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16 documentation

16.6. multiprocessing — Process-based

“threading” interface
New in version 2.6.

16.6.1. Introduction
multiprocessing is a package that supports spawning processes using an API similar to the
threading module. The multiprocessing package offers both local and remote concurrency,
effectively side-stepping the Global Interpreter Lock by using subprocesses instead of threads.
Due to this, the multiprocessing module allows the programmer to fully leverage multiple
processors on a given machine. It runs on both Unix and Windows.

The multiprocessing module also introduces APIs which do not have analogs in the threading
module. A prime example of this is the Pool object which offers a convenient means of
parallelizing the execution of a function across multiple input values, distributing the input data
across processes (data parallelism). The following example demonstrates the common practice
of defining such functions in a module so that child processes can successfully import that
module. This basic example of data parallelism using Pool ,

from multiprocessing import Pool

def f(x):
return x*x

if __name__ == '__main__':
p = Pool(5)
print(p.map(f, [1, 2, 3]))

will print to standard output

[1, 4, 9]

16.6.1.1. The Process class

In multiprocessing ,
processes are spawned by creating a Process object and then calling its
start() method. Process follows the API of threading.Thread . A trivial example of a multiprocess
program is

from multiprocessing import Process

def f(name):
print 'hello', name

if __name__ == '__main__':
p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
p.start()
p.join()

To show the individual process IDs involved, here is an expanded example:

from multiprocessing import Process

import os
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def info(title):
print title
print 'module name:', __name__
if hasattr(os, 'getppid'): # only available on Unix
print 'parent process:', os.getppid()
print 'process id:', os.getpid()

def f(name):
info('function f')
print 'hello', name

if __name__ == '__main__':
info('main line')
p = Process(target=f, args=('bob',))
p.start()
p.join()

For an explanation of why (on Windows) the if __name__ == '__main__' part is necessary, see
Programming guidelines.

16.6.1.2. Exchanging objects between processes

multiprocessing supports two types of communication channel between processes:

Queues

The Queue class is a near clone of Queue.Queue . For example:

from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

def f(q):
q.put([42, None, 'hello'])

if __name__ == '__main__':
q = Queue()
p = Process(target=f, args=(q,))
p.start()
print q.get() # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
p.join()

Queues are thread and process safe.

Pipes

The Pipe() function returns a pair of connection objects connected by a pipe which
by default is duplex (two-way). For example:

from multiprocessing import Process, Pipe

def f(conn):
conn.send([42, None, 'hello'])
conn.close()

if __name__ == '__main__':
parent_conn, child_conn = Pipe()
p = Process(target=f, args=(child_conn,))
p.start()
print parent_conn.recv() # prints "[42, None, 'hello']"
p.join()

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The two connection objects returned by Pipe() represent the two ends of the pipe.
Each connection object has send() and recv() methods (among others). Note that
data in a pipe may become corrupted if two processes (or threads) try to read from
or write to the same end of the pipe at the same time. Of course there is no risk of
corruption from processes using different ends of the pipe at the same time.

16.6.1.3. Synchronization between processes

multiprocessingcontains equivalents of all the synchronization primitives from threading . For
instance one can use a lock to ensure that only one process prints to standard output at a time:

from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

def f(l, i):

l.acquire()
print 'hello world', i
l.release()

if __name__ == '__main__':
lock = Lock()

for num in range(10):

Process(target=f, args=(lock, num)).start()

Without using the lock output from the different processes is liable to get all mixed up.

16.6.1.4. Sharing state between processes

As mentioned above, when doing concurrent programming it is usually best to avoid using
shared state as far as possible. This is particularly true when using multiple processes.

However, if you really do need to use some shared data then multiprocessing provides a couple
of ways of doing so.

Shared memory

Data can be stored in a shared memory map using Value or Array . For example, the
following code

from multiprocessing import Process, Value, Array

def f(n, a):

n.value = 3.1415927
for i in range(len(a)):
a[i] = -a[i]

if __name__ == '__main__':
num = Value('d', 0.0)
arr = Array('i', range(10))

p = Process(target=f, args=(num, arr))

p.start()
p.join()

print num.value
print arr[:]

will print
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3.1415927
[0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9]

The 'd' and 'i' arguments used when creating num and arr are typecodes of the
kind used by the array module: 'd' indicates a double precision float and 'i'
indicates a signed integer. These shared objects will be process and thread-safe.

For more flexibility in

using shared memory one can use the
multiprocessing.sharedctypes module which supports the creation of arbitrary ctypes
objects allocated from shared memory.

Server process

A manager object returned by Manager() controls a server process which holds

Python objects and allows other processes to manipulate them using proxies.

A manager returned by Manager() will support types list , dict , Namespace , Lock , RLock ,
Semaphore , BoundedSemaphore , Condition , Event , Queue , Value and Array . For example,

from multiprocessing import Process, Manager

def f(d, l):

d[1] = '1'
d['2'] = 2
d[0.25] = None
l.reverse()

if __name__ == '__main__':
manager = Manager()

d = manager.dict()
l = manager.list(range(10))

p = Process(target=f, args=(d, l))

p.start()
p.join()

print d
print l

will print

{0.25: None, 1: '1', '2': 2}

[9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

Server process managers are more flexible than using shared memory objects
because they can be made to support arbitrary object types. Also, a single manager
can be shared by processes on different computers over a network. They are,
however, slower than using shared memory.

16.6.1.5. Using a pool of workers

The Pool class represents a pool of worker processes. It has methods which allows tasks to be
offloaded to the worker processes in a few different ways.

For example:

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from multiprocessing import Pool, TimeoutError

import time
import os

def f(x):
return x*x

if __name__ == '__main__':
pool = Pool(processes=4) # start 4 worker processes

# print "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"

print pool.map(f, range(10))

# print same numbers in arbitrary order

for i in pool.imap_unordered(f, range(10)):
print i

# evaluate "f(20)" asynchronously

res = pool.apply_async(f, (20,)) # runs in *only* one process
print res.get(timeout=1) # prints "400"

# evaluate "os.getpid()" asynchronously

res = pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) # runs in *only* one process
print res.get(timeout=1) # prints the PID of that process

# launching multiple evaluations asynchronously *may* use more processes

multiple_results = [pool.apply_async(os.getpid, ()) for i in range(4)]
print [res.get(timeout=1) for res in multiple_results]

# make a single worker sleep for 10 secs

res = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))
try:
print res.get(timeout=1)
except TimeoutError:
print "We lacked patience and got a multiprocessing.TimeoutError"

Note that the methods of a pool should only ever be used by the process which created it.

Note: Functionality within this package requires that the __main__ module be importable by
the children. This is covered in Programming guidelines however it is worth pointing out here.
This means that some examples, such as the Pool examples will not work in the interactive
interpreter. For example:

>>> from multiprocessing import Pool

>>> p = Pool(5)
>>> def f(x):
... return x*x
...
>>> p.map(f, [1,2,3])
Process PoolWorker-1:
Process PoolWorker-2:
Process PoolWorker-3:
Traceback (most recent call last):
AttributeError: 'module' object has no attribute 'f'
AttributeError: 'module' object has no attribute 'f'
AttributeError: 'module' object has no attribute 'f'

(If you try this it will actually output three full tracebacks interleaved in a semi-random
fashion, and then you may have to stop the master process somehow.)

16.6.2. Reference
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The multiprocessing package mostly replicates the API of the threading module.

16.6.2.1. Process and exceptions

class multiprocessing. Process (group=None, target=None, name=None, args=(), kwargs={})
Process objects represent activity that is run in a separate process. The Process class has
equivalents of all the methods of threading.Thread .

The constructor should always be called with keyword arguments. group should always be
None ; it exists solely for compatibility with threading.Thread . target is the callable object to be
invoked by the run() method. It defaults to None , meaning nothing is called. name is the
process name. By default, a unique name is constructed of the form ‘Process-N1:N2:…:Nk’
where N1,N2,…,Nk is a sequence of integers whose length is determined by the generation
of the process. args is the argument tuple for the target invocation. kwargs is a dictionary of
keyword arguments for the target invocation. By default, no arguments are passed to
target.

If a subclass overrides the constructor, it must make sure it invokes the base class
constructor ( Process.__init__() ) before doing anything else to the process.

run ()
Method representing the process’s activity.

You may override this method in a subclass. The standard run() method invokes the
callable object passed to the object’s constructor as the target argument, if any, with
sequential and keyword arguments taken from the args and kwargs arguments,
respectively.

start ()
Start the process’s activity.

This must be called at most once per process object. It arranges for the object’s run()
method to be invoked in a separate process.

join ([timeout])
Block the calling thread until the process whose join() method is called terminates or
until the optional timeout occurs.

If timeout is None then there is no timeout.

A process can be joined many times.

A process cannot join itself because this would cause a deadlock. It is an error to
attempt to join a process before it has been started.

name
The process’s name.

The name is a string used for identification purposes only. It has no semantics. Multiple
processes may be given the same name. The initial name is set by the constructor.

is_alive ()
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Return whether the process is alive.

Roughly, a process object is alive from the moment the start() method returns until the
child process terminates.

daemon
The process’s daemon flag, a Boolean value. This must be set before start() is called.

The initial value is inherited from the creating process.

When a process exits, it attempts to terminate all of its daemonic child processes.

Note that a daemonic process is not allowed to create child processes. Otherwise a
daemonic process would leave its children orphaned if it gets terminated when its
parent process exits. Additionally, these are not Unix daemons or services, they are
normal processes that will be terminated (and not joined) if non-daemonic processes
have exited.

In addition to the threading.Thread API, Process objects also support the following attributes
and methods:

pid
Return the process ID. Before the process is spawned, this will be None .

exitcode
The child’s exit code. This will be None if the process has not yet terminated. A negative
value -N indicates that the child was terminated by signal N.

authkey
The process’s authentication key (a byte string).

When multiprocessing is initialized the main process is assigned a random string using
os.urandom() .

When a Process object is created, it will inherit the authentication key of its parent
process, although this may be changed by setting authkey to another byte string.

See Authentication keys.

terminate ()
Terminate the process. On Unix this is done using the SIGTERM signal; on Windows
TerminateProcess() is used. Note that exit handlers and finally clauses, etc., will not be
executed.

Note that descendant processes of the process will not be terminated – they will simply
become orphaned.

Warning: If this method is used when the associated process is using a pipe or
queue then the pipe or queue is liable to become corrupted and may become
unusable by other process. Similarly, if the process has acquired a lock or
semaphore etc. then terminating it is liable to cause other processes to deadlock.

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Note that the start() , join() , is_alive() , terminate() and exitcode methods should only be
called by the process that created the process object.

Example usage of some of the methods of Process :

>>> import multiprocessing, time, signal

>>> p = multiprocessing.Process(target=time.sleep, args=(1000,))
>>> print p, p.is_alive()
<Process(Process-1, initial)> False
>>> p.start()
>>> print p, p.is_alive()
<Process(Process-1, started)> True
>>> p.terminate()
>>> time.sleep(0.1)
>>> print p, p.is_alive()
<Process(Process-1, stopped[SIGTERM])> False
>>> p.exitcode == -signal.SIGTERM
True

exception multiprocessing. BufferTooShort

Exception raised by Connection.recv_bytes_into() when the supplied buffer object is too small
for the message read.

