5.7.

5 Theorems of sources with Null-Action (Vaschy's Theorems)

5.7.5.1 Vaschy's Theorem About Electromotive Sources
Enounce: If we'll add sources of electromotive voltage with equal values on
all the sides converging to a node by serial connection, the source having identical
orientations reported to the common node, then the currents from the sides of the
circuit remain unchanged (fig.5.61).

Fig. 5.61

Demonstration We'll prove that by the introduction of the supplementary

sources of electromotive voltages the equations written with Kirchhoff’s theorems
rest unchanged.
I - Using Kirchhoff's first theorem, according with (5.227), written in
complex, we'll write:

n
k( n j )
kj Ik  J j
j=1, 2... n (5.305)

which has the same form with the case when the electromotive sources are missing
(the sources of electromotive voltage do not intervene in Kirchhoff's first theorem).
II. With Kirchhoff’s second theorem, if choosing a loop of circuit (op) for
which we write this theorem and which includes the node n j, two branches which
converge in the node nj will belong to the same node (op) (fig.5.61). But as these
supplementary sources of electromotive voltage added on the two branches
converging to the node j have identical orientations reported to the node j, they will
obviously have different orientations over the loop (op), then, when they appear in
equations written with Kirchhoff’s second theorem, they will appear in the right
member as follows (according with the relation (5.237))

 l

  Z k I k   Z ki I i    E k  E  j  E  j ,
k( O p ) 
(5.306)
i 1,i  k  k( O p )
which means that practically these supplementary sources of electromotive voltage
do not influence either the equations written with Kirchhoff’s second theorem.
5.7.5.2.Vaschy's Theorem About Current Sources
Enounce. If along a loop of circuit we should add current sources connected
in parallel with the sides of the respective loop, having identical orientation in
report with the sense of closing along the respective loop of circuit, the currents
through the circuit branches remain unchanged (fig.5.62)

Fig. 5.62

Demonstration We'll demonstrate that by adding parallel sources of current

in report with the sides of a loop circuit, the currents through the circuit sides
remain unchanged (because the equations written with Kirchhoff’s theorems are
identical both in the presence of current-sources and when they are missing).
Indeed:
- with Kirchhoff’s second theorem along the loop (o p) we have (with the
relation (5.237)):
 l

 Z I
 k k
k( O p ) 
  Z ki I i    E k
i 1,i  k  k( O p )

that is Kirchhoff's second theorem remains unchanged.

- with Kirchhoff’s first theorem for the node j, nj, we write (from (5.227)) :
n
k( n j )
kj I k  J j  ( J   J )  J j
(5.307)
that proving that this relation remains unchanged.
Conclusioning, the system of equations through which we determine the
currents, resulted after the application of Kirchhoff’s theorems remains unchanged
after the additions of the current-sources, then the solution will be identical.
In practice the utilization of one or the other from the two alternatives of
Vaschy's theorem has the goal of making easier the calculation of the currents
through the branches of an electric circuit or the elimination of some non-
determinations which may appear at one or the other of the analyze-methods
applied to find the currents. For example, if at the application of the method of
nodes potentials we'll analyze a circuit that has 2 or more idle sources of
electromotive voltage in the initial scheme, practically we'll not be able to write the
equations because of the no determinations that appear about the current of short-
circuit of the sides with the idle source of electromotive voltage (currents which
will be infinite). In the case of a single idle source of electromotive voltage we
could choose a null potential of reference at one of the idle source ends thus
knowing the potential at the other end of the source. But in our case, having two or
more idle source of electromotive voltage, connected on sides which have no
common nodes, we'll not be able to choose for each idle source of electromotive
voltage a null potential. Therefore, we'll first apply Vaschy's theorem several
times, eliminating one after the other the idle sources of electromotive voltage until
the circuit should remain with a single source of electromotive voltage. The
elimination of sources is done through the adding on the sides converging in a
circuit node of an electromotive-voltage source equal and in opposition with the
value of the idle source of electromotive voltage which converges in that node.
Thus on the side with the initial idle source of electromotive voltage, no passive or
active element of circuit will longer appear, etc.

