to
modulate the air flow by rapidly opening and closing causing buzzing sounds
from which vowels and voiced consonants are produced.
The pharynx connects the larynx to the oral cavity. It has almost fixed dimensions
but its length may be changed slightly by raising or lowering the larynx at one
end and the soft palate at the other end.
The oral cavity is one of the most important parts of the vocal tract. Its size,
shape and acoustic can be varied by movements of the palate, the tongue the
lips the cheek. The KS and the teeth. Especially the tongue is very flexible the tip
and the edges can be moved independently. Its length is about 12 cm and
volume 60 cm the air stream to the nasal cavity is controlled by the soft palate.
2. Planning and execution
In planning and executing speech, speakers go through the processes as follows:
discourse plan sentence plan constitute plan, particularly, program, and
articulation.
Discourse plan, sentence plan, constituent plan, articulatory program,
articulation.
3. Source of planning difficulty
Planning speech takes time and in specific occasion it takes more times than
others. The three possible source of planning difficulty are cognitive reasons,
 psychological and social reasons. The first of planning difficulty is called cognitive
difficulty. The second source is in anxiety. The final source of difficulty is social
factor. For example speech plan seems difficult when conversation takes place
under pressure.

In planning and executing speech speakers go through several processes: discourse plan,
sentence plan, constituent plan, articulatory program and articulation. When speaking
speakers take the already formulated plans and execute them. Speech which runs quite
smoothly is called ideal delivery. However, not all goes well in everyday speech. The
actual speech execution is often filled with errors this is due to the intermixture
between planning and execution.

6. SPEECH PRODUCTION AND SPEECH ERRORS

Introduction

Speech production involves how a speaker translates information and

intentions into the language formats available in one language. As a speaker, we are
usually not aware of how we produce a speech. Producing speech seems require very
little thought or effort. Producing speech errors seems quite common to all speakers.
This part will primarily discuss this matter.

1. Execution of Speech Plans and Speech Errors

In speaking, people take the already formulated plans and execute them, but not all
goes well in every day speech. According to Clark and Clark (1997: 260) there are two
major sources of speech errors. First, they are the result of the difficulties the speakers
have in trying to plan and execute speech at the same time. Other types of speech errors
are the result of difficulties the speakers have in forming the articulatory program to
guide the articulatory muscles in executing sounds.
In relation to the execution of speech, speech errors give good evidence to the following
phenomena:
1. Speakers try to produce each constituent fluently;
2. They try to plan each constituent as a unit;
3. When they do have to stop, they often offer a brief explanation before
correcting themselves and going on; and
4. It is the selection of words that makes them stop when they do.

2. Common Speech Errors

The most common speech errors which disrupt ideal delivery are pausing and
hesitation when speakers speed up. They do it by eliminating pauses and do not hesitate
a lot. Although speech is li9near, it does not fill time continuously. There are frequent
breaks, pauses and hesitations.
 Goldman and Eisler in Kess further reports that when speech is natural or most
unprepared, 50% of the speech is broken into phrases of less than three words. There is
only 10% of the speech which consists of phrases of ten or more word. When the
speakers are allowed to prepare 15% of what they say contains phrases of 10 or more
words, 35% contains phrases of less than 3 words, and 65% contains phrases of less than
6 words.

Clark and Clark have mentioned three major hesitation points at which speakers are
likely to stop for planning

a. Grammatical Junctures. This is the logical point to stop to plan the skeleton and first
constituent of the upcoming sentences

b. Other Constituent Boundaries. Within sentences, these boundaries are the

appropriate place to stop to plan details of the next major constituent

c. Before the first Content Word Within a Constituent. This is q point after speakers
have committed themselves to the syntactic form of the constituent being executed, but
before they have planned the precise words to fill it out.

Common speech errors often occurs in the form of silent pause, a period of no
speech between words, such as turn on the // heater switch. Other speech error is in the
form of filled pause, a gap filled by ah, er, uh, mm, such as in Turn on, mm, the heater
switch. The next speech error which is commonly occurs in speech repeats. They are
repetitions of one or more words in a row such as Turn on the heater/the heater switch.
Next, false starts are two kinds: unretraced and retraced. Unretraced false starts are
correction of a word such as Turn of the stove/heater switch. And retraced false starts
are repetitions of one or more words before corrected words such as Turn on the
stove/heater switch. Other type of speech errors is corrections. They are like false starts,
but they contain an explicit correction such as I mean, rather, or that is such as Turn on
the stove switch - I mean the heater switch. The next interjections, like hesitation pause,
indicate that speakers have bad to stop to think about what to say next. It is in English
often emerge with the sound oh, ah, well, and say

The next type is stutters. Speakers who stutter speak rapidly the same sound or
syllable, as in “Turn on the h – h – h heater switch”. The last type of speech errors is slip
tongue. Speakers may make errors in sound, word parts, words, and even sentence
structures. They may include substitution, metathesis, omission, or addition of
segments. Such common speech errors provide evidence that speakers do make plan
before executing it.