If e is an instance of BufferTooShort then e.args[0] will give the message as a byte string.

16.6.2.2. Pipes and Queues

When using multiple processes, one generally uses message passing for communication
between processes and avoids having to use any synchronization primitives like locks.

For passing messages one can use Pipe() (for a connection between two processes) or a
queue (which allows multiple producers and consumers).

The Queue , multiprocessing.queues.SimpleQueue and JoinableQueue types are multi-producer, multi-

consumer FIFO queues modelled on the Queue.Queue class in the standard library. They differ in
that Queue lacks the task_done() and join() methods introduced into Python 2.5’s Queue.Queue
class.

If you use JoinableQueue then you must call JoinableQueue.task_done() for each task removed from
the queue or else the semaphore used to count the number of unfinished tasks may eventually
overflow, raising an exception.

Note that one can also create a shared queue by using a manager object – see Managers.

Note: multiprocessing uses the usual Queue.Empty and Queue.Full exceptions to signal a
timeout. They are not available in the multiprocessing namespace so you need to import them
from Queue .

Note: When an object is put on a queue, the object is pickled and a background thread later
flushes the pickled data to an underlying pipe. This has some consequences which are a little
surprising, but should not cause any practical difficulties – if they really bother you then you
can instead use a queue created with a manager.

1. After putting an object on an empty queue there may be an infinitesimal delay before
the queue’s empty() method returns False and get_nowait() can return without raising
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Queue.Empty .

2. If multiple processes are enqueuing objects, it is possible for the objects to be received
at the other end out-of-order. However, objects enqueued by the same process will
always be in the expected order with respect to each other.

Warning: If a process is killed using Process.terminate() or os.kill() while it is trying to use

a Queue , then the data in the queue is likely to become corrupted. This may cause any other
process to get an exception when it tries to use the queue later on.

Warning: As mentioned above, if a child process has put items on a queue (and it has not
used JoinableQueue.cancel_join_thread ), then that process will not terminate until all buffered
items have been flushed to the pipe.

This means that if you try joining that process you may get a deadlock unless you are sure
that all items which have been put on the queue have been consumed. Similarly, if the child
process is non-daemonic then the parent process may hang on exit when it tries to join all its
non-daemonic children.

Note that a queue created using a manager does not have this issue. See Programming
guidelines.

For an example of the usage of queues for interprocess communication see Examples.

multiprocessing. Pipe ( [duplex])

Returns a pair (conn1, conn2) of Connection objects representing the ends of a pipe.

If duplex is True (the default) then the pipe is bidirectional. If duplex is False then the pipe is
unidirectional: conn1 can only be used for receiving messages and conn2 can only be used
for sending messages.

class multiprocessing. Queue ([maxsize])

Returns a process shared queue implemented using a pipe and a few locks/semaphores.
When a process first puts an item on the queue a feeder thread is started which transfers
objects from a buffer into the pipe.

The usual Queue.Empty and Queue.Full exceptions from the standard library’s Queue module
are raised to signal timeouts.

Queue implements all the methods of Queue.Queue except for task_done() and join() .

qsize ()
Return the approximate size of the queue. Because of multithreading/multiprocessing
semantics, this number is not reliable.

Note that this may raise NotImplementedError on Unix platforms like Mac OS X where
sem_getvalue() is not implemented.

empty ()
Return True if the queue is empty, False otherwise. Because of
multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this is not reliable.
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full ()
Return True if the queue is full, False otherwise. Because of
multithreading/multiprocessing semantics, this is not reliable.

put (obj[, block[, timeout]])

Put obj into the queue. If the optional argument block is True (the default) and timeout
is None (the default), block if necessary until a free slot is available. If timeout is a
positive number, it blocks at most timeout seconds and raises the Queue.Full exception
if no free slot was available within that time. Otherwise (block is False ), put an item on
the queue if a free slot is immediately available, else raise the Queue.Full exception
(timeout is ignored in that case).

put_nowait (obj)
Equivalent to put(obj, False) .

get ([block[, timeout]])

Remove and return an item from the queue. If optional args block is True (the default)
and timeout is None (the default), block if necessary until an item is available. If timeout
is a positive number, it blocks at most timeout seconds and raises the Queue.Empty
exception if no item was available within that time. Otherwise (block is False ), return an
item if one is immediately available, else raise the Queue.Empty exception (timeout is
ignored in that case).

get_nowait ()
Equivalent to get(False) .

Queuehas a few additional methods not found in Queue.Queue . These methods are usually
unnecessary for most code:

close ()
Indicate that no more data will be put on this queue by the current process. The
background thread will quit once it has flushed all buffered data to the pipe. This is
called automatically when the queue is garbage collected.

join_thread ()
Join the background thread. This can only be used after close() has been called. It
blocks until the background thread exits, ensuring that all data in the buffer has been
flushed to the pipe.

By default if a process is not the creator of the queue then on exit it will attempt to join
the queue’s background thread. The process can call cancel_join_thread() to make
join_thread() do nothing.

cancel_join_thread ()
Prevent join_thread() from blocking. In particular, this prevents the background thread
from being joined automatically when the process exits – see join_thread() .

A better name for this method might be allow_exit_without_flush() . It is likely to cause

enqueued data to lost, and you almost certainly will not need to use it. It is really only
there if you need the current process to exit immediately without waiting to flush
enqueued data to the underlying pipe, and you don’t care about lost data.
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Note: This class’s functionality requires a functioning shared semaphore

implementation on the host operating system. Without one, the functionality in this class
will be disabled, and attempts to instantiate a Queue will result in an ImportError . See bpo-
3770 for additional information. The same holds true for any of the specialized queue
types listed below.

class multiprocessing.queues. SimpleQueue

It is a simplified Queue type, very close to a locked Pipe .

empty ()
Return True if the queue is empty, False otherwise.

get ()
Remove and return an item from the queue.

put (item)
Put item into the queue.

class multiprocessing. JoinableQueue ( [maxsize])

JoinableQueue , a Queue subclass, is a queue which additionally has task_done() and join()
methods.

task_done ()
Indicate that a formerly enqueued task is complete. Used by queue consumer threads.
For each get() used to fetch a task, a subsequent call to task_done() tells the queue
that the processing on the task is complete.

If a join() is currently blocking, it will resume when all items have been processed
(meaning that a task_done() call was received for every item that had been put() into
the queue).

Raises a ValueError if called more times than there were items placed in the queue.

join ()
Block until all items in the queue have been gotten and processed.

The count of unfinished tasks goes up whenever an item is added to the queue. The
count goes down whenever a consumer thread calls task_done() to indicate that the
item was retrieved and all work on it is complete. When the count of unfinished tasks
drops to zero, join() unblocks.

16.6.2.3. Miscellaneous
multiprocessing. active_children ()
Return list of all live children of the current process.

Calling this has the side effect of “joining” any processes which have already finished.

multiprocessing. cpu_count ()
Return the number of CPUs in the system. May raise NotImplementedError .

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multiprocessing. current_process ()
Return the Process object corresponding to the current process.

An analogue of threading.current_thread() .

multiprocessing. freeze_support ()
Add support for when a program which uses multiprocessing has been frozen to produce a
Windows executable. (Has been tested with py2exe, PyInstaller and cx_Freeze.)

One needs to call this function straight after the if __name__ == '__main__' line of the main
module. For example:

from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support

def f():
print 'hello world!'

if __name__ == '__main__':
freeze_support()
Process(target=f).start()

If the freeze_support() line is omitted then trying to run the frozen executable will raise
RuntimeError .

Calling freeze_support() has no effect when invoked on any operating system other than
Windows. In addition, if the module is being run normally by the Python interpreter on
Windows (the program has not been frozen), then freeze_support() has no effect.

multiprocessing. set_executable ()
Sets the path of the Python interpreter to use when starting a child process. (By default
sys.executable is used). Embedders will probably need to do some thing like

set_executable(os.path.join(sys.exec_prefix, 'pythonw.exe'))

before they can create child processes. (Windows only)

Note: contains no analogues of threading.active_count() ,

multiprocessing
threading.enumerate() , threading.settrace() , threading.setprofile() , threading.Timer , or
threading.local .

16.6.2.4. Connection Objects

Connection objects allow the sending and receiving of picklable objects or strings. They can be
thought of as message oriented connected sockets.

Connection objects are usually created using Pipe – see also Listeners and Clients.

class Connection

send (obj)
Send an object to the other end of the connection which should be read using recv() .

The object must be picklable. Very large pickles (approximately 32 MB+, though it
depends on the OS) may raise a ValueError exception.
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recv ()
Return an object sent from the other end of the connection using send() . Blocks until
there is something to receive. Raises EOFError if there is nothing left to receive and the
other end was closed.

fileno ()
Return the file descriptor or handle used by the connection.

close ()
Close the connection.

This is called automatically when the connection is garbage collected.

poll ([timeout])
Return whether there is any data available to be read.

If timeout is not specified then it will return immediately. If timeout is a number then this
specifies the maximum time in seconds to block. If timeout is None then an infinite
timeout is used.

send_bytes (buffer[, offset[, size]])

Send byte data from an object supporting the buffer interface as a complete message.

If offset is given then data is read from that position in buffer. If size is given then that
many bytes will be read from buffer. Very large buffers (approximately 32 MB+, though
it depends on the OS) may raise a ValueError exception

recv_bytes ([maxlength])
Return a complete message of byte data sent from the other end of the connection as
a string. Blocks until there is something to receive. Raises EOFError if there is nothing
left to receive and the other end has closed.

If maxlength is specified and the message is longer than maxlength then IOError is
raised and the connection will no longer be readable.

recv_bytes_into (buffer[, offset])

Read into buffer a complete message of byte data sent from the other end of the
connection and return the number of bytes in the message. Blocks until there is
something to receive. Raises EOFError if there is nothing left to receive and the other
end was closed.

buffer must be an object satisfying the writable buffer interface. If offset is given then
the message will be written into the buffer from that position. Offset must be a non-
negative integer less than the length of buffer (in bytes).

If the buffer is too short then a BufferTooShort exception is raised and the complete
message is available as e.args[0] where e is the exception instance.

For example:

>>> from multiprocessing import Pipe

>>> a, b = Pipe()
>>> a.send([1, 'hello', None])
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>>> b.recv()
[1, 'hello', None]
>>> b.send_bytes('thank you')
>>> a.recv_bytes()
'thank you'
>>> import array
>>> arr1 = array.array('i', range(5))
>>> arr2 = array.array('i', [0] * 10)
>>> a.send_bytes(arr1)
>>> count = b.recv_bytes_into(arr2)
>>> assert count == len(arr1) * arr1.itemsize
>>> arr2
array('i', [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0])

Warning: The Connection.recv() method automatically unpickles the data it receives, which
can be a security risk unless you can trust the process which sent the message.

