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ENCYCLOPEDIA METROPOLITANA,
SECOND EDITION, REVISED.
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CHEMICAL RECREATIONS:
POPULAR COMPENDIUM

EXPERIMENTAL CHEMISTRY,
FOR THE USE OF BEGINNERS.

BY

JOHN JOSEPH GRIFFIN.

THE NINTEI EDITION.

ENTIRELY REWRITTEN AND ILLUSTRATED BY ENGRAwixa;8.

LONDON:
PUBLISHED BY JOHN J. GRIFFIN AND CO.
53 BAKER-STREET, PORTMAN SQUARE;
W. TEGG AND CO. PANCRAS LANE;
AND RICHARD GRIFFIN AND CO. GLASGOW.
1849. .
«VTſs
& falº

Ǻ),
º
 K’É, 23 a 3 14-24

PREFACE,

THIs work is offered as a Manual of Experimental Chemistry

for the use of beginners. The author has two classes of readers
particularly in view, namely, Students attending Lectures on
Chemistry, and Schoolmasters who desire to teach the
Elements of Chemistry, in Popular Lectures or Experimental
Lessons. Both of these classes of readers will find useful
information in the following pages. The work, however, is
not a system of Chemistry, but a book of Experiments,
arranged in order, and connected by an outline of the
Science. The subjects investigated are those which urgently
demand the notice of beginners, and the author has endea
voured to elucidate these effectively. Thus, he has given
ample accounts of Air, Water, Earths, Acids, and Common
Salts, while subjects of less importance are passed unnoticed,
and the details of Organic Chemistry are excluded entirely,
because incompatible with the limited size and elementary
character of this volume.
The experiments selected to illustrate the subjects fixed
upon, are striking and convincing, and such as can be per
formed with facility and economy. The precautions neces
sary to ensure success and safety are detailed, and, as far as
possible, the experiments are exhibited by means of four
hundred figures of apparatus, many of which represent new
and simplified instruments, specially intended to aid the
researches of young chemists. This is particularly the case
with apparatus adapted to micro-chemistry, or the art of
experimenting on minute quantities.
 iy PREFACE,

Time chapter entitled, “Elementary Experiments,” is

written in a peculiar style, to show in what manner the
elements of practical chemistry can be taught to large classes
of students in schools. The chapter on the “Qualitative
Analysis of Salts,” is a sequel to the elementary experi
ments. It is an introduction to analysis for the use of very
young chemists. After mastering these chapters, the reader
will easily comprehend the use of the Tables of Tests given
in subsequent chapters of the work.
The section on “Chemical Statics” is devoted to the
theories, general doctrines, and mathematical arrangements
of chemistry. Though brief, it is comprehensive, and, it is
hoped, intelligible. The Tables in this section present a great
mass of important information.
The experimental portion of the work is not confined to
chemical recreations or to experiments of demonstration, but
includes much information relating to analytical processes.
In particular, it embraces an account of a new method of
preparing test liquors of fixed strength, and of applying such
liquors, by means of graduated decimal measures, to the rapid
analysis of acids, alcalies, and salts. This method of testing
is equally useful to students of chemistry, and to persons
professionally engaged in the chemical arts. Among the
applications of which it is susceptible, is that of determining
the strength and purity of chemical preparations used in
medicine.
The author has the pleasing task of expressing his gra
titude for the favourable reception accorded to eight pre
ceding editions of this work; and, on presenting the NINTH
EDITION, which he has endeavoured to render worthy of
continued patronage, he indulges in the hope that it will still
be found entitled to rank with books of practical utility.

CHEMICAL MUSEUM,
GLAsgow, Dec. 15th, 1846.
 CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION, Page
Nature of Chemistry, - - -

Objects of Chemistry, • - -

Use of Chemistry,
Reasons why Chémistry should become a stated branch
of a Liberal Education, . . -

Methods of Chemical Research,

Different Classes of Experiments, e

a) Experiments of Research, . •

b) Demonstrative Experiments, ..
c) Productive Experiments, . e

Micro-Chemical Experiments, . e

Different sorts of Chemical Substances

Chemical Elements, . -

The Cause of Chemical Combination, -

The Cause of Chemical Decomposition,

ELEMENTARY EXPERIMENTS,
Alteration of Vegetable Colours by Acids and Alcalies
Bleaching of Vegetable Colours by Chlorine,
Examples of Chemical Operations,
Solution, - . 36 || Crystallisation,
Evaporation, . . 39 | Efflorescence,
Precipitation, . 40 || Deliquescence,
Testing, . - . 40 | Effervescence,
Dissolving Powers of
- Sublimation,
different Liquids, 41 | Filtration, .
Discrimination of Vegetable, Animal, and Mineral
Bodies, . -

A. Some of the Properties of Nitrate of Potash, as

distinguished from Carbonate of Potash, .
B. Some of the Properties of Charcoal, .
C. Nature of Vegetable Bodies, .
D. Nature of Animal Bodies,
Chemical Metamorphoses, .
Experiments on Heat, * •
vi CONTENTS,

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SOLUBLE

SAL S, Page 93
-

Substances to be sought for, - -

94
Salts adapted for Analysis, - -
95
Preparation of a Solution of the Salt, 96
Classification of Tests, -
99
I. Indicating Tests, 99
A. For Metals, . - . . 99
B. For Acids, . - - -
110
II. Confirming Tests, -
116
A. For Metals, - - • 117
B. For Acids, . - - -
125
Table of Indicating Tests, . -
113–14
-

Assay Note, - • - -
102, 114
-

CHEMICAL STATICS, 132

Dalton's Atomic Theory 133
Table of Atomic Weights, 135
Constitution of Compounds, • .
-
136
Proximate and Ultimate Constitution, 141
Chemical Symbols, . - - -
143
Atomic Weights of Compounds, -
146
Doctrine of Definite Proportions, -
155
Law of Multiple Proportions, 155
Doctrine of Chemical Equivalents,
Table of Decimal Equivalents,
The Constitution of Gases, -
-

-
. 155
158
164
164
Specific Gravity of Gases, . - -

Atomic Measure of Elementary Gases 166

Atomic Measure of Compound Gases, 168
Table of the Constitution of Gases, . 174
Absolute Weight of Gases, • - - 178
English Cubic-Inch Standard of Bulk, , 178
Cubic Centimeter Standard of Bulk, 180
New Volumeter proposed, . - **
181
Description of a Chemical Ready Reckoner, 184
Comparative Table of the Atomic Weights of the
Elements, assumed by different Authors, 188
Formulae employed in Calculations respecting Atomic
Constitution, . -
l93
Method of representing the Transformations thai take
place during a Chemical Process, 195
Imperial Measures, . - - - -
197
 CONTENTS. Wii

NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS, Page 198

Oxygen, . . 199 || Bromine, .
- - 360
Hydrogen, . . 226 Iodine,
- - - . 361
Nitrogen, . . 267 | Fluorine, .
- - . 366
Sulphur, . . 308 || Carbon,
- . - . 368
Selenium, . . 331 || Boron,
- - - . 407
Phosphorus, . 331 || Silicon,
- - - . 409
Chlorine, . . 344
-

METALLIC ELEMENTS, - . 416

General Properties, . 417 | Bismuth, . - . 512
Potassium, . 421 | Lead,
- • - . 513
Sodium, . . 448 || Tin, .
- - - . 516
Lithium, . . 467 Zinc, .
- - - . 518
Ammonium, . 467 || Cadmium, .
- - . 520
Barium, . . 474 || Mercury, .
- - . 521
Strontium, . . 480 Silver,
- - - . 523
Calcium, . . 482 || Platinum, .
- - .. a 529
Magnesium, . 490 | Palladium, .
- - . 531
Lantanum, . 492 Iridium,
- . - . 531
Aluminum, . 492 | Rhodium, .
- - . 531
Glucinum, . . 496 || Osmium, .
- o . 531
Yttrium, . . 496 || Gold, .
- - - . 531
Zirconium, . . 496 || Titanium, .
- e . 533
Thorium, . . 496 || Tantalum, .
- - . 533
Iron, . • . 497 | Tungstenum,
* * . . 533
Manganese, -. 505 || Molybdenum, . . 533
Cerium, . . 506 || Vanadium,
- e . 533
Nickel, - -. 506 || Chromium, • . 533
Cobalt, - -. 507 || Antimony, . - . 538
Copper, . -. 508 || Tellurium, . • . 540
Uranium, . . 512 || Arsenic,
• . - . 540

The arrangement of the chemical compounds described in the follow

ing pages is according to the method followed by Professor GMELIN in
his admirable Handbuch der Chemie. Every element has a short notice
devoted to it; and these notices are arranged in the order of the names
in the above Table. The compounds produced by the combination of
different elements are noticed in the article which treats of that par
ticular element, the name of which is last in the above.list. Thus,
jº. acid, which is composed of sulphur and oxygen, is noticed
in the article on Sulphur; Sulphuret of Potassium, which contains
sulphur and potassium, is noticed in the article on Potassium; and
Sulphate of Barytes, which contains oxygen, sulphur, and barium, is
described under the head of Barium.—An exact reference to every
compound by name is furnished by the Index.
APPARATUS, . . . 545 INDEX, . . . 557
 INTRODUCTION.

NATURE OF CHEMISTRY.-Chemistry is the science

which makes known to us the properties of the compon
ent particles of all natural bodies. I speak not only of
those compound particles which are the result of organ
isation, but of the ultimate, indivisible, or elementary
particles. It treats of the various sorts of substances
which exist in nature, and of the exact determination of
their differences. It exhibits the means by which the
component parts of compound bodies can be separated
from one another, or by which the elements of compounds
can be made to combine together. In fine, it shows by
what contrivances the corpuscles, the solid particles
which constitute the material substances of the world,
can be most beneficially applied to the service of man.
OBJECTs of CHEMISTRY. —The objects of Chemistry
are inexhaustible. It undertakes the examination of all
substances which act upon the senses, the solid matter
of all animal, vegetable, and mineral substances. It
seeks to determine the properties of those substances, the
number and proportion of their component particles, the
individual nature of those components, and the proper
ties of all other compounds which can be produced by their
combination, either in different numbers or in different
proportions. . There are no bounds to the researches of
Chemistry; because, at whatever point its operations
commence, there is no telling to what they may lead.
Indeed, so infinitely varied are its objects, that it is an
everlasting source of occupation and amusement; and
A -
2 USE OF CHEMISTRY.

while, on this account, it receives the attention of the

curious philosopher, it claims the notice of all men, from
its utility in the arts by which the comforts and existence
of civilized life are promoted and supported.
USE OF CHEMISTRY.-The great importance of the
science of Chemistry is rendered evident by the following
considerations:—It is useful inexplaining natural pheno
mena: indeed, in determining the constitution of the
atmosphere, in investigating the changes to which it is
subject, the variations of temperature, the laws of winds,
dew, rain, hail, and snow, Chemistry is our principal,
our only satisfactory guide. These remarkable changes
:
in the face of nature—changes which, because familiar,
do not produce any emotion in the mind, though in
themselves truly wonderful—are chemical operations on
a magnificent scale, and can only be explained by
chemical laws.
In man’s researches into the nature of the things
whence he derives the means of his comfort, his happi
ness, his luxuries, and even his existence—in examining
the various objects which compose the mineral, the
vegetable, and the animal kingdoms, Chemistry is
essentially requisite for the successful progress of his
inquiries.
In considering the application of Chemistry to the
improvement of the arts of civilized life, a wide field of
contemplation opens to our view. So extensive, indeed,
are its influence and importance, that, in most of the
arts, many of the processes—in some all that are
employed, depend on chemical principles. The bare
mention of some of these arts will suggest ample illus
trations of its extensive utility.
In the medical art, so great is the service of a know
ledge of Chemistry, that its practical acquisition is now
universally regarded as an essential branch of a medical
education. In agriculture, recent chemical researches
have established principles that promise to be followed
by results of extraordinary benefit to mankind. In the
art of extracting metals from their ores, in purifying
 REASONS FOR STUDYING CHEMISTRY. 3

and combining them with each other, and in forming

instruments and metals—whether for useful or orna
mental purposes—almost all the processes are purely
chemical. The arts of glass and porcelain-making, of
tanning, soap-making, dyeing, and bleaching, depend
entirely upon Chemistry; and all the processes in
baking, brewing, and distilling, most of the culinary
arts, and many other processes in domestic economy,
are chemical operations. In short, wherever, in any of
the processes of nature or of art, the accumulation or
the diminution of heat takes place—wherever a sensible
change is to be affected by heat—wherever substances
in combination are to be separated—wherever the
union of simple substances and the formation of new
compounds are to be effected—the operations and their
results can only be explained on chemical principles.
From this general view of the extensive applications
of chemical science to the arts, those who have not
considered the objects which it embraces will be enabled
to judge of the importance of this study.
REASONS WHY CHEMISTRY SHOULD BECOME A STATED
BRANCH OF A LIBERAL EDUCATION.—If we consider
Chemistry purely as a science, we shall find no subject
better calculated to encourage that generous love of
truth which confers dignity and superiority on those
who successfully pursue it. There is no science which
holds out more interesting subjects of research, and
none which affords more striking proofs of the wisdom
and beneficence of the Creator of the universe. A
machine constructed by human art, is admired in pro
portion to the simplicity of its contrivance, to the extent
of its usefulness, and to the niceness of its adaptations.
But the works of man sink into nothing when brought
into comparison with the works of nature. When we
examine the former, every step of our progress is
obscured with comparative clumsiness and defect: in
contemplating the latter, we behold perfection rise on
perfection, and more exquisite wonders still meeting our
view. It is the merit of Chemistry, that by its aid we
 4 REASONS FOR STUDYING CHEMISTRY.

are enabled to take a minuter survey of the great system

of the universe. And we find, so far as our limited
powers can comprehend it, that the whole is nicely
balanced and adjusted, and that all its changes tend to
the most beneficial purposes. Circumstances which, on
a superficial view, were seeming imperfections and
defects, a closer inspection points out to be real excel
lencies. In all the singular and surprising changes
which every where present themselves, the more closely
we observe and examine them, the more do we admire
the simple means by which they are accomplished, and
the intelligent design and perfect wisdom displayed in
the beneficial ends to which they are directed.
To these considerations respecting the importance of
Chemistry, we may add another, which, at a period
when this science is taking its proper place in schools as
a branch of general education, is not without its inter
est. This consideration is, that Chemistry is a subject
qualified to train both the mind and the hands of young
people to habits of industry, regularity, and order. It
teaches the doctrine that accurate and extensive obser
vation is necessary for the accumulation of facts;
that careful and exact comparison is necessary for the
reduction of these facts to general statements; that
logical precision is necessary in estimating the relative
value of various problematical statements on points
where positive information is wanting; that, conse
quently, the chemist must study to become capable of
judging according to presumptive evidence, and in that
manner habituate himself to the formation of sound
opinions on all subjects that come under his cognizance.
If any one will consider the great value of a sound
judgment in the ordinary affairs of life, he cannot but
appreciate the strength of this argument in favour of a
chemical education.
Again, the necessity of observing the most scrupulous
and constant regard to cleanliness in experimenting, as
being indispensable to success, must gradually induce
habits of neatness and cleanliness even in the most
slovenly; while the equally unavoidable necessity of
 METHODS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH. 5

carrying on the different steps of an operation in an

orderly and cautious manner, must have a correspond
ing moral influence upon persons of the most careless
disposition.
Independently, therefore, of any advantages to be
hoped for from the possession of the mere facts of
Chemistry, setting entirely out of view the applications,
either of the principles or the details of the science to
the prospective commercial, or scientific, pursuits of the
young student, there is, in the mental and moral dis
cipline which its study affords, high inducements for
making Chemistry a stated branch of liberal education.
METHODS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH.-It has been
demonstrated by the experiments of chemists, that the
marvellous diversity of appearance under which bodies
are presented to the eye, and the unceasing changes to
which they are subject, are occasioned by the mutual
re-actions of a small number of unchangeable elemen
tary particles. The distinctive properties of these par
ticles, the nature of the phenomena which mark their
re-actions, the methods of causing them to combine, the
properties of the resulting compounds, and the methods
of decomposing these compounds,-are, consequently,
the objects which the chemical student is called upon
to investigate.
There are two methods of proceeding in the acquisi
tion of chemical knowledge; these are called analysis
and synthesis. ANALYSIS means the art of separating
the constituents of compound bodies, SYNTHESIS, the
art of forming compounds, by the putting together, or
effecting the combination, of their component particles.
Both analysis and synthesis are practically effected by
the performing of certain processes or operations,
thence called chemical operations.
The properties of natural bodies, whether they be
simple or compound, native or factitious, can never be
determined a priori; they can be discovered only by
actual trial. When an unknown substance is presented
to a chemist for examination, he submits it to certain
A 2
6 METHODS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH.