Summary
 Speech production often appears to be an effortless task. Speakers think what they
want to say and say it automatically. In a specific occasion surely such effortlessness is
not true. When speaking, speakers take the already formulated plans and execute them.
The most common speech errors which disrupt ideal delivery are pausing and hesitation,
repeats, and stutters. In sum we can say that speech errors give us evidence that speech
productions follow the process of planning and the execution of the plan.

7. SLIP OF TONGUE

Introduction

Slip of tongue is defined as `unintended, non-habitual deviation (s) from a speech plan.
(Dell in Pouilise, 1999:1). Baars (in Poulise, 1999: 1) has characterized slip of tongue as
`inadvertent errors which are beyond the speakers control, which are not representative
of their ordinary language use and which can be corrected by them are asked to do so.
Slip of tongue is one type of speech error which appears to be more complex compared
with the above mentioned common speech errors. To carefully explain this
phenomenon, scholars hae made attempt to subdivide into two major categories:
selection errors and assemblage errors (Aitchison, 1989: 248). These two types of
tongue slip will be the main focus of this section.

1. Selection Errors
A speaker may slip his tongue in sounds, word parts, words, and sentence
structure. Errors in word selection illustrate the speakers’ awareness of part of
speech classes and how they fit into sentence frames. (Aitchison, 1989: 248) The
selection errors may include three types of error, namely: (1) semantic errors
(similar meaning errors), (2) malapropism (similar sound errors), and (3) blends.
a. Semantic Errors
Semantic or similar meaning errors are very common, even frequently pass
unnoticed. The most common semantic errors are in the form of word
selection or substitutions, in which slots are filled by wrong words. The target
and the errors tend to come from the same grammatical class.

Words are semantically related when they are antonyms (high-low),

synonyms (woman-lady), hyponyms (category- member i.e. fruit – apple),
members of the same category (knife- fork), and associates (bread evokes
butter). These pairs of word are often substituted, which results in errors.

b. Malapropism
It is a type of tongue slip which is named after Mrs. Mlaprop, a character in
one of Sheridan’s plays, the rivals, who continually confused words which
 sounded alike such as reprehend for apprehend, derangement for
arrangement, epitaphs for epithets, alligator for allegory, tambourines for the
target trampolines. In this case the intruding word is phonetically related to
the target word.

The substitution of the word reminisce for remiss and the word ravishing for
ravenous may have arisen because the speakers have incomplete phonetic
representations of the words they were thinking of and so they selected the
first word that sounded right.

c. Blends
Blends are variation of semantic errors which occur when two words are
blended together to form a new one. Such errors occur infrequently. When a
concept can be expressed by two equally likely alternative words, a speaker
may be unsure as to which word will best express her/his concept and in the
moment of indecision may select the two words and blended them into one.
(Taylor, 1990: 104) This phenomenon is exemplified below.
- Please expand that (explain and expand)
- Not in the least ( slightest and least)

QUESTION AND ANSWER

The Study Of Language

1. In general, there are grammatical rules to deal with three major aspects of language:
phonology,syntax,and semantics. Can you give examples the rules in english
phonology, syntax,semantics?
answer:
- Phonology (the sounds and their structure)
- Syntax (the way words combines to from sentence)
- Semantics ( the meaning of words and sentences)
2. There are at least two key functions of language, namely, symbolic and interactive
function. Can you explain each of the function and clarify your explanation with
some example
answer:
- One crucial function of lanquage is its symbolic function: language is used is to
express thoughts and ideas. It encodes and externalizes our thoughts. The way
lanquage does this is by using symbols. Symbols are "bits of language' which might
be in the form of meaningful sub-parts of words (i.e. dis- as in dislike), whole words
(i.e. cat, like), or 'strings' of words (i.e. I dislike cat, especially its fur). These symbols
consist of form (which may be spoken, written, or signed) and meaning (the
 conventional ideational or semantic content associated with the symbol. (Evans and
Green, 2006: 4)
- Another critical function of language is its interactive function. In our everyday
social interactions, language serves an interactive function. Evans and Green (2006:
4) argue that it is not sufficient that language merely pairs forms and meanings.
These form meaning pairings must be recognized by others in our community. After
all, we use language in order to 'get our ideas across' or to communicate. This
involves a process of transmission by the speaker, and decoding and interpretation
by the listener. Thus, in communication activity there are three main elements,
namely: speaker, listener, and a signaling system (i.e. English language) (Clark and
Clark, 1999: 25). The messages we choose to communicate can perform various
interactive and social functions. For example, we can use language to change the
way the world is as in, "I now pronounce you man and wife", or to make things
happen as in, "Shut the door when you leave!"