Therefore, unless the connection object was produced using Pipe() you should only use the
recv() and send() methods after performing some sort of authentication. See Authentication
keys.

Warning: If a process is killed while it is trying to read or write to a pipe then the data in the
pipe is likely to become corrupted, because it may become impossible to be sure where the
message boundaries lie.

16.6.2.5. Synchronization primitives

Generally synchronization primitives are not as necessary in a multiprocess program as they
are in a multithreaded program. See the documentation for threading module.

Note that one can also create synchronization primitives by using a manager object – see
Managers.

class multiprocessing. BoundedSemaphore ([value])

A bounded semaphore object: a close analog of threading.BoundedSemaphore .

A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its acquire method’s first argument is
named block and it supports an optional second argument timeout, as is consistent with
Lock.acquire() .

Note: On Mac OS X, this is indistinguishable from Semaphore because sem_getvalue() is

not implemented on that platform.

class multiprocessing. Condition ([lock])

A condition variable: a clone of threading.Condition .

If lock is specified then it should be a Lock or RLock object from multiprocessing .

class multiprocessing. Event

A clone of threading.Event . This method returns the state of the internal semaphore on exit,
so it will always return True except if a timeout is given and the operation times out.

Changed in version 2.7: Previously, the method always returned None .

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class multiprocessing. Lock

A non-recursive lock object: a close analog of threading.Lock . Once a process or thread has
acquired a lock, subsequent attempts to acquire it from any process or thread will block
until it is released; any process or thread may release it. The concepts and behaviors of
threading.Lock as it applies to threads are replicated here in multiprocessing.Lock as it
applies to either processes or threads, except as noted.

Note that Lock is actually a factory function which returns an instance of

multiprocessing.synchronize.Lock initialized with a default context.

Lock supports the context manager protocol and thus may be used in with statements.

acquire (block=True, timeout=None)

Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

With the block argument set to True (the default), the method call will block until the
lock is in an unlocked state, then set it to locked and return True . Note that the name of
this first argument differs from that in threading.Lock.acquire() .

With the block argument set to False , the method call does not block. If the lock is
currently in a locked state, return False ; otherwise set the lock to a locked state and
return True .

When invoked with a positive, floating-point value for timeout, block for at most the
number of seconds specified by timeout as long as the lock can not be acquired.
Invocations with a negative value for timeout are equivalent to a timeout of zero.
Invocations with a timeout value of None (the default) set the timeout period to infinite.
The timeout argument has no practical implications if the block argument is set to False
and is thus ignored. Returns True if the lock has been acquired or False if the timeout
period has elapsed. Note that the timeout argument does not exist in this method’s
analog, threading.Lock.acquire() .

release ()
Release a lock. This can be called from any process or thread, not only the process or
thread which originally acquired the lock.

Behavior is the same as in threading.Lock.release() except that when invoked on an

unlocked lock, a ValueError is raised.

class multiprocessing. RLock

A recursive lock object: a close analog of threading.RLock . A recursive lock must be
released by the process or thread that acquired it. Once a process or thread has acquired a
recursive lock, the same process or thread may acquire it again without blocking; that
process or thread must release it once for each time it has been acquired.

Note that is actually a factory function which returns an instance of

RLock
multiprocessing.synchronize.RLock initialized with a default context.

RLock supports the context manager protocol and thus may be used in with statements.

acquire (block=True, timeout=None)

Acquire a lock, blocking or non-blocking.

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When invoked with the block argument set to True , block until the lock is in an unlocked
state (not owned by any process or thread) unless the lock is already owned by the
current process or thread. The current process or thread then takes ownership of the
lock (if it does not already have ownership) and the recursion level inside the lock
increments by one, resulting in a return value of True . Note that there are several
differences in this first argument’s behavior compared to the implementation of
threading.RLock.acquire() , starting with the name of the argument itself.

When invoked with the block argument set to False , do not block. If the lock has
already been acquired (and thus is owned) by another process or thread, the current
process or thread does not take ownership and the recursion level within the lock is not
changed, resulting in a return value of False . If the lock is in an unlocked state, the
current process or thread takes ownership and the recursion level is incremented,
resulting in a return value of True .

Use and behaviors of the timeout argument are the same as in Lock.acquire() . Note
that the timeout argument does not exist in this method’s analog,
threading.RLock.acquire() .

release ()
Release a lock, decrementing the recursion level. If after the decrement the recursion
level is zero, reset the lock to unlocked (not owned by any process or thread) and if
any other processes or threads are blocked waiting for the lock to become unlocked,
allow exactly one of them to proceed. If after the decrement the recursion level is still
nonzero, the lock remains locked and owned by the calling process or thread.

Only call this method when the calling process or thread owns the lock. An
AssertionError is raised if this method is called by a process or thread other than the
owner or if the lock is in an unlocked (unowned) state. Note that the type of exception
raised in this situation differs from the implemented behavior in
threading.RLock.release() .

class multiprocessing. Semaphore ([value])

A semaphore object: a close analog of threading.Semaphore .

A solitary difference from its close analog exists: its acquire method’s first argument is
named block and it supports an optional second argument timeout, as is consistent with
Lock.acquire() .

Note: The acquire() method of BoundedSemaphore , Lock , RLock and Semaphore has a timeout
parameter not supported by the equivalents in threading . The signature is acquire(block=True,
timeout=None) with keyword parameters being acceptable. If block is True and timeout is not
None then it specifies a timeout in seconds. If block is False then timeout is ignored.

On Mac OS X, sem_timedwait is unsupported, so calling acquire() with a timeout will emulate

that function’s behavior using a sleeping loop.

Note: If the SIGINT signal generated by Ctrl-C arrives while the main thread is blocked by a
call to BoundedSemaphore.acquire() , Lock.acquire() , RLock.acquire() , Semaphore.acquire() ,
Condition.acquire() or Condition.wait() then the call will be immediately interrupted and
KeyboardInterrupt will be raised.

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This differs from the behaviour of threading where SIGINT will be ignored while the equivalent
blocking calls are in progress.

Note: Some of this package’s functionality requires a functioning shared semaphore

implementation on the host operating system. Without one, the multiprocessing.synchronize
module will be disabled, and attempts to import it will result in an ImportError . See bpo-3770
for additional information.

16.6.2.6. Shared ctypes Objects

It is possible to create shared objects using shared memory which can be inherited by child
processes.

multiprocessing. Value (typecode_or_type, *args[, lock])

Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory. By default the return value is actually
a synchronized wrapper for the object.

typecode_or_type determines the type of the returned object: it is either a ctypes type or a
one character typecode of the kind used by the array module. *args is passed on to the
constructor for the type.

If lock is True (the default) then a new recursive lock object is created to synchronize
access to the value. If lock is a Lock or RLock object then that will be used to synchronize
access to the value. If lock is False then access to the returned object will not be
automatically protected by a lock, so it will not necessarily be “process-safe”.

Operations like += which involve a read and write are not atomic. So if, for instance, you
want to atomically increment a shared value it is insufficient to just do

counter.value += 1

Assuming the associated lock is recursive (which it is by default) you can instead do

with counter.get_lock():
counter.value += 1

Note that lock is a keyword-only argument.

multiprocessing. Array (typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer, *, lock=True)

Return a ctypes array allocated from shared memory. By default the return value is actually
a synchronized wrapper for the array.

typecode_or_type determines the type of the elements of the returned array: it is either a
ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind used by the array module. If
size_or_initializer is an integer, then it determines the length of the array, and the array will
be initially zeroed. Otherwise, size_or_initializer is a sequence which is used to initialize the
array and whose length determines the length of the array.

If lock is True (the default) then a new lock object is created to synchronize access to the
value. If lock is a Lock or RLock object then that will be used to synchronize access to the

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value. If lock is False then access to the returned object will not be automatically protected
by a lock, so it will not necessarily be “process-safe”.

Note that lock is a keyword only argument.

Note that an array of ctypes.c_char has value and raw attributes which allow one to use it to
store and retrieve strings.

16.6.2.6.1. The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module

The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module provides functions for allocating ctypes objects from
shared memory which can be inherited by child processes.

Note: Although it is possible to store a pointer in shared memory remember that this will
refer to a location in the address space of a specific process. However, the pointer is quite
likely to be invalid in the context of a second process and trying to dereference the pointer
from the second process may cause a crash.

multiprocessing.sharedctypes. RawArray (typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer)

Return a ctypes array allocated from shared memory.

typecode_or_type determines the type of the elements of the returned array: it is either a
ctypes type or a one character typecode of the kind used by the array module. If
size_or_initializer is an integer then it determines the length of the array, and the array will
be initially zeroed. Otherwise size_or_initializer is a sequence which is used to initialize the
array and whose length determines the length of the array.

Note that setting and getting an element is potentially non-atomic – use Array() instead to
make sure that access is automatically synchronized using a lock.

multiprocessing.sharedctypes. RawValue (typecode_or_type, *args)

Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory.

typecode_or_type determines the type of the returned object: it is either a ctypes type or a
one character typecode of the kind used by the array module. *args is passed on to the
constructor for the type.

Note that setting and getting the value is potentially non-atomic – use Value() instead to
make sure that access is automatically synchronized using a lock.

Note that an array of ctypes.c_char has value and raw attributes which allow one to use it to
store and retrieve strings – see documentation for ctypes .

multiprocessing.sharedctypes. Array (typecode_or_type, size_or_initializer, *args[, lock])

The same as RawArray() except that depending on the value of lock a process-safe
synchronization wrapper may be returned instead of a raw ctypes array.

If lock is True (the default) then a new lock object is created to synchronize access to the
value. If lock is a Lock or RLock object then that will be used to synchronize access to the
value. If lock is False then access to the returned object will not be automatically protected
by a lock, so it will not necessarily be “process-safe”.

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Note that lock is a keyword-only argument.

multiprocessing.sharedctypes. Value (typecode_or_type, *args[, lock])

The same as RawValue() except that depending on the value of lock a process-safe
synchronization wrapper may be returned instead of a raw ctypes object.

If lock is True (the default) then a new lock object is created to synchronize access to the
value. If lock is a Lock or RLock object then that will be used to synchronize access to the
value. If lock is False then access to the returned object will not be automatically protected
by a lock, so it will not necessarily be “process-safe”.

Note that lock is a keyword-only argument.

multiprocessing.sharedctypes. copy (obj)

Return a ctypes object allocated from shared memory which is a copy of the ctypes object
obj.

multiprocessing.sharedctypes. synchronized (obj [, lock])

Return a process-safe wrapper object for a ctypes object which uses lock to synchronize
access. If lock is None (the default) then a multiprocessing.RLock object is created
automatically.

A synchronized wrapper will have two methods in addition to those of the object it wraps:
get_obj() returns the wrapped object and get_lock() returns the lock object used for
synchronization.

Note that accessing the ctypes object through the wrapper can be a lot slower than
accessing the raw ctypes object.