trials, or performs certain operations upon it. He

examines, for example, the relation of the unknown
body to heat, light, water, acids, alcalies, and other
liquids. These trials have particular names given to
them, for the sake of convenience in the communica
tion of knowledge. If a substance is exposed to a red
heat, the operation is termed IGNITION. If the sub
stance melts, the operation is termed FUSION. If the
substance, on being put into water, dissolves or disap
pears, the operation is termed SOLUTION, and the
resulting liquid is called a solution. If the solution is
exposed to heat so as to cause the water to rise in
vapour, the operation is termed EVAPORATION; or if
the operation is so performed that the vapour is col
lected and reconverted into water, the operation is
termed DISTILLATION. If, on the contrary, the solution,
instead of being exposed to evaporation, is mixed with
some liquid which causes the production of a solid sub
stance or powder, the operation is called PRECIPITATION;
and if means be taken to separate the solid powder
from the residual liquid, by straining through a porous
substance, this operation is termed FILTRATION.
The performance of these operations communicates
to the chemist a certain degree of knowledge respecting
the properties of the substance operated upon. If the
substance does not melt when exposed to a strong
degree of heat, it is said to be infusible. If it does not
dissolve when placed in a liquid, it is said to be insoluble.
A description of the results of a series of such experi
ments, is the chemical character of the substance. We
cannot account for the properties thus found to belong
to a substance. No chemist can go farther than the
ascertainment of simple facts. The sagacity of man
is insufficient to determine why a given substance is
soluble or insoluble, fusible or infusible. The nature
of the power which causes fusion or solubility, is
unknown. And, indeed, this is the case with regard to
all physical phenomena, the forces which produce them
are unknown to man, eacept by their effects.
The more numerous the operations performed upon
 *
METHODS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH. ſ

a substance, the more accurate is the knowledge ac

quired respecting its properties; provided the operations
be suitably conducted. The properties of a substance
can never be wholly known. Chemists begin with a
single fact; their daily experience enlarges their know
ledge: but, at the best, their acquaintance with the
properties of any one body is but limited and imperfect.
Not until a substance shall have been submitted to the
action of every other substance, and under all possible
variations of temperature, pressure, and so forth, will
its properties be wholly determined; and that will never
be. The knowledge we possess respecting the proper
ties of known elements and their compounds, is, notwith
standing the labours of many industrious chemists, still
extremely imperfect. No practical chemist, however
young he may be in the science, can pursue his studies
with even a moderate degree of zeal, without being
enabled to add something almost daily to the existing
stock of intelligence. The variety of unrecorded facts
which continually strike the eye of an industrious expe
rimenter, is indeed surprising.
The first business of a young chemist is to make him
self acquainted with what is already known, with what has
been already determined by the experiments of others.
His next concern, to learn something which no one else
has yet discovered.
Chemistry is a science founded so entirely upon ex
periment that no person can understand it fully unless
he personally performs such experiments as verify its
fundamental truths. The hearing of lectures, and the
reading of books, will never benefit him who attends to
nothing else; for Chemistry can alone be studied to
advantage practically. One Eaperiment, well conduc
ted, and carefully observed by the student, from first to
last, will afford more knowledge than the mere perusal
of a whole volume.

DIFFERENT CLASSES OF ExPERIMENTS.–Chemical

experiments may be divided, for convenience, into three
sorts; namely, Determinative, Demonstrative, and Pro
ductive.
8 EXPERIMENTS OF RESEARCH.

(a) Determinative Experiments, (Experiments of Re

search.)—If any body brings me a substance, and de
sires to know the nature of it, I must make a determina
tive experiment; in other words, I must submit it to
analysis, or determine by experiment, what it is composed
of Chemical analysis is of two sorts, qualitative and
quantitative. A qualitative analysis makes known the
chemical nature of the constituents of a compound, but
not the relative quantities of those constituents. A
quantitative analysis makes known both the nature of
the constituents and the exact quantity of each by
weight. Experiments of this sort are also called ex
periments of research. No man can execute an analysis
without previously acquiring a considerable share of
chemical information. Before a qualitative analysis can
be executed, it is necessary to become acquainted with
the properties of all the known elements and their prin
cipal compounds, as well as with the methods of deter
mining whether any of them, on a certain occasion, be
present or absent. The use of chemical tests or re-agents,
depends upon the knowledge previously acquired, that
particular bodies, in particular circumstances, act in a
determinate manner. There is, for example, a liquid
called oil of vitriol. I know that other liquids which
contain certain substances in solution, upon being mixed
with oil of vitriol, produce a precipitate. If, then, upon
dissolving an unknown substance in water, and mixing
the solution with oil of vitriol, I obtain no precipitate,
I am certified that the substances alluded to are not
present. It is evident, that unless I know beforehand
what substances do give a precipitate with oil of vitriol,
and what substances do not, it is useless to apply the
test; because whether I see a precipitate or not, I
acquire no information. A vast number of other sub
stances serve, as well as oil of vitriol, the office of che
mical tests, and their employment in chemical analysis
constitutes a very important part of chemical study.
In the subsequent pages, the reader will frequently
find it stated by what diversity of tests a particular .
substance may be known to be present, and also for
 EXPERIMENTS OF DEMONSTRATION. 9

what other substances any given compound is able to

act as a test. .

In quantitative analysis, something more has to be

done. Supposing a man to know how to detect all the
ingredients of a compound, supposing that he has
detected them, he has, in quantitative analysis, the
additional task of separating these ingredients from
one another, of freeing them from every possible inter
mixture, and of determining their respective weights.
In some cases, two substances can be separated from
each other with ease; in other cases, the separation
cannot be effected without great difficulty. The
methods of separation depend altogether upon the
properties of the particular substances which are to be
separated, and can only be learned by studying those
properties. But success also depends upon the skill of
the operator in the performance of the numerous opera
tions which occur in analysis. The fusions, solutions,
filtrations, and evaporations, require to be performed
with extraordinary care. If a drop of liquid falls down,
or an atom of powder is blown away, the whole experi
ment is spoiled, and the labour, probably of weeks, is
frustrated. To perform an analysis with accuracy,
should be the object of a student’s ambition, but if he
wishes to attain that object he must not only industri
ously study the properties of chemical bodies, but con
tinually accustom himself to manipulation, that he
may become dexterous in the performance of those
operations upon which the success of an analysis
mainly depends.”
(b). Demonstrative Eaperiments are of a different
kind. They are employed in the communication of
chemical knowledge. When a chemist has discovered
any thing new, he announces the discovery, and de
scribes an experiment by which the truth of his state

* For detailed instructions on manipulation, the reader is re

ferred to “A Treatise on Chemical Manipulation,” by John Joseph
Griffin, 12mo, Glasgow, 1838.
10 EXPERIMENTS OF DEMONSTRATION.

ment can be proved. This is a demonstrative experi

ment. There are certain substances which if heated
at one end, very soon become hot at the other end;
these are said to be good conductors of heat. There
are other substances which on being heated at one end,
are a long time before they become hot at the other
end; such substances are called bad conductors of heat.
A man discovers and states that the metal called pla
tinum is a bad conductor of heat. The proof of this is
easy. You take a short wire of platinum, hold it by
the fingers at one end and place the other end in the
flame of a lamp. You find that the heat comes to the
fingers very slowly. This is a demonstrative experi
ment. As the students of a science must be supposed
to be quite ignorant of its facts, it is the business of
teachers to demonstrate the truth of their assertions
by experiments, and accordingly lecturers on Chemistry
commonly exhibit a great number of experiments. It
would be in vain, however, to attempt, in a class, to
demonstrate every thing. Want of time forbids it.
But a teacher should be careful not to state that as a
chemical fact, which is incapable of proof by a chemical
experiment. This, however, is a rule which many lec
turers wholly disregard, and extravagant theories are
flung out with a prodigal hand. On this account, I
caution students against receiving dogmas as facts, and
accepting assertion for argument. In an experimental
science, where truth lies within a man's own reach,
every person ought to make use of his senses, and judge
for himself. Those who are too ready to adopt as
their own the opinions of another, are certain to be
deceived. In studying chemistry, therefore, the student
should look attentively to the demonstrative experiments.
No one who is in the habit of reasoning upon what he
hears, and believing only what is proved, will ever run
the risk of talking absurdities about the properties of
chimerical compounds, which nowhere exist but in the
excited imaginations of over-credulous philosophers.
(c). Productive Experiments. I have given this name
 MICRO-CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS. 11

to those experiments which have for object the produc

tion of chemical substances. The Pharmacopoeia is a
collection of productive experiments, containing instruc
tions for preparing or producing the chemical substances
employed in medicine. It will be understood, of course,
that many analytical and demonstrative experiments,
are also productive experiments; but I understand by
the latter term, those experiments only which are made
for the express purpose of producing chemical prepara
tion in quantities for use. Productive experiments on
the small scale form an admirable exercise for young
students. The preparation of the various acids, oxides,
salts, sulphurets, chlorides, iodides, &c., is capable of
furnishing most useful information respecting the pro
perties of those substances, and has the further bene
ficial effect of habituating the student to careful mani
pulation. A vast number of substances can be prepared
in the small way with great facility, with the help of
glass tubes, small flasks, capsules, glass plates, &c., in
sufficient quantities to enable the operator to ascertain
their properties and re-actions with other substances.
A student's spare time cannot be more agreeably or
usefully occupied than in preparing and examining
compounds not previously familiar to him. Portions of
substances so prepared may be preserved in small glass
tubes closed with corks. Productive experiments in
the large way, are those which produce the metals,
salts, acids, alcalies, and other commodities of the
druggist, the drysalter, the colour maker, &c.
MICRO-CHEMICAL ExPERIMENTS.–The chemical pro
perties of a substance characterise equally the smallest
portion of that substance, or the greatest mass. That
which can be demonstrated with a pound, can often be
demonstrated with a grain. Hence chemical experi
ments may be performed, either with large portions of
matter, or with small portions; and whether in any case
a large or small portion should be operated upon, is a
thing to be determined solely by expediency. In trade,
where productive experiments are made with a view to
 12 MICRO-CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS.

obtain preparations for sale, the quantities operated

upon are often extremely large, amounting to thousands
of tons. In analysis, the quantity of a body submitted
to a test weighs sometimes but the fraction of a grain.
When a lecturer has to teach Chemistry to a large
audience, he is obliged to make his demonstrative
experiments upon a large scale, otherwise a majority of
the persons present may not be able to perceive what
takes place. And whenever a theory is built upon a
single experiment, the lecturer should take particular
care to make this experiment in such a manner that
every person present may see and comprehend it fully;
for if the demonstration is not made to tell, the theory
sinks unheeded, and the arguments grounded upon it
are fustian. I give this hint to the Members of Me-.
chanics’ Institutions, who have lately adopted the use
ful practice of lecturing to one another.
As the demonstrative experiments of the lecture
room are unavoidably scanty and unsatisfactory, the
student who desires to know somewhat more of the
science than he can learn there, must necessarily pur
sue his studies in the laboratory, either at home or in
public. I have already cautioned him against believing
the dogmas he hears and reads, without seeing the
experiments which are intended to verify them. It is
indispensably necessary, that he perform with his own
hands the fundamental experiments of chemistry, in the
best manner that his time, his apparatus, and his means
admit. He will find it of importance in this case to
operate upon extremely small portions of matter; for
he will then not only save time and money, but often
be enabled to perform a successful experiment, where,
by operating upón a large mass, he would as certainly
fail. The preparation of the gases, the formation and
crystallisation of salts, the application of tests, and a
thousand other entertaining and instructive experi
ments can all be performed by the student, better on a
small scale than in the large way; nay more, a student
in his closet very frequently succeeds in performing an
experiment which fails on the lecture table of the pro
 DIFFERENT SORTS OF SUBSTANCES. 13

fessor; because the accidents which attend the hurry and

business of a lecture room, produce unavoidable disap
pointment. This, therefore, is a circumstance of which
the chemical student should be prepared to take every
advantage. The faculty of experimenting with accuracy,
facility, and economy, ought to be gained as speedily as
possible; for it is upon that faculty that the progress of
the young chemist is principally dependant.

DIFFERENT SORTS OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES.—All

natural bodies are either simple or compound. Those
substances are SIMPLE, which cannot, by any known
method, be separated, decomposed, or divided, in such
a manner as to produce particles different in their pro
perties from one another, or from the original sub
stances. On the other hand, those substances are
comPound, which experiment is capable of resolving
into particles of an unlike nature. For a period of
many centuries, and even till a very late date, there
were four substances held to be simple or elementary.
These were fire, air, earth, and water. Of these four
bodies, all others were supposed to be constituted,
though nobody could ever prove, or indeed ever tried
to prove, that this was the case. The system, however,
continued to be orthodox until very lately, when three
of these imaginary elements, namely, air, water, and
earth, were proved to be compounds. But with respect
to fire, it is still unknown whether it be simple or com
pound, or in what its essence consists, or by what
causes its effects are produced. What the ancients
considered to be simple bodies, are no longer considered
to be such ; but in place of these substances, the chem
ists of modern times have elevated to the dignity of
elements a far more numerous race. No one, however,
dogmatically asserts now-a-days that the substances
termed elements are absolutely of a simple nature. The
term element intimates no more than that the body to
“hich it is applied, has never in the opinion of modern
chemists been subjected to decomposition—that it has
B
14 CHEMICAL ELEMENTS.

never been divided into particles different from one

another, or from the original substance.
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS.—According to the present
views of chemists, there are fifty-five ELEMENTs, or sim
ple substances; that is to say, fifty-five substances which
individually differ in properties from every other sub
stance, and which, by their various combinations, pro
duce the diversified compounds that constitute the
material world,—animal, vegetable, and mineral. The
names of these fifty-five elements are contained in the
following list. I have added a few notes, to give the
reader an idea of the relative importance and abun
dance of these elements, the state in which they exist
in nature, and their classification into such as concern
animal and vegetable substances, and such as do not.
The properties of these elements, and the experiments
which serve to separate them from other substances, and
by which the separate identity of each is demonstrated,
will be described in a subsequent part of this work.
1. Oxygen. These four elements are of extreme im
2. Hydrogen. portance, and exist in great abundance.
. Nitrogen. Oxygen and hydrogen are the sole
. Carbon. constituents of WATER. Oxygen and
nitrogen are the main constituents of ATMos
PHERIC AIR. Hydrogen and nitrogen constitute
AMMONIA, which is formed in large quantities
during the putrefaction and decomposition of
animal and vegetable substances, ascends into
the atmosphere, and after thunder storms again
falls to the earth, dissolved in rain. Oxygen
and carbon constitute CARBONIC ACID, which
always exists in atmospheric air. It is from
these substances that WEGETABLES are derived.
The ammonia and carbonic acid are carried
down by rain water into the soil, or pulverulent
surface of the earth. The seeds and roots of
plants decompose these compounds, and absor
their carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and
 CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. - 15
#
the power of vegetation organises and converts
them into new compounds, such as did not pre
viously exist. These new vegetable substances,
consist for the greater part of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen, and some of them of carbon, hydro
gen, oxygen, and nitrogen. They serve after
wards as the food of ANIMALs, those which contain
nitrogen being the most nutritious. The process
of digestion converts the vegetable substances
into animal substances, often with very slight
change in chemical constitution, sometimes with
mone at all; the process of digestion in such
cases consisting of a mere solution of the sub
stances operated upon. When animals die, their
component substances suffer decomposition, and
reproduce their original constituents—water,
ammonia, and carbonic acid—oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen, and carbon. There is a constant cir
culation of the organic elements. Plants derive
their means of nutriment from the air; animals
from plants; and when the animals die, their
components return to the atmosphere, to supply
another generation of plants and of animals.
These are mighty and wonderful transmutations,
such as fill the mind with admiration and aston
ishment. -