3. Speech acts have senses that to say something may be to do something. Thus in
‘issuing an utterance’ a speaker can perform simultaneous three acts : locutionary
act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. Discribe the three acts of the utterance
“the door is open”, “I left my pen at home”
answer:
- thus sincerely saying “the door is open”is discribe what the speaker takes to be a
fact about the door, under the circumstances of utterence.
- Thus sincerely saying “I left my pen at home”is discribe the speaker takes to be a
fact about the pen, under the circumstances the speaker
4. Chomsky’s consception distinguishes between competence and performance and
between surface structure and deep structure. Explain the differences by providing
some example!
answer:
To comsky’s conceptual array were addwd several new notions. The notion of deep
vs. surface structure distinctions are added to the grammar itself : while the concept
of performance vs. competence is added to general theory. Deep structure is "the
abstract or underlying syntactic representation of a sentence, specifying the factors
which govern its interpretation (Crystal, 2000: 95). For example, the deep structure
of both active and passive sentence, "My son sent me a birthday present" and "A
birthday present was sent to me" can be presented as follows: an actor/agent (my
son), action (sent), beneficiary (me), and patient (a birthday present). Surface
structure is "the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which
provides the input to the phonological competent of the grammar" (Crystal, 2000:
375). Deep structure is also often used informally to refer to the superficial
properties of a sentence. Thus, the sentences "My son sent me a birthday present"
and "A birthday present was sent to me" are both surface
 Speech Comprehension
1. What is comprehension in psycholinguistic perspective? Language comprehension is
an important aspect of day to day functioning in adulthood. Comprehension of
written and spoken language relies on the ability to correctly process word and
phrase meanings, sentence grammar, and discourse or text structure.
2. Describe 2 process, construction and utilization! comprehension refers to “the
mental processes by which listeners take in the sounds uttered by speaker and use
them to construct an interpretation of what the speaker intended to convey”
3. Describe 4 ways listeners approach speech! The syntactic approach to control
assumes that control relations can be determined on a purely structural basis. The
most influential proposal along these lines was made by Rosenbaum,
Semantic processing causes us to relate the word we just heard to other words with
similar meanings. Propositional Content. Sentence which has the function detailing
ideas into the framework of speech act. A thematic structure is a preoccupying
conception of a proposition which runs throughout a media text, usually around an
initiating topic. It strategically ties together a number of more specific conception or
statements on the basis of particular social forms of knowledge and social forms of
perception and belief. A thematic structure helps to make a media text coherent -- it
orients a text around a central theme or a strand of related themes running through
a story.
5. Syntatic approach, listener are assumed to use the surface structures or features for
a sentence or features for a sentence to make an interpretation. They identify
sounds,word, and longer constituents. From them,then they build an interpretation
for the whole sentence.
In semantic approach, on the other hand, listeners are assumed to work from
the interpretation of a sentence would be conveying. They work on the assumption
that the sentence refers to entities, event, states, and fact. They then actively search
for sounds,words,and constituents that satisfy these assumptions and expectations.
6. Firstly, according to the reality principle listeners interpret sentences in the belief
that the speaker is referring to a situation or set of ideas they can make sense of
(Clark and Clark, 1977: 1 72). By working from semantic information, listeners can 1
comprehend that sentences I don't like my lawnmowers and I sleep well every night
are grammatically acceptable sentences; they do make sense and that sentences My
lawnmower thinks that I don't like it, and colorless green ideas sleep furiously are
grammatical but do not make sense. These sentences contain unusual, bizarre
nature of the idea expressed. These are "expressions which conflict with our views of
how the world is" (James 2000: 71). Chomsky (1965: 1.48) calls them violation of
selectional rules. Clearly sentences that break selectional rules are deviant. It is
necessary to impose an interpretation on them. Certainly, there is no question of
imposing an interpretation in sentences such as John loves company; I think that I
don't like my lawnmower; and revolutionary new ideas appear infrequently. These
 sentences make sense. The reality principle is potential since it can help listeners to
exclude ambiguities or fill in misheard words, thus can avoid incorrect
interpretations.
7. Speech Act