The table below compares the syntax for creating shared ctypes objects from shared memory
with the normal ctypes syntax. (In the table MyStruct is some subclass of ctypes.Structure .)

sharedctypes using
ctypes sharedctypes using type
typecode

c_double(2.4) RawValue(c_double, 2.4) RawValue(‘d’, 2.4)

MyStruct(4, 6) RawValue(MyStruct, 4, 6)

(c_short * 7)() RawArray(c_short, 7) RawArray(‘h’, 7)

(c_int * 3)(9, 2, 8) RawArray(c_int, (9, 2, 8)) RawArray(‘i’, (9, 2, 8))

Below is an example where a number of ctypes objects are modified by a child process:

from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

from multiprocessing.sharedctypes import Value, Array
from ctypes import Structure, c_double

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class Point(Structure):
_fields_ = [('x', c_double), ('y', c_double)]

def modify(n, x, s, A):

n.value **= 2
x.value **= 2
s.value = s.value.upper()
for a in A:
a.x **= 2
a.y **= 2

if __name__ == '__main__':
lock = Lock()

n = Value('i', 7)
x = Value(c_double, 1.0/3.0, lock=False)
s = Array('c', 'hello world', lock=lock)
A = Array(Point, [(1.875,-6.25), (-5.75,2.0), (2.375,9.5)], lock=lock)

p = Process(target=modify, args=(n, x, s, A))

p.start()
p.join()

print n.value
print x.value
print s.value
print [(a.x, a.y) for a in A]

The results printed are

49
0.1111111111111111
HELLO WORLD
[(3.515625, 39.0625), (33.0625, 4.0), (5.640625, 90.25)]

16.6.2.7. Managers
Managers provide a way to create data which can be shared between different processes. A
manager object controls a server process which manages shared objects. Other processes can
access the shared objects by using proxies.

multiprocessing. Manager ()
Returns a started SyncManager object which can be used for sharing objects between
processes. The returned manager object corresponds to a spawned child process and has
methods which will create shared objects and return corresponding proxies.

Manager processes will be shutdown as soon as they are garbage collected or their parent
process exits. The manager classes are defined in the multiprocessing.managers module:

class multiprocessing.managers. BaseManager ([address[, authkey]])

Create a BaseManager object.

Once created one should call start() or get_server().serve_forever() to ensure that the
manager object refers to a started manager process.

address is the address on which the manager process listens for new connections. If
address is None then an arbitrary one is chosen.

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authkey is the authentication key which will be used to check the validity of incoming
connections to the server process. If authkey is None then current_process().authkey .
Otherwise authkey is used and it must be a string.

start ([initializer[, initargs]])

Start a subprocess to start the manager. If initializer is not None then the subprocess will
call initializer(*initargs) when it starts.

get_server ()
Returns a Server object which represents the actual server under the control of the
Manager. The Server object supports the serve_forever() method:

>>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager >>>

>>> manager = BaseManager(address=('', 50000), authkey='abc')
>>> server = manager.get_server()
>>> server.serve_forever()

Server additionally has an address attribute.

connect ()
Connect a local manager object to a remote manager process:

>>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager >>>

>>> m = BaseManager(address=('127.0.0.1', 5000), authkey='abc')
>>> m.connect()

shutdown ()
Stop the process used by the manager. This is only available if start() has been used
to start the server process.

This can be called multiple times.

register (typeid[, callable[, proxytype[, exposed[, method_to_typeid[,

create_method]]]]])
A classmethod which can be used for registering a type or callable with the manager
class.

typeid is a “type identifier” which is used to identify a particular type of shared object.
This must be a string.

callable is a callable used for creating objects for this type identifier. If a manager
instance will be created using the from_address() classmethod or if the create_method
argument is False then this can be left as None .

proxytype is a subclass of BaseProxy which is used to create proxies for shared objects
with this typeid. If None then a proxy class is created automatically.

exposed is used to specify a sequence of method names which proxies for this typeid
should be allowed to access using BaseProxy._callmethod() . (If exposed is None then
proxytype._exposed_ is used instead if it exists.) In the case where no exposed list is
specified, all “public methods” of the shared object will be accessible. (Here a “public
method” means any attribute which has a __call__() method and whose name does not
begin with '_' .)
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method_to_typeid is a mapping used to specify the return type of those exposed

methods which should return a proxy. It maps method names to typeid strings. (If
method_to_typeid is None then proxytype._method_to_typeid_ is used instead if it exists.) If
a method’s name is not a key of this mapping or if the mapping is None then the object
returned by the method will be copied by value.

create_method determines whether a method should be created with name typeid

which can be used to tell the server process to create a new shared object and return a
proxy for it. By default it is True .

BaseManager instances also have one read-only property:

address
The address used by the manager.

class multiprocessing.managers. SyncManager

A subclass of BaseManager which can be used for the synchronization of processes. Objects
of this type are returned by multiprocessing.Manager() .

It also supports creation of shared lists and dictionaries.

BoundedSemaphore ([value])
Create a shared threading.BoundedSemaphore object and return a proxy for it.

Condition ([lock])
Create a shared threading.Condition object and return a proxy for it.

If lock is supplied then it should be a proxy for a threading.Lock or threading.RLock

object.

Event ()
Create a shared threading.Event object and return a proxy for it.

Lock ()
Create a shared threading.Lock object and return a proxy for it.

Namespace ()
Create a shared Namespace object and return a proxy for it.

Queue ([maxsize])
Create a shared Queue.Queue object and return a proxy for it.

RLock ()
Create a shared threading.RLock object and return a proxy for it.

Semaphore ([value])
Create a shared threading.Semaphore object and return a proxy for it.

Array (typecode, sequence)

Create an array and return a proxy for it.

Value (typecode, value)

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Create an object with a writable value attribute and return a proxy for it.

dict ()
dict (mapping)
dict (sequence)
Create a shared dict object and return a proxy for it.

list ()
list (sequence)
Create a shared list object and return a proxy for it.

Note: Modifications to mutable values or items in dict and list proxies will not be
propagated through the manager, because the proxy has no way of knowing when its
values or items are modified. To modify such an item, you can re-assign the modified
object to the container proxy:

# create a list proxy and append a mutable object (a dictionary)

lproxy = manager.list()
lproxy.append({})
# now mutate the dictionary
d = lproxy[0]
d['a'] = 1
d['b'] = 2
# at this point, the changes to d are not yet synced, but by
# reassigning the dictionary, the proxy is notified of the change
lproxy[0] = d

class multiprocessing.managers. Namespace

A type that can register with SyncManager .

A namespace object has no public methods, but does have writable attributes. Its
representation shows the values of its attributes.

However, when using a proxy for a namespace object, an attribute beginning with '_' will
be an attribute of the proxy and not an attribute of the referent:

>>> manager = multiprocessing.Manager()

>>> Global = manager.Namespace()
>>> Global.x = 10
>>> Global.y = 'hello'
>>> Global._z = 12.3 # this is an attribute of the proxy
>>> print Global
Namespace(x=10, y='hello')

16.6.2.7.1. Customized managers

To create one’s own manager, one creates a subclass of BaseManager and uses the register()
classmethod to register new types or callables with the manager class. For example:

from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager

class MathsClass(object):
def add(self, x, y):
return x + y
def mul(self, x, y):
return x * y

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class MyManager(BaseManager):
pass

MyManager.register('Maths', MathsClass)

if __name__ == '__main__':
manager = MyManager()
manager.start()
maths = manager.Maths()
print maths.add(4, 3) # prints 7
print maths.mul(7, 8) # prints 56

16.6.2.7.2. Using a remote manager

It is possible to run a manager server on one machine and have clients use it from other
machines (assuming that the firewalls involved allow it).

Running the following commands creates a server for a single shared queue which remote
clients can access:

>>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager >>>

>>> import Queue
>>> queue = Queue.Queue()
>>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
>>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda:queue)
>>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey='abracadabra')
>>> s = m.get_server()
>>> s.serve_forever()

One client can access the server as follows:

>>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager >>>

>>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
>>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
>>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey='abracadabra')
>>> m.connect()
>>> queue = m.get_queue()
>>> queue.put('hello')

Another client can also use it:

>>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager >>>

>>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
>>> QueueManager.register('get_queue')
>>> m = QueueManager(address=('foo.bar.org', 50000), authkey='abracadabra')
>>> m.connect()
>>> queue = m.get_queue()
>>> queue.get()
'hello'

Local processes can also access that queue, using the code from above on the client to access
it remotely:

>>> from multiprocessing import Process, Queue >>>

>>> from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager
>>> class Worker(Process):
... def __init__(self, q):
... self.q = q
... super(Worker, self).__init__()
... def run(self):
... self.q.put('local hello')
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...
>>> queue = Queue()
>>> w = Worker(queue)
>>> w.start()
>>> class QueueManager(BaseManager): pass
...
>>> QueueManager.register('get_queue', callable=lambda: queue)
>>> m = QueueManager(address=('', 50000), authkey='abracadabra')
>>> s = m.get_server()
>>> s.serve_forever()

16.6.2.8. Proxy Objects

A proxy is an object which refers to a shared object which lives (presumably) in a different
process. The shared object is said to be the referent of the proxy. Multiple proxy objects may
have the same referent.

A proxy object has methods which invoke corresponding methods of its referent (although not
every method of the referent will necessarily be available through the proxy). A proxy can
usually be used in most of the same ways that its referent can:

>>> from multiprocessing import Manager

>>> manager = Manager()
>>> l = manager.list([i*i for i in range(10)])
>>> print l
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
>>> print repr(l)
<ListProxy object, typeid 'list' at 0x...>
>>> l[4]
16
>>> l[2:5]
[4, 9, 16]

Notice that applying str() to a proxy will return the representation of the referent, whereas
applying repr() will return the representation of the proxy.

An important feature of proxy objects is that they are picklable so they can be passed between
processes. Note, however, that if a proxy is sent to the corresponding manager’s process then
unpickling it will produce the referent itself. This means, for example, that one shared object
can contain a second:

>>> a = manager.list()
>>> b = manager.list()
>>> a.append(b) # referent of a now contains referent of b
>>> print a, b
[[]] []
>>> b.append('hello')
>>> print a, b
[['hello']] ['hello']

Note: The proxy types in multiprocessing do nothing to support comparisons by value. So,
for instance, we have:

>>> manager.list([1,2,3]) == [1,2,3]

False

One should just use a copy of the referent instead when making comparisons.

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class multiprocessing.managers. BaseProxy

Proxy objects are instances of subclasses of BaseProxy .

_callmethod (methodname[, args[, kwds]])

Call and return the result of a method of the proxy’s referent.

If proxy is a proxy whose referent is obj then the expression

proxy._callmethod(methodname, args, kwds)

will evaluate the expression

getattr(obj, methodname)(*args, **kwds)

in the manager’s process.

The returned value will be a copy of the result of the call or a proxy to a new shared
object – see documentation for the method_to_typeid argument of
BaseManager.register() .

If an exception is raised by the call, then is re-raised by _callmethod() . If some other

exception is raised in the manager’s process then this is converted into a RemoteError
exception and is raised by _callmethod() .