The various other compounds produced by

the combination of these four elements with one
another, are too numerous to be mentioned in
this list. I will name only a few of them:—
Oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, produce liquid
nitric acid. Oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon, pro
duce oxalic acid, citric acid (lemon juice), and
vinegar. Hydrogen and carbon produce the gas
that is employed in gas lighting. Hydrogen,
nitrogen, and carbon, produce prussic acid.
Carbon is found in nature pure in the diamond;
nearly pure in graphite; and very abundantly
in combination with hydrogen as coal.
5. Silicon. This element in combination with oxygen,
16 CHEMICAL ELEMENTS.

forms sand, flint, quartz, siliceous earth—and is

one of the most abundant substances in nature.
In combination with oxygen and potassium,
forming silicate of potash, it enters into the con
stitution of straw, (wheat straw, cane, &c.)
6. Aluminum. In combination with oxygen, this ele
ment forms clay, or aluminous earth.
7. Calcium. In combination with oxygen, this element
forms lime, or calcareous earth. In combination
with oxygen and carbon, it forms chalk, marble,
calcareous spar, and the numerous varieties of
limestone. This element enters into the com
position of many plants, and of certain parts of
all animals, particularly shells and bones.
The last three elements, in combination with
oxygen, and mixed with one another, form the
main portions of all the different kinds of soils,
siliceous, aluminous, and calcareous. All other
elements that occur in soils, exist in much
smaller quantities than these, though some of
them are yet more indispensable to promote the
general growth, or the production of particular
parts of plants.
8. gº These two elements constitute the com
9. Sodium. / pound called sea salt or kitchen salt, a
white substance used to season food, to preserve
animal substances from putrefaction, and often
also as a manure to promote the growth of plants.
It is the chief saline matter of sea water, and
also exists in the state of a mineral.
The chlorine in combination with hydrogen,
forms muriatic acid, or spirits of salts; in com
bination with hydrogen and nitrogen, it forms
the salt called sal-ammoniac, which is a frequent
constituent of animal substances.
The sodium in combination with carbon and
oxygen, forms the detergent commonly called
soda, or chemically, carbonate of soda. Sodium
exists in a great number of plants, and chloride
of sodium is found in many animal substances.
 CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. 17

10. Potassium. This element is a constituent of the

mineral felspar, and therefore one of the com
ponents of the granitic rocks, which form the
great mass of the earth. It is indispensable for
the growth of many plants. The wood of all
trees contain it; and no tree can flourish in a
soil which is without potassium. When wood is
burnt, and the ashes washed, a salt is obtained
which is termed potash, or pearl ash. This
consists of potassium, oxygen, and carbon. The
juice of the plant called sorrel, contains a salt
termed oxalate of potash. This consists of po
tassium, oxygen, and carbon, and hence this
plant cannot grow in a soil which is free from
potassium. The stems and leaves of the gram
ineae contain silicate of potash, which consists of
the elements silicon, oxygen, and potassium,
In general, soils derive this element from the
decomposition of felspar, or of other stones that
contain it; but of late, it has been added artifi
cially, by using as a manure the salt called
nitrate of potash (saltpetre), which is a com
pound of oxygen, nitrogen, and potassium. This
salt renders soils very fertile, because it adds to
them two substances, both of which are highly
beneficial to plants, namely, nitrogen and potas
Slumn.

11. Sulphur. (Brimstone.) In many parts of the world,

as near Paris, in Derbyshire, &c., there are
found large masses of a mineral called ala
baster, gypsum, selenite, sulphate of lime, plaster
of paris, &c. This mineral consists of oxygen,
calcium, and sulphur. The same substance is
found dispersed in many soils, dissolved in most
springs, rivers, and seas, and forming a limited
part of many plants. Sulphur occurs in a free
state mear volcanoes, and in combination with
many metals, in the ores termed pyrites. Thus,
the very abundant golden-looking mineral called
in Scotland slate diamonds, or iron pyrites, con
B 2
18 CHEMICAL ELEMENTS,

sists of sulphur in combination with iron. Sul

phur combined with oxygen and hydrogen, form
the strong acid termed oil of vitriol, or sulphuric
acid. It is a constituent, in small proportions,
of many of those vegetable productions, which,
in consequence of their containing nitrogen,
afford nutritious food, namely, the substances
called fibrin, albumen, casein, and gluten. It is
very often present in small quantities in animal
substances. It is a constituent of horn and of
hair, and it is always present in eggs. The
peculiar odour of rotten eggs is due to a com
pound containing sulphur and hydrogen.
12. Phosphorus. A few minerals are found that contain
a considerable quantity of this element. Thus,
phosphate of lead found at Leadhills, contains
oxygen, phosphorus, and lead. Apatite contains
oxygen, calcium, chlorine, and phosphorus. In
very many other minerals, a small proportion
of this element occurs; so much so, that phos
phorus occurs in most soils, and, in some state of
combination, as phosphate of lime, phosphate of
magnesia, &c., in many vegetables. From vege
tables it passes into animals, of which probably
none can live without phosphorus, since it not
only exists in their liquid or soft parts, but is
indispensable for the bones of the vertebrated
animals, and the shells of the crustaceous. The
earthy matter of bones consists of the elements
phosphorus, sulphur, calcium, and oxygen; and
shells commonly contain the same elements,
with the addition of carbon. This is the reason
why ground bones and shells form an excellent
manure for soils. The odour of decaying fish is
probably due to the presence of a compound con
taining phosphorus.
13. Magnesium. This element exists in abundance in
the mineral called magnesian limestone, pretty
largely in many rarer minerals, in small quan
tity in a great number of other minerals, and as
 CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. 19

a constant constituent of the saline matter of the

ocean. From these sources it finds its way into
most soils, thence, in small proportions, into
many plants, and from them into animals. It
is a constituent of the blood. In the state of
phosphate of magnesia and ammonia, it is found
in the seeds of the gramineae; and the potato
contains a considerable quantity of phosphate
of magnesia. It is an element, the knowledge
of which is important to the agriculturist, as it
appears to be often injurious to vegetation; yet,
for the reason given above, it greatly promotes
the growth of the potato plant. It is well known
in medicine, for, in combination with oxygen and
sulphur, it forms the bitter purgative substance
called Epsom salt, or sulphate of magnesia, and
in combination with oxygen alone, the earth
termed calcined magnesia.
14. Iron. The most abundant and the most widely-dif
fused of all the metallic substances. It occurs
in combination with oxygen as ochre, iron
stone, &c.; with sulphur as pyrites; with car
bon and oxygen as carbonate of iron, and this in
combination with clay as clay-ironstone, a min
eral of great abundance and importance in
England and Scotland. It occurs, also, in many
other forms of combination, too numerous to
detail. It is the ordinary colouring matter of
earths and soils. In minute quantities, it enters
into all vegetables and animals. It is a con
stituent of the blood.
15. Manganese. This element, combined with oxygen,
produces a black substance termed peroxide of
manganese, a mineral which occurs in very
large quantities. Manganese forms many other
minerals, and occurs in small quantities as the
colouring matter of many more. It is found in
plants in very small quantities, and but very
rarely in animals.
16. Iodine. Exists in sea water, and enters into sea
weeds, sponges, &c.
20 CHEMICAL ELEMENTS.

The foregoing elements all enter into the composi

tion of plants, and most of them into the composition
of animals. In contradistinction to the organic ele
ments, namely, the four elements, oxygen, hydrogen,
carbon, and nitrogen, the others, from No. 5 to No. 15,
are termed the inorganic or mineral constituents of
plants. These inorganic elements occur in plants in
very small proportions relatively to the proportions of
the organic elements; yet they are not less essential
than the latter, to the development and growth of the
plants, so much so, that soils in which particular min
eral constituents do not exist, are absolutely sterile in
regard to the vegetation of plants which require these
particular constituents, notwithstanding the presence of
any excess of organic manure.
The following elements belong exclusively to inor
ganic nature. They form no part of plants or animals,
nor are they useful in promoting the growth of either
class of organised bodies.
16. Gold. 21. Zinc.

#;
}. ; ;...]
.
19.
UODOer. ...".
X I in . AntlmonW. Y.
pretty considerable
24. Arsenic.
. 3. -

20, Tin. 25. Platinum. ) quantities.

26. Bismuth. ~)

27. Cobalt.
28. Nickel.
29. Chromium.
30. Palladium.
31. ium.
32. 3. Metals, rarer, less known, and
less used than the foregoing.
; Rººm. -

| Those which are most .

35. Tungsten. and most used, are the first five
36. Tellurium. in the list.
37. Tantalum.
38. Titanium.
39. Osmium.
40. Rhodium.
41. Iridium. …'
 CAUSE OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION. 21

43. Cerium.
44. Lantanum. Metallic bases of rare earths, sel
45. Thorium. dom separated from their ores,
46. Zirconium. and when separated applied to no
47. Yttrium. uSe,
48. Glucinum.
49. Strontium. Y Metallic bases of alcaline earths.
50. Barium. Barium occurs plentifully in the min
51. Lithium. eral called Heavy Spar. It is only
used in chemical experiments. Lithium is ex
tremely rare.
52. Boron. The base of the boracic acid : rare.
53. Selenium. Rare: resembles sulphur in many of
its properties.
54. Bromine. Resembles chlorine in many of its pro
perties. Is employed in the arts to a certain
extent. Rare.
55. Fluorine. Only known as a component of fluorspar,
and some other minerals. Never procured in a
separate state.

THE CAUSE OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION. When the

elementary bodies are placed in contact under particu
lar circumstances, they unite or combine together, and
produce compound bodies. Some combinations are
effected very readily, and some with great difficulty,
and there are dertain elements which can scarcely by
any means be .. to combine. The compounds pro
duced by the combination of the elements, possess pro
perties very different from those of the elements of
which they are composed. The PowBR, in virtue of
which simple bodies can combine and produce com
pounds, is one of which the nature is totally unknown
to man. Chemists have learned no more than that
simple bodies, or bodies supposed to be simple, Do CoM
BINE ; but WHY they combine, or what it is which
MAKES THEM combine, they have not discovered. Very
frequently, however, the act of combining is attributed
to a particular occult power or principle, which is called
22 CAUSE OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION.

Affinity. If you ask some chemists to tell you why

bodies combine together, they will say, because those
bodies have an affinity for one another. But if, on the
other hand, you ask the same chemists how they know
that bodies have an affinity for one another, the reply
is, because they combine together. These answers show
that such chemists have no very clear idea of what they
talk about, or at any rate they give me no clear ideas.
They seem to me to confound the notion of the act of
combining with that of the power which causes the act
of combination to take place. Whether any two given
bodies can or cannot enter into combination is a point
capable of being decided, either in the affirmative or the
negative, by experiment, and by that alone. But no
experiment, or, at any rate, no experiments which has
yet been contrived, can show what is the nature of the
governing influence which induces, or obliges, any two
different bodies to combine together and produce a
uniform compound possessed of marked and original
properties. What we are told about affinity, generally
speaking, is mere gossip. No great harm is done,
indeed, by using the term affinity merely to indicate
the capability of combination; but when affinity is
brought forward to eaſplain the facts, there is then much
chance of mystification. -

You prove, by an experiment, that two given bodies

are actually capable of entering into combination; you
prove, in the same way, that under particular circum
stances, two other bodies are incapable of combining
together. You inquire what it is which in the one case
causes the combination to take place, or in the other
case prevents the combination from taking place. You
are told that the first two bodies combine because they
have an affinity for one another, and the two latter do
not combine because they have no affinity for one
another. Now, as you are told on the other hand, that
the existence of an affinity between two bodies is proved
by the act of combination, and by that act alone, it is
plain that this relation may be expressed in other
words, as follows:—the first two bodies combine,
 CAUSE OF CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION. 23

because they combine, and the last two do not combine,

because they do not combine. Is there any wse in this
sort of explanation?
I know that bodies do combine, but I do not know
what it is that makes them combine, or why it is that,
in some cases, combination is effected with difficulty, in
others with facility. I cannot perceive that any point
is gained by ascribing it to affinity, which is merely a
word without an idea. I consider it sufficient for the
communication of knowledge to say, that such and such
substances, put together under particular circumstan
ces, either do or do not combine; and I see no reason
for adding the sham explanation of the simple fact, that
it is BECAUSE the bodies have or have not an affinity for
each other.
Rejecting the doctrine of affinity, in toto, it is unne
cessary for me to give any account of the multifarious
sorts of affinity into which the ingenuity of sophists has
divided the primary doctrine, or to explain the wonder
working nomenclature applied to it, specially to mis
lead, perplex, and mystify the ignorant and unthink
ing:—“Simple affinity—compound affinity—elective
affinity—simple elective affinity—double elective affin
ity—complex affinity — disposing affinity — quiescent
affinity—divellent affinity—reciprocal affinity—result
ing affinity”—id genus omne—
“May rosy dreams and slumbers light
Attend you all—good night! good night!”

THE CAUSE OF CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION.—When

chemical compounds are strongly electrified, they suffer
decomposition, and the liberated atoms of their consti
tuents appear, partly at the positive pole, and partly at
the negative pole, of the elective apparatus. Those
which appear at the positive pole are denominated
electro-negative elements, and those which appear at the
other pole, electro-positive elements. It is found that
every element is negative towards a portion of the ele
ments, and positive towards the rest. The elements in
the following list are so arranged that the one having
24 CAUSE OF CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION.

the strongest electro-positive energies begins it, and

that possessing the most powerful electro-negative
energies ends it. The intermediate elements are elec
tro-negative in relation to those which precede them,
and electro-positive in relation to those which follow.
Potassium Cobalt Tellurium
Sodium Cerium Antimony
Lithium Lead Carbon
Barium Tin Boron
Strontium Bismuth Tungsten
Calcium - Uranium Molybdenum
Ammonium) Copper Wanadium
agnesium Silver Chromium
Lantanum Mercury Arsenic
Glucinum Palladium Selenium
Yttrium Platinum Phosphorus
Aluminum Rhodium Fluorine
Zirconium Iridium Iodine
Thorium Gold Bromine
Manganese Osmium Chlorine
Zinc ºn Nitrogen
Cadmium Silicon Sulphur
Iron Titanium Oxygen
Nickel Tantalum

The manifestation of electrical appearances at the

moment when an act of combination or decomposition
is effected, throws no light upon the nature of the force
which makes the elements combine. We see nothing
more than the phenomena by which the acts of combin
ation and decomposition are attended.
When a number of chemical elements are set at
liberty in juxtaposition, those combinations take place,
which produce such compounds as can best exist under
the circumstances in which the occurence is brought to
pass. The same elements brought together at a low
temperature, at a medium temperature, and at a high
temperature, produce different compounds, i. e. they
produce such compounds as can best exist under the
circumstances of the trial.
If a compound, consisting of a powerful electro
negative element and of an indifferent element, i. e.
of one possessing no very marked electrical powers, be
 CAUSE OF CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION. 25

brought into contact with a powerful electro-positive

element, decomposition is immediately effected, and
those two elements which exhibit the antagonistic elec
tricities most strikingly, combine, to the exclusion of
the other. The VERY NEUTRAL compound produced by
the combination of an electro-positive with an electro
negative element, can better exist in presence of an
indifferent element, than the SEMI-NEUTRAL compound
composed of an indifferent in combination with an
electro-negative, can exist in presence of an electro-posi
tive. In the one case, the electrical power is partially
at rest; in the other, its dispersive influence is in full
operation.
When compounds are placed in juxtaposition, in a
state fitted for chemical action, as, for example, in solu
tion in water, they are observed to decompose each other,
PROVIDED that, by doing so, they can give origin to
other compounds, more capable than the original com
pounds of emerging from the sphere of each other’s
action; OTHERWISE, they do not decompose each other.
If, for example, we put together two soluble salts, of
such a nature as to give rise, by an interchange of
their antagonistic electrical elements, that is to say, of
their acids and bases, to two other salts of the same de
gree of solubility, then no decomposition takes place.
But if, on the other hand, we place together two salts
of such a nature, that the interchange of their antagon
istic electrical elements can produce a salt of less solu
bility than the original salts, then decomposition is
effected,—let the insolubility of the new salt result
from its tendency to assume either the solid form or the
gaseous.
Hence we draw a rule useful in practice:–Two sal
ine compounds in solution being given, if the base of the
one can produce, with the acid of the other, a compound
insoluble in the water of the given solutions, then, wbon
mixing the solutions, precipitation will occur.
For example, the compound called sulphate of
barytes is insoluble in aqueous solutions of the sul
phates and chlorides. If, therefore, we mix a solution
C
26 DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION.

