diktat

GEOMETRY

Arranged by:
Drs. Djoko Iswadji
Mohammad Mukhlisin, S.Pd.I

MATHEMATICS EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

Educational FACULTY AND SCIENCE EDUCATION
AHMAD UNIVERSITY DAHLAN
2010

1
 INTRODUCTION

Diktat course geometry is structured specifically to help students

Mathematics Education Faculty of Teacher Training and Education (Guidance and
Counseling) Ahmad Dahlan University Yogyakarta, in an effort to instill the basic
concepts of geometry that should be controlled well by the students as prospective
teachers of mathematics in secondary schools ,
Due to time constraints compared to the vastness of the material geometry,
so on this occasion, not all topics can be presented, but for a while prioritizing key
topics and essential; which is considered the most important to master the
students.
This diktat must no means nothing if it is not supported by the persistence
and determination to learn the students who use it.
Finally, in preparing this diktat, certainly there are many shortcomings and
weaknesses. For that of the readers or other interested parties kamai are expecting
a reprimand and suggestions for improvement. For those willing to give
suggestions for improvement that we express our thanks.

composer

Djoko Iswadji
Mohammad Mukhlisin

2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
The cover page
Foreword
table of contents
Part I Plane Geometry
Chapter I Introduction
Chapter II Build-Build Basics
Chapter III Parallel Lines
Chapter IV Triangle
Chapter V parallelogram and Belahketupat
CHAPTER VI Circles

Part II Geometry of Space

Chapter VII Introduction
Chapter VIII Image Build Space
Chapter IX Relation Between Elements Lounge
Chapter X line is perpendicular Field
Chapter XI Distance
Chapter XII Angle In Space
Chapter XIII Prisma
Chapter XIV Limas
Chapter XV Sliced Fields and Build Space
Chapter XVI Tubes
Chapter XVII Cone
Chapter XVIII Ball
Chapter XIX Field Many Regular
References

3
Geometry symbols

4
 PART I
GEOMERI FIELD

5
 PIG
PRELIMINARY

Geometry is a branch of mathematics that is removed from human

experience in interacting with the earth in all its aspects. Because the geometry is
very much to do with real life day-to-day humanity. Consciously or not all the
time or most of her life, people always close to or even dependent on the
particular geometry wake.
You try to explain how dependence or relation of man to shape the beam
and form a circle, tube and ball.
The universe was created by God with an infinite number of incredibility,
and only a small portion of which can be revealed by the human mind. With
geometry and other branches of mathematics that can explain the meaning of the
modes of nature which are then replicated and used by humans in an effort to
improve the welfare of mankind.
What is the meaning of mirror symmetry properties contained in the
foliage, animal or also on the human body? Are also on the irregular hexagonal
shape meaning beehive?
Because it is familiar to human life, as well as the lives of children of
school age, then it should have the geometry is a branch or part of the
mathematics courses that can be easily understood by most students. But in reality
most students feel difficult in learning geometry. Then it is the duty of math
teachers to continuously improve learning achievement of the students in learning
math, which among other things can be done by improving and growing interest
of students to the geometry.
Geometry objects are objects which are abstract mind, because it is for
most students in primary and secondary schools was difficult to understand. To
help students who are still difficult to think abstractly it is necessary to use props
in the form of models or drawings.
Objects of mind can be obtained from real objects by abstraction and
idealization. To instill the concept of a rectangle which is abstract use a

6
rectangular image and rectangular models, which consists of a skeleton model and
models of rectangular areas. In teaching geometry explicitly we distinguish
between the understanding, pictures and models. Therefore strongly should we
distinguish between a rectangle (which is abstract), a rectangular image (the
nature of concrete), and rectangular models (that are also concrete). Teachers
should also be aware that the geometry is a science that can not be delivered
properly only with words alone. Besides the words absolutely must be used also
drawings and models. Unless the images and the models were not enough to just
be alone. In the drawings or models that should do various activities, the activities
of the mind, along with physical activity, such as the manufacture, observation,
preparation, investigation and so on.
The results also learned geometry will not be maximized if all the material
presented in narrative form only. Most should be presented in the form of
questions to be answered, the problems to be solved, or tasks that must be done.
Geometry is also likely to foster creativity and skills, and attitudes carefully and
meticulously. All of it can only be obtained with wrestle intensive tasks.
Exercises in this book is expected to help improve the understanding of the
students. Every problem, no matter how difficult it let try to answer or do it
completely. If necessary, use an image, draw a picture which is quite large and
well in order to assist in solving the problem. If it can not be solved alone,
working with a group of friends learning. If the solution has not been found to ask
in the next lecture activities. Only then the description of the material in this book
will be as far as possible can be mastered by students or other readers, thereby
providing benefits as expected.
From the brief description of discussion is expected to be developed to
improve understanding, mastery and skill in the subject matter of geometry in
high school.

7
 CHAPTER II
WAKE UP WAKE-BASIC

1. Point, Line, and Field For Understanding Base.

In geometry, points, lines and areas constitute the base of understanding.
That is, points, lines and areas received as that term is not defined and viewed
as acceptable only by common sense (common sense). However, in order to
help understand the point we can explain the characteristics of a point, that
point has a small size is perfect.
Wake geometry defined (interpreted) as a set of specific points. Line is a
set of specific points. We know the lines, light lines and line segments.

A B segment or
beam line
AB beam line
line or
AB

AB
Discuss.
AB⃗
´ , , And?⃗
1. Is there a best way to read the notations AB BA AB
´
2. Did you ever see a line, a line beam, or a segment or a model of wake it?
3. If not explained specifically, it is the line is a straight line. What is meant
by "straight"?
´ PQ
4. Given two line segments and the length of each 2 cm and 5 cm. AB ´
´ PQ
a) Do and the same length? AB ´
b) If the number of dots that make up less than the number of dots that
´ PQ
form? Explain! AB ´
2. Corner
In everyday life a lot of things related to the angle. The angle can occur if
two lines or two fields intersect.
a. understanding corner

foot angle

regions corner
8
vertex
foot angle
 The angle is defined as a wake-up that occurs from a combination of the
two beams are coincident base, We distinguish between the nook and
corner areas.
b. Naming Angle
P
Q PQR = RQP =

c. Large Angle Measurement

Large angle is measured by the distance round

1 full rotation
full round
full rotation, and so on.

Large angle measured in degrees, minutes and seconds

1 (Degrees) = a full rotation
1 = 60 '(read: 60 minutes)
1 ' = 60" (Read: 60 seconds)

So 1 full rotation = 360°

1
full round = 180, called a straight angle°
2
1
full round = 90, called a right angle°
4
d. Types of Angles
Suppose x is the angle. We can distinguish corner by grouping them into:

Acute angle Right angle Obtuse angle straight angle

x = 90 90 <X <180 x = 180

(0 <X <90)

9
e. Relations between Angle
The corners of each berpenyiku x and y, x + y =
90, The angle y is penyiku of angle x and vice
y versa.
x

Corners and berpelurus each other, + = 180,

Corner a straightening of the angle and vice
versa.

Corner and the angle contradictory, = ,

f. The angle between Two Directions Mata Angin

North The angle between two adjacent
Northwest Northeast cardinal directions magnitude
45
45
West East (East)

Southwest Southeast
South

g. Programs Three Figuresto declare the location (position) or the direction

of travel towards a certain place. Determining the direction based on the
North direction then rotates in the direction of clockwise.

U
A majoring 112 of P.
60 B at 060 majors of P.
B C in 240 majors of P.

P 112
240
CA

h. elevation angle

10
 The angle of elevation is the angle between a horizontal line through the
eye of the observer points to the direction of vision or direction of view
which is located above the horizontal line earlier.

angle of depression

the angle of elevation

i. Depression angle
The angle of depression is the angle between a horizontal line through the
eye of the observer with the viewing direction which is located below the
horizontal.
j. image Scale
One of the uses in everyday life from the angle of elevation or depression
angle is in the calculation of the distance or height, using the image scale.

Calculate the tree height (t) on a

scaled drawing in addition, given
the scale of 1: 100, and the eye of
t the observer height of 1.56 cm.

30
12 cm

Exercise 1
Hint: Work together in study groups.
1. By using a piece of paper, how do you demonstrate or make a model of:
a. Sebuat straight angle?
b. A right angle?
c. An angle of 45°?
d. An angle of 60?°
2. a. What is the direction of the horizontal and vertical directions?

11
 b. Why in the daily life of a man familiar with the horizontal and vertical
directions?
2
3. a. Which angle magnitude penyikunya time?
3
b. Which corner almost 4 times pelurusnya?
4. a. What are some simple fixtures need to be prepared to do
high measurement flagpole in the school yard by using the sense of
elevation angle?
b. Can the flagpole's height is determined without measuring the distance of
the observer to point the foot flagpole?
c. By using an instrument used to measure the angle of elevation, can be
measured depression angle of an object? Explain!
d. What is very important to consider in the calculation using the image
scale?
5. Determine the type and magnitude of the angle formed by both clockwise
during the show hours:
a. 03:00
b. 09:15
c. 14:45
d. 21:30

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 CHAPTER III
PARALLEL LINES

1. Definition
In the field of geometry, two parallel lines is defined as two lines that do
not have a point of communion.

ab
p

If the lines a and b have a point of communion, said lines a and b intersect.
If the lines p and q have no fellowship point, said parallel line p and q,
denoted by p // q.

2. Axiom Alignment Two Lines

Through a point outside a line can be made precisely a line parallel to the
line.
Through a point P outside a line can be
P. made precisely a line parallel to the line a.
a

3. Theorem Alignment Two Lines

If a line intersects one of two parallel lines, then the line will also cut the
second line.
If it is known a // b and g cut a, then surely
g also cut b.

b
ga

If two lines parallel to each other with a line, then the two lines parallel to
each other.

13
 If p // // Q and A, then p // q.
p

4. Corners happens if two lines are cut by a line

a If two lines a and b are cut by a line g then
2A
31 there was:
4 Sehadap corners, namely:
g
A1 and B1; A2 and B2;
b21
A3 and B3; A4 and B4.
34
B

b) The corners of the opposite, namely:

A3 andB1;A4 andB2.
c) Outer corners opposite, namely:
A1 andB3;A2 andB4.
d) The corners of the unilateral, namely:
A3 andB2;A4 andB1.
e) Outer corners unilaterally, namely:
A1 andB4;A2 andB3.

c) Theorem on the corners happens if two parallel lines are cut by a line
If two parallel lines a and b are cut by a line p, then:
Sehadapnya angles equal.
among others: B1 = A1 and B2 = A2
a21A Alternate interior angles equal
34 B2 = A4 and B1 = A3

b21B
34
iii. Outer corners opposite an equally large
p
B3 =A1 andB4 =A2
iv. Every two corners in a unilateral number 180∘

14
 A4 +B1 = 180∘ and A3 +B2 = 180∘
v. Each of the two outer corners of unilateral number 180∘
A1 +B4 = 180∘ and A2 +B3 = 180∘
Theorem on two parallel lines intersected by a another line of
innumerable uses for proving the properties of the next geometry.

Exercise 2
How to determine the magnitude of angles x, y, and z follows:
2.
52 29 123 3x
x

3. 4.
z

x z
2y

42
5. Prove that a large number of angles of a triangle is equal to 180,
6. Using what has been proved in question no. 5. Prove that a large number of
angles of a quadrilateral equals 360,

15
 CHAPTER IV
TRIANGLE

In a geometry lesson in high school, understanding the triangle derived

from the definition of a rectangle.

II II

I
I
Rectangle Two right-angled Isosceles triangle
triangles are
congruent

How the formation of an arbitrary triangle, the triangle three sides of unequal
length and not a right triangle ?.
To answer these questions, we should have a solid understanding of the triangle.
In this chapter will be discussed on the definition, the elements of the
triangle, the types of triangles, triangles congruent (congruent), painting triangles
and theorems that apply to Triangle.
Middle school math curriculum makes the ability to paint the triangle
(geometry) as one of the competencies that must be mastered by the student.
Painting geometry is essentially an effort to visualize geometric objects that are
abstract, to be more easily communicated and understood. Thus the order of
objects delivered through drawing or painting it can be correctly received by the
students, then in making a painting or drawing geometry must be cultivated
carefully and meticulously. To achieve these objectives would require some
procedure in making a painting or drawing. Ordinances in this painting are studied
and briefly reviewed in this chapter.
The meaning of the paintings in this chapter is the process of getting a
picture of a particular object in the geometry. Geometry in question include: lines,
angles, triangles, or polygons, using major appliances such as a ruler and a
compass, protractor and pencil addition. In the development can also just use a

16
pair of right-angled triangles, but in many cases the use of term is absolutely
necessary.
To ensure a good painting, in the sense of the right shape and size, as well
as neat and clean, then in doing painting right to note the following:
1) Use a sharp pencil, occasionally do not use ink or pen.
2) Use a good ruler, not the edges of surface defects.
3) Use a good term in the sense of not wobbly hinge, needle, or pencil. The tip of
the pencil on the run should be guaranteed pointed, not blunt.
4) Prepare a pencil eraser.
5) At the time of draw a line through two points, keep these two points are
located right on the edge of the ruler with the same closeness. Likewise hold
the ruler, so that will not be shaken.
6) At the time of painting arc, first set the center and the length of her fingers,
then stick a needle jangkanya right at its center.
7) Before confident on the accuracy of the picture, make the lines a bit thin first.
Only after certain, the lines can be thickened with a pencil or if necessary with
ink.
If the guidelines above to be considered in each painting, and it is
implemented consistently by teachers in learning, the subject of "painting" will be
able to have "more value", because it can foster positive attitudes in the work, the
attitude careful, systematic, clean, neat, and accurate.

1. understanding Triangular
If there are three points that are not in line, two by two are connected by a line
segment, then there are three line segments. Combined three line segments is
called a triangle.
The third piece was called a side line segment. These three dots are called
vertices. Total length of the third side is called around the triangle.
Special lines in a triangle, namely: a high line of 3 pieces, 3 pieces of line
weight, 3 pieces of line for.

17
2. Elements of a triangle
The shape and size of a triangle defined by three sides and three corners.

C The elements of the triangle ABC are the sides AB,

BC and CA and the angles A, B, and C.

A,AB
B, and C are called the corner points of the triangle ABC, but the corner
points was not an element of the triangle ABC, why?
A particular triangular shape and size if it had known the three elements
independently of one another, and satisfy the properties of the triangle,
namely:
a. Total length of the two sides are longer than the third side.
b. The third large amount equal angles with 180,

3. Types of triangles
Triangle distinguished by:
a. According angle: acute triangle, right-angled triangle, and obtuse triangles.
Acute triangle The third angle triangle and an acute angle.
Right triangle namely that one corner of the triangle is a right angle.
obtuse triangle namely that one corner of the triangle is an obtuse angle.
b. According to its sides, the triangle is not equilateral, isosceles triangle,
equilateral triangle.
The triangle is not equilateral triangle and the three sides are not the same
length.
Isosceles triangle and the two sides have the same length. Furthermore,
both sides are called legs.
The equilateral triangle is a triangle whose three sides the same length.

4. Similar triangle
Theorems congruency of two triangles, among others:

18
 1) Two triangles congruent, if the lengths of the sides that seletak in two
triangles have the same comparison.
2) Two triangles congruent if two pairs of equal angles.
3) Two triangles congruent, if the length of the two pairs of side-by-side
comparison of the same seletak have and the angle enclosed by the sides is
equal.

5. Two Triangle congruence (Congruent)

Two triangles is said to be congruent (congruent) if the right can cover each
other. The sides and corners of the two right triangles overlap is called the
sides and corners coincide.
theorem 1
In the two triangles are congruent, the sides and corners of the corresponding
equal.
theorem 2
Two triangles congruent if two sides of the same length and a large angle of
apitnya. (Si, Su, Si)
theorem 3
Two triangles congruent if the same: the length of a side and a second major
adjacent corner. (Su, Si, Su)
theorem 4
Two triangles congruent if the same: the length of a side, big and large
adjacent corner opposite corner. (Si, Su, Su)
theorem 5
Two triangles congruent if the three pieces of the same side. (Si, Si, Si)

6. painting triangle
Triangle is a very important wake in geometry, because the wake of other
geometries can be formed from triangles. Likewise, the properties of certain
wake much can be explained by the properties of triangles.

19
 Basically any painting that is made, for example, triangular or rectangular
painting, always a series of two kinds of painting the base. What is meant by
painting the base, namely:
a. Paint a straight line (hereinafter referred to as "line") through two different
points are known. To do this the base of the painting used a ruler.
 
A B
b. Painting arc of a circle with a certain center point and radius are known
length. To paint this painting used a term base.

r
P

A triangle can be painted if known three conditions independently of one

another, which means that of the three provisions that should not be dependent
on others. Conditions could include elements of the triangle or any other part
of the triangle (eg, length of line weight).
Basics of Painting with Ruler and Duration
Using the properties of a Rhombus
A belahketupat properties:
a. Each diagonal is the diagonal axis of the other.
b. Each diagonal divides the inner area (interior) angle of the load into two
equal angles large area.
Given that belahketupat is quadrilateral all the sides the same length, then by
definition and properties of belahketupat above, can do special paintings
called the basics of painting with a ruler and run.
a. Painting lines through a point P located outside or on a line g and a
perpendicular line g.
1) P lies outside the line g.

P 20

1
AB g

23
4

21
 2) P lies on the line g.

243

Pg

b. Painting
N line for a corner.

(Painted bisector AOB)

A
P

3
O 4
2

B
1
´ )
c. Painting axis of a line segment. (Painted axis AB
3

AB

N
12

22
Criteria keterlukisan a triangle
A triangle can be painted if known:

The length of a large side and two angles one leg

of the angle that the side load.
(Sd, ss, sd)

The length of a side, the big one leg angles the

load side, and a large corner on the front side.
(Ss, sd, sd)

the length of two sides and a large apitnya angle,

ie the angle legs each contain these sides.
(Ss, sd, ss)

The third long sides

(Ss, ss, ss)

The length of two sides and the angle is located

in front of one of the sides.
(Ss, ss, sd)

These criteria meant that we could only have been met if the triangle painted
three provisions as contained in one of the five criteria.
Example: Draw the triangle ABC if known
1
AB = 5cm, BC = 4 cm and AC = 5 cm.
2
Answer: Triangle ABC is able painted because:

23
a) Fulfilling one of the five criteria keterlukisan triangle, ie long known three
sides (ss, ss, ss)
b) Personality triangles filled, because the total length of the two sides than
the length of the third side.
Is known:
5 cm
4 cm
1
5 cm
2
Prepare in advance of its provisions in the form of a segment 3 of each length

1
of 5 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm. Then the first Draw the side AB = 5 cm, then make a
2

1
circle arcs, each of which is centered in A and B and toes5 cm and 4 cm.
2
Both arcs that intersect at a point which indicates the vertex C of a triangle
ABC.
Paint:
Step 1

A 5cm B

Step 2

5 cm

A 5 cm B

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 Step 3

5 cm

4 cm

A 5 cm B
Step 4

5 cm 5 cm

4 cm 4 cm

A 5 cm B
Exercise 3 (discuss)
1. Are there weaknesses in defining triangle with the lowering of the
rectangle?
2. Should clearly distinguish between the "triangle" and "triangle area"?
3. By simply using a compass and a ruler, without a protractor, demonstrate
how to paint the corners:

25
 1 1 1
a) 15, 22 , 37 And 67 ,
2 2 2
1
b) 120, 150, 127 ,
2
4. Can the painted triangle ABC, if known:A = 45, B = 75 and C =
60?
5. Given a equilateral triangle ABC circumference of 36 cm. How to
calculate the area of a triangle ABC?

7. Special lines in Triangle

In any triangle can be painted special lines, namely: axis, high line, line
weight, line for. In any triangle there are three axes, high three lines, three
heavy lines, and three lines for. These lines are said to be special because the
third line of each special line that has a single point of communion.
a) Axis
The axis of a segment is the line that divides the two equal length and
perpendicular to the line segment.
The axis of a segment is the locus of points equidistant from the ends of
the segment.
The axis of the triangle is the line that divides the two equal length and
perpendicular to each side of the triangle. There are three axes on a third
triangle intersect at one point.
b) high line

c) line weight
d) bisecting line
C
8. Pythagorean theorem
In a right-angled triangle, the vast number of rectangular regions made on
both sides of the elbow equals the area of a square area that is made on the
ba
side tilt.

AcB

26
If the length of both sides of the bracket on ΔABC each b and c, and the
length of a side tilt, then the theorem can be formulated with:
b2 + c2 = a2
with the sentence:
In a right-angled triangle, the square of the length of both sides of the amount
of elbow length equal to the square of the hypotenuse.
This formula was then used in the resolution of problems.
Contrary Pythagorean Theorem
If in a triangle, square of the length of one side equal to the sum of the squares
on both sides another length, then the triangle is a right triangle.
Pythagorean triples
The device (a, b, c) of the three original numbers called Pythagorean triples, if
the square of the largest number equal to the number Kudrat the other two
numbers.
If the Pythagorean triples (a, b, c), the third element in the form of natural
numbers fellowship biggest factor is 1, then (a, b, c) is called a primitive
Pythagorean triples. (3, 4, 5), (5, 12, 13) are examples of two primitive

27
 Pythagorean triple, medium (15, 20, 25), (10, 24, 26) each is not a primitive
Pythagorean triple.

9. Projection theorem
Pythagorean theorem can be derived from the projection theorem on sloping
triangle, ie a triangle is not a right triangle.
a. Projection Theorem to side in front of the taper angle
In a triangle, square of the length of the side opposite the acute angle
equal to the sum of the squares on the other second length is reduced by
twice the product of the length of one side to the other side of the
projection length to the side.
C Is known:
, mA <90, P long projections on
bTA proved: a2 = b2 + c2 - 2cp

pc - p
AD c B

Proof:
In ΔBCD: a2 = (c - p) 2 + t2 ................. (Th. Pythagoras)
In ΔACD: t2 = b2 - p2 ................. (Th. Pythagoras)
Subtitusikan t2 = b2 - p2 to a2 = (c - p) 2 + t2obtained:
a2 = (c - p) 2 + b2 - p2
 a2 = c2 - 2cp + p2 + b2 - p2
 a2 = b2 + c2 - 2cp

b. Projection Theorem to side in front of the Corner Blunt

In a triangle, square of the length of the side opposite the obtuse angle
equal to the sum of the squares on the other two long, plus twice the
product of the length of one side to the other side of the projection length
to the side.

C Is known:
, mA> 90, P length of projection on the
tba extension (projections on)

28
pc
DAB
 proved: a2 = b2 + c2 + 2cp
Proof:
In ΔBCD: a2 = (c + p) 2 + t2 ................. (Th. Pythagoras)
In ΔACD: t2 = b2 - p2 ................. (Th. Pythagoras)
Subtitusikan t2 = b2 - p2 to a2 = (c + p) 2 + t2obtained:
a2 = (c + p) 2 + b2 - p2
 a2 = c2 + 2cp + p2 + b2 - p2
 a2 = b2 + c2 + 2cp
From theorem 6.a, namely: a2 = b2 + c2 - 2cp obtainable

b 2+ c2 −a2
p= ,
2c
From theorem 6.b namely: a2 = b2 + c2 + 2cp obtainable

a 2−b2−c 2
p= ,
2c
Means if the length of all sides of a triangle are known, we can calculate
the length of the projection a on the other side.

10. theorem Stewart

If the ΔABC, x specifies the length of ruasgaris connecting the vertex C with a
point P lies on side AB, so AP = BP = c1 and c2, then apply:
x2c = a2c1 + b2c2 - c1 c2 c.

C Note: look at the picture on the side. P

on so that AP and BP = c1 = c2, And
CP = x.
Prove:
btxa x2c = a2c1 + b2c2 - c1 c2 c.

p
ADPB
c1 c2 29
c
 Proof:
In ΔPBC: a2 = C22 + x2 + 2c2p .................. (1)(Projection Theorem)
In ΔAPC: b2 = c12 + x2 - 2c1p .................. (2)(Projection Theorem)

If both sides of the equation (1) is multiplied by c1 and both sides of equation
(2) multiplied by c2, each of which will be obtained:

a2c1 c22c1 + x2 = c1 + 2 c1 c2 p ....................................

(3)
b2 + c2 = c12 x2 c2 c2 - c2 p 2C1 ....................................
(4)
With the sum of each segment of the equation (3) and (4) is obtained:
a2c1 + b2 + c2 = c22c1 x2 c1 c2 c1 + 2 p + c12 c2 + c2
x2 c22c1 p
 a2c1 b2 + c2 = c1 c2 (c1 + c2) + x2 (c1 + c2)
 a2c1 b2 + c2 = c1 + c2 c x2 c
 a2c1 c x2 + b2 = c2 - c1 c2 c

With Stewart's theorem allows us to determine the length of ruasgaris

connecting one vertex of a triangle with an arbitrary point on the side in front
of him, if the point location and the length of the third side of the triangle are
known.

11. Theorem about Long Line-High on a Triangle

If in the long ΔABC sides a, b, and c, the length of the altitude to the sides AB,
AC, and AB respectively ta, tb, tc, and s states half the circumference of the
triangle, then:

30
 2
t a= √ s ( s−a ) ( s−b )(s−c )
a
2
t b= √ s ( s−a ) ( s−b )(s−c )
b
2
t c= √ s ( s−a ) ( s−b ) (s−c)
c
C

Da
B ta

cb

A
Proof:
In ΔABC: a2 + b2 = c2 - 2cp (Projection theorem)
a2 +c 2−b 2
 p= ...................... (1)
2a
In ΔABD: TA2 = c2 - p2 ...................... (2) (Pythagorean Theorem)
Subtitusikan p of equation (1) to equation (2) is obtained:
2
a2 +c 2−b 2
t 2a=c 2− ( 2a )
2 2 2 2 2 2
a + c −b a +c −b
t =( c +( ) )( c−( ))
2
 a
2a 2a
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 ac +a + c −b 2 ac−a −c + b
 t =( )( 2 a )
2
a
2a

( a+c )2−b2 b2 −( a−c )2

 t 2a= ×
2a 2a
( a+c +b )( a+c−b )( b+ a−c )( b−a+ c )
 t 2a=
4 a2

31
 ( a+b+ c )( a+ b+c−2 b )( a+ b+c−2c ) ( a+b+ c−2 a )
 t 2a=¿
4 a2
2 s ( 2 s−2 b ) ( 2 s−2 c )( 2 s−2 a )
 t 2a=¿
4 a2

24 s ( s−b ) ( s−c )( s−a )

 t 2a=¿
4 a2
22 s ( s−b )( s−c ) ( s−a )
 t 2a=¿
a2
2
 t a=¿
a
√ s ( s−a )( s−b ) ( s−c )

With similar steps can be demonstrated that:

2
t b=¿ √ s ( s−a )( s−b ) ( s−c )
b
2
and t c =¿ √ s ( s−a ) ( s−b ) (s−c)
c

12. Theorem about the length-weight lines in a triangle (Theorem Apollonius)

If in the long ΔABC three sides each a, b, and c, and the length of the weight
through the corner points A, B, and C respectively ma, mb, mc, then:
1 1
m 2a= ( b2+ c 2 )− a2
2 4
1 1
m 2b= ( a2+ c 2 )− b2
2 4
1 1
m 2c = ( a 2+ b2 )− c 2
2 4
A Look at the picture.
Given: D midpoint ,
AD = ma.
proved:
c ma b

Proof:
BaDAC

32
 In ΔABC apply:
AD2.BC = AC2.BD + AB2.CD - DB.CD.BC .......... (Theorem Stewart)
1 111
ma2.a = b2. a+ C2. a - aaa
2 222
1 11
 ma2.a = ab2+ AC2 - a3
2 24
1 11
 MA2 = b2 + C2 - a2
2 24
1 1
 MA2 = (b2+ C2) - a2
2 4
With a similar step can be proved:
1 1
m 2b= ( a2+ c 2 )− b2
2 4
1 1
m 2c = ( a 2+ b2 )− c 2
2 4

13. Theorem about Long Line-For-In on a Triangle

If in the long ΔABC sides each a, b, and c, is known for the line-in ACB cut
´ top portions c1 and c2 length and length-for-the line is expressed by
side AB
dc, then apply:
DC2 = ab - c1c2.
C Look at the picture.
Is known:
ACD BCD or C1 C2
2 AD = DB = c1 and c2.
proved:
b dc a DC2 = ab - c1c2

Proof:
A D c1 c2 B
In ΔABC apply:
AC: BC = AD: DB .............................. (Theorem)
 b: a = c1: c2
 c1: c2 = b: a
c1: c2 = b: a  (c1 + c2): (B + a) = c1: b .............. (nature)
 c (A + b) = c1: b

33
 bc
 c1 = ..................................... (1)
a+b
c1: c2 = b: a  (c1 + c2): (B + a) = c2: a .............. (nature)
 c (A + b) = c2: a
ac
 c2 = .................................... (2)
a+b
using dc, then is used Theorem Stewart.
By Theorem Stewart, in ΔABC apply:
CD2.AB = BC2.AD + AC2.BD - AD.BD.AB
 dc2.c = a2.c1 + b2.c2 - c1.c2 .c .............................. (3)
Subtitusikan (1) and (2) to (3), is obtained:
bc ac
dc2.c = a2. a+b + b2. a+b - c1.c2 .c

a2 bc+ a b2 c
 dc2.c = - c1.c2 .c
a+ b
abc (a+b)
 dc2.c = a+ b
- c1.c2 .c

 dc2.c = Abc - c1.c2 .c

 DC2 = Ab - c1.c2 ,

14. Theorem about Long Line-For-Affairs in a Triangle

If in the long ΔABC sides each a, b, and c, note-for-outside line ACB cut
BA (Load side) at point D with DAB (A, between D and B) such
sinargaris ⃗
that AB = c, AD = c1, and BD = c2, as well as line-to-outer is a CD that is
´
denoted by dc, then apply: AB
DC2 = c1.c2 - ab

E Look at the picture.

Is known:
ECD ACD or C1 C2
C AD = BD = c1 and c2.
2 proved:
1 = C1c2 - ab

dc ba
34

D c1 A c B
c2
Proof:
In ΔABC apply:
AC: BC = AD: DB .............................. (Theorem)
 b: a = c1: c2
 c1: c2 = b: a
c1: c2 = b: a  (c2 - c1): (A - b) = c1: b .............. (nature)
 c (A - b) = c1: b
bc
 c1 = .................................. (1)
a−b
c1: c2 = b: a  (C2 - c1): (a - b) = c2: a .............. (nature)
 c (A - b) = c2: a
ac
 c2 = ............................... (2)
a−b
using dc, then is used Theorem Stewart.
By Theorem Stewart, in ΔABC apply:
CA2.DB = BC2.AD + DC2.AB - AD.BD.AB
 b2.c2 = a2.c1 + dc2.c - c1.c2 .c
 dc2.c = b2.c2 - a2.c1 + c1.c2 .c ......................... (3)
Subtitusikan (1) and (2) to (3), is obtained:
ac bc
dc2.c = b2. a−b - a2. a−b + c1.c2 .c

a b2 c−a 2 bc
 dc2.c = + c1.c2 .c
a−b
abc (b−a)
 dc2.c = a−b
+ c1.c2 .c

abc (−( a−b ) )

 dc2.c = a−b
+ c1.c2 .c

35
  dc2.c = -abc+ c1.c2 .c
 DC2 = c1.c2 - ab

Exercise 4 (Discuss)
1. Draw the line segment length:
a. √ 21 cm.
b. √ 37 cm
c. (8 - √ 21) cm
2. In ΔABC, known AB = 12 cm, mABC = 60And BC = 8 cm. Calculate the
circumference ΔABC!
3. In ΔPQR, known PR = 10 cm, mPQR = 45And QR = 15 cm. Calculate the
length of the third side of the ΔPQR!
4. In a right-angled triangle, note that the length of both sides of the elbow each
6 cm and 8 cm. Calculate the length of the high-to-side tilt!
5. In ΔPQR, known PQ = 14 cm, QR = 13 cm, and RP = 15 cm. Calculate the
length of:
a. Projection PR ´
´ on;QR
b. Line-height of the vertex Q.
6. From a ΔABC, known AB = 6 cm, BC = 8 cm and AC = 7cm, point P lies on

1 ´
BCsuch that the PCB and CP = BC. Calculate the length! AP
⃗
2
7. In ΔABC, known AB = 8 cm, BC = 6 cm and AC = 7 cm. Calculate the third
long-line weighing!
8. Is known ΔPQR with PQ = 10 cm, QR = 6 cm, and RP = 8 cm. In the triangle
selected line-heavy PR
´ and bisector. Calculate the length! RT ´
´ ST
9. In any parallelogram apply: the sum of squared second long diagonal length
equal with the sum of squares of all sides. Prove this statement!
10. Known trapezium ABCD, with, AB = 20 cm, BC = 13 cm, CD = 6 cm and
´ CD
AD = 15 cm. AB∥ ´
a. Draw carefully the trapezium ABCD!

36
 ´
b. Calculate the length of the diagonal! AC
c. Calculate the area of the trapezium ABCD!
11.
A On the front page of a spruce A
growing school and in the school
backyard mango tree grows B
(illustrated in the figure on the left).
Both tersebt trees obstructed by the
school building.
B

Explain how to determine the distance of the two trees, because it may not
be measured directly.

37
 CHAPTER V
PARALLELOGRAM

1. Parallelogram
Parallelogram is a quadrilateral pairs berhadapannya side parallel.

Parallelogram region can be obtained inter alia if a triangular area rotated

half a rotation around a center point on one side, the combined area of the
triangle with the reflection in the form of a parallelogram area.

DC Of how to obtain parallelogram as

above, easily obtained properties or
T essential features of a parallelogram.
(See picture at right), namely:

AB

a. Both sides are facing the same length

AB = CD and AD = BC
b. Both equally great opposite corner
A = C and B = D
c. Second adjacent corners mutual berpelurus
A + B = 180, A + D = 180
d. A large amount all four corners 360
A + B + C + D = 360
e. Each diagonal divides the parallelogram into two congruent parts
ΔABD ≅ΔCBD and ΔABC ≅ΔCDA
f. Both diagonals intersect in the middle or sharing two of the same length.
AT = TC and BT = TD

38
 Parallelogram region can also be obtained or may be formed from a
rectangular area as follows:

DECF EF

wide high

AB
long AGB

pedestal

Of rectangular regions can be formed ABCD parallelogram area ABFE.

Since the area of ABFE parallelogram equals the area of a rectangle ABCD,
ABCD being extensively long persgi equal to the length x width, it can easily
be shown that:
Parallelogram broad comprehensive ABFE = rectangle ABCD
= AB × BC
= AB × GE
= pedestal × high
Thus, the base area of parallelogram =×high.

2. Cut the rice cake

Belahketupat is a parallelogram whose four sides of equal length.

From the definition of provable belahketupat belahketupat properties,

among others:
1) Opposite sides parallel in pairs.
2) Each diagonal is an axis of symmetry.
3) Opposite corners of equally large and equally divided by the diagonal.

39
 The properties belahketupat above are used as the basis for all kinds of
basic painting, using a ruler and compass, among other things: paint line
perpendicular to another line, paint line for a corner, paint axis line segment,
painting heavy line and paint-angle triangle angle 90, 60, 45, 30 and some
other special corner.

3. Rectangle
The rectangle is a parallelogram whose four corners same size.
From the above, it can be seen that the rectangle has four right angles. Other
properties of a rectangle is:
1) Opposite sides of the same length.
2) Diagonals of equal length and slaing intersect in the middle.

4. Square
A square is a rhombus whose four corners same size.
The properties of the square is a combination of the properties of a rhombus
and a rectangle. The properties of many square among others:
1) The corners and edges facing the same pairs.
2) Diagonals of equal length.
3) Diagonals intersect in the middle and perpendicular to each other.
4) Diagonals bisects the angle at large.

Exercise 5 (Discuss)
1. Mention the real objects in everyday life parallelogram-shaped! Whether a
rectangle is a parallelogram?
2. Mention all the symmetry properties owned by: parallelogram and
belahketupat.
3. Of a parallelogram PQRS known that QR = 10 cm, RS = 8 cm and mPQR =
150, Calculate the parallelogram PQRS wide!
4. If the area of a parallelogram ABCD 72 cm2, AB = 12 cm length and angle
DAB = 30, Calculate the circumference of the parallelogram it!

40
5. From a belahketupat known that the circumference of 24 cm being one of the
corners 120, Calculate the area of the belahketupat!
6. Long known to both the diagonal an belahketupat respectively 20 cm and 52
cm. Calculate the circumference and area belahketupat it!
7. A jajargenjar and a second belahketupat same diagonal pairs. Explain where
wider?

41
CHAPTER VI
CIRCLE

42
 PART II
SPACE GEOMETRY

43
 CHAPTER VII
PRELIMINARY

The object of geometry, so also of the geometry of space, the objects of

mind which are abstract, such as point, line, area, bar, cube, pyramid, ball and so
on. Objects of mind can be obtained from real objects by implementing
abstraction and idealization.
To facilitate discussion of wake geometry in mathematics are often used
drawings or models of waking it. Geometry models that can be used as props in
learning activities geometry.
In teaching geometry expressly distinguish between the understanding,
pictures, and a model of a geometry. Thus explicitly distinguish between beams,
the image beam and beam models. Similarly, we distinguish between a ball,
drawing the ball, and the ball model, and so on.
In geometry, every waking seen as a set of specific points (special set of
points). For example, a line, a circle, and so on. Space is defined as the set of all
points. Can you explain the difference and the relationship between "space" and
"space"?
In the wake defines the space could be used to explain how the boundaries
of waking up that space. For example: a cube is defined as waking bounded by six
square regions are congruent. You try to mention the definition wake other space.
Have you ever paid particular attention to objects or wake contained around you,
well as long as you are in the classroom, at home or outdoors? You try to specify
the nature of every waking you come across. Are you going to encounter
difficulties in naming the form for every waking you come across it?
In geometry we learned just wake up raw, for example triangular,
trapezoidal, beams, tubes, cones, balls and so on. In the wake of mathematical
objects geometry is a mind that has a shape and size that perfectly paced.
Conversely in everyday life or in the open that we encounter are real objects,
whose shape is not perfect. Objects or wake up we encounter in everyday life
most can only be described or shown any resemblance to the specific geometry.

44
 Thus you do not need to specify the nature of every waking you encounter
and indeed the things around you have a very diverse forms, which in general do
not have a standard form that you know in geometry.
Geometry is a part of mathematics very much usefulness in everyday life.
Wake up wake up the rectangle is the most involved in human life. This adult
forms equilateral triangles, pentagons and hexagons irregular bertauran widely
used in the fields of architecture and industry. The shape of the circle is also a
form that is tightly attached to the development of mankind. Can you explain the
usefulness of circular shape ?. The analogy in the room, you can see the use of the
form of beams which dominates the lives of human beings, so you can imagine
the consequences if people do not use the wake up tubes, cones and balls that
turned out to have had a special role in various kinds of human interests are more
advanced,
In the field of art, since time immemorial man has been utilizing various
forms of organized, summarized in particular so as to create a variety of views or
the elegant and comfortable atmosphere. Today, through the creativity of the art
observant servant capitalizes on the beauty that can emerge from behind a wake-
specific geometry, has encouraged the development of various kinds of industrial,
mislanya engineering industry, ceramic industry, a variety of craft industry and so
on. In this connection, the use of certain spaces wake a sort of field of a regular
polygon can be learned and developed.
Thus, it is becoming one of the duties of the teacher of mathematics at the
school to assist students in order as far as possible can take advantage wake
geometry as a source of reference in developing the technology in their respective
fields.

Exercise 7 (discuss)
1. Mention as many geometrical name you know or know.
2. Have you ever seen the point, straight line, plane, cube, tube ataubola?
Explain your answer.

45
3. Take a bottle of syrup or a vase. You try to explain the shape of which is
owned these objects. What can you say about the shape of an egg, honeycomb
and a pair of ears?
4. You are expected to have seen or may also have a four-legged table and a
table with three legs. Can you explain where the table is more stable (stand
steady shake); why tables are mostly made quadruped?
5. Explain the difference between:
a. Box and beam
b. Milk cans and tubes
c. Ball and volley ball
d. Curved tubes or curved conical and curved ball field.

46
 CHAPTER VIII
FIGURE WAKE UP SPACE

Image of an object can be seen as the result of a projection or shadow of

the object skeleton model on a screen on the screen is generally thought of as a
flat surface. From a variety of ways, we know at least two ways to draw objects,
among others:
1. How Perspective
In the depiction in this way be used as a guideline is the horizon or the
horizon, or point of view. In the perspective drawing lines that are actually
parallel (except parallel to the horizon line) are not parallel anymore, but its
direction to a certain point located on the horizon line. Thus segments of the
actual line of the same length in general the picture is not the same length
again.

T2 T1

EG

D
F
A C

Figure 2.1. Figure perspective a beam ABCDEFGH

2. How Stereometris
This method is substantially similar to the way perspective, only the horizon
line is considered infinitely far away, and then the method is called

47
 Stereometris way. In this way the rays of the things we consider parallel and
the direction oblique to the surface area of the screen or the image area,
therefore we call this way also the projection (parallel) tilt, and the image
obtained is called the image of the object space.
In geometry, geometry both field and the geometry of space, how stereometris
is what we normally use. In stereometris load images, we know some of the
terms or understanding:
HG

EF

DC

AB

Figure 2.2. Figure stereometris cube ABCDEFGH

a. the image area

Field image is a field where the image, ie the surface of the board or the
paper surface.
b. Frontal field
The frontal plane is the field where the image or any field that is parallel to
the image plane.
The specialty of this frontal plane is that every waking located in the field
of shape and size within the same image with the actual shape and size.
For example, in the image cube ABCDEFGH with frontal ABFE field,
then ABFE really form a square, and the angle ABF for example, really
elbows.
c. frontal line
Frontal line is a line or a line segment located in the frontal plane. Among
the lines of frontal important is the vertical line. Each vertical line of the
frontal line. Not every horizontal line is a frontal line (why? Give an
example)

48
d. Orthogonal line
Yaitui orthogonal lines every line that is located perpendicular to the
frontal plane. In the picture .... for example, AD, BC, FG.
e. Receding angle or corner of the intersection or corner along the side
Receding angle is the angle between the light lines in the image horizontal
direction to the right frontal and rear beam direction orthogonal lines. For
example, in the pictureBAD, FEH; the angles actual size 90,
f. Orthogonal projection or comparison Comparison
Ie the ratio between the length of the orthogonal line segment in the image
with the actual length of the line segment. For example in the picture
above:
Panjang AD dalam gambar ……….
Comparison projection = =
Panjang AD yang sebenarnya … … … .
So comparison cube ABCDEFGH projection on the image above is .........
To better understand and skilled in making image space, students need to gain
experience to draw through some exercises with the circumstances in the
location of waking up space.
Example: Draw a picture of a cube ABCDEFGH oblique projection whose
base ABCD and the ribs upholding of AE, BF, CG and DH. Ribs 5 cm long,
horizontal base field, fields upright side ABFE frontal, corner junction

2
30And comparison of projections ,
5
Step completion of the image:
We painted first base field, in the form
of a square area ABCD. Because the
horizontal plane ABCD and ABFE
frontal, frontal location means AB
horizontal ribs, so that the images AB,
AB length of 5 cm.

49
 2. At point A Draw Adverse corner 30
30
AB
3. Because AD is an orthogonal line
segment, being so long projections
comparison AD in the picture x 5
D
30 22
AB cm = 2 cm.
55

4. Since the projection square oblique

parallelogram ABCD form, then
the picture field ABCD board can

DC be completed.

AB

HG
5. Middle ribs form a vertical line
segment. So the frontal located so
EF
that the corner points E, F, G, and
H can be drawn, then generated an
image of the cube ABCDEFGH.

DC

AB

50
Exercise 8
EFGH
1. Draw pictures angled projections of the cube with ABCD pedestal
ABCD
field horizontally and field ABFE frontal side. Rib 7 cm long, with a ratio of

3
projection; and note also that:
7
a. Angle of intersection of 45
b. Angle of intersection of 30
c. Corner of the intersection of 150
Compare cube three images you produce it by describing:
 Diagonal side AF
 Diagonal side DE
 Diagonal DF
 Space diagonal AG
In the image of the cube.
What can you say about a third image that cube?
Can you put forward the criteria of a good image?
EFGH
2. Draw a picture beam with AB = 7 cm, AD = 5 cm, AE = 4 cm, with a
ABCD
horizontal field ABCD board, ABFE side frontal field, the intersection angle

1 3
37  and comparison of projections.
2 5
3. Draw a picture of a regular quadrilateral pyramid T.ABCD, with the field of
horizontal pedestal ABCD, BC frontal, corner junction 45and comparison of

2
projections. AB = 5 cm and 7 cm high pyramid.
5
4. Draw a picture tube with field horizontal pedestal, the pedestal diameter of 5

1
cm, 7 cm height, angle of intersection of 90, Comparison of projections.
3
5. Draw a picture of a cone with the radius of the base areas of 4 cm, height 8
cm, angle of intersection of 90,

51
6. Draw a picture of a ball with a diameter of 6 cm, the angle of intersection of

1
90, Comparison of projections.
3

CHAPTER IX
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ELEMENTS OF SPACE

Once students are adequately trained with the introduction and drawing
step wake up the room like a block, cube, pyramid, and so with all of its parts in
the form of hand, rib, and vertex, then the next student may be invited to learn
more about points, lines and field.
Points, lines and areas can be obtained successively from the vertex, ribs
and sides with the release of each of the structures in an object, such as a beam.
Then we do the abstraction and idealization.
Points, lines and areas are objects of mind which is abstract. Points, lines
and areas are called the elements of space. Then what are called space?
Space is defined as the set of all points. Wake up space, including line,
area, triangle, prism, pyramid and so that henceforth seen as himpnan certain
points (special set of points). Thus we can say that the point is a subset of the
fields, the field is a subset of the space, as well as a cube or a sphere is a subset of
the space.
Expressly distinguished between the lines, sinargaris, and line segments.
(Note also the sense ruasgaris trending and line number).
In teaching geometry should always emphasized the difference between
understanding, symbols, drawings, and models of a geometry. Despite the fact
that teachers in the field much less attention to it.
Elements of Space
1) Point (A, B, C, ..., G, H, I, J, K, ..., X, Y, Z)
2) Line (A, b, c, ..., g, h, i, j, k, ..., x, y, z)
3) Field (, , , ..., , , , , , ..., , , )

52
A. The relation between points, lines, and areas in space
1. Relation point and point
1.1 Two different point
1.2 Two points are coincident

2. Relationships three points

2.1 In a line (There is a line that crosses all three)

ABC
2.2 Tak-line (No line that crosses all three)
R
PQ
Axiom: Through three non-aligned points can be made exactly one field.

3. The relation of dots and dashes

3.1 Point T outside line g
3.2 Point S on the line g
T

gS

4. Relation point and field

4.1 Point T outside the field 
T


4.2 T point on the field 

g

53
5. Relationships lines and lines
5.1 The lines g and h line plot
5.1.1 The lines g and h parallel lines. Occur if both located in one
area and do not have fellowship point.
5.1.2 The lines g and h lines intersect. If both located one field and
have exactly one point communion.
5.1.3 The lines g and h line coinciding
5.2 The lines g and h does not plot line
5.2.1 The lines g and h lines intersect

6. Relationships lines and planes

6.1 Line g parallel to the field , Line g and field have no fellowship
point.
6.2 G cut line fields , Line g and field has exactly one point
communion.
6.3 Line g on the field , Each point on the line g lies in the field,

7. Relation field and field

7.1 Field  cut field , Field and field aligned exactly on a line. Line is
called the line potng alliance between fields and field ; denoted by
the line (,). Thus the line (,) Is the set of all points located in the
plane  and also in the field ,
7.2 Field  parallel to the field , Field and field  not aligned at one
point too.

8. Relationships three fields

8.1 Field  cut field , S line is the line (,).
8.1.1 Field  cutting line s
8.1.2 Field  through the line s
8.1.3 Field  parallel line s

54
 8.2 Field  parallel to the field ,
8.2.1 Field  cut field 
8.2.2 Field  parallel to the field 

Exercise 9
1. Describe the purpose and benefit of the obligation of the students use the
pencil to create images of geometry!
2. To draw a field, usually used images parallelogram. Explain its meaning!
3. How good shots criteria in learning geometry!
4. Give a good alternative image to declare:
a. A point P which lies in a field ,
b. Two lines intersecting p and q.
c. Two lines l and m are both located in the area of ,
5. Mention the specific characteristics of:
a. Point
b. Line
c. Field
d. Room
6. Mention the similarities and differences between "two parallel lines" and "two
intersecting lines"!
7. Explain the difference between:
a. Point and point angle
b. Line and the number line
c. Field and the Cartesian coordinate plane
PQ and ruasgaris trending PQ
d. beam line ⃗
e. Space and room
8. To embed the students' understanding of the relationship between the elements
of the room ie points, lines, and areas, there is often a point, line, and the field
is represented by a vertex, ribs, sides, diagonal or diagonal field in a cube.
a. Why have woke cube?

55
 b. Draw a picture of a cube ABCD.EFGH with a length of 6 cm rib. ABCD
pedestal field horizontal and vertical sides ABFE field fontal!
c. Name three pairs of lines that intersect each other in pairs!
d. What is the opposite of two vertex? Give an example!
e. What is the opposite two ribs? Give an example!
f. What is meant by the two sides face? Give an example!
g. What is a diagonal field? Give an example!
h. What is diagonal? Give an example!
i. What is a diagonal field? Give an example!
j. Specify many areas of the diagonal, if drawn all!
k. In the picture cube that you created, specify:
i. The lines were located frontal, but not horizontally.
ii. The lines are located horizontally, but not frontal;
iii. Vertical stripes are not frontal.

9.

56
 CHAPTER X
UPRIGHT STRAIGHT LINES FIELD

1. Definitions and Theorem lines perpendicular Field

Definition: A line g is said to be perpendicular to a the areas K, if the line g
perpendicular on all the lines lie in the field of K.
theorem: if a line g perpendicular to two intersecting lines which lie in a
field-K, then g will be perpendicular line on every line that lies in
the field K.

So if line g perpendicular to the field-K and gar`is-line a, b, c, and d each located

in field-K, then g a, g  b, g  c, g  d.
Meanwhile, if the line g perpendicular lines intersecting p and q, p and q being
located in the plane-K, then the line will be perpendicular to the g-K field.
Thus, to prove or indicate whether a line perpendicular to a plane, sufficiently
demonstrated that it is perpendicular to the two intersecting lines that lie in the
field.
In everyday life, all around us, especially if we are in a room, we will see the lines
that are perpendicular to the field. Try your show!

2. Projection Point and Line on the Field

a) Projections point in the plane
Definition: A point projection to the plane of the foot-H is the point of a
perpendicular line drawn from point A on the field-H.

57
A
H
In the picture above:
H called the projection plane
A called the projected point
A called the projection of point A on the field H

A´A' called line pemroyeksi

Because of its location pemroyeksi line perpendicular to the plane of
projection, the projection is also called orthogonal projection, hereinafter
simply called "projection" only.

b) The projection of a line on a field

Henceforth, for every geometry can be viewed as a set of points, then
the projection of a geometry on a field K is obtained by projecting all point of
waking it. However, in reality we are quite certain of projecting some point,
according to the nature of the projected wake.
Theorem: The projection of a line on a field K, will generally be in the form of
a line as well.

A A A

B B
B

AB A A= B
K KB K

Theorem: If a line parallel to a plane, then the projection line on the field in
the form of a line parallel to this line.

58
 Theorem: If a line perpendicular to a plane, then the projection line on the
field in the form of a point.

´ simply by projecting edges A

Thus, for projecting a line segment AB
and B alone. Then just connect A and B a straight line to obtain the
´
projection of the line segment AB.
If it is located perpendicular to the plane of projection K, then the
´ AB
projection of the line segment is a point. Why? AB ´

Exercise 10
1. Is known : Cube ABCDEFGH
Prove A. AC perpendicular field DBFH
b. AC perpendicular HB
2. Is known : Cube ABCD EFGH
Prove A. AC perpendicular BD field
b. AG perpendicular BE
c. AG perpendicular field BDE
d. Equilateral triangle BDE
3. In a triangular pyramid D.ABC three ribs that meet at a point A perpendicular
to each other. Prove that:
a. DA perpendicular BC
b. AC perpendicular BD
4. Unknown cube ABCD EFGH. Find the projection:
a. Point G on the field ADHE
b. Point H on the field ABFE
´ on the plane ABCD
c. CD
´ in the field of BCGF
d. EC
´ in the field of EFGH
e. AC
5. In the cube ABCD EFGH.
a. Draw projections EF
´ in the field of ACGE
´
b. Draw the projections on the field AEGC AF

59
6. What is the status of the two lines p and q, so that its projection on a field K is
a straight line?
7. What are the capacities of the two lines a and b, so that its projection on a field
K in the form of two dots?
8. Draw the projection of a triangle ABC on a field K, if A, B, and C located on
top of the field K. Then the projection of the center of gravity Draw triangle
ABC on the field K. If Z is the centroid of triangle ABC, being a, B, CAnd
Z row is projection of A, B, C, and Z in the field K, show that:
1
ZZ = (A A + BB + CC).
3

60
 CHAPTER XI
DISTANCE

Definition: The distance between two long wake is the shortest connecting line
segment that connects two points on the wake.

AB

G1 G2
If G1dan G2 is a wake geometry. Then G1dan G2 can be thought of as a
set of points. So it can be the installation of one-one correspondence between the
points on the G1dan G2.
´ is the shortest among all the line segments connecting the dots, then
If AB
´ referred to the distance between G1dan G2. As
the length of the line segment AB
a result of understanding so then:
´ .
1. The distance between points P and Q is the length of a segment PQ
2. The distance between the point P and the line g is the length of a line segment
connecting P with a projection P on the line g.
3. The distance between the point P and K is the length of the field line segment
connecting P with a projection P on the field K.
4. The distance between the lines g and K are parallel field equal to the distance
one point on the line g to the plane K.
5. The distance between the fields K and L are equal to the distance parallel to
one point in the plane K to the plane of L, or vice versa.
6. The distance between the lines g and h crossing is the length of the cut-
circuited line segment perpendicular lines g and h.

Here's a picture that shows how to determine the distance wake above.
Watch how to draw it.
R P P
61

QP QR
 P1 P2 P3 P4 g

Two ways or steps to determine the distance between two lines a and b are
crossed.
Method 1:
1. Creating a parallel line b b1 which cut the line a.
2. Make field H through a and b1. Field H is located parallel to the line b
(why?).
3. Projecting the line b in the plane H, produce a line which is located
parallel to b2 b1 and cut a line at point A.
4. A point was made through line g perpendicular to the field H that would
cut the line b at point B.

62
 ´ a cut line segment perpendicular to a and b; so long is the
5. segment AB
´
distance between the lines a and b are crossed. AB
Proof:
g  H field .................... g  A .................. (i)
a and b2 on the field H .... g  b2 so g  a and g  b
g  b2 g  b ................................................. ... (ii)
b2 // b
How I can be explained by the following paintings:

gb

b2

A a b1

Method II
1. Creating a field that cuts perpendicular line b at the point P, called field H.
2. Mempoyeksikan a line in the plane H which produces a line a1.
3. Through a point P on the field H created a line of perpendicular lines
intersecting at the point a1 Q.
4. Through the point Q k line drawn perpendicular field H, which cut a line
at point A.
´ , Which will cut the
5. A line drawn through a point parallel to the line l PQ
line b at point B.
´ is a segment that is cut perpendicular to the lines a and b, so
6. segment AB
´
the length is the distance between two intersecting lines a and b. AB
Proof:

63
 ´  a1
PQ ´ field (a, a1)
PQ ´ a
PQ ´ a
so AB
´ k
PQ a on the plane (a, a1) ´ // PQ
AB ´

b  PQ
´ ´ b
AB
´ // PQ
AB ´
So cut perpendicular line a and line b. Method II can be explained by painting
´
in the image below. AB

Exercise 11
EFGH
Draw a picture cube
ABCD
1. a) Painting and compute the distance between A and C!
b) Painting and compute the distance between D and G!
2. Painting and calculate the distance between E and C, if taken past the field
side of the cube!
3. a) Painting and compute the distance between A and C!
b) Painting and compute the distance between D and G!
4. a) Painting and compute the distance between HG and ABFE!
b) Painting and calculate the distance between the FG and BCHE!
5. Painting and calculate the distance between the field ABFEdan DCHG
field!
6. Painting and calculate the distance between the field and the field BDG
AFH!
7. Painting and calculate the distance between AB and FG!
8. Painting and calculate the distance between AE and BD!

64
9. Painting and calculate the distance between GH and FC!
10. Two lines l and m intersect perpendicularly. The distance between the two
lines is AB. A to the L and B at m. In l and m respectively located points
C and D, so that AC = BD = 6 cm and 8 cm. If AB = 10 cm, calculate the
´ ,
lengthCD
4.

65
 CHAPTER XII
ANGLE IN SPACE

1. The angle between two lines intersecting Fruit

Definition: The angle between two lines a and b intersecting angle is obtained
if through any point T a line drawn parallel a1 and b1 line parallel
to b.

At special events, if the angle between two lines intersect, the lines a and b, in
the form of a right angle, then it is said that the lines a and b intersect
perpendicularly, or a cross perpendicular line b.

2. The angle between the lines and Field

Definition: If a line is not perpendicular to the field K, then it is the angle
between a line and a field K is the acute angle formed by a line
and a line projected on the field K.

In the picture, a1 is a projection of the field K, then the angle between a line
and a field K shown by the acute angle formed by a and a1. So(A, K) =
(A, a1).

66
3. The angle between the two Fruit Sector
If two fields K and L intersect along the cut line (K, L), the angle
between the fields K and L are set as follows:
Make a plane perpendicular to the cut line (K, L)

practice
In the cube ABCD EFGH
1. The angle between the FD and the field is indicated by the angle DFC
BCGF, then show the angle between:
a. BD and field AEHD
b. FD and Field ABCD
c. DH and Field ACGE
2. What is the angle between:
a. CG and plane ABCD
b. GD and plane ABCD
c. DH and field ACGE
3. Large painting is actually the angle between the diagonal and the side of
the cube, for example between the DG and field BHDG side.
4. Pointed out in an irregular quadrangle pyramid T.ABCD angle between:
a. TA and field footwear
b. TA and field TBD
5. A conical pedestal and apotemanya field as long. What is the angle formed
by the base apothem and field?
6. In the cube ABCD EFGH, determine the angle between:
a. AB and CG d. FC and EA
b. AB and DE e. FG and AD

67
 c. DC and BE
7. In the cube ABCD EFGH, the point P is the mid point of AB, and AB = 8
cm, specify:
a. HP Length
b. cos (AD, HP)
c. Tg Cos (EF, GP)
8. Three ribs were met at point A in pyramid T.ABC perpendicular to each
other. If AB = AC = 42 cm and N = 43 cm. Compute:
a. Big angle between the BCT and ABC
b. The tangent of the angle between the BCT and ABT.
9. In the cube ABCD EFGH, painted field ACGE and BDG.
a. Draw the cut line of the two fields.
b. Where the angle between the BDG and ACGE
c. Where the angle between the BDG and ABCD
d. Where the angle between the BDG and BDE.

68
 Chapter XIII
PRISMA AND LIMAS
A. Prism
1. Definition: prisms are many fields bounded by two parallel planes and several
other fields that the two of them intersect in parallel lines. Fields parallel to it
then form two congruent polygons area called the base of each field and the
top field. The parallel lines called ribs upright; and generally vertical ribs is
not perpendicular to the field of footwear. Field boundaries in addition to
areas of the base and the top field called the straight side of the field; which is
generally a parallelogram area. The distance between the base and the top field
field called prism height.

QS

Picture
Sliced prism with sbeuah field that cut all the ribs upright and lying perpendicular
to the vertical ribs, called perpendicular slices or wedges bracket (in the figure
PQRS). Prisma broad base a six-sided prism called n-n or n-facet prism.

2. Prism Have Special Properties

1) Prisma Upright prism ribs are upright perpendicular to the field of
footwear.
Thus, in an upright prism:
a. the sides of the upright in the form of rectangular areas
b. pedestal field and the field it is also a slice of the elbow

69
 c. prism height can be represented by the length of one side upright.
Erect prism called a skewed prism.

Picture

2) irregular prism or a regular prism is a prism vertical field in the form of a

regular polygon base.
At irregular prism line segment connecting the central points pedestal field
and the top field called the axis of the irregular prism. In the picture below
is a regular triangular prism ABCDEF. Z1 and Z2 are the central points
pedestal and top fields, so-called axis Z1Z2 ABCDEF.
DF
Z2

air conditioning
Z1

B
Picture

3) Paralelepipedum

70
 Chapter XIV
Sliced FIELD AND WAKE UP SPACE

This chapter talks about how to define or drawing a wedge between a

certain flat surface with a geometrical unknown. Because the wake geometry is a
set of specific points, then sliced a field and a wake-up space is the set of all
points communion between the field and get up the space.
Slices of a field and a wake-up space in general in the form of a flat wake
area. If the wake-up space is in the form of a prism or pyramid, then the cut is
generally in the form of a polygon area. Thus in painting wedge prism or pyramid
field to do with painting ruasgaris-ruasgaris which constitute the sides of the
polygon area or slice in question.
In determining the intersections between wake up a room, especially in
defining the slices between a and a prism or pyramid, we use some postulates
(axioms) and theorems (proposition), especially axioms and postulates the
following:
Axiom 1: through two different points there is exactly one line.
Axiom above can also be said to:
i. Two different points determine a line
ii. If two allied lines of two of its points, it must have two lines that coincide.
Axiom 2: Through at least three points can be made a field.
Axiom 3: If two points of a line lie in a field, definitely the whole line lies in the
field. (Only valid for flat field).
Axiom 4: If two allied fields of a point, certainly both areas were aligned on a line
through it.

From the above axioms can be derived arguments of the following:

Proposition 1: Through the three-point line that does not exist right field.
Proposition 2: Through a line and a point outside it there right field.
Proposition 3: Through two intersecting lines are right field.
Proposition 4: Through two parallel lines there right field.

71
Proposition 5: Four points is not necessarily lie in a field.
Proposition 6a: If the three fields of two-two intersect to produce three lines
intersect, and if two of the three lines intersect at a point T, then the third
line of intersection which also passes through the point T. (Figure 1)

Proposition 6b: If the three fields of two-two intersect thus producing three lines
of intersection, and if two of the three lines were aligned, then the third
line of intersection will also be parallel to the line of intersection of the
first two. (Figure 2)
As a result of the proposition 6b:
If by two parallel lines each made two fields intersect, then the line
parallel to the second intersection definitely the first line.

With a few axioms and arguments above, we can solve the problem of
painting in space, especially painting wedges to get up the field. In painting slices
(which is generally a polygon area), we tried to paint the sides of the polygon.
Medium sides of the respective polygon defined by its vertices. The corner points
it is essentially the point of intersection of the fields with certain ribs from getting
space in question. This means that the "painting point of intersection of a line and
a plane" is the first step that must be understood and mastered in a field with a
wedge paint a wake-up space.
Here is indicated guidance on how to step determines the point of
intersection lines and planes, as well as a decisive step two areas of the cut line.
Determine the point of intersection of lines and planes

72
 REFERENCES

De Baan and JC Boss, 1956. Measure Sciences. Jakarta: JB Wolters.

Djoko Iswadji. 1999. Geometry II. Yogyakarta: PPPG Mathematics.
Soekemi, et al. 1966. Science Pathways Measure. Yogyakarta: Spring.

73