Note in particular that an exception will be raised if methodname has not been
exposed.

An example of the usage of _callmethod() :

>>> l = manager.list(range(10))
>>> l._callmethod('__len__')
10
>>> l._callmethod('__getslice__', (2, 7)) # equiv to `l[2:7]`
[2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
>>> l._callmethod('__getitem__', (20,)) # equiv to `l[20]`
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
IndexError: list index out of range

_getvalue ()
Return a copy of the referent.

If the referent is unpicklable then this will raise an exception.

__repr__ ()
Return a representation of the proxy object.

__str__ ()
Return the representation of the referent.

16.6.2.8.1. Cleanup

A proxy object uses a weakref callback so that when it gets garbage collected it deregisters
itself from the manager which owns its referent.

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A shared object gets deleted from the manager process when there are no longer any proxies
referring to it.

16.6.2.9. Process Pools

One can create a pool of processes which will carry out tasks submitted to it with the Pool class.

class multiprocessing. Pool ([processes[, initializer[, initargs[, maxtasksperchild]]]])

A process pool object which controls a pool of worker processes to which jobs can be
submitted. It supports asynchronous results with timeouts and callbacks and has a parallel
map implementation.

processes is the number of worker processes to use. If processes is None then the number
returned by cpu_count() is used. If initializer is not None then each worker process will call
initializer(*initargs) when it starts.

Note that the methods of the pool object should only be called by the process which
created the pool.

New in version 2.7: maxtasksperchild is the number of tasks a worker process can
complete before it will exit and be replaced with a fresh worker process, to enable unused
resources to be freed. The default maxtasksperchild is None , which means worker
processes will live as long as the pool.

Note: Worker processes within a Pool typically live for the complete duration of the
Pool’s work queue. A frequent pattern found in other systems (such as Apache,
mod_wsgi, etc) to free resources held by workers is to allow a worker within a pool to
complete only a set amount of work before being exiting, being cleaned up and a new
process spawned to replace the old one. The maxtasksperchild argument to the Pool
exposes this ability to the end user.

apply (func[, args[, kwds]])

Equivalent of the apply() built-in function. It blocks until the result is ready, so
apply_async() is better suited for performing work in parallel. Additionally, func is only
executed in one of the workers of the pool.

apply_async (func[, args[, kwds[, callback]]])

A variant of the apply() method which returns a result object.

If callback is specified then it should be a callable which accepts a single argument.

When the result becomes ready callback is applied to it (unless the call failed). callback
should complete immediately since otherwise the thread which handles the results will
get blocked.

map (func, iterable[, chunksize])

A parallel equivalent of the map() built-in function (it supports only one iterable
argument though). It blocks until the result is ready.

This method chops the iterable into a number of chunks which it submits to the process
pool as separate tasks. The (approximate) size of these chunks can be specified by
setting chunksize to a positive integer.
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map_async (func, iterable[, chunksize[, callback]])

A variant of the map() method which returns a result object.

If callback is specified then it should be a callable which accepts a single argument.

When the result becomes ready callback is applied to it (unless the call failed). callback
should complete immediately since otherwise the thread which handles the results will
get blocked.

imap (func, iterable[, chunksize])

An equivalent of itertools.imap() .

The chunksize argument is the same as the one used by the map() method. For very
long iterables using a large value for chunksize can make the job complete much
faster than using the default value of 1 .

Also if chunksize is then the next() method of the iterator returned by the imap()
1
method has an optional timeout parameter: next(timeout) will raise
multiprocessing.TimeoutError if the result cannot be returned within timeout seconds.

imap_unordered (func, iterable[, chunksize])

The same as imap() except that the ordering of the results from the returned iterator
should be considered arbitrary. (Only when there is only one worker process is the
order guaranteed to be “correct”.)

close ()
Prevents any more tasks from being submitted to the pool. Once all the tasks have
been completed the worker processes will exit.

terminate ()
Stops the worker processes immediately without completing outstanding work. When
the pool object is garbage collected terminate() will be called immediately.

join ()
Wait for the worker processes to exit. One must call close() or terminate() before using
join() .

class multiprocessing.pool. AsyncResult

The class of the result returned by Pool.apply_async() and Pool.map_async() .

get ([timeout])
Return the result when it arrives. If timeout is not None and the result does not arrive
within timeout seconds then multiprocessing.TimeoutError is raised. If the remote call
raised an exception then that exception will be reraised by get() .

wait ([timeout])
Wait until the result is available or until timeout seconds pass.

ready ()
Return whether the call has completed.

successful ()

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Return whether the call completed without raising an exception. Will raise
AssertionError if the result is not ready.

The following example demonstrates the use of a pool:

from multiprocessing import Pool

import time

def f(x):
return x*x

if __name__ == '__main__':
pool = Pool(processes=4) # start 4 worker processes

result = pool.apply_async(f, (10,)) # evaluate "f(10)" asynchronously in a single proces

print result.get(timeout=1) # prints "100" unless your computer is *very* slow

print pool.map(f, range(10)) # prints "[0, 1, 4,..., 81]"

it = pool.imap(f, range(10))
print it.next() # prints "0"
print it.next() # prints "1"
print it.next(timeout=1) # prints "4" unless your computer is *very* slow

result = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, (10,))

print result.get(timeout=1) # raises multiprocessing.TimeoutError

16.6.2.10. Listeners and Clients

Usually message passing between processes is done using queues or by using Connection
objects returned by Pipe() .

However, the multiprocessing.connection module allows some extra flexibility. It basically gives a
high level message oriented API for dealing with sockets or Windows named pipes, and also
has support for digest authentication using the hmac module.

multiprocessing.connection. deliver_challenge (connection,

authkey)
Send a randomly generated message to the other end of the connection and wait for a
reply.

If the reply matches the digest of the message using authkey as the key then a welcome
message is sent to the other end of the connection. Otherwise AuthenticationError is raised.

multiprocessing.connection. answer_challenge (connection,authkey)

Receive a message, calculate the digest of the message using authkey as the key, and
then send the digest back.

If a welcome message is not received, then AuthenticationError is raised.

multiprocessing.connection. Client (address [, family[, authenticate[, authkey]]])

Attempt to set up a connection to the listener which is using address address, returning a
Connection .

The type of the connection is determined by family argument, but this can generally be
omitted since it can usually be inferred from the format of address. (See Address Formats)

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If authenticate is True or authkey is a string then digest authentication is used. The key
used for authentication will be either authkey or current_process().authkey) if authkey is None .
If authentication fails then AuthenticationError is raised. See Authentication keys.

class multiprocessing.connection. Listener ([address[, family[, backlog[, authenticate[,

authkey]]]]])
A wrapper for a bound socket or Windows named pipe which is ‘listening’ for connections.

address is the address to be used by the bound socket or named pipe of the listener object.

Note: If an address of ‘0.0.0.0’ is used, the address will not be a connectable end point
on Windows. If you require a connectable end-point, you should use ‘127.0.0.1’.

family is the type of socket (or named pipe) to use. This can be one of the strings 'AF_INET'
(for a TCP socket), 'AF_UNIX' (for a Unix domain socket) or 'AF_PIPE' (for a Windows named
pipe). Of these only the first is guaranteed to be available. If family is None then the family is
inferred from the format of address. If address is also None then a default is chosen. This
default is the family which is assumed to be the fastest available. See Address Formats.
Note that if family is 'AF_UNIX' and address is None then the socket will be created in a
private temporary directory created using tempfile.mkstemp() .

If the listener object uses a socket then backlog (1 by default) is passed to the listen()
method of the socket once it has been bound.

If authenticate is True ( False by default) or authkey is not None then digest authentication is
used.

If authkey is a string then it will be used as the authentication key; otherwise it must be
None .

If authkey is None and authenticate is True then current_process().authkey is used as the

authentication key. If authkey is None and authenticate is False then no authentication is
done. If authentication fails then AuthenticationError is raised. See Authentication keys.

accept ()
Accept a connection on the bound socket or named pipe of the listener object and
return a Connection object. If authentication is attempted and fails, then
AuthenticationError is raised.

close ()
Close the bound socket or named pipe of the listener object. This is called
automatically when the listener is garbage collected. However it is advisable to call it
explicitly.

Listener objects have the following read-only properties:

address
The address which is being used by the Listener object.

last_accepted
The address from which the last accepted connection came. If this is unavailable then
it is None .
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The module defines the following exceptions:

exception multiprocessing.connection. ProcessError

The base class of all multiprocessing exceptions.

exception multiprocessing.connection. BufferTooShort

Exception raised by Connection.recv_bytes_into() when the supplied buffer object is too small
for the message read.

exception multiprocessing.connection. AuthenticationError

Raised when there is an authentication error.

exception multiprocessing.connection. TimeoutError

Raised by methods with a timeout when the timeout expires.

Examples

The following server code creates a listener which uses 'secret password' as an authentication
key. It then waits for a connection and sends some data to the client:

from multiprocessing.connection import Listener

from array import array

address = ('localhost', 6000) # family is deduced to be 'AF_INET'

listener = Listener(address, authkey='secret password')

conn = listener.accept()
print 'connection accepted from', listener.last_accepted

conn.send([2.25, None, 'junk', float])

conn.send_bytes('hello')

conn.send_bytes(array('i', [42, 1729]))

conn.close()
listener.close()

The following code connects to the server and receives some data from the server:

from multiprocessing.connection import Client

from array import array

address = ('localhost', 6000)

conn = Client(address, authkey='secret password')

print conn.recv() # => [2.25, None, 'junk', float]

print conn.recv_bytes() # => 'hello'

arr = array('i', [0, 0, 0, 0, 0])

print conn.recv_bytes_into(arr) # => 8
print arr # => array('i', [42, 1729, 0, 0, 0])

conn.close()

16.6.2.10.1. Address Formats

An 'AF_INET' address is a tuple of the form (hostname, port) where hostname is a string
and port is an integer.
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An 'AF_UNIX' address is a string representing a filename on the filesystem.

An 'AF_PIPE' address is a string of the form

r'\.\pipe{PipeName}' .To use Client() to connect to a named pipe on a remote
computer called ServerName one should use an address of the form
r'\ServerName\pipe{PipeName}' instead.

Note that any string beginning with two backslashes is assumed by default to be an 'AF_PIPE'
address rather than an 'AF_UNIX' address.

16.6.2.11. Authentication keys

When one uses Connection.recv() , the data received is automatically unpickled. Unfortunately
unpickling data from an untrusted source is a security risk. Therefore Listener and Client() use
the hmac module to provide digest authentication.

An authentication key is a string which can be thought of as a password: once a connection is

established both ends will demand proof that the other knows the authentication key.
(Demonstrating that both ends are using the same key does not involve sending the key over
the connection.)

If authentication is requested but no authentication key is specified then the return value of
current_process().authkey is used (see Process ). This value will be automatically inherited by any
Process object that the current process creates. This means that (by default) all processes of a
multi-process program will share a single authentication key which can be used when setting up
connections between themselves.