of chloride of barium with a solution of sulphate of soda,

the sulphur and oxygen of the latter combine with the
barium of the former, and precipitate in the state of
sulphate of barytes—leaving chloride of sodium in the
supernatant solution.
A mixture of borate of soda and sulphuric acid pro
duces, at a red heat, borate of soda and sulphuric acid;
but at the heat of boiling water, and in solution, it pro
duces sulphate of soda and boracic acid. In the first
case, the sulphuric acid separates by volatilisation; in
the second case, the boracic acid separates by precipit
ation. Thus the proximate constituents afforded by the
decomposition of compounds are different under differ
ent circumstances of decomposition. If the two original
compounds, and the two compounds capable of being
produced by the interchange of their antagonistic elec
tric elements, were all equally fixed in the fire, and
equally soluble in water, there would be no decomposi
tion at all.
Wain, therefore, is the attempt to effect double decom
position, excepting where it can produce new com
pounds, self-empowered to get readily out of each
other's vicinity; but when this is provided for, decom
positions are readily and constantly effected. When
ever we desire to know, whether or not there will be a
precipitate produced when two given saline solutions
are mixed together, we do not require to look at what
have been termed tables of affinity, we only need to
examine whether the two given soluble salts can by
exchanging their acids and bases, produce an insoluble
salt. If so, then there will certainly be a precipitate
produced when the solutions are mixed together. In
point of fact, most tables of affinity are merely tables of
precipitation, and are founded on the assumption that
the degrees of insolubility of different substances, mark
the strength of the affinity of their components.
As I have been informed that the articles on Affinity
contained in former editions of this work, have given
considerable offence to several grave professors of
 DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION. 27

Chemistry, as tending to bring a useful doctrine into

unmerited contempt, I shall subjoin, in self-defence,
just one example of the practices to which the doctrine
gives rise. The following is a popular illustration of
double elective attraction, quiescent attraction, and divel
lent attraction, taken from Mrs. Marcet’s “Conversa
tions on Chemistry,” tenth edition, 1825.
“You will easily comprehend it by the assistance of this dia
gram, in which the reciprocal forces of attraction are represented
by numbers:
Original Compound.
Sulphat of Soda.
,--—---— —y

ſ Soda 8 Sulphuric Acid

§
8
§
§.
Result B- Result
Nitrat of 7 Dicellant s Attractions 6-13 Sulphat of
Soda § Lime.
§.
§
Nitric Acid 4 Lime

U 12
S--——-,--——'
Original Compound.
Nitrat of Lime.

“We here suppose that we are to decompose sulphat of soda;

that is, to separate the acid from the alkali; if, for this purpose,
we add some lime, in order to make it combine with the acid,
we shall fail in our attempt, because the soda and the sulphuric
acid attract each other by a force which is superior, and (by
way of supposition) is represented by the number 8; while the
lime tends to unite with this acid by an affinity equal only to the
number of 6. It is plain, therefore, that the sulphat of soda will
not be decomposed, since a force equal to 8 cannot be overcome
by a force equal only to 6.
“If, on the other hand, we endeavour to decompose this salt
by nitric acid, which tends to combine with soda, we shall be
equally unsuccessful, as nitric acid tends to unite with the alkali
by a force equal only to 7.
28 DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION.

“In neither of these cases of simple elective attraction, there

fore, can we accomplish our purpose. But let us previously
combine together the lime and nitric acid, so as to form a nitrat
of lime, a compound salt, the constituents of which are united
by a power equal to 4. If, then, we present this compound to
the sulphat of soda, a decomposition will ensue, because the sum
of the |. which tend to preserve the two salts in their actual
state, is not equal to that of the forces which tend to decompose
them, and to form new combinations. The nitric acid, there
fore, will combine with the soda, and the sulphuric acid with
the lime.
“This double effect takes place because the numbers 8 and
4, which represent the degrees of attraction of the constituents
of the two original salts, make a sum less than the numbers 7 and
6, which represent the degrees of attraction of the two new
compounds that will in consequence be formed. * * *
“Quiescent forces are those which tend to preserve com
F. in a state of rest, or such as they actually are: divellent
orces, those which tend to destroy that state of combination,
and to form new compounds.” -

Now this pretty scheme happens to state what is

not true, and therein lies the mischief of it. The fig
ures given, (by way of supposition,) to represent the
different attractions, are all wrong. If the reader will
look in the table of atomic weights of compound sub
stances, contained in another section of this work, he
will find the following facts:—
Combining weight of sulphate of soda = 89206
Combining weight of nitrate of lime = 1033.06
Sum = 1925.12

Combining weight of nitrate of soda = 1067.93

Combining weight of sulphate of lime = 857.18
Sum = 1925.11

These numbers are the result of eageriment, and are

TRUE. The numbers representing the relative forces of
the quiescent and divellent attractions, were assumed,
and are FALSE. And the whole process of representing
the double decomposition of salts by such figuring as I
 DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION. 29

have quoted, is a grand specimen of mystification. 1

As double decompositions can only be effected by equiva
lent proportions of salts, there never can be any eacess
capable of representation in numbers, in the divellent over
the quiescent attractions, and therefore that assumed ex
cess cannot be the cause of the “double elective attrac
tion” which causes the double decomposition of the
salts to take place. In point of fact, the exchange of
the acids and bases occurs in the case cited, in conse
quence of the property of insolubility possessed by the
resulting sulphate of lime. That is the best explanation
which can be given in the present state of our knowledge.
! You are not to suppose, because the quotation I have just
made, is from a book written by a lady, that it is not very high
authority, nor are you to imagine, because the quotation is seven
teen years old, that it refers to an obsolete doctrine. To provide
against mistakes of this sort, I will make a short quotation from
a work of late date, written by a learned Doctor:
“In this case the affinity of mercury for chlorine being 20,
and for sulphur being 10; the affinity of hydrogen being for sul
phur 15, and for chlorine 30, ºul. may be shown as follows:

Chlori
Orine Hyd
ydrogen
20 { Mercury^–V-”§. } 15
10
The force producin º; being 30 + 10 = 40, and
greater than those, 20+ 15=35, which tend to keep the elements
as they were.”—Kane’s “Elements of Chemistry,” 1841, p. 259.
At page 349 in the same book, the true combining quantities of
these substances are given as follows:
455.1

Chlori
orine Hyd
ydrogen
1708.5 { Mercury Sulphur } 213.7
1467.0
Now, 455.1 + 1467.0 = 1922.1, and 1708.5+213.7 = 1922.2. But
the numbers 1922.1 and 1922.2 are alike, and do not bear the
ratio of 40 to 35, as they should do, if the preceding explanation
of affinity was true. Hence the former numbers were imaginary,
and the explanation based upon them goes for nothing.
C 2
 ELEMENTARY EXPERIMENTS.

THE object of this set of Elementary Experiments is

to render the student familiar with some of the more
important chemical operations, without a knowledge of
which he cannot proceed a step in safety. Being only
introductory to the extended systematic course of ex
periments, they are not made very comprehensive in
their subjects. I have endeavoured, however, to render
them as easy of performance as possible, and believe
that the student will meet with few difficulties, if the
instructions are strictly followed. In respect to the
Reagents, I have considered it sufficient to name them.
Instructions for their preparation are given in the
systematic part of the work. As regards the use of
the Apparatus, I have confined myself to very brief
instructions in notes, considering that the student will
 TESTING FOR ACIDS AND ALCALIES. 31

either depend upon his teacher for minute details, or,

for want of a teacher, will consult my Treatise on
Chemical Manipulation.
The experiments are so contrived that they can be
performed, either by a single student, or by a consider
able number at the same time, working according to
dictation. I make this remark to account for the pre
cision of the details that are given under some heads.

ALTERATION OF VEGETABLE COLOURS

BY ACIDS AND ALCALIES.

a. Action of Nitric Acid on Blue Litmus.

Half fill a conical test glass with water. I
Add to it three drops of diluted Nitric Acid.”
1 The test glass that is
best adapted for these
experiments, is of a con
ical shape with a lip. It
is called Clark’s Test
Glass, fig. 1. . Water in
small quantities is most
conveniently supplied by
means of the water-bot
tle. This apparatus con
sists of a glass bottle, to
which two glass tubes
are fitted by a cork.
2. Through one tube, a, air
enters the bottle, while
water escapes through b, the other
tube. Fig. 2. It answers very well
for giving a small quiet stream of
water, for filling tubes, wetting pa
pers, and the like.
* The drops of acid are most
1. conveniently added by means of a
straight pipette, or narrow glass
tube, open at both ends. For instructions respecting the method
of using this and other instruments, I must refer the student
to his teacher, or to my Treatise on Chemical Manipulation.
32 TESTING FOR ACIDS AND ALCALIES.

Stir the mixture with a glass rod. 1

Dip into it a slip of blue litmus test paper.”
Observe that the blue colour changes to red.
Put the stirrer to your tongue and taste the mixture.
You will find it to have a sour or acid taste.

b. Action of Nitric Acid on Yellow Turmeric.

Take the diluted nitric acid prepared in Experiment a.
Dip into it a slip of yellow turmeric test paper.
Observe that the yellow colour remains unchanged.
c. Action of Ammonia on Yellow Turmeric.
Half fill a conical test glass with water.
Add to it three drops of Liquid Ammonia.
Stir the mixture with a glass rod.
Dip into it a slip of yellow turmeric test paper.
Observe that the yellow colour changes to brown.
Put the stirrer to your tongue and taste the mixture.
You will find it to have an acrid or alcaline taste.

d. Action of Ammonia on Blue Litmus.

Take the diluted ammonia prepared in Experiment c.
Dip into it a slip of blue litmus test paper.
Observe that the blue colour remains unchanged.
l º test glass should be accompanied by a stirrer of this
size, fig.

T->
3.

* The slip of test paper may be 23 inches long, and # inch

wide. Such slips are to be had bound up in little books, like
banker's cheque books, fig. 4.

^_^
 TESTING FOR ACIDS AND ALCALIES. 33

e. Counter-Actions of Nitri. Acid and Ammonia.

Take the diluted nitric acid prepared in Experiment a.
And the diluted ammonia prepared in Experiment c.
Dip into the acid a slip of blue litmus test paper.
Dip the reddened paper into the ammonia.
Observe that the redness disappears and the blue colour
returns.
Dipinto the ammonia a slip of yellow turmeric test paper.
Then dip the brown part into the acid.
Observe that the brown colour disappears and the yel
low colour returns.

f. Action of Carbonate of Soda on Red Litmus.

Take a slip of red litmus test paper.
Wet it with water from the water bottle.
Put on the wet paper a crystal of carbonate of soda.
Observe that the red colour changes to blue.
g. Action of Carbonate of Soda on Yellow Turmeric.
Take a slip of yellow turmeric test paper. -

Wet it with water from the water bottle.

Put on the wet paper a crystal of carbonate of soda.
Observe that the yellow colour changes to brown.
h. Other Counter-Actions of Acids and Alcalies.
Half fill a conical test glass with blue cabbage liquor.
Add to it a few drops of diluted sulphuric acid.
Observe that the blue colour changes to red.
Take a straight pipette in your left hand.
Take up in the pipette some solution of potash.
Add the potash gradually to the coloured liquor.
Stir the mixture with a glass rod held in your right hand.
Observe that the red liquor regains its blue colour.
And that with more potash it becomes green.
With another pipette take diluted sulphuric acid.
Add it gradually to the green mixture.
* Instead of nitric acid, you may take muriatic, sulphuric,
acetic, or oxalic acid; and instead of ammonia, you may take
caustic potash or caustic soda, for these experiments. The effects
produced by the reagents of each set will be similar.
34 TESTING FOR ACIDS AND ALCALIES.

Stir the mixture with a glass rod.

Observe that the green colour changes first to blue, and
finally to red.
Results of these Experiments:
i. We have demonstrated,—
That blue litmus is changed to red by acids.1
That yellow turmeric is not changed in colour by acids.
That brown turmeric is changed to yellow by acids.
And from these demonstrations, we draw the general
conclusion, that acids change blue litmus to red, and
brown twrmeric to yellow.
We have also found, that acids or substances which
change blue litmus to red, have a peculiar Sowr or
acid taste.

k. We have demonstrated,—
That yellow turmeric is changed to brown by alcalies.
That red litmus is changed to blue by alcalies.
That blue litmus is not changed in colour by alcalies.
And from these demonstrations we draw the general
conclusion, that alcalies change red litmus to blue,
and yellow turmeric to brown.
We have also found, that alcalies, or the substances
which change red litmus to blue, have a peculiar
acrid or alcaline taste.

l. The experiments on the counter-actions of acids

and alcalies, prove that these bodies have the faculty
of neutralising each other's power. Hence, acids restore
colours that have been altered by alcalies, and alcalies
restore colours that have been altered by acids.

1 These conclusions pre-suppose that the reactions have been

tried, as suggested in Note 1 page 33, with a few other acids and
alcalies than those named in the text. It would hardly be right
to draw sweeping general conclusions from the behaviour of one
acid and one alcali towards the coloured tests; yet it would
have been tedious to put more experiments in the text. The
student can increase or vary the examples at pleasure.
 BLEACHING BY CHLORINE. 35

m. As respects the application of the knowledge de

rived from these experiments, I may remark, that when
a substance reddens blue litmus, it is said to be acid;
when it makes red litmus turn blue, or yellow turmeric
turn brown, it is said to be alcaline. But the possession
of this acid property, is not sufficient to constitute what
chemists call AN ACID, nor is the possession of the
alcaline property sufficient to constitute AN ALCALI ;
because the power of altering vegetable colours is pos
sessed by some substances which, properly speaking,
are neither acids nor alcalies—as, for example, car
bonate of soda, used in Experiment f. This substance
is a salt, containing both carbonic acid and soda, that
is, both an acid and an alcali. It cannot therefore be
called an acid, nor yet an alcali, but it can very pro
perly be said to be alcaline, for this term describes sim
ply a property which the substance actually possesses,
named, that of alcalinity. There are other salts which
contain both an acid and an alcali, and which, never
theless, manifest an acid reaction on vegetable colours.
Many salts of the metals have this property, and they
are said to have an acid reaction. There is a third class
of salts that have no action on vegetable colours, and
that are neither acid nor alcaline in taste. Common
salt is an example of this kind. Such substances are
said to be newtral.

BLEACHING OF WEGETABLE COLOURS BY CHLORINE.

a. Bleaching of Blue Cabbage Liquor.

Put into a conical test glass a little blue cabbage liquor.
Add to it a few drops of solution of chlorine. I
Stir the mixture with a glass rod.
The colour of the cabbage liquor is destroyed, and the
mixture becomes white.

1 A solution of chlorine gas in water can be preserved for

some time in a good state for use, if closely corked up in an
opaque bottle of salt-glazed stoneware.
36 SOLUTION.

b. Bleaching of Indigo.
Half fill a conical test glass with water.
Add to it a few drops of sulphate of indigo.
Stir the mixture with a glass rod.
Add to it a small quantity of solution of chlorine gas,
Or of a clear solution of bleaching powder.
Stir the mixture with a glass rod.
The blue colour disappears and is succeeded by a pale
greenish yellow.
c. Bleaching of Litmus Paper. -

Half fill a conical test glass with solution of chlorine.