A speech act is an utterance that serves a function in communication. In real-

life interactions, we perform speech acts when we offer an apology, greeting,
request, complaint, invitation, compliment, refusal, etc. Speakers commonly expect
listeners to recognize the function or the communicative intention of the utterances
they produce and to act accordingly. They are .usually helped by the circumstances
surrounding the utterances or the speech event. (Yule, 1999: 47) Both the speakers
and listeners require not only knowledge of the language but also appropriate use of
that language within a given culture. Among the many types of speech act as one can
perform, there are three of the commonest: assertions, questions, and commands,
as illustrated below:

-I tell you that Hanif is out.

- Who has repaired the TV set

- I order you to keep quiet.

The above examples are the standard way used by speakers to inform, to
question, and to command. However, command some one to do something can be
done through different ways. It can be done indirectly with declarative construction,
interrogative construction, and other special devices, as exemplified below: Direct
command : open the door

indirect command : Can you open the door?

Would you mind opening the door?

The door is open.

Why not open the door.

Haven't you forgotten something?

I would prefer the door open.

It's very hot in here.

My hands are full.

 Memory And Comprehension
1. a. Sensory memory as memory storage for stimuli received through the senses. It holds
the stimulus in raw, unanalyzed state for a freaction of a second.
a. A short term memory is a place where exact wording is stored for a brief period of
time.
b. A working memory is made up of three main components, namely the central
executive, the articulatory loop, and the visual-spatial scratch pad.
c. A long – term memory is a place where information is stored more permanently.
2. Incoming Sensory memory (info not attended to) – attention Working memory
(forgetting) – encoding Long term memory (forgetting).
3. Episodic memory represant our memory of events and experiences in a serial form
example we can reconstruct the actual events that took place at a given point in our
lives. Semantic memory is a structured record of facts, concepts, vocabulary and skills
that we have accuired example we can learn new facts or concepts from our
experiences.
4. When one is supposed to memorize a poem,lyrics or passage, for example : he sould
repeat the passage , the poem on the lyrics again and again.
5. The type of language such as a passage, input also results in different memory,
retentation interval also result in different memory, output does results in different
memory.
6. On the hearing passage listeners jot down notes in a kind of pigeon hole in memory
(the storage) until they need them. Within the storage some notes can become lost or
smudged.
7. They are meaningful,grammatical, written in the learners own native language, and
complate with rhyme and meter to anchor the surface structure.

AMBIGUITY AND COMPREHENSION

1. Homophones are sounds which have the same pronunciation but different spelling. Such
as to, too, and two.
Homonyms are sound are pronounce and spelled identically, such as in the word well in
the sentence “oh well, well, I will dig a well to see how, well, the well, water will well up.
2. When there is a sentence contain a word that has more than one meaning. Example: she
cannot bear children. The word bear may have 2 different meaning: to give a birth and
to endure.
3. Surface structure is ambiguous sentence which is generally associated with the scope or
grouping or various words. For example: old men and women are advised to apply for
their benefit.
 Deep structure is an ambiguous sentence which is depends on different interpretations
of grammatical relations such as subject and direct object in a sentence. Example: flying
planes can be dangerous.
4. The listeners proceed through a sentence the compute only one reading for each
ambiguous construction. Only if the reading become implausible or contradictory they
do go back and compute a second, third, or fourth interpretation.
5. Listeners compute two or more readings for each ambiguous construction and then
immediately pick up one on the basis of context.
6. This theory claim that when listeners encounter an ambiguous construction, they
compute multiple readings. If the ambiguity has not been resolved by the end of the
clause, they selelct one reading and stick to it.

The Process Of Speech Production

Questions

1. Thus speech production follows at least two processes: planning and execution. Describe
these two processes.

2. In planning and executing speech, speakers go through several processes: discourse plan,
sentence plan, constituent plan, articulatory program, and articulation. Discuss each of
the process.