Suitable authentication keys can also be generated by using os.urandom() .

16.6.2.12. Logging
Some support for logging is available. Note, however, that the logging package does not use
process shared locks so it is possible (depending on the handler type) for messages from
different processes to get mixed up.

multiprocessing. get_logger ()
Returns the logger used by multiprocessing . If necessary, a new one will be created.

When first created the logger has level logging.NOTSET and no default handler. Messages
sent to this logger will not by default propagate to the root logger.

Note that on Windows child processes will only inherit the level of the parent process’s
logger – any other customization of the logger will not be inherited.

multiprocessing. log_to_stderr ()
This function performs a call to get_logger() but in addition to returning the logger created
by get_logger, it adds a handler which sends output to sys.stderr using format '[%
(levelname)s/%(processName)s] %(message)s' .

Below is an example session with logging turned on:

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>>> import multiprocessing, logging >>>

>>> logger = multiprocessing.log_to_stderr()
>>> logger.setLevel(logging.INFO)
>>> logger.warning('doomed')
[WARNING/MainProcess] doomed
>>> m = multiprocessing.Manager()
[INFO/SyncManager-...] child process calling self.run()
[INFO/SyncManager-...] created temp directory /.../pymp-...
[INFO/SyncManager-...] manager serving at '/.../listener-...'
>>> del m
[INFO/MainProcess] sending shutdown message to manager
[INFO/SyncManager-...] manager exiting with exitcode 0

In addition to having these two logging functions, the multiprocessing also exposes two
additional logging level attributes. These are SUBWARNING and SUBDEBUG . The table below illustrates
where theses fit in the normal level hierarchy.

Level Numeric value

SUBWARNING 25

SUBDEBUG 5

For a full table of logging levels, see the logging module.

These additional logging levels are used primarily for certain debug messages within the
multiprocessing module. Below is the same example as above, except with SUBDEBUG enabled:

>>> import multiprocessing, logging >>>

>>> logger = multiprocessing.log_to_stderr()
>>> logger.setLevel(multiprocessing.SUBDEBUG)
>>> logger.warning('doomed')
[WARNING/MainProcess] doomed
>>> m = multiprocessing.Manager()
[INFO/SyncManager-...] child process calling self.run()
[INFO/SyncManager-...] created temp directory /.../pymp-...
[INFO/SyncManager-...] manager serving at '/.../pymp-djGBXN/listener-...'
>>> del m
[SUBDEBUG/MainProcess] finalizer calling ...
[INFO/MainProcess] sending shutdown message to manager
[DEBUG/SyncManager-...] manager received shutdown message
[SUBDEBUG/SyncManager-...] calling <Finalize object, callback=unlink, ...
[SUBDEBUG/SyncManager-...] finalizer calling <built-in function unlink> ...
[SUBDEBUG/SyncManager-...] calling <Finalize object, dead>
[SUBDEBUG/SyncManager-...] finalizer calling <function rmtree at 0x5aa730> ...
[INFO/SyncManager-...] manager exiting with exitcode 0

16.6.2.13. The multiprocessing.dummy module

multiprocessing.dummy replicates the API of multiprocessing but is no more than a wrapper around
the threading module.

16.6.3. Programming guidelines

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There are certain guidelines and idioms which should be adhered to when using
multiprocessing .

16.6.3.1. All platforms

Avoid shared state

As far as possible one should try to avoid shifting large amounts of data between
processes.

It is probably best to stick to using queues or pipes for communication between

processes rather than using the lower level synchronization primitives from the
threading module.

Picklability

Ensure that the arguments to the methods of proxies are picklable.

Thread safety of proxies

Do not use a proxy object from more than one thread unless you protect it with a
lock.

(There is never a problem with different processes using the same proxy.)

Joining zombie processes

On Unix when a process finishes but has not been joined it becomes a zombie.
There should never be very many because each time a new process starts (or
active_children() is called) all completed processes which have not yet been joined
will be joined. Also calling a finished process’s Process.is_alive will join the process.
Even so it is probably good practice to explicitly join all the processes that you start.

Better to inherit than pickle/unpickle

On Windows many types from multiprocessing need to be picklable so that child

processes can use them. However, one should generally avoid sending shared
objects to other processes using pipes or queues. Instead you should arrange the
program so that a process which needs access to a shared resource created
elsewhere can inherit it from an ancestor process.

Avoid terminating processes

Using the Process.terminate method to stop a process is liable to cause any shared
resources (such as locks, semaphores, pipes and queues) currently being used by
the process to become broken or unavailable to other processes.

Therefore it is probably best to only consider using Process.terminate on processes

which never use any shared resources.

Joining processes that use queues

Bear in mind that a process that has put items in a queue will wait before
terminating until all the buffered items are fed by the “feeder” thread to the

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underlying pipe. (The child process can call the cancel_join_thread() method of the
queue to avoid this behaviour.)

This means that whenever you use a queue you need to make sure that all items
which have been put on the queue will eventually be removed before the process is
joined. Otherwise you cannot be sure that processes which have put items on the
queue will terminate. Remember also that non-daemonic processes will be joined
automatically.

An example which will deadlock is the following:

from multiprocessing import Process, Queue

def f(q):
q.put('X' * 1000000)

if __name__ == '__main__':
queue = Queue()
p = Process(target=f, args=(queue,))
p.start()
p.join() # this deadlocks
obj = queue.get()

A fix here would be to swap the last two lines (or simply remove the p.join() line).

Explicitly pass resources to child processes

On Unix a child process can make use of a shared resource created in a parent
process using a global resource. However, it is better to pass the object as an
argument to the constructor for the child process.

Apart from making the code (potentially) compatible with Windows this also ensures
that as long as the child process is still alive the object will not be garbage collected
in the parent process. This might be important if some resource is freed when the
object is garbage collected in the parent process.

So for instance

from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

def f():
... do something using "lock" ...

if __name__ == '__main__':
lock = Lock()
for i in range(10):
Process(target=f).start()

should be rewritten as

from multiprocessing import Process, Lock

def f(l):
... do something using "l" ...

if __name__ == '__main__':
lock = Lock()
for i in range(10):
Process(target=f, args=(lock,)).start()

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Beware of replacing sys.stdin with a “file like object”

multiprocessing originally unconditionally called:

os.close(sys.stdin.fileno())

in the multiprocessing.Process._bootstrap() method — this resulted in issues with

processes-in-processes. This has been changed to:

sys.stdin.close()
sys.stdin = open(os.devnull)

Which solves the fundamental issue of processes colliding with each other resulting
in a bad file descriptor error, but introduces a potential danger to applications which
replace sys.stdin() with a “file-like object” with output buffering. This danger is that if
multiple processes call close() on this file-like object, it could result in the same data
being flushed to the object multiple times, resulting in corruption.

If you write a file-like object and implement your own caching, you can make it fork-
safe by storing the pid whenever you append to the cache, and discarding the cache
when the pid changes. For example:

@property
def cache(self):
pid = os.getpid()
if pid != self._pid:
self._pid = pid
self._cache = []
return self._cache

For more information, see bpo-5155, bpo-5313 and bpo-5331

16.6.3.2. Windows
Since Windows lacks os.fork() it has a few extra restrictions:

More picklability

Ensure that all arguments to Process.__init__() are picklable. This means, in

particular, that bound or unbound methods cannot be used directly as the target
argument on Windows — just define a function and use that instead.

Also, if you subclass Process then make sure that instances will be picklable when
the Process.start method is called.

Global variables

Bear in mind that if code run in a child process tries to access a global variable, then
the value it sees (if any) may not be the same as the value in the parent process at
the time that Process.start was called.

However, global variables which are just module level constants cause no problems.

Safe importing of main module

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Make sure that the main module can be safely imported by a new Python interpreter
without causing unintended side effects (such a starting a new process).

For example, under Windows running the following module would fail with a
RuntimeError :

from multiprocessing import Process

def foo():
print 'hello'

p = Process(target=foo)
p.start()

Instead one should protect the “entry point” of the program by using if __name__ ==
'__main__': as follows:

from multiprocessing import Process, freeze_support

def foo():
print 'hello'

if __name__ == '__main__':
freeze_support()
p = Process(target=foo)
p.start()

(The freeze_support() line can be omitted if the program will be run normally instead
of frozen.)

This allows the newly spawned Python interpreter to safely import the module and
then run the module’s foo() function.

Similar restrictions apply if a pool or manager is created in the main module.

16.6.4. Examples
Demonstration of how to create and use customized managers and proxies:

#
# This module shows how to use arbitrary callables with a subclass of
# `BaseManager`.
#
# Copyright (c) 2006-2008, R Oudkerk
# All rights reserved.
#

from multiprocessing import freeze_support

from multiprocessing.managers import BaseManager, BaseProxy
import operator

##

class Foo(object):
def f(self):
print 'you called Foo.f()'
def g(self):
print 'you called Foo.g()'
def _h(self):
print 'you called Foo._h()'

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# A simple generator function

def baz():
for i in xrange(10):
yield i*i

# Proxy type for generator objects

class GeneratorProxy(BaseProxy):
_exposed_ = ('next', '__next__')
def __iter__(self):
return self
def next(self):
return self._callmethod('next')
def __next__(self):
return self._callmethod('__next__')

# Function to return the operator module

def get_operator_module():
return operator

##

class MyManager(BaseManager):
pass

# register the Foo class; make `f()` and `g()` accessible via proxy
MyManager.register('Foo1', Foo)

# register the Foo class; make `g()` and `_h()` accessible via proxy
MyManager.register('Foo2', Foo, exposed=('g', '_h'))

# register the generator function baz; use `GeneratorProxy` to make proxies

MyManager.register('baz', baz, proxytype=GeneratorProxy)

# register get_operator_module(); make public functions accessible via proxy

MyManager.register('operator', get_operator_module)

##

def test():
manager = MyManager()
manager.start()

print '-' * 20

f1 = manager.Foo1()
f1.f()
f1.g()
assert not hasattr(f1, '_h')
assert sorted(f1._exposed_) == sorted(['f', 'g'])

print '-' * 20

f2 = manager.Foo2()
f2.g()
f2._h()
assert not hasattr(f2, 'f')
assert sorted(f2._exposed_) == sorted(['g', '_h'])

print '-' * 20

it = manager.baz()
for i in it:
print '<%d>' % i,
print

print '-' * 20

op = manager.operator()
print 'op.add(23, 45) =', op.add(23, 45)

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print 'op.pow(2, 94) =', op.pow(2, 94)

print 'op.getslice(range(10), 2, 6) =', op.getslice(range(10), 2, 6)
print 'op.repeat(range(5), 3) =', op.repeat(range(5), 3)
print 'op._exposed_ =', op._exposed_

##

if __name__ == '__main__':
freeze_support()
test()

Using Pool :