Dip into it a slip of blue litmus test paper.
Observe that the blue colour is bleached to white.

d. Bleaching of Pink Paper.

Take the solution of chlorine used in Experiment c.
Dip into it a slip of pink paper.
Or use any kind of paper stained with vegetable colours,
or unbleached calico, or any kind of cloth tinged by
colours of vegetable origin.
Observe that the colour is almost immediately de
stroyed, (bleached.)
e. Result of this Experiment:—Chlorine destroys
vegetable colours. It contains an illustration of the art
of bleaching cotton cloth by means of chlorine.

EXAMPLES OF CHEMICAL OPERATIONS.

SOLUTION.
Take a two ounce flat-bottomed solution bottle. Put
into it a quarter of an ounce of alum in coarse powder.
Add half an ounce, by measure, of water."
For the weighing of solids, you will require
a set of small apothecaries’ scales and weights.
For measuring liquids, a glass measure graduated
from a drachm to an ounce.
 SOLUTION. 37

Light your spirit lamp. Push down the wick till the
flame is not above an inch long. If you use gas, make
the flame of the same size. Hold the bottle with your
right hand over the flame. As soon as you see dew
formed on the bottom of the bottle, wipe it with a dry
cloth. Again hold the bottle on the flame, and again
wipe off the dew.

Now place the stoneware furnace cylinder round the

lamp, to make the flame burn steady. . Put the wire
trellis upon the top of the cylinder, and the bottle upon
the trellis, exactly over the lamp. Lift the bottle occa
sionally, and gently shake it with a circular motion, to
agitate the powder in the liquid.
In a short time the water boils, and the alum disap
pears; that is to say, the water dissolves the alum.
Extinguish the flame by putting on the cover of the
lamp. Allow the solution to cool.
D
38 SOLUTION.

While it is cooling, 1 I will explain to you a few

chemical terms relating to the operation of solution.
A solid which thus disappears in a liquid, is said to be
soluble in it. The liquid in which it dissolves is called
the solvent or menstruum. The resulting liquid is a
solution. When the solution contains as great a quan
tity of the solid matter as it is capable of dissolving, it
is saturated. A solution is known to be saturated when
fresh solid matter of the same sort, on being put into it,
Femains undissolved. When a saturated solution is
mixed with pure water, it is said to be diluted.
Take a small porcelain mor
tar, two inches in diameter. ar.

Put into it a quarter of an ounce

of kitchen salt. Half fill the
mortar with water, and grind
the salt in the water till the lat
ter is saturated, which will be c

the case in a very few minutes.

But if all the salt disappears
during the grinding, you must 1.
add more to the same water, till you find the water to
be saturated, and unable to dissolve any more salt.
Allow the mixture to
settle. Pour the clear
part of it into a porcelain
evaporating capsule of 3 -

inches diameter. Only 2.

half fill the capsule. Light your spirit lamp. Put
round it the furnace cylinder. Place on the cylinder
the perforated iron plate, fig. 3. Put
the capsule in the perforation. Let all
rest thus till the solution boils. Then
put into the solution dry powdered
kitchen salt, and see if it dissolves in
the boiling solution. Watch the salt at
the bottom to see if it diminishes in bulk, 3

* The teacher is supposed to be lecturing, and the students

to be performing the experiments; hence the peculiar phrase
ology of this section.
 EWAPORATION. 39

and watch also the solution at the top, to see if any

change takes place there.
You will observe two results:—1st, That the addi
tional salt does not dissolve;—2d, That as the water
of the solution diminishes by evaporation, the salt pre
viously dissolved in it is reproduced in the solid form.
We now return to the solution of alum, which some
time ago was left to cool.
If it is cold, you will find that a portion of the alum
is deposited in it in the solid state.
We are enabled by these experiments to draw the
following—
Inferences respecting the Solubility of Alum and Salt.
a. Alum dissolves in larger -

quantity in hot water than it does |* &

in cold. 2-23

b. Kitchen salt dissolves equally

well in hot water and cold water.
You perceive in this difference
of solubility a chemical character
whereby alum is distinguished
from kitchen salt.

EWAPORATION.
It is necessary to prove to you
that when a hot saturated solution
of alum deposits a quantity of solid
alum upon becoming cold, it does
not deposit the whole of its alum.
Take a slip of window glass an
inch wide and six inches long.
Hold this by one end in a flat
position. Place upon it, near the
other end, a drop of distilled wa
ter, so as to make a mark about
half an inch in diameter, as I now
show you, [see the mark f in the
margin).
Light your lamp, and warm
the drop of water over the flame
40 PRECIPITATION.—TESTING.

till it all flies off in steam. It will leave no solid

residue.
Upon the same glass slip, put a similar drop of the
clear liquor that rests above the solid alum in the
solution bottle. Warm this drop over the lamp till
the glass is again dry. You will observe that a solid
white substance is left upon the glass where the drop
of solution was warmed. This solid white substance
is alum. -

In the operation of solution, a solid is made to dis

appear in a liquid. In the operation just performed,
the reverse is the case; for here a liquid is made to
disappear by means of heat, and the solid that was dis
solved in it resumes its visible form. This operation
is termed evaporation.
-

PRECIPITATION.—TESTING.
You can prove by another experiment, that the
supernatant liquor in the solution bottle contains alum.
Take a conical test glass and a glass rod. Pour
into the glass a few drops of the liquor from the solu
tion bottle. Add to it Liquid Ammonia, a few drops
at a time, and stir the mixture with a glass rod after
each addition of ammonia. When, after being stirred,
the liquor in the test glass smells of ammonia, enough
of the latter has been added. I -

Observe that the effect produced by the addition of

ammonia to the liquor presumed to contain alum, is
the production of a solid substance having a white
colour and a gelatinous consistence, which sinks slowly
to the bottom of the test glass.
The substance thus produced is alumina, and its
appearance proves that the clear liquor above the
crystals, still contains alum.
This application of any given chemical substance to
prove the presence of another, by causing a particular
. . The young student must take care not to smell at ammonia
incautiously, as it may produce much pain.
 solvent Power of LIQUIDs. 41

phenomenon to take place, is termed Testing. The sub

stance thus added is termed a Test, sometimes a Re
agent. When the product happens to be, as it is in this
case, a solid substance, the operation is called precipi
tation, the solid produced thus, a precipitate, and the
liquid employed to produce it, a precipitant.
There is another test by which the presence of alum
in the clear liquid can be made manifest by precipitation.
Take a conical test glass and a glass rod. Pour into
the glass a few drops of the clear liquor resting above
the crystals of alum in the solution bottle. Add to it a
few drops of a clear solution of Chloride of Barium.
Stir the mixture with the glass rod. You will observe
that a white powder is produced. The chemical name
of this powder is sulphate of barytes.

DISSOLVING POWER OF DIFFERENT

LIQUIDS.

Take a test tube of the form I now show you, in size,

six inches long, and about half an inch wide. Fill an

ſWº.
D)
inch of it with water. Put into it a piece of camphor,
the size of a pea. Light your spirit lamp. Hold the
tube near the mouth, by the thumb and second finger of
the right hand, close the mouth by the application of
the forefinger. Hold the bottom of the tube about
three inches above the flame of the lamp. Gradually
bring it down till it touches the top of the flame. Keep
it there for one minute.
The closing of the tube by the forefinger must take
place before you apply heat. It is too late when the
heat is applied. The use of it is to retain a certain
quantity of air in the tube, above the liquid. This air
becomes condensed at the top of the tube, by the steam
D 2
42 CRYSTALLISATION.

that is produced, and keeps the tube cold enough to be

held by the fingers. But if the forefinger is removed
for an instant, the air escapes, hot steam rushes forth,
and the tube is made too hot to be held.
The camphor will not dissolve in the hot water.
Pour off the water. Add to the camphor, as much
strong spirit of wine as fills an inch of the tube, and
again expose it to a boiling heat.
The camphor dissolves in the spirit of wine.
Add to the solution of camphor, in alcohol, twice its
bulk of water. Close the mouth of the tube with the
forefinger; shake the mixture; then let it settle.
You will observe that the camphor is precipitated,
that is to say, is reproduced in the solid state.
Hence camphor is insoluble in water, soluble in
alcohol, but insoluble in diluted alcohol.
Take a similar test tube. Put into it half the bulk
of a pea of pounded alum. Fill half an inch of the
tube with alcohol, Boil the mixture over the spirit
lamp.
You will find that the alum will not dissolve.
Yet you found that alum dissolved readily in water.
Here then is a chemical difference between alum and
camphor, in respect to solubility. Alum dissolves in
water, but not in alcohol. Camphor dissolves in alco
hol, but not in water.
You will observe that these experiments show it to
be necessary, in speaking of the solubility of a sub
stance, to name the liquid in which it is soluble; and in
speaking of its solubility in any particular quantity of
the liquid, to name at º: temperature the solution is
effected.

CRYSTALLIS ATION.

Take a flat glass plate. Put upon one end of it a

drop, as large as a sixpence, of the saturated solution
of kitchen salt, prepared in a former experiment. (p. 38)
Light your spirit lamp. Hold the drop of solution over
*
 CRYSTALLISATION OF SALT. 43

the flame till the edges of the drop begin to look white
and dry, then remove it from the flame and let it cool.
You will observe, that in proportion as the water
flies off in steam, the kitchen salt resumes the solid
state, in the form of cubes or dice.
Take another glass plate. Put upon it a drop of the
liquor produced by cooling the hot solution of alum,
prepared in a former experiment. (p. 37.) Boil this
drop of solution for an instant over the spirit lamp,
then remove it and let it cool. -

You will observe that the salt will be deposited in the

solid state, in the form of square and triangular pyra
mids, larger in size than the little dice deposited by the
kitchen salt.
Take a bit of nitre, the eighth part of an inch in
diameter. Powder it, and put it on the end of a flat
glass plate. Add a drop of water, sufficient to spread
as wide as a sixpence, over the nitre. [See letters e
and fin the figure in p. 39.] Apply below it the flame
of a spirit lamp. The nitre will soon dissolve, and form
a solution. Retain the solution in a moderate heat, till
it begins to look dry at the edges. Then remove it
from the flame, and let it cool.
You will observe that the salt will be deposited, in
this case, under a form, differing both from that of the
kitchen salt and of the alum. It will appear like many
masses of fibres, all radiating from centres, as do the
spokes of a wheel, or the bones of a lady’s fan.
I recommend you to repeat these experiments at
your leisure, upon larger quantities of the three salts;
and for this purpose, I shall give you the following
directions:—

CRYSTALLISATION OF KITCHEN SALT.—Take half an

ounce of kitchen salt. Dissolve it in water, by grinding
it with water in a porcelain mortar, as was done in a
former experiment. (p. 38.) Pour the solution from the
mortar into a glass tumbler, and let any solid matter
settle to the bottom. Then pour the clear solution into
44 CRYSTALLISATION OF SALT.

a porcelain capsule of 4 inches dia

meter. Light a small oil lamp, 1
containing sweet-oil, and with the
wick cut so short, that it burns
without smoking. Put the furnace
cylinder around the lamp, and the
perforated iron plate upon the cylin
der; fix the capsule in the perforation.
The flame of the lamp should not be much more
than half an inch long, otherwise the heat will be too
strong, and the evaporation too rapid. The object to
be gained, is to evaporate the water continually, but
slowly.
Kitchen salt being equally soluble in hot and cold
water, it can only be separated from its solutions by the
evaporation of its water. The slower this evaporation
takes place, the larger and the more complete in their
form are the solid pieces of salt, the dice before spoken,
which are produced in the course of the process. The
solid pieces of determinate form thus produced in aque
ous solutions, in consequence of the abstraction of part
of the water, are in chemical language
termed crystals. They are geometri-
cal figures, possessing a certain num
ber of plane surfaces, and consequently
a certain number of edges and angles.
The form which is assumed by kitchen
salt, when slowly separated from its
1 The above figure represents a stoneware oil lamp, useful for
slow evaporations. b represents the wick- &
holder. At the upper part is a cup for col
lecting the oil that overflows during the com
bustion,
into the and
lamp.for returning it, by the hole a, cº, +

The annexed
fecting figure exhibits
a slow evaporation: b isa the
modelamp,
of ef-c o o O

the wick-holder shown apart, f the perfor

ated iron-plate, resting on the lamp cylinder, ſ:
and supporting an extra stoneware cylinder NITZ
a. The capsule containing the solution to
be evaporated is marked d.
 CRYSTALLISATION OF ALUM. 45

solution, is that of the dice or cube which I now show

you. This form
can be imitated by
cutting a piece of
paper into the fig
ure of this diagram
and then folding
its sides together
at the five dotted
lines. You see,
therefore, that the
cube has 6 faces,
all square and
equal, 12 edges,
and 8 solid angles or corners.
CRYSTALLISATION OF ALUM.–In the same manner
as directed in the preceding article, prepare and eva
porate a solution of half an ounce of alum. Be again
careful to evaporate slowly, and do not allow the solu
tion to boil. When the evaporation has been carried
so far that a thin film, or skin, begins to appear on the
surface of the solution, you are to remove the capsule
from the lamp, and set it aside upon a thick woollen
cloth or cushion to cool.
The film which appears upon a solution when under
going concentration by evaporation, marks the stage
at which the hot liquor is perfectly saturated with the
salt, and at which, if deprived of any more of its water,
it will begin to deposit a corresponding quantity of its
salt. At such a stage, if the solution contains a salt
less soluble in cold water than in
hot, it will, if allowed to cool
slowly, deposit in crystals a quan
tity of salt equivalent to the re
duction of temperature, and these
crystals will be the more perfect
in proportion to the slowness with
which the cooling is permitted to
take place. Now, alum is a sub
stance of this character, and if
46 CRYSTALLISATION OF ALUM,

its solution is brought to a proper state of concentra

tion, and permitted to cool with a proper degree of
slowness, it will produce crystals bearing a resemblance
to the figure which I now show you—a figure not un
like two Egyptian pyramids joined base to base, and
which in scientific language is called an octahedron.
You can imitate this
form by cutting a
piece of paper into
the figure of this dia
gram, and then fold
ing its sides together
at the dotted lines.
An examination of
these figures will
show you that
octahedron the
is a fig- E.

ure of eight sides, all triangular and equal, and that it

has 12 edges, and 6 solid angles. It is an approxima
tion, more or less near, to this form, which produces
the little square and triangular pyramids which appear
when a drop of solution of alum is evaporated upon a
slip of glass, (p. 43.)
You find, therefore, in the result afforded by the
careful crystallisation of alum and kitchen salt, another
character which serves to distinguish these two sub
stances from one another. Namely, that whereas the
faces of the crystals of alum are triangular, those of
the crystals of kitchen salt are square; and that
whereas a perfect crystal of alum possesses eight faces,
a perfect crystal of kitchen salt possesses only sic.
The first is an octahedron, the last a cube.

I showed you that when a hot solution of alum was

cooled, a certain quantity of alum was deposited, but
not all that the water held in solution. This is a con
stant result. The liquor left above a mass of crystals
produced by concentrating or by cooling a hot solution,
is, in all cases, still a cold saturated solution of the salt
in question; for only so much of the salt separates in
 EFFLORESCENCE-DELIQUESCENCE. 47

crystals from the cooling liquid as cannot be held in

solution at the diminished temperature. Consequently,
on pouring off the liquor from a mass of crystals, and
again subjecting it to evaporation and to cooling, a
second crop of crystals can be procured from it. And
by carrying as far as possible this alternate heating
and cooling of the solution, you may separate in crys
tals nearly the whole quantity of the salt held in solu
tion. The technical term for a liquid poured off from a
deposit of crystals, is the mother liquor.
By the solution, evaporation, and crystallisation of
half an ounce of nitre, performed exactly in the same
manner as the last experiment with alum, you will
obtain crystals of nitre in long six-sided prisms.
A similar experiment made with sulphate of soda,
produces crystals that are four-sided prisms.
The evaporation of a drop of the solution of sulphate
of soda upon a flat glass plate, readily produces four
sided prisms, mostly so very flat as to resemble knife
blades. In general they are radiated, but not in so
decided a manner as the crystals of nitre described in
a former experiment.

EFFLORESCENCE.
If you dry the crystals of sulphate of soda on the
glass plate by pressing a bit of paper upon them, and
then expose them on the glass to dry air for an hour,
you will find that they will lose their transparency,
turn white, and fall to powder. This phenomenon is
called efflorescence. It occurs when crystals which
contain water of crystallisation readily part with it to
dry air. Most of the salts of soda are of this kind.

DELIQUESCENCE.
Take half an ounce each of dry carbonate of potash
and crystallised carbonate of soda, both in fine powder.
Expose them in two separate weighed porcelain cap
sules to the free air for at least a day; then weigh
them again. The carbonate of soda will be found to
48 EFFERWESCENCE.-SUBLIMATION.

have lost weight. The carbonate of potash to have

gained weight. The air of the atmosphere takes water
from the carbonate of soda, or as it is said, causes
it to effloresce; but it gives water to the carbonate of
potash, or causes it to deliquesce. Deliquescent salts
are difficult to crystallise and easy to dissolve.
EFFERVESCENCE.
Take a conical test glass. Half fill it with
water. Put into it two pieces as big as a pea
of chalk or of carbonate of soda. Then add a
few drops of muriatic acid.—You will immedi
ately observe a sort of boiling up, which in
chemical language is termed effervescence. This
effect is produced by the production, and escape ºf
through the water, of a quantity of gas. -

If you perform this experiment with larger quanti

ties of materials than is mentioned here, it is proper
to place the conical glass in the middle
of a flat-bottomed glass capsule. In |
that case, when the acid boils over, it
does not soil the table.

SUBLIMATION.
Sublimation is a process by
which volatile substances are
converted by heat into va
pours, and by the withdrawal
of heat again condensed into
solids. In small experiments
undertaken to prove that a
substance will sublime when
heated in close vessels, or that,
when it sublimes, it produces
a particular kind of vapour, as
respects its colour or smell, or
that it produces crystals: or
in experiments made to ascer- 4
tain whether a substance is
 SUBLIMATION. 49

volatile or not, or whether or not it can be converted

into a volatile substance; in these, and many other
analytical cases of sublimation, it is now common to
use no other apparatus than a glass tube closed at one
end, and formed of very infusible glass. The substance
to be sublimed is placed at the bottom of the tube, and
is then exposed to heat. The sublimate, if any is
produced, condenses upon the upper part of the tube,
and is there examined. The quantity of mat
ter taken for such an experiment need not in
general be more than will lye upon this figure.
These general directions will enable you to compre
hend readily the following experiments:—
1. Spread a small quantity of grossly
powdered gum-benzoin on the bottom of a
porcelain basin, invert over it a glass tumb
ler, and apply to it a gentle heat by means
of the lamp-furnace: the gum will melt,
and dense fumes will immediately rise from it and
deposit themselves on the sides of the glass in beautiful
silky crystals of benzoic acid.
2. Take a large glass jar, containing at
its top a sprig of rosemary or some such
shrub, and invert it over a flat thick piece
of heated iron on which coarse powder of
gum-benzoin has just been spread—then,
the benzoic acid which rises, as in the
preceding experiment, will be deposited on
the branches of the shrub, producing a sin- |Sº
gular and beautiful representation of hoares=
frost.
3. Put a little camphor on a tin plate. Invert a
conical test glass over it. Apply the heat of a spirit
lamp below. The camphor readily sublimes.
4. Put a grain of iodine into a small flask, or glass
tube, and apply heat. Splendid violet vapours of iodine
soon fill the tube. When the sublimation of iodine is
effected slowly, crystals are formed.
5. Sublime a grain of cinnabar in a tube one-third
of an inch wide.
p
50 PROPERTIES OF NITRATE OF POTASH.

6. Sublime a grain of calomel in a similar tube.

These two mercurial compounds will be found to be
less easily volatilised than camphor, iodine, benzoic
acid, and some other substances. -

7. Put a grain of red oxide of mercury into a very

small glass tube, and apply heat till the red oxide is
entirely volatilised. Metallic mercury will condense
on the sides of the tube, and oxygen gas escape at the
mouth."
-

DISCRIMINATION OF
VEGETABLE, ANIMAL, AND MINERAL
BODIES.

A.—SOME OF THE PROPERTIES OF NITRATE OF POTASH,

As DISTINGUISHED FROM CARBONATE OF PotASH.

Prepare the nitrate of potash as follows:–Take a

test spoonful 2 of it in powder. Put it into a test tube
half an inch wide by 3 or 4 inches long; add two

drachms of water, and apply heat by means of the

spirit lamp. If the solution thus produced is turbid,
1 Several important chemical processes, not embraced in the
above abstract, will be described incidentally in subsequent sec
tions.
* The test spoon is
made of German sil
ver. The bowl of it
is hemispherical, and
about a quarter of an
inch in diameter. A test spoonful is as much of any thing as
can be conveniently lifted and carried in this spoon without
spilling any of it. I use this term instead of the more indefinite
term, a “small quantity.” The handle of the test spoon is formed
into a spatula, and serves for mixing powders with fluxes, in
blowpipe experiments, &c.
 PROPERTIES OF CHARCOAL, 51

filter it through a small paper filter,

supported in a filter ring laid on a
beaked tumbler. The filter is not to
be washed, nor the solution to be di
luted.
1. Put a few drops of the solution V
of Nitrate of Potash into a t

conical test glass. Add two

or three drops of nitric acid.
There will be no effervescence,
and no visible change. -

2. Put into a similar conical test glass, a few drops

of a concentrated solution of Carbonate of Potash.
Add two or three drops of nitric acid. There will be
a strong effervescence, and a discharge of colourless
inodorous carbonic acid gas.
3. Put a few drops of the solution of Nitrate of
Potash into a conical test glass. Add two or three
drops of a solution of Nitrate of Lime. Stir the mix
ture with a glass rod. No change will take place.
4. Put into a similar conical test glass a few drops
of a solution of Carbonate of Potash. Add two or three
drops of a solution of Nitrate of Lime. Stir the mix
ture with a glass rod. An abundant white precipitate
will appear. Add a few drops of nitric acid, and again
stir the mixture. The white precipitate will effervesce
and disappear.
5. Results of this Experiment.—The student is fur
nished with a process by which he can always distin
guish Carbonate of Potash from Nitrate of Potash.
The use of this will be shown presently.
B.—SOME OF THE PROPERTIES OF CHARCOAL.
Light your spirit lamp. Take a bulb glass tube of
this size: (represented by the engraving in page 52.)
Hold it by the open end. Warm it over the flame to
dry it. Take a piece of charcoal the size of a pea, that
is to say, a ball of a quarter of an inch in diameter.
Put it into the tube. Hold the tube with the thumb
and middle finger of the right hand in a horizontal
52 PROPERTIES OF CHARCOAL,

position, or nearly so. Close the mouth of it with your

fore finger, and heat the bulb over the flame till the
charcoal becomes red hot.
1. Now observe,
That water appears upon the inner sides of the neck
of the tube.
That the charcoal remains apparently unaltered.
2. Push a narrow slip of blue litmus test paper into
the tube so as to become wetted by the water.
Do the same with a slip of red litmus or of yellow
turmeric test paper,
Observe that the water expelled by heat from char
coal produces no change in these vegetable colours. It
is, in fact, merely hygroscopic moisture, and is neither
acid nor alcaline.
3. Take a small thin porcelain cup one inch in
diameter, and fix it upon a
thin wire triangle over the
flame of a spirit lamp. In
stead of the porcelain cup,
you may use a very short
glass tube closed at the bot
tom, or still better, a pla
tinum cup one-third of an inch or half an inch in
diameter. If the latter has a handle, it ma
be held by means of the small tongs, p. . Gr
If not, it may be supported on a very thin
iron triangle. 1 -

* The fixing of the cup at a proper distance above the flame,

 PROPERTIES OF CHARCOAL. 53

Into this vessel put a test spoonful of Nitrate of

Potash. Light the lamp and bring the Nitrate of
Potash into full fusion. Then, without removing the
flame, add to the melted nitre a few pieces, each as
big as a pin’s head, of the charcoal that was previously
heated in the glass tube. You will observe that DEFLA
GRATION takes place, that is to say, explosion accom
panied by fire, within the cup; and that the charcoal
swims about red hot on the nitre, and finally disappears.
4. When the porcelain cup is become nearly cold,
half fill it with water, and boil the water to produce a
solution of the substance, afforded by the deflagration
of the charcoal in the nitre. If you use a platinum
cup, it can be put into a glass tube and boiled with the
water. Filter the resulting solution in the manner
described at Exp. A, page 51.
5. Put a few drops of this solution into a conical
test glass. Add two or three drops of nitric acid.
There will be a strong effervescence.
6. Put a few drops of the solution into a conical test
glass. Add two or three drops of a solution of Nitrate
of Lime. There will be a white precipitate. Add to
this two or three drops of nitric acid, and stir the mix

is effected by means of the retort holder, which

consists of a perpendicular brass rod, a wooden
foot, and a horizontal arm of thin brass wire,
terminated at one end by a triangle, and at
the other by a coil, which runs on the per
pendicular rod, and which can be fixed at
any height above the foot, by simple pressure
upon the triangle. . The size of the triangle
can be diminished by smaller triangles of
very fine wire, bent as I now show you, and
placed across the larger triangle.
The porcelain cup can also be
fixed above the spirit lamp º Ineans

of the cylinder of the lamp furnace.

A flat iron top is put on the cylinder,
and a fine iron triangle placed upon
it. The cup is then fixed in the
triangle.
E 2
54 PROPERTIES OF CHARCOAL.

ture with a glass rod. The precipitate now dissolves

with effervescence.
7. Support a splinter of the same charcoal before
the flame of the blowpipe,” or near the edge of the
spirit lamp ; holding it on a piece of platinum foil, or
in a platinum cup
held spoon fashion
by means of the
platinum tongs.
Observe that the charcoal burns without flame, gra

* The sort of blowpipe to be used in these experiments is

represented in the following figure. For instructions as to the

E||
4

method of using it, I refer you to my “Treatise on Chemical

Manipulation,” wherein I have treated comprehensively of the
use of this instrument.
I make no apology for introducing the use of the blowpipe thus
early into an elementary course of experiments, because I
am persuaded that such a course cannot
be carried on cheaply and conveniently
unless the blowpipe is made to replace the
furnace as often as possible. Besides,
there is no reason why the use of this in- -

strument ought to be deferred. The pre

sumed difficulty of learning to use it is
quite imaginary, as I do not doubt it will
be found by all who take the trouble to
consult the work to which I have referred.
The lamp used for experiments with the
blowpipe, is represented in the margin.
 NATURE OF WEGETABLE BODIES. 55

dually diminishes in size, and finally disappears, except

a very small quantity of a white incombustible ash.
Result.—Experiments B, 3 to 6, in conjunction with
Experiments A, 1 to 5, prove that the deflagration of
nitre with charcoal changes NITRATE of Potash into
CARBONATE of Potash.
C.—NATURE OF WEGETABLE BODIES.

1. Take a piece of dry writing paper an inch square.

Crush it up into a lump the size of a pea. Put it into
a glass tube, such as that in which you ignited the
piece of charcoal, Exp. B. Take a slip of blue litmus
test paper, and a slip of yellow turmeric test paper, and
slightly moisten both of them with clean water, by means
of the water bottle, page 31. Now ignite the piece of
paper by holding the bulb of the tube in the flame of
the spirit lamp. As soon as you see a white smoke in
the tube, dip into it the blue test paper. After a
moment take out the blue paper and put in the yellow
2. Observe, that the white paper heated in the tube
paper.

is converted into a black substance, preserving the same

size and shape.
3. That a brown oily liquid is deposited on the sides
of the tube.
4. That the blue test paper turns red, and that the
yellow test paper remains unchanged, in the volatile
matter given off during the ignition.
5. Fix a porcelain cup, by means of a wire triangle,
over the spirit lamp. Melt in it three grains of nitre.
Throw into the hot melted nitre, part of the black sub
stance produced by the charring of the paper in the
tube.
6. Observe, that deflagration is produced, and that
the black substance, after swimming about in the nitre
red hot, finally disappears, precisely as the charcoal
was observed to do in Exp. B, 3.
7. Boil water in the porcelain cup to dissolve the
salt produced by the deflagration. Filter the solution
56 NATURE OF WEGETABLE BODIES.

without diluting it, and divide it into two portions in

conical test glasses.
8. Add to one portion a few drops of nitric acid,
which will occasion an effervescence.
9. Add to the other portion a few drops of a solution
of nitrate of lime, which will produce a white precipi
tate; then add a few drops of nitric acid, and stir the
mixture with a glass rod, whereupon the white pre
cipate will effervesce and re-dissolve.
10. Support the remainder of the black substance
before the blowpipe flame. Hold it upon platinum
foil, or in the platinum cup. See B, 7.
11. Observe that it burns away without flame, and
leaves nothing but a very small quantity of incom
bustible white ashes.

Inferences respecting the Nature of Vegetable Bodies,

as exemplified by these experiments on paper.
a). They contain charcoal. The proof of this fact is
afforded by the properties of the fixed black sub
stance which is left when the paper is ignited in
close vessel.
b). They contain the elements of a volatile acid, which
acid they produce when subjected to a red heat
in close vessels. This acid is vinegar.
This experiment will also enable you to understand
the nature of the process by which vinegar is made
from wood. Large iron vessels, fixed in a furnace, are
filled with wood, and then shut close, with the excep
tion of a pipe that is fixed into each of them. The fire
is then lighted in the furnace, and the iron vessels
are made red hot. Vinegar issues from the pipes, and
when it is all passed out, the iron vessels are opened,
and the wood is found to be converted into charcoal.
The vinegar thus produced is not in a pure state,
but is mixed with the brown oily liquid that you found
to condense on the sides of the glass tube during the
ignition of the paper. It is freed from this liquid by
subsequent operations.
 NATURE OF ANIMAL BODIES. 57

D.—NATURE OF ANIMAL BODIES.

1. Take a dried cochineal insect, or a bit of a feather.

Put it into a glass tube. Prepare moistened slips of
blue and yellow test papers. Ignite the insect by
holding the tube in the flame of the spirit lamp, and
put into the tube during the ignition, first the blue test
paper, and then the yellow test paper. The ignition
need not last longer than one minute.
2. Observe that the ignited insect is converted into
a black substance like charcoal.
3. That a brown oily liquid is deposited on the sides
of the tube.
4. That there is a strong smell of burnt oil and
hartshorn.
5. That the blue test paper remains unaltered, and
the yellow test paper turns brown.
6. Fix a porcelain cup upon the wire triangle over
the spirit lamp. Melt in it three grains of nitre. Throw
into the melted nitre part of the black substance pro
duced by the ignition of the cochineal.
Observe that deflagration is produced, and that the
black substance disappears.
7. The product of the deflagration, if dissolved and
filtered will be found, by the process formerly given,
section C, Nos. 7, 8, 9, to contain Carbonate of Potash.
8. Hold the rest of the black substance in the pla
tinum spoon before the blowpipe flame.
Observe that it burns away without flame, and leaves
only a very small quantity of white ashes.
9. Inferences respecting the Nature of Animal Bodies,
as exemplified by the cochineal insect.
a). They contain charcoal.
b). They contain the elements of a volatile alcali,
which alcali they produce when subjected to a
red heat in close vessels.
These experiments enable you to understand the
58 NATURE OF ANIMAL BODIES.

nature of the process by which spirits of hartshorn is

made.
Hartshorn, or more commonly the bones of animals,
are ignited in iron vessels, shut quite close, with the
exception of a pipe to carry off gases. What passes
out of the vessels during the ignition, is the volatile
alcali, Ammonia, in company with the brown oil which
in your experiment is deposited on the sides of the
glass tube. Spirits of hartshorn is just such a mixture.
The volatile alcali, Ammonia, is spirits of hartshorn
deprived of its brown oil.
The fetid smell produced in your experiment, arises
not so much from the alcali, as from the brown oil,
which contains a variety of odorous compounds.
The fixed matter that remains in the iron vessels,
after this operation, is of a black colour. It is ground
into powder, and sold under the name of ivory black,
or animal charcoal. When ignited in the open air, this
black substance burns away partly, and leaves a white
residue commonly called bone ash. The part that
burns away is charcoal. The white residue is phos
phate of lime. This is the solid matter of all bones,
but is not a component part of flesh.
E.—I do not intend to pursue the Analysis of Or
ganic Bodies any farther; but the following facts I beg
of you to bear in recollection:—
1. A substance that gives off volatile matter when
ignited in a glass tube, and leaves a charred residue
that deflagrates with melted nitre, is almost invariably
of organic origin.
2. If the volatile matter disengaged during the igni
tion turns blue litmus red, the substance is almost
always of vegetable origin.
3. If the volatile matter turns yellow turmeric brown,
the substance is almost always of animal origin, or if
not so, it is one of those vegetable bodies that contain
Nitrogen.
4. A substance that does not char when ignited in a
glass tube, nor give off volatile matter, nor deflagrate
 EXPERIMENTs witH COLOURED LIQUIDS. 59
with melted nitre, is certainly derived from the mineral
kingdom.
5. If a substance chars in a tube, gives off volatile
matter, and affords a residue that deflagrates with
nitre, yet will not burn entirely away when heated in
a platinum cup in free air, then it consists partly of an
organic, and partly of an inorganic substance; as, for
example, of a vegetable acid combined with an earth,
or of a metallic acid combined with a vegetable alcali.
6. Several mineral bodies give off water in the tube,
or turn black when heated, or deflagrate with nitre, or
burn entirely away in the open air; but no single
mineral substance can exhibit all the phenomena which
have been described, as characteristic of organic
bodies.l

CHEMICAL METAMORPHOSES.

WHEN certain chemical bodies are placed in contact

under particular circumstances, they combine together
and produce new compounds possessed of new proper
ties. These changes are evidenced to the eye by
changes of colour and form, of taste and smell, of tem
perature and of bulk, which frequently are of a very
surprising nature. I shall adduce a few experiments,
in proof of these facts.
ExPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED LIQUIDs.
A beautiful Green Liquid produced by mixing a Blue
one with a Colourless one. *

To produce a beautiful Crimson Liquid by mixiny a

IBlue one and a Colourless one.

1 Substances to be given as Evercises on this Eaſperiment.—The

teacher may give the student, small quantities of some of the
following substances for examination according to this process.
Alum, salt, chalk, red lead, starch, ground rice, gum kino,
eroxide of manganese, pounded charcoal, sulphur, acetate of
ead, fibres
copper, withofany
asbestus,
kind offibres
driedofvegetable
cotton, fibres of silk, acetate of
or animal substance.
60 ExPERIMENTS WITH COLOURED LIQUIDs.

To change the Colour of a Liquid from Green to Red,

by adding a Colourless one to it.
To make the same Liquid alternately Red and Green
by the addition of two Colourless Liquids.
The methods of producing all these effects are de
tailed in Process h, on the Re-actions of Acids and
Alcalies with Vegetable Colours, page 33.
A Liquor which is Crimson at the bottom, Purple in
the middle, and Green at the top.–Nearly
fill a tall cylindrical glass with water, and
colour it blue by adding a table-spoonful
of tincture of cabbage—then make it
green at the top by gently adding a
little liquid ammonia, and afterwards
pour a little sulphuric acid gently down
the inner side of the glass, or through a
funnel with a neck long enough to reach
the bottom of the vessel; upon which the
effect above mentioned will be produced.
If you stir the mixture with a glass rod,
it will be blue, green, or red, according to
the predominance of one or other of the
ingredients. See page 33. If you add a little liquid
chlorine, the colour is totally destroyed, and the liquid
turns white. Page 35.
Three different Colours produced from the
same vegetable infusion, by the addition of three
Colourless Liquids.-Into each of three test
glasses put a little diluted blue tincture of
cabbage. To one, add a solution of alum, to
the second, a solution of potash, and to the
third, a few drops of muriatic acid. The pro
duct of the first mixture will have a purple
colour, that of the second, a bright green, and
that of the third, a beautiful crimson.
A beautiful Blue Liquid produced by miring two
Colourless ones.—Add a few drops of a solution of nitrate
of copper to a glass of water—the mixture will be
colourless if sufficiently dilute: pour a little liquid am
monia into it—the mixture will then assume a fine
 COLOURED TESTS, 61

blue colour.—Rationale. The alcali precipitates the

copper, and then re-dissolves it, forming a blue liquid.
To produce a Colourless Liquid by mixing a deep Blue
one with a Colourless one.—Add a little nitric acid to
the blue liquid produced in the preceding experiment:
upon which the colour instantly disappears.-Rationale.
The blue compound is decomposed, and nitrate of am
monia and nitrate of copper are formed. These salts
remain in solution in the water, the quantity of which
renders the blue colour of the cupreous salt insensible.
Coloured Liquors which become Colourless on the addi
tion of a Colourless Liquor.—A solution of chlorine
in water, or a solution of chloride of lime, deprives all
solutions of vegetables of their colour. Page 35.
ACTION OF ACIDS AND ALCALIES ON A VARIETY OF
VEGETABLE COLOURS.—These experiments may be per
formed in conical test glasses or small test tubes.
Brazil wood, Boiled in 16 times its weight of water.
A deeply coloured red liquor. Alcalies turn it pur
ple or violet. Iron salts turn it brown. Caustic pot
ash in 200,000 parts of water acts upon it. Strong
acids make it bright rose red. Sulphuric acid has the
most powerful action. The acid red liquor is a fine
colour for prints on paper, but it injures the paper.
Sulphurous acid bleaches it. Some of the weaker acids
turn it yellow.
Paper saturated with Indigo dissolved in sulphuric acid.
Chlorine bleaches it. Boiling nitric acid does the same.
Chromates and bromides bleach it cold. Iodides do the
same, but leave a red stain on the paper that gradually
disappears in the air. -

Litmus.-Solution in water or alcohol. Blue. Acids

redden it. Alcalies restore the blue colour.
Rhubarb infused in water. A bright yellow solution.
Alcalies turn it reddish-brown. Very readily affected.
Rose leaves macerated in alcohol. Yellowish-brown
liquid. Alcalies turn it green. Acids make it rose-red.
The changes of colour in this solution are effected by
an exceedingly small portion either of acid or alcali.
F
62 COPPER DISSOLVED IN A LIQUID.

Turmeric.—Infusion in water, or tincture in alcohol.

Yellow liquids. Alcalies turn them reddish brown.
Violets.-A violet liquor. Alcalies turn it green and
acids red.
Logwood.—Gives a brownish decoction. Acids ren
der it yellow or reddish. Alcalies give it a splendid
purple colour. If a drop of a solution of logwood and
another of liquid ammonia are put on the same plate,
but at a distance from each other, the vapour of the
alcali very soon changes the colour of the logwood.
CHEMICAL MIRACLE! Two limpid Liquors converted
by mixture into a solid mass.
Process l. If a saturated solution of chloride
of calcium be mixed with a saturated solution
of carbonate of potash, both of which are tran
sparent liquids, the result is the formation of an
opaque and almost solid mass. Mutual decom
position of the salts takes place—chloride of
potassium, and carbonate of lime are formed;
and the latter absorbs the whole of the water
of solution, and produces a degree of solidity.
Process. 2. Drop sulphuric acid into a saturated
solution of chloride of calcium; in this case also an
opaque mass is produced.—The chloride of calcium is
decomposed, and sulphate of lime, a highly insoluble
salt, is formed.
Process 3. Pour a saturated solution of caustic potash
into a saturated solution of sulphate of magnesia (Ep
som salt), a nearly solid mass is produced. The sul
phuric acid leaves the magnesia (which then combines
with water and is precipitated in the form of a white
powder) in order to combine with the potash.
If a little nitric acid be added to the product of pro
cess 1, the solid mass will be converted into a transpa
rent liquid: the insoluble carbonate of lime being con
verted into the soluble nitrate of lime.
To Dissolve Metallic Copper in a Liquid.—Dissolve
a grain of copper in six drops of nitric acid, using a
tube of the following form. Observe the effervescence
 THE CHAMELEON SPIRIT. 63

that is produced; the production of red gas just above

the liquor, the change of the liquor to green, the heat

which is produced, the peculiar smell that is disen
gaged. In one minute the copper will be dissolved,
the liquor remaining green. Blow into the tube by a
smaller tube held in the mouth. This expels the red
gas, and turns the green liquor blue. Alternately
shake the tube and blow air into it, until the green
colour and red gas no more return. The smell goes
away with the gas. Look into the tube and not across
it, to see the colour of the liquor and gas. Boil it next
over a spirit lamp. White fumes of nitric acid go away.
When the liquor gets thick and pasty, allow it to cool.
It will form a mass of blue crystals, proceeding like
rays from the centre. This is nitrate of copper. Apply
heat; the crystals then melt, get drier, and stick about
the sides of the glass as a hard cake. The salt now
decomposes, and a strong smell of nitric acid is disen
gaged. When the bulb is cold, half fill it with water.
Part of the hard matter dissolves, producing a blue
solution of nitrate of copper; part remains undissolved
as a bluish-green powder. This is a nitrate with excess
of base, which is insoluble in water. Add a single drop
of nitric acid, and the whole will dissolve. With the
resulting solution, you can apply the different tests for
copper.
THE CHAMELEoNSPIRIT.-A liquid which is Blue when
the bottle containing it is open, but Colourless when the
bottle is closed.—Put some shreds of clean copper into a
small phial, fill it with liquid ammonia, and cork it air
tight. Nothing will take place. Open the bottle, and
let it remain open for a few hours. The liquid will
become blue. Cork the phial:—after some time the
liquid will be colourless. Re-open the phial:—the
64 THE MINERAL CHAMELEON.

liquid will become blue again.—It will be found neces

sary, sometimes, to add to the mixture, after it has
remained exposed to the air for some time, a little more
copper.—Rationale. Metallic copper is not acted upon
by ammonia; but if the copper is allowed to extract
oxygen from the air, it then becomes soluble. But
copper oxidised only so much as to render it soluble
produces a colourless solution; and it is only when it is
highly oxidised that the blue solution is produced. Thus,
in the above case, the copper, when the phial was left
open, acquired enough of oxygen from the atmosphere
to produce a blue solution. When, however, the phial
was closed, the blue colour disappeared—why?—because
the remainder of the metallic copper took, in order to
render it soluble, the superabundant oxygen from the
portion of copper which was dissolved. The blue
colour returned, when the bottle was opened, because
more oxygen was attracted.
THE MINERAL CHAMELEON.—(Manganate of Potash.)
—Experiment 1. A few grains of this compound put into
a wine glassful of water produce a grass green colour; an
increase of the quantity changes the colour to a blue ;
more still to a purple; and a yet further increase pro
duces a beautiful deep reddish purple.—Experiment 2.
Put equal quantities of this substance into two separ
ate wine glasses, and add to the one hot, and to the
other cold, water. The hot solution will be of a beauti
ful green colour; the cold one of a deep purple. By
using more glasses, and water more or less in quantity,
and at different temperatures, a great variety of colours
will be produced in this way from the same substance.
A solid white powder produced by miring two colour
less liquids.-This is an effect of common occurrence in
chemical experiments. See the article on Precipita
tion, page 40. The solids produced by the mixture of
different liquids are of every variety of colour and
form, and it is a very amusing and instructive exercise
to examine the effect of various precipitating agents
on different metallic solutions. I shall add an example
in the test for muriatic acid.—Add a drop of muriatic
 CHEMICAL METAMORPHOSES. 65

acid to a quart of water; pour some of the mixture

into a test glass, and let fall into it a single drop of
a solution of nitrate of silver—the whole will instantly
be pervaded by a milkiness, as the chlorine of the
muriatic acid combines with the silver and forms
chloride of silver, a salt highly insoluble. So great is
the power of this test, that if a single grain of common
salt is dissolved in 42,250 grains of water, the muriatic
acid is detected, though amounting to only 1 part in
108,333 of the weight of the solution.
A fluid produced by rubbing together two solid metals.
—Triturate an amalgam of lead with an amalgam of
bismuth—the product will be fluid, like mercury.
Fluids are likewise produced when any of the mixtures
which follow are triturated; acetate of lead and sul
phate of zinc–or, sulphate of soda and nitrate of am
monia—or, sulphate of soda and carbonate of potash.
—These salts should be all fresh crystallised.
A green coloured solid produced by mixing a blue one
with a white one.—Triturate crystallised sulphate of
copper with crystallised super-acetate of lead. In this
process, acetate of copper, which has a green colour, is
formed.
To make a beautiful solid green paint by mixing a
blue liquor with a colourless liquor.—Add to a hot solu
tion of blue sulphate of copper, a little solution of
colourless carbonate of soda—a beautiful powder, known
by the name of French Green, will be precipitated.—
The powder is a sub-carbonate of copper. The liquor
may be separated by filtration. -

Two pungent and invisible gases wnite and form an

inodorous solid.— Process 1. Fill ajar with ammoniacal
gas, and another with muriatic acid gas, in the manner
described in a subsequent part of this work. Apply
the two jars mouth to mouth, and the above-mentioned
effect will instantly be produced, chloride of ammonium
being formed and precipitated on the sides of the jars.
Process 2. Dip a clean feather into muriatic acid,
and moisten with it the interior of a glass such as is
depicted in the margin of the following page, and in
F 2
66 CHEMICAL METAMORPHOSES.

like manner moisten the interior of a 2->–~TSN

similar glass with liquid ammonia. The

glasses, in this state, will seem empty,
but if they be put mouth to mouth toge
ther, the whole included space will be
filled with a dense white vapour; which
in the end settles on the sides of the
glasses in the form of a white powder,
solid chloride of ammonium.
Process 3. If two jars, one containing
ammoniacal gas, and the other containing
carbonic acid gas, are thus put together, solid carbon
ate of ammonia will be formed.
Two highly odorous liquids produce a mixture totally
without odour. — Mix liquid ammonia with muriatic
or nitric acid, till the resulting liquor is neutral. The
smell of both the ingredients disappears, and the saline
product has neither the acid nor the alcaline taste pos
sessed by the two odorous liquids.
Two bodies devoid of odour produce a compound highly
odorows and volatile.— Mingle together in a mortar
equal parts of sal-ammoniac and quicklime. The mix
ture disengages ammoniacal gas, which has a very
pungent odour.
To deprive a red rose of its colour and to restore the
colour again.-Hold a red rose over the blue flame pro
duced by burning sulphur. You can do this by fasten
ing the rose to the top of an inverted glass jar. This
flame diffuses a gas which has the property of depriv
ing vegetables of their colour. It is called sulphurous
acid gas. Whenever it comes into contact with the
rose, the colour is so discharged as to make the rose
either beautifully variegated or entirely white. If you
afterwards dip the rose into water, its red colour is
restored to it.
A substance which may be eaten, produced by the ad
mixture of two powerful poisons.—A solution of muri
atic acid, and a solution of caustic soda are both poison
ous. If mixed together in such proportions as to make
a neutral solution, they produce common kitchen salt.
 BULK DIMINISHED BY MIXTURE. 67

—Explanation. 9% parts of muriatic acid contain 9

parts of chlorine and 4 part of hydrogen. 104 parts of
caustic soda contain 6 parts of sodium, 4 parts of oxy
gen, and 4 part of hydrogen. When these quantities
of the ingredients, in a state of aqueous solution, are
mingled together, new combinations take place. 9 parts
of chlorine and 6 parts of sodium, produce 15 parts of
common salt, also called chloride of sodium; and 4 parts
of oxygen and # part of hydrogen, produce 44 parts of
pure water. Thus nothing is lost or left at liberty.
The chloride of sodium dissolves in the water at the
moment of formation, but can be extracted by evapora
tion.
Two cold liquids, on being mixed together, produce a
boiling-hot liquid; and the bulk of .#. diminished
by mixing them.—1. Take a small phial about half full
of cold water; grasp it gently in the left hand, and
from another phial pour sulphuric acid very gradually
into the water. The mixture will immediately become
so hot, that the phial cannot be held.—If a thin glass
tube, three-eighths of an inch in diameter, containing a
small quantity of water, be plunged into a mixture of
one part water to four parts acid, the water in the tube
will boil.—2. Take a glass tube, 12 inches long, and
one-third of an inch wide, having two bulbs of an inch
in diameter blown near the middle of it. Fit a long

— `
- V_
cork to each end of the tube. Fill half the tube and one
of the bulbs with concentrated sulphuric acid. Then
68 SYMPATHETIC INKS.

gently fill the other bulb and the rest of the tube with
water, using a small long-necked funnel. Put in the
cork. Invert the apparatus several times quickly to
mix the liquids. The two corks serve as handles to the
tube. The mixture becomes extremely hot. If the
tube is held near Phosphorus, it sets it on fire. If it
is placed upright, you can see by the vacant space in
the tube how much the mixture diminishes in bulk.
When the mixture is cold, the vacant space will be 1+
inches of the tube. If the sulphuric acid is tinged
red by carmine, or blue by indigo, the operation is bet
ter seen by spectators at a distance.
SYMPATHETIC INKs.—Sympathetic inks are liquids
which, being used for writing or drawing, form figures
or letters which, under certain circumstances, or after
certain operations, become changed in colour, or from
being illegible become conspicuous. Liquids of this
kind known at present are very numerous, and the
experiments executed with their assistance are some
of the most entertaining which modern chemistry
affords. Several varieties were known in very ancient
times. We find Ovid teaching young women to de
ceive their guardians by writing billets to their lovers
with new milk, letters formed with which are rendered
legible by coal-dust or soot. And Ausonius proposes
the same thing to Paulinus. Pliny, in whose time it
was known that any colourless, glutinous juice would
attract black powder as well as milk, recommends for
this purpose the milky sap of certain plants.
There are several metallic solutions, entirely colour
less, or having a very weak tint, which, if applied to
paper, produce figures that remain invisible, either
till washed with another colourless solution, or exposed
to its vapour. Among these, there is none more curi
ous, or capable of exciting greater astonishment, than
that which consists of a solution of sugar of lead, which
becomes black on exposure to sulphuretted hydrogen
gas, even at a considerable distance. The mountebank
performers of mechanical tricks and chemical experi
 SYMPATHETIC INKS. 69

ments, whom the people have been pleased to term

conjurers, derive considerable aid from the service of
bodies such as those under consideration. How potent
must he appear to ignorant eyes, who causes a figure
to grow, as it were, on a paper untouched by any hand,
and exposed meanwhile to view! Yet, to do this,
requires only that the person use the ink just named,
and manage the business with a little dexterity.
Whatever is written with a solution of sugar of lead,
with a clean pen, remains invisible while dry; but,
when the writing is washed over with liquid sulphu
retted hydrogen, it becomes instantly black. The most
extraordinary circumstance is this, that, though sheets
of paper without number, and even a board, be placed
between the invisible writing and the reviving liquid,
the same effect will take place as in the former case;
the writing being turned black by a vapour which
penetrates the substance of the wood and the folds of
the paper.
It is instructive to look back upon the hypotheses
which successive speculators set up to explain the
causes of various effects observed in nature. The phe
nomena which appeared to take place without any
visible agency, were ascribed by the schoolmen to cer
tain “occult qualities.” This doctrine gave way to
the idea of magnetic effluvia, which was succeeded by
a something termed sympathy; and sympathy itself
was exploded by attraction and electricity. In future
times our own method of tracing out causes will, no
doubt, be reckoned as absurd as the ridiculous modes
which have preceded it.
Another remarkable kind of sympathetic ink is that
prepared from cobalt, the invention of which, though
generally ascribed to Hellot, is affirmed by Pott to
have been detailed by a German lady, very early in
the seventeenth century. But it must be older than
this, if it be true that, by means of this invention,
Theophrastus Paracelsus could, in the same picture,
represent alternately summer and winter. Such is the
nature of this ink of cobalt, that the traces of it in
70 SYMPATHETIC INKS.

writing or drawing are colourless when cold, but when

moderately heated become of a beautiful green colour;
which colour, however, vanishes as the paper cools, but
can be made to re-appear by a fresh application of
heat.
I shall now mention a few of these inks out of the
great number which but a slight acquaintance with
chemistry will suggest to the student.—NoTE. The
sympathetic inks may be laid on paper either with a
camel-hair pencil or a common quill pen; but, which
ever is used, it is necessary that the instrument be
perfectly clean—the presence of the smallest conceiv
able quantity of any foreign body will go nigh to spoil
the effect. The best thing to use is a clean fresh-cut
quill pen.
1. Write with weak tincture of galls: the characters
will be invisible. Moisten the paper with a feather
dipped in a weak solution of sulphate of iron—the
writing will become black. To understand this phe
nomenon, you have only to know that a black liquid
commonly termed ink is formed by adding infusion of
galls to a solution of sulphate of iron.
2. Write with a weak solution of prussiate of potash
—the letters will be invisible. Moisten the paper, as
in the preceding experiment, with a weak solution of
sulphate of iron—the writing will assume a fine blue
colour.—Rationale. Prussian blue is here formed.
3. Wash paper with a solution of sulphate of iron,
and suffer it to dry: when written upon this paper,
dilute solution of prussiate of potash produces blue let
ters, and tincture of galls black ones; but upon com
mon paper, they make colourless marks.
4. Most acids, diluted and written with, leave marks
which are invisible till the paper is heated, when they
become black; the heat concentrating the weak acid,
and enabling it to char the paper.
5. Write with a dilute solution of nitrate of silver,
and let the writing dry in the dark—it will be invisible;
fold up the paper so as to keep the writing in the dark
—it will continue invisible; but, expose the writing to
 SYMPATHETIC INKS. 71

the light of the sum—it will become black.—Rationale.

The nitrate of silver has the property of being decom
posed by light; a black colour being acquired by the
metallic oxide.
6. Characters written with a solution of equal parts
of sulphate of copper and sal-ammoniac, have a yellow
colour when heated, but are invisible when cold.
7. Write with a dilute solution of chloride of copper.
The writing is invisible when cold, but yellow when
heated.
8. Write with a dilute solution of chloride of gold,
and dry the writing in the dark—it will be invisible.
Moisten the paper, by means of a feather or bit of
sponge, with a solution of chloride of tin—the writing
will then assume a purple colour, occasioned by the
presence of a minute portion of the purple precipitate
of Cassius, a compound of tin and gold.
9. Write with a solution of nitrate of bismuth—the
writing will be invisible. Immerse the paper in water
—the characters will then be legible.—Rationale. The
water decomposes the salt, and causes a white com
pound of bismuth to be precipitated in a solid form.
10. Expose a paper upon which you have written
with nitrate of bismuth, to the vapour of water impreg
nated with sulphuretted hydrogen—the writing will
become black-It is the property of bismuth to be thus
affected by sulphuretted hydrogen. The black sub
stance is sulphuret of bismuth.
11. Let a paper upon which you have written with
nitrate of bismuth be moistened with solution of prus
siate of potash—the writing will assume a beautiful
gyellow colour; cyanide of bismuth being formed.
12. Write with a solution of sulphate of copper—no
writing will be visible. Wash the paper with solution
of prussiate of potash—the writing will then get a
reddish-brown colour; cyanide of copper being formed.
13. Write with a solution of acetate of lead—the
writing will be invisible. Hold the paper over a saucer
containing liquid sulphuretted hydrogen—the writing
will become, first black, and then glittering like silver.
72 SYMPATHETIC INKS.

—The metallic salt is here decomposed by the sul

phuretted hydrogen, which produces black sulphuret
of lead.
14. Upon a fire-screen let there be drawn a repre
sentation of winter, with trees destitute of foliage, and
ground covered with snow. Let, however, every part
of the picture which, if the scene represented summer,
would be green, be covered with the sympathetic ink,
produced by dissolving zaffre or impure cobalt in aqua
regia, which is a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids.
Draw, for instance, leaves on the trees, and grass on
the ground. These marks will not be visible; the pic
ture will still bear the aspect of winter. But, let the
fire-screen be placed for a short time near the fire,
then the view will exhibit all the verdure of summer.
When allowed to cool, the verdure disappears; but it
may be again revived, by the same means as before,
and that as often as is desired, provided the paper be
not heated beyond a certain point; for, if heated too
much, the ink will assume a permanent brown colour.
A solution of pure chloride of cobalt will not answer
the above purpose, as it gives a blue and not a green
sympathetic ink. The green tint is due to the pre
sence of arsenic and iron among the impure cobalt.
15. A jar is filled with clear water. A
piece of white pasteboard is put into it. The
whole may be then covered from view. After
a few minutes, the white pasteboard is taken
out, and found to have an inscription upon
it in blue letters. Eaplanation: The clear
water is a weak solution of iodide of potas
sium, mixed with a few drops of sulphuric
acid. The white pasteboard has had the \–

writing previously made upon it with starch

paste. Such writing is invisible on white pasteboard ;
but in the experiment, a blue compound is formed by
the combination of iodine and starch.
 73

EXPERIMENTS ON HEAT. t

There are four things which have considerable influ

ence over chemical bodies and chemical processes.
These four things are light, heat, electricity, and mag
netism. By many chemists these things are called
imponderable bodies. They use the term imponderable
to signify that the bodies have no weight, or are incap
able of being weighed, and the word body to signify
that these four things have a material existence, or are
composed of particles. But no one has ever been able
to prove that light, heat, electricity, and magnetism,
or any one of them, has a corporeal existence. Conse
quently, their existence, as bodies, is merely imaginary;
and all that we can safely say of the nature of these
things, or powers, or principles, is, that we are ignorant
of it. All that we absolutely know of light, heat, elec
tricity, and magnetism, relates to the influence of these
things upon material bodies, that is to say, upon the
chemical elements and their compounds. In other
words, we only know these things by their effects, but
of these effects, we know not the causes.
As it is impossible to treat systematically of every
branch of chemistry in this little volume, I shall satisfy
myself with giving a few experiments and observations
on Heat, referring the reader to more extensive works
for fuller information. -

HEAT AND COLD PRODUCED BY THE SAME LIQUID AT

THE SAME TIME-Put your right hand into a basin,
containing water made as hot as you can well bear it,
and put your left hand into a basin containing very
cold water. After a few minutes, take out both hands,
and instantly plunge them into water warmed moder
ately: what effect will be produced? The water will
cool your right hand and warm your left.
Explanation of this experiment.—What we call heat,
is the effect produced by some power of an unknown
nature, to which power chemists sometimes give the
name of caloric. Cold is a negative quality: it signi
G
74 COMMUNICATION OF HEAT.

fies the absence of heat, or rather, a diminution of heat.

This producer of heat (caloric) always tends to an
equilibrium; that is to say, heated bodies placed among
cool ones, always part with their heat to the cool ones, till
all are brought to the same temperature. Of course,
by such a process, the cool bodies are heated, and the
heated ones cooled. This doctrine of the distribution
of heat enables us fully to comprehend the phenomenon
of the above experiment. A hot hand put into cold
water, communicates a part of its heat to that water,
and thus becomes cooled. Again, a cold hand put into
hot water, takes a portion of heat from that water,
and consequently is heated. Hence we readily dis
cover how water of a medium temperature heated the
hand that had been cooled by cold water, and cooled
the hand that had been heated by hot water.
People very generally imagine that the sensation of
heat is an accurate test of temperature, and they are
thereby frequently led to miscall things. They come
into this room from the open air to-day, and exclaim,
“How warm it is!” To-morrow, they will again
come into it from a still warmer room, and will cry,
“How cold it is!” In the first case they gain heat,
and therefore call the room warm ; in the latter case
they lose heat, and then they term it cold; while, in
reality, the air of the room continues, during the whole
time, heated precisely to the same degree of tem
perature.
Two men were travelling on a high mountain ; one
of them was ascending, the other descending it. About
the middle they met. “Bless me!” exclaimed he
who was going down, “how extremely hot it is to
day!” “Hot!” cried the other, “why, I never felt
so cold in all my life.” These two men judged from
their sensations, and truly expressed what they felt.
At the top of the mountain the air was cold; at the
bottom of it the air was warm. He who was descend
ing came, therefore, into warm air, and was heated;
on the contrary, he who was ascending was, by coming
to the cool air, cooled. We learn from this, that our
 EXPANSION BY HEAT.

sense of feeling can never inform us

respecting the true temperature of the
bodies by which we are surrounded.
HEAT ExPANDS BODIES, as the fol
lowing experiments will prove:–Pro
cess 1. — Take a cylindrical rod of
polished tin or iron, that exactly fits
a ring made to receive it. Let it be
made hot enough to make water boil.
It will be then so much enlarged in
bulk, that it will not go into the ring.
Process 2. — Procure a long glass
tube, with a bulb blown at one end;
put into the bulb of this instrument
some cold water or alcohol. Then,
holding the tube in the hand, plunge
the bulb into hot water: upon this,
the enclosed liquid, as it gains heat
from the hot water, will rise in the
tube. The expansion will be seen
more clearly, if the liquid in the bulb
be coloured.
Process 3.—Let a bladder, partly filled with air, be
tied at the neck, and held near a fire. The small
quantity of air enclosed will speedily expand, and fill
the bladder completely.
Process 4.—If the mouth of a
glass vessel, having a long narrow
neck, be inserted into water, in such
a manner that a little water rises
in the neck, and if the body of the
vessel be then heated, the air within
it will rapidly expand, and will cause
the water to descend in the neck of
the vessel.
Process 5.--To SHOW THAT PIOT
WATER IS LIGHTER THAN COLD.—
Pour gently hot water into a tall
glass nearly filled with cold water;
it will remain on the surface: but
76 THERMOMETER.

if cold water be poured upon hot water, it will sink

to the bottom. This experiment may be rendered more
striking by colouring that portion of water which is
poured in. This experiment affords another proof of
the expansion of bodies by heat.
That, in all these cases, the expansion of the dif
ferent bodies is really occasioned by heat, is very evi
dent from the circumstance, that, when they become
cool, they become small again.
Remarks on the phenomenon of expansion.—Of all
the properties of heat, none is more remarkable than
its power of expansion. Matter of every description,
bodies in every state, are, by an accession of caloric,
enlarged in bulk; and, on the contrary, when bodies
are deprived of heat, they are reduced in bulk.
In order to account for so curious a phenomenon as
increase of size by the addition of invisible matter,
some philosophers have supposed caloric to be a peculiar
fluid, possessed of so subtile a nature, as to be capable
of forcing itself between, and consequently of driving
asunder, the particles of matter of even the very dens
est kind. And they imagine that it is by this means
that it is able to overcome the attraction of
cohesion, and thereby to dilate bodies,
The fact shown by Process 1, is taken advan
tage of by coopers in fastening the staves of a
cask with iron hoops: before the hoops are put
on, they are heated, and of course enlarged; they
then, on cooling, contract, and the cask is tightly
bound. The expansion of fluids, (Process 2)
has been very usefully applied in the construc
tion of thermometers, by which it is made the
means of measuring the variations of tempera
ture in other bodies.
ATHERMOMETER,-heat-guage, or measurer of
heat, is a small tube of glass, with a bulb at the
end of it; the bore of the tube is very small, and |

perfectly uniform; the bulb is entirely, and

the tube partly, filled with the fluid by whose
expansion the degrees of heat are to be measured.
 THERMOMETER. 77

The tube is applied to a scale, formed on fixed princi

ples, and the expansion of the fluid is thereby measured
with accuracy. The fluid with which thermometers
are generally filled, is mercury, that metal being found
to combine more advantages than any other fluid. The
scale just mentioned is divided into two hundred and
twelve equal portions, which are called degrees; the
two hundred and twelfth degree, usually written 212°,
being the topmost one. The mark at the bottom of
the scale, near the