5.8. Theorems of Equivalent Generators

5.8.1. Thevenin's Theorem (Theorem of the Equivalent Voltage – Generator
5.8.1.1. Thevenin's Theorem at Circuits Without Mutual Couplings
The theorem of the equivalent generator of voltage allows us to determine
the current through a side of an electric circuit without determining all the currents
of the circuit.
Enounce: The current Iab through the side (ab) will be equal with the ratio
between the voltage of idle-running at the terminals of the side (ab), Uab0, at witch
we add the value of the electromotive voltage of this side, Eab and the sum between
the impedance of the external circuit at the terminals of the side (ab), Zab0 with
passivised sources, at which we added the impedance of the side (ab), Zab :
 U ab0  E ab
I ab  (5.308)
Z ab0  Z ab

Demonstration
During the demonstration we'll use the superposition theorem.

Network
exterior the Eab
Uab
side (ab)
Zab

Fig.5.63

In this sense the current through the side (ab) can be written as the sum
between 2 currents:
E ab
I ab  I e   I ab1  I ab2 (5.309)
Z ab  Z ab0

in which :
( I ab )=Ie is the current from the side (ab) due to the sources exterior to that side
1

therefore when the source from the side (ab) is passivised;

( I ab ) is the current through the side (ab) due to the proper source (Eab) of this side
2

with the rest of the sources from circuit passivised.

Z ab - represents the equivalent impedance of the circuit exterior to the side (ab) -
0

considered from the terminals (ab), with the circuit sources passivised (fig.5.64)

Network
exterior the Zab0
side (ab)
passive
(E k=0; I p=0)

Fig. 5.64
By the passivisation of the circuit sources we understand:
- the electromotive voltage sources are substituted by their internal impedance
(fig.5.65)
 E

Z Z

Fig. 5.65

(the source is put in short-circuit);

- the sources of current are substituted by their admittance with which they are
parallel connected (the side and current-sources are "idle-running" by passivisation
(fig. 5.66)

Fig. 5.66
But, as we can see also in the fig. 5.63, applying Kirchhoff’s second theorem along
the loop formed with the side and through its exterior, we have :
U ab  Z ab I ab  E ab  0

hence:
U ab  E ab
I ab  (5.310)
Z ab

The source (Eab) from the side (ab) may be regulated at the value which
should be equal with the voltage between the terminals of the side ab, and with
contrary sense, when the side (ab) is missing. In this case the current through the
side (ab) will be null:
 I ab  0 (5.311)
Used to cancel the current through the side (ab) is quite the idle-running
voltage at the terminal of the side (ab):
E ab0 E ab0 U ab0
I ab  I e   0  Ie    (5.312)
Z ab  Z ab0 Z ab  Z ab0 Z ab  Z ab0

Obs. The relation (5.308) is called "Theorem of equivalent generator of

electromotive voltage" because the exterior circuit at the terminals of the side (ab)
may be substituted by a real source of electromotive voltage, with the parameters
E=Uab0 and Z=Zab0
U ab0
I ab  (5.313)
Z ab0  Z ab

5.8.2. Norton's Theorem (or Theorem of Equivalent Generator of Current)

Using Norton's theorem we'll be able to determine the voltage between the
terminals of a side (ab). To find the current through the side (ab) we should divide
the value of the voltage determined with this theorem by the value of the
impedance of the side (ab), Zab.
Enounce "The voltage between the terminals of a side (ab) of an electric
circuit is equal with the report between the current of short - circuit of the side (ab)
and the sum between the admittance of the side (ab) and the admittance of the
circuit which is exterior to this side with passivised sources (fig.5.67):