#
# A test of `multiprocessing.Pool` class
#
# Copyright (c) 2006-2008, R Oudkerk
# All rights reserved.
#

import multiprocessing
import time
import random
import sys

#
# Functions used by test code
#

def calculate(func, args):

result = func(*args)
return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % (
multiprocessing.current_process().name,
func.__name__, args, result
)

def calculatestar(args):
return calculate(*args)

def mul(a, b):

time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
return a * b

def plus(a, b):

time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
return a + b

def f(x):
return 1.0 / (x-5.0)

def pow3(x):
return x**3

def noop(x):
pass

#
# Test code
#

def test():
print 'cpu_count() = %d\n' % multiprocessing.cpu_count()

#
# Create pool
#

PROCESSES = 4
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print 'Creating pool with %d processes\n' % PROCESSES

pool = multiprocessing.Pool(PROCESSES)
print 'pool = %s' % pool
print

#
# Tests
#

TASKS = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(10)] + \

[(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

results = [pool.apply_async(calculate, t) for t in TASKS]

imap_it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
imap_unordered_it = pool.imap_unordered(calculatestar, TASKS)

print 'Ordered results using pool.apply_async():'

for r in results:
print '\t', r.get()
print

print 'Ordered results using pool.imap():'

for x in imap_it:
print '\t', x
print

print 'Unordered results using pool.imap_unordered():'

for x in imap_unordered_it:
print '\t', x
print

print 'Ordered results using pool.map() --- will block till complete:'
for x in pool.map(calculatestar, TASKS):
print '\t', x
print

#
# Simple benchmarks
#

N = 100000
print 'def pow3(x): return x**3'

t = time.time()
A = map(pow3, xrange(N))
print '\tmap(pow3, xrange(%d)):\n\t\t%s seconds' % \
(N, time.time() - t)

t = time.time()
B = pool.map(pow3, xrange(N))
print '\tpool.map(pow3, xrange(%d)):\n\t\t%s seconds' % \
(N, time.time() - t)

t = time.time()
C = list(pool.imap(pow3, xrange(N), chunksize=N//8))
print '\tlist(pool.imap(pow3, xrange(%d), chunksize=%d)):\n\t\t%s' \
' seconds' % (N, N//8, time.time() - t)

assert A == B == C, (len(A), len(B), len(C))

print

L = [None] * 1000000
print 'def noop(x): pass'
print 'L = [None] * 1000000'

t = time.time()
A = map(noop, L)
print '\tmap(noop, L):\n\t\t%s seconds' % \
(time.time() - t)

https://docs.python.org/2/library/multiprocessing.html 40/53
9/28/2019 16.6. multiprocessing — Process-based “threading” interface — Python 2.7.16 documentation

t = time.time()
B = pool.map(noop, L)
print '\tpool.map(noop, L):\n\t\t%s seconds' % \
(time.time() - t)

t = time.time()
C = list(pool.imap(noop, L, chunksize=len(L)//8))
print '\tlist(pool.imap(noop, L, chunksize=%d)):\n\t\t%s seconds' % \
(len(L)//8, time.time() - t)

assert A == B == C, (len(A), len(B), len(C))

print

del A, B, C, L

#
# Test error handling
#

print 'Testing error handling:'

try:
print pool.apply(f, (5,))
except ZeroDivisionError:
print '\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.apply()'
else:
raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

try:
print pool.map(f, range(10))
except ZeroDivisionError:
print '\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from pool.map()'
else:
raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

try:
print list(pool.imap(f, range(10)))
except ZeroDivisionError:
print '\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from list(pool.imap())'
else:
raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

it = pool.imap(f, range(10))
for i in range(10):
try:
x = it.next()
except ZeroDivisionError:
if i == 5:
pass
except StopIteration:
break
else:
if i == 5:
raise AssertionError('expected ZeroDivisionError')

assert i == 9
print '\tGot ZeroDivisionError as expected from IMapIterator.next()'
print

#
# Testing timeouts
#

print 'Testing ApplyResult.get() with timeout:',

res = pool.apply_async(calculate, TASKS[0])
while 1:
sys.stdout.flush()
try:

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sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % res.get(0.02))
break
except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
sys.stdout.write('.')
print
print

print 'Testing IMapIterator.next() with timeout:',

it = pool.imap(calculatestar, TASKS)
while 1:
sys.stdout.flush()
try:
sys.stdout.write('\n\t%s' % it.next(0.02))
except StopIteration:
break
except multiprocessing.TimeoutError:
sys.stdout.write('.')
print
print

#
# Testing callback
#

print 'Testing callback:'

A = []
B = [56, 0, 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729]

r = pool.apply_async(mul, (7, 8), callback=A.append)

r.wait()

r = pool.map_async(pow3, range(10), callback=A.extend)

r.wait()

if A == B:
print '\tcallbacks succeeded\n'
else:
print '\t*** callbacks failed\n\t\t%s != %s\n' % (A, B)

#
# Check there are no outstanding tasks
#

assert not pool._cache, 'cache = %r' % pool._cache

#
# Check close() methods
#

print 'Testing close():'

for worker in pool._pool:

assert worker.is_alive()

result = pool.apply_async(time.sleep, [0.5])

pool.close()
pool.join()

assert result.get() is None

for worker in pool._pool:

assert not worker.is_alive()

print '\tclose() succeeded\n'

#
# Check terminate() method
#

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print 'Testing terminate():'

pool = multiprocessing.Pool(2)
DELTA = 0.1
ignore = pool.apply(pow3, [2])
results = [pool.apply_async(time.sleep, [DELTA]) for i in range(100)]
pool.terminate()
pool.join()

for worker in pool._pool:

assert not worker.is_alive()

print '\tterminate() succeeded\n'

#
# Check garbage collection
#

print 'Testing garbage collection:'

pool = multiprocessing.Pool(2)
DELTA = 0.1
processes = pool._pool
ignore = pool.apply(pow3, [2])
results = [pool.apply_async(time.sleep, [DELTA]) for i in range(100)]

results = pool = None

time.sleep(DELTA * 2)

for worker in processes:

assert not worker.is_alive()

print '\tgarbage collection succeeded\n'

if __name__ == '__main__':
multiprocessing.freeze_support()

assert len(sys.argv) in (1, 2)

if len(sys.argv) == 1 or sys.argv[1] == 'processes':

print ' Using processes '.center(79, '-')
elif sys.argv[1] == 'threads':
print ' Using threads '.center(79, '-')
import multiprocessing.dummy as multiprocessing
else:
print 'Usage:\n\t%s [processes | threads]' % sys.argv[0]
raise SystemExit(2)

test()

Synchronization types like locks, conditions and queues:

#
# A test file for the `multiprocessing` package
#
# Copyright (c) 2006-2008, R Oudkerk
# All rights reserved.
#

import time, sys, random

from Queue import Empty

import multiprocessing # may get overwritten

https://docs.python.org/2/library/multiprocessing.html 43/53
9/28/2019 16.6. multiprocessing — Process-based “threading” interface — Python 2.7.16 documentation

#### TEST_VALUE

def value_func(running, mutex):

random.seed()
time.sleep(random.random()*4)

mutex.acquire()
print '\n\t\t\t' + str(multiprocessing.current_process()) + ' has finished'
running.value -= 1
mutex.release()

def test_value():
TASKS = 10
running = multiprocessing.Value('i', TASKS)
mutex = multiprocessing.Lock()

for i in range(TASKS):
p = multiprocessing.Process(target=value_func, args=(running, mutex))
p.start()

while running.value > 0:

time.sleep(0.08)
mutex.acquire()
print running.value,
sys.stdout.flush()
mutex.release()

print
print 'No more running processes'

#### TEST_QUEUE

def queue_func(queue):
for i in range(30):
time.sleep(0.5 * random.random())
queue.put(i*i)
queue.put('STOP')

def test_queue():
q = multiprocessing.Queue()

p = multiprocessing.Process(target=queue_func, args=(q,))
p.start()

o = None
while o != 'STOP':
try:
o = q.get(timeout=0.3)
print o,
sys.stdout.flush()
except Empty:
print 'TIMEOUT'

print

#### TEST_CONDITION

def condition_func(cond):
cond.acquire()
print '\t' + str(cond)
time.sleep(2)
print '\tchild is notifying'
print '\t' + str(cond)
cond.notify()
cond.release()

def test_condition():

https://docs.python.org/2/library/multiprocessing.html 44/53
9/28/2019 16.6. multiprocessing — Process-based “threading” interface — Python 2.7.16 documentation

cond = multiprocessing.Condition()

p = multiprocessing.Process(target=condition_func, args=(cond,))
print cond

cond.acquire()
print cond
cond.acquire()
print cond

p.start()

print 'main is waiting'

cond.wait()
print 'main has woken up'

print cond
cond.release()
print cond
cond.release()

p.join()
print cond

#### TEST_SEMAPHORE

def semaphore_func(sema, mutex, running):

sema.acquire()

mutex.acquire()
running.value += 1
print running.value, 'tasks are running'
mutex.release()

random.seed()
time.sleep(random.random()*2)

mutex.acquire()
running.value -= 1
print '%s has finished' % multiprocessing.current_process()
mutex.release()

sema.release()

def test_semaphore():
sema = multiprocessing.Semaphore(3)
mutex = multiprocessing.RLock()
running = multiprocessing.Value('i', 0)

processes = [
multiprocessing.Process(target=semaphore_func,
args=(sema, mutex, running))
for i in range(10)
]

for p in processes:
p.start()

for p in processes:
p.join()

#### TEST_JOIN_TIMEOUT

def join_timeout_func():
print '\tchild sleeping'
time.sleep(5.5)
print '\n\tchild terminating'

https://docs.python.org/2/library/multiprocessing.html 45/53
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def test_join_timeout():
p = multiprocessing.Process(target=join_timeout_func)
p.start()

print 'waiting for process to finish'

while 1:
p.join(timeout=1)
if not p.is_alive():
break
print '.',
sys.stdout.flush()

#### TEST_EVENT

def event_func(event):
print '\t%r is waiting' % multiprocessing.current_process()
event.wait()
print '\t%r has woken up' % multiprocessing.current_process()

def test_event():
event = multiprocessing.Event()

processes = [multiprocessing.Process(target=event_func, args=(event,))

for i in range(5)]

for p in processes:
p.start()

print 'main is sleeping'

time.sleep(2)

print 'main is setting event'

event.set()

for p in processes:
p.join()

#### TEST_SHAREDVALUES

def sharedvalues_func(values, arrays, shared_values, shared_arrays):

for i in range(len(values)):
v = values[i][1]
sv = shared_values[i].value
assert v == sv

for i in range(len(values)):
a = arrays[i][1]
sa = list(shared_arrays[i][:])
assert a == sa

print 'Tests passed'

def test_sharedvalues():
values = [
('i', 10),
('h', -2),
('d', 1.25)
]
arrays = [
('i', range(100)),
('d', [0.25 * i for i in range(100)]),
('H', range(1000))
]

shared_values = [multiprocessing.Value(id, v) for id, v in values]