3. Level mentions three main stages of sentence production, describe each of the stages.

4. What is meant by ideal delivery in speech production?

5. Explain some of the sources of speech plan difficulty.

6. What is the major cause of the existence of speech errors?

Answers

1. Producing speech can simply be described as follow. Speakers first plan what they want
to say based on how they want to give effect to their listeners. They then put their plan
into execution, uttering the segments, words, phrases, and sentences which make up the
plan.

2.

- Discourse Plan : The speakers decide what kind of discourse they are going to take
part in. For example to give instruction.
- Sentence Plan : After the speakers have decided on the discourse, they then have to
select the right sentence suitable with the discourse.
 - Constituent Plan : Once the listeners have decided on the kind of sentence, they
then can begin planning its constituent.
- Articulatory Program : After specific words or phrases are chosen, the spekers then
put them into an articulatory program in a working memory which is capable of
holding all the words of a planned constituents.
- Articulation : It is the execution of the contents of the articulatory program.

3.

• Conceptualization : The speakers must decide on the message to be conveyed.

• Formulation : The speaker must convert their message into a linguistic form.
• Articulation : The speaker must plan the motor movements needed to convey the
message.

4. When speaking, speakers take the already formulated plans and execute them speech
which runs quite smoothly is called ideal delivery.

5. The first source of planning difficulty is called cognitive difficulty. People usually take
longer time to produce sentences which deal with abstract things than concrete ones.
The second source is anxiety often becomes the source difficulty in speech plan. The final
source difficulty is social factor. For example speech plan seems difficult when
conversation takes place under pressure.

6. The actual speech execution is often filled with errors this is due to the intermixture
between planning and execution.

SPEECH PRODUCTION QUESTION PAGE 107

1. According to Clark and Clark there are two major sources of speech errors. First,
they are the result of the difficulties the speakers have in trying to plan and
excecute speech at the same time. Other types of speech errors are the result of
difficulties the speakers have in forming the articultory program to guide the
articultory muscles in excecuting sounds.
2. TYPES OF SPEECH ERRORS
NO TYPES EXPLANATION EXAMPLE
1, Silent pause pause that a period of no speech turn on the //
between words, heater switch
2. Filled pause pause with filled gap by: ee, emmm, turn on the //
uhmm, uhh, mm, er, ah, emm // the
heater switch.

3. Repeats they are repetitions of one or more turn on the

words in a row heater//the
heater switch
 4. False starts :
there are 2
kinds:
a. unretraced the correction of a mistake word turn on the
false starts stove//the heater
switch

b. retraced there are same with the unretraced turn on the stove
false but the difference is retraced false - i mean the
starts:. starts contain an explicit correction heater switch
such as: i mean, rather, or that is
5. Interjections : they like hesitation pause, indicate Turn on, oh ,the
that speakers have had to stop to heater switch
think about what to say next.
Interjection emerge sounds oh, ah,
well, and say
6. Stutters speaker who speak rapidly the same turn on the h-h-h
sound or syllable heater switch
7. Slips tongue. speakers may make errors in sounds, turn on the
word parts, words, and even sweeter hitch
sentence structure.

SLIP OF TONGUE

1) The differences between the selection and the assemblage errors :

• Selection errors are errors in which a wrong item is chosen, where something has
gone wrong with the selection process. (Aitchison, 1989: 248) The selection errors
may include three types of error, namely: (1) semantic errors (similar meaning
errors), (2) malapropism (similar sound errors), and (3) blends.
• Aitchison (1998: 250) has defined assemblage errors as "errors in which the correct
word choice has been made, but the items chosen have been faultily assembled."
There are three major types of assemblage errors, namely: transposition
(spoonerism), anticipation, and repetitions. These errors may affect words, syllables,
or sounds.

2) Example Of Tongue Slip :

• Semantic Errors : -At least they'll be good for boxes .. good for books.
• Malapropism : - Mussolini pudding (semolina pudding)
 - The naughty story car park (multi-story car park)
• Blends : - Please exland that (explain and expand)
- Not in the sleast (slightest and least)
• Spoonerism : - Terry and Julia - Derry and Chulia

- Clear blue shy - Glear and sky

• Anticipation : -Take my bike-bake my bike

-The west German chancellor-the worst German chancellor
• Repetitions : - turn on the heater / the heater switch

- Isn't it cold? More like a Sunday in February.

3) Example of tongue slip from a speaking class based its types

• Repetition : Turn on the AC / The AC switch

• Spoonerisms : Intended : The dear old Queen
Said : The queer old dean