Network exterior
the side (ab)
active isolated Uab
Zab

Fig. 5.67

 I ab 
U ab  SC
(5.316)
Y ab  Y ab0
 To prove Norton's theorem (or the theorem of the equivalent current
generator) we'll start from Thevenin's theorem and we'll calculate the voltage
between the terminals of the side (ab):
U ab0
U ab0 Z ab0 I abSC
U ab  Z ab I ab  Z ab   (5.317)
Z ab  Z ab0 1 1 Y ab  Y ab0

Z ab Z ab0

Here :
- I ab is the current of short - circuit through the side (ab), due to the sources
SC

exterior to this side, with the independence of the side (ab) in short - circuit;
1
- Y ab 
Z ab is the admittance of the side (ab).
1
- Y ab 
0
Z ab0 represents the equivalent admittance of the circuit which is exterior to
the side (ab), with passivized sources (equal with the inverse of the equivalent
impedance exterior to the side (ab)).
Norton's theorem is also called the theorem of the generator equivalent of
current because at the terminals of side (ab), the exterior circuit may be substituted
by a real source of current with the parameters J and Y (fig. 5.68):

U ab0 1
J  I abSC  ;Y  Y ab 0 
Z ab Z ab0

Yab Uab
Iab
0

SC

Fig. 5.68
 5.9. Theorems about Powers in P S P R
5.9.1. Theorem of Power Conservations in P S P R
According with Kirchhoff's first theorem, for generally un-isolated network
we have - using the relation (5.227):

n
k( na )
ka  ik  j a
(5.318)

which can be expressed in complex using the theorems of complex representation:

n
k( na )
ka Ik  Ja
(5.319)

Applying the properties of the conjugate at complex numbers in the relation

(5.319) we find:

n
k( na )
ka Ik Ja 

(5.320)

In the relation (5.320) we'll multiply with the complex potential of the node
a, Va and we find:

Va . n
k( na )
ka  Ik   Va . Ja 

then we'll sum for all the nodes of the circuit (a=1, 2.. n), resulting:
n   n

   n . I *  V   V  J *
ka k a a a (5.321)

a1 k(na )  a1

Taking into account that in the left member of the relation (5.321) each
current Ik appears twice: once in report with the node a from which it come out and
second in report with the node (a+1) in which it come in, the double sum can be
written under the form:
n   l

   n . I *  V   V V   I *
ka k a a a1 k (5.322)

a1 k(na )  k 1

But :

V a  V a 1  U k (5.323)
then substituting (5.323) in (5.322) and then (5.322) in (5.321):
l n

 k 1
U k . I k*   V a  J a *
a 1
(5.324)

Then in a first formulation, with (5.324), the theorem of powers

conservation may be enounced as follows:

"The sum of the complex apparent powers received by an electric network through
n

the interconnecting terminals (  V a  J a * ) is equal with the sum of the

a 1

complex apparent powers received by all the sides of the interconnected network (
l


k 1
U k  I k * ).

Using Joubert's theorem for a generally active side of circuit:

l l
U k  E k  Z k  I k   Z kj  I j   Z kj  I j
j 1 j 1
(5.325)
j k

we can deduce:
l
U k   Z kj  I j  E k (5.326)
j 1

Introducing (5.326) in (5.324), we find:

l  l  n

  Z kj . I j  E k   I k *   Va  Ja *
k 1  j 1  a 1

or:
l l  l n

  (Z  I  I *)   (E  I *)  (V  J *)

kj j k k k a a (5.327)

k1 j1  k1 a1

Symbolizing by:
l

(1) SE  k 1
( E k  I k *) (5.328)
- the sum of the complex apparent powers given by networks sources;
n

(2) Sb  
a 1
(V a  J a *) (5.329)

- the sum of the complex apparent powers received through the interconnection
terminals;

l  l 
(3) Sz     Z kj  I j   I k * (5.330)
k 1  j 1 

- the sum of the complex apparent powers "received" by the passive elements of
the network.
In this case we can still write (5.327) under the form:

Sz  SE  Sb (5.331)

which may be read as follows:

"The complex apparent power received by the passive elements of the circuit
is due to the active elements of circuit and to the apparent complex powers
considered from the interconnecting terminals."
As generally any complex apparent power has a real part (active power) and
an imaginary part (reactive power):

S  P  jQ (5.332)

the relation (5.332) can also be written under the form:

Pz  jQZ   PE  jQE    Pb  jQb  (5.333)

hence:

PZ  PE  Pb (5.334)

QZ  QE  Qb (5.335)

that is:
 “The active (reactive) power received by the passive elements of circuit is
due to the active (reactive) powers given by the circuit sources and to the active
(reactive) powers received by circuit through the interconnection terminals.”
Observations
1) The active powers are always received by passive elements of circuit
(resistors); in exchange the active powers given by the circuit sources and the
active powers received by circuit through the interconnection terminals are not
necessarily positive.
But generally speaking the total active power due to the circuit sources is
positive, for an identical rule of association voltage - current both at the active
elements and at the passive elements.
2) The reactive powers "received" by the passive elements of circuit in fact
mean a reactive power with sign:
- positive - if the reactive elements are coils;
- negative - if the reactive elements are capacitors.
The total sum of these powers (Qz) can be positive, negative or null.
If we'll rewrite in the relation (5.327) the term:

 
l  l  l l
 l

  Z  I j   I k * 
 kj  Z k  Ik  Ik * 
      Z kj  I j  I k *  (5.336)
k 1  j 1  k 1 k 1  j 1 
Ik2  jk 

Ck Ek
Rk Lk

Uk

Zkj=jωLkj

Lj

Fig. 5.69
 For Zk and Zkj we have:

 1 
Z k  Rk  j  Lk   (5.337)
  Ck 

Z kj  j X kj  j Lkj (5.338)

For mutual couplings:

Zkj=Zjk (5.339)
and:

Zkj . Ij . Ik*+Zjk . Ik . Ij* = Zkj . (Ij . Ik*+Ik . Ij*) = Zkj . [Ij . Ik*+(Ij . Ik*)*] =

= Zkj . 2 . Re{IjIk*}= j (2 . X kj . Re {I j  I k *} )  j (2 .  . Lkj . Re {I j  I k *} )

(5.340)
then, substituting (5.236) and (5.239) in (5.235) we find:

l l  l l
 1 2 l

 Z I I *   R I  j[ L   C I  2L  Re{I I *}] (5.341)

2
kj j k kk k k kj j k

k 1 j1  k 1 k 1  k  j 1
jk

Then from (5.341) we have:

l
PZ   Rk I k2 (5.342)
k 1

l
 1  l
QZ   Lk   . Ik2   2 . Lkj  Re{I j . I k *}
k 1   Ck  j 1
j k
(5.343)

With the relations (5.342) and (5.343) substituted in (5.327) we can make
balance-sheets at electric networks interconnected as follows:
- for active powers:
l n l

 Rk . I k2  Re {  V a . J a }  Re {  E k . I k }
* *

k 1 a 1 k 1

(5.344)

- for reactive powers:

 l
 1  2 l n l

 L k   . I k   2 . Lkj  Re {I j I k *}  Im{V a . J *a }  Im { E k . I *k }

C k 
k 1  j 1 a 1 k 1
jk

(5.345)
j
Taking into account that I j  I j . e ; I k  I k . e
j j k
I *
k 
 I k . e j  k  , then:

* 
j  j  k 
I j I k  I j Ike ,
so:
Re {I j . I k }  I j . I k . cos j   k 
*
(5.346)

that is for the reactive powers their balance-sheet can be rewritten under the form:

 1  2 n
 . I k   2 . Lkj . I j . I k . cos j   k   Im {V a . J *a }  Im{ E k . I *k }
l n n