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shared_arrays = [multiprocessing.Array(id, a) for id, a in arrays]

p = multiprocessing.Process(
target=sharedvalues_func,
args=(values, arrays, shared_values, shared_arrays)
)
p.start()
p.join()

assert p.exitcode == 0

####

def test(namespace=multiprocessing):
global multiprocessing

multiprocessing = namespace

for func in [ test_value, test_queue, test_condition,

test_semaphore, test_join_timeout, test_event,
test_sharedvalues ]:

print '\n\t######## %s\n' % func.__name__

func()

ignore = multiprocessing.active_children() # cleanup any old processes

if hasattr(multiprocessing, '_debug_info'):
info = multiprocessing._debug_info()
if info:
print info
raise ValueError('there should be no positive refcounts left')

if __name__ == '__main__':
multiprocessing.freeze_support()

assert len(sys.argv) in (1, 2)

if len(sys.argv) == 1 or sys.argv[1] == 'processes':

print ' Using processes '.center(79, '-')
namespace = multiprocessing
elif sys.argv[1] == 'manager':
print ' Using processes and a manager '.center(79, '-')
namespace = multiprocessing.Manager()
namespace.Process = multiprocessing.Process
namespace.current_process = multiprocessing.current_process
namespace.active_children = multiprocessing.active_children
elif sys.argv[1] == 'threads':
print ' Using threads '.center(79, '-')
import multiprocessing.dummy as namespace
else:
print 'Usage:\n\t%s [processes | manager | threads]' % sys.argv[0]
raise SystemExit(2)

test(namespace)

An example showing how to use queues to feed tasks to a collection of worker processes and
collect the results:

#
# Simple example which uses a pool of workers to carry out some tasks.
#
# Notice that the results will probably not come out of the output
# queue in the same in the same order as the corresponding tasks were
# put on the input queue. If it is important to get the results back
# in the original order then consider using `Pool.map()` or
# `Pool.imap()` (which will save on the amount of code needed anyway).
https://docs.python.org/2/library/multiprocessing.html 47/53
9/28/2019 16.6. multiprocessing — Process-based “threading” interface — Python 2.7.16 documentation

#
# Copyright (c) 2006-2008, R Oudkerk
# All rights reserved.
#

import time
import random

from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, current_process, freeze_support

#
# Function run by worker processes
#

def worker(input, output):

for func, args in iter(input.get, 'STOP'):
result = calculate(func, args)
output.put(result)

#
# Function used to calculate result
#

def calculate(func, args):

result = func(*args)
return '%s says that %s%s = %s' % \
(current_process().name, func.__name__, args, result)

#
# Functions referenced by tasks
#

def mul(a, b):

time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
return a * b

def plus(a, b):

time.sleep(0.5*random.random())
return a + b

#
#
#

def test():
NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES = 4
TASKS1 = [(mul, (i, 7)) for i in range(20)]
TASKS2 = [(plus, (i, 8)) for i in range(10)]

# Create queues
task_queue = Queue()
done_queue = Queue()

# Submit tasks
for task in TASKS1:
task_queue.put(task)

# Start worker processes

for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
Process(target=worker, args=(task_queue, done_queue)).start()

# Get and print results

print 'Unordered results:'
for i in range(len(TASKS1)):
print '\t', done_queue.get()

# Add more tasks using `put()`

for task in TASKS2:
task_queue.put(task)

https://docs.python.org/2/library/multiprocessing.html 48/53
9/28/2019 16.6. multiprocessing — Process-based “threading” interface — Python 2.7.16 documentation

# Get and print some more results

for i in range(len(TASKS2)):
print '\t', done_queue.get()

# Tell child processes to stop

for i in range(NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES):
task_queue.put('STOP')

if __name__ == '__main__':
freeze_support()
test()

An example of how a pool of worker processes can each run a SimpleHTTPServer.HttpServer

instance while sharing a single listening socket.

#
# Example where a pool of http servers share a single listening socket
#
# On Windows this module depends on the ability to pickle a socket
# object so that the worker processes can inherit a copy of the server
# object. (We import `multiprocessing.reduction` to enable this pickling.)
#
# Not sure if we should synchronize access to `socket.accept()` method by
# using a process-shared lock -- does not seem to be necessary.
#
# Copyright (c) 2006-2008, R Oudkerk
# All rights reserved.
#

import os
import sys

from multiprocessing import Process, current_process, freeze_support

from BaseHTTPServer import HTTPServer
from SimpleHTTPServer import SimpleHTTPRequestHandler

if sys.platform == 'win32':
import multiprocessing.reduction # make sockets pickable/inheritable

def note(format, *args):

sys.stderr.write('[%s]\t%s\n' % (current_process().name, format%args))

class RequestHandler(SimpleHTTPRequestHandler):
# we override log_message() to show which process is handling the request
def log_message(self, format, *args):
note(format, *args)

def serve_forever(server):
note('starting server')
try:
server.serve_forever()
except KeyboardInterrupt:
pass

def runpool(address, number_of_processes):

# create a single server object -- children will each inherit a copy
server = HTTPServer(address, RequestHandler)

# create child processes to act as workers

for i in range(number_of_processes-1):
Process(target=serve_forever, args=(server,)).start()

# main process also acts as a worker

https://docs.python.org/2/library/multiprocessing.html 49/53
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serve_forever(server)

def test():
DIR = os.path.join(os.path.dirname(__file__), '..')
ADDRESS = ('localhost', 8000)
NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES = 4

print 'Serving at http://%s:%d using %d worker processes' % \

(ADDRESS[0], ADDRESS[1], NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES)
print 'To exit press Ctrl-' + ['C', 'Break'][sys.platform=='win32']

os.chdir(DIR)
runpool(ADDRESS, NUMBER_OF_PROCESSES)

if __name__ == '__main__':
freeze_support()
test()

Some simple benchmarks comparing multiprocessing with threading :

#
# Simple benchmarks for the multiprocessing package
#
# Copyright (c) 2006-2008, R Oudkerk
# All rights reserved.
#

import time, sys, multiprocessing, threading, Queue, gc

if sys.platform == 'win32':
_timer = time.clock
else:
_timer = time.time

delta = 1

#### TEST_QUEUESPEED

def queuespeed_func(q, c, iterations):

a = '0' * 256
c.acquire()
c.notify()
c.release()

for i in xrange(iterations):
q.put(a)

q.put('STOP')

def test_queuespeed(Process, q, c):

elapsed = 0
iterations = 1

while elapsed < delta:

iterations *= 2

p = Process(target=queuespeed_func, args=(q, c, iterations))

c.acquire()
p.start()
c.wait()
c.release()

result = None
t = _timer()

https://docs.python.org/2/library/multiprocessing.html 50/53
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while result != 'STOP':

result = q.get()

elapsed = _timer() - t

p.join()

print iterations, 'objects passed through the queue in', elapsed, 'seconds'
print 'average number/sec:', iterations/elapsed

#### TEST_PIPESPEED

def pipe_func(c, cond, iterations):

a = '0' * 256
cond.acquire()
cond.notify()
cond.release()

for i in xrange(iterations):
c.send(a)

c.send('STOP')

def test_pipespeed():
c, d = multiprocessing.Pipe()
cond = multiprocessing.Condition()
elapsed = 0
iterations = 1

while elapsed < delta:

iterations *= 2

p = multiprocessing.Process(target=pipe_func,
args=(d, cond, iterations))
cond.acquire()
p.start()
cond.wait()
cond.release()

result = None
t = _timer()

while result != 'STOP':

result = c.recv()

elapsed = _timer() - t
p.join()

print iterations, 'objects passed through connection in',elapsed,'seconds'

print 'average number/sec:', iterations/elapsed

#### TEST_SEQSPEED

def test_seqspeed(seq):
elapsed = 0
iterations = 1

while elapsed < delta:

iterations *= 2

t = _timer()

for i in xrange(iterations):
a = seq[5]

elapsed = _timer()-t

https://docs.python.org/2/library/multiprocessing.html 51/53
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print iterations, 'iterations in', elapsed, 'seconds'

print 'average number/sec:', iterations/elapsed

#### TEST_LOCK

def test_lockspeed(l):
elapsed = 0
iterations = 1

while elapsed < delta:

iterations *= 2

t = _timer()

for i in xrange(iterations):
l.acquire()
l.release()

elapsed = _timer()-t

print iterations, 'iterations in', elapsed, 'seconds'

print 'average number/sec:', iterations/elapsed

#### TEST_CONDITION

def conditionspeed_func(c, N):

c.acquire()
c.notify()

for i in xrange(N):
c.wait()
c.notify()

c.release()

def test_conditionspeed(Process, c):

elapsed = 0
iterations = 1

while elapsed < delta:

iterations *= 2

c.acquire()
p = Process(target=conditionspeed_func, args=(c, iterations))
p.start()

c.wait()

t = _timer()

for i in xrange(iterations):
c.notify()
c.wait()

elapsed = _timer()-t

c.release()
p.join()

print iterations * 2, 'waits in', elapsed, 'seconds'

print 'average number/sec:', iterations * 2 / elapsed

####

def test():
manager = multiprocessing.Manager()

https://docs.python.org/2/library/multiprocessing.html 52/53
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gc.disable()

print '\n\t######## testing Queue.Queue\n'

test_queuespeed(threading.Thread, Queue.Queue(),
threading.Condition())
print '\n\t######## testing multiprocessing.Queue\n'
test_queuespeed(multiprocessing.Process, multiprocessing.Queue(),
multiprocessing.Condition())
print '\n\t######## testing Queue managed by server process\n'
test_queuespeed(multiprocessing.Process, manager.Queue(),
manager.Condition())
print '\n\t######## testing multiprocessing.Pipe\n'
test_pipespeed()

print

print '\n\t######## testing list\n'

test_seqspeed(range(10))
print '\n\t######## testing list managed by server process\n'
test_seqspeed(manager.list(range(10)))
print '\n\t######## testing Array("i", ..., lock=False)\n'
test_seqspeed(multiprocessing.Array('i', range(10), lock=False))
print '\n\t######## testing Array("i", ..., lock=True)\n'
test_seqspeed(multiprocessing.Array('i', range(10), lock=True))

print

print '\n\t######## testing threading.Lock\n'

test_lockspeed(threading.Lock())
print '\n\t######## testing threading.RLock\n'
test_lockspeed(threading.RLock())
print '\n\t######## testing multiprocessing.Lock\n'
test_lockspeed(multiprocessing.Lock())
print '\n\t######## testing multiprocessing.RLock\n'
test_lockspeed(multiprocessing.RLock())
print '\n\t######## testing lock managed by server process\n'
test_lockspeed(manager.Lock())
print '\n\t######## testing rlock managed by server process\n'
test_lockspeed(manager.RLock())

print

print '\n\t######## testing threading.Condition\n'

test_conditionspeed(threading.Thread, threading.Condition())
print '\n\t######## testing multiprocessing.Condition\n'
test_conditionspeed(multiprocessing.Process, multiprocessing.Condition())
print '\n\t######## testing condition managed by a server process\n'
test_conditionspeed(multiprocessing.Process, manager.Condition())

gc.enable()

if __name__ == '__main__':
multiprocessing.freeze_support()
test()

https://docs.python.org/2/library/multiprocessing.html 53/53