  . L   .C
k
k 1  k  j 1
jk
a 1 k 1

(5.347)
Obs. The sign "+" results at the reactive power due to the mutual coupling between
the coils k and j (the term 2 . . Lkj . I j .I k . cos j   k  ) if both currents Ij and Ik
reported to the polarized terminals of the coils j and k have identical signs and "-"
if they have different signs (fig. 5.70):

Lk Lk
Ikj Ik

Mkj=Lkj
Lkj=Lkj

Ij
Lj Lj

a) b)
Fig. 5.70

Qkj  2 . Lkj . I j . I k . cos( j   k ) (Fig. 5.70 (a))

Qkj  2 . Lkj . I j . I k . cos( j   k ) (Fig. 5.70 (b))

Having in view that at a capacitor:

 Ik Ik Ik
U Ck  , then: U Ck   U Ck  (5.348)
j C k  .C k  .C k

then substituting in the left member of the relation (5.345) we find:

 l   l C U2 
L I2
Q z  2 .  k k   Lkj I j I k cos j   k    
 
 
l
~T ~T
(5.349)
k
  2 .  m   e
Ck

 2  2
 k 1  j 1 k 1 
  jk  

If we have mutual couplings:

 l L I2 l C U2   l L ~ 2T C U ~2T 
 k ik  
Qz  2  k k     2 
k Ck k Ck

 k 1 2 2  
 k 1  2 2 
k 1
  (5.350)
 
l
~ ~ ~ 1
 2   i  t  dt
T
WmTk  WeTk  ik 2T  2
k
k 1 T 0

Obviously:
~ T
~T Lk ik2
Wmk  (5.351)
2

- represents the instantaneous magnetic energy mediate during a period;

~ 2T
~ T C k U Ck (5.352)
Wek 
2

- represent the instantaneous magnetic energy mediate during a period.

This way the reactive powers represent the difference between the magnetic
and electric energies of the network, mediate during a period.
As practical applications we'll present the compensation of the power factor
in static regime at receivers.
5.9.2 Theorem of the Maxim Transfer of Active Power in PSPR
A load-impedance Zs=Rs+jXs, connected at the terminals of an electric
network (fig. 5.71) receives a maximum active power if:

Z S  Z ab0
*
(5.353)
 Fig. 5.71

Dem. We can equivalate the exterior Zs circuit at terminals with an equivalent

generator of electromotive voltage, according to Thevenin's theorem with the
parameters E and Z ab : 0

Z ab = R+jX
0 (5.354)

Zab0 U
Zs

Fig. 5.71

In this situation the current through Zs will be:

E E
Is   (5.355)
Z ab0  Z s R  Rs  j  X  X s 

The active power received by Zs will be:

2
 E  E2
PRS  RS I  RS 
2
  RS (5.356)
 R  RS  j  X  X S 
S   R  RS    X  X S  2
2

 To find the extreme value of PRs we'll impose condition of extreme with
partial derivatives:

PRS PRS
0 (a ); 0 (b) (5.357)
X S RS

But as we can see from (5.....*), because X may also be negative, the
extreme condition can be accomplished in report with the reactance when:

X + XS = 0 => XS = - X (5.358)

In (5.356) will result:

E2
PRS  RS . (5.359)
 R  RS  2

hence:

PRS
E 2
.
 R  RS   2 R  RS  RS
2
 E2 .
R  RS  2 RS
 E2 .
R  RS
0 (5.360)
RS  R  RS  4  R  RS  3
 R  RS  3

hence:

RS = R (5.361)

Then, with (5.354) and (5.357), we find:

*
Z S  RS  jX S  R  jX  Z ab0 (5.362)

hence:

P  R
E2

E2
(5.363)
PS max
 R  R 2 4R

As the active power given by the equivalent source of the circuit is:

   ReE 2ER   2ER

* 2
*
PE  Re E I (5.364)
 
the efficiency of the active power transmission to the load under the conditions of a
maximum active power absorbed by the charge is:

E2
PR
  S  4 R2  0.5  50% (5.365)
PE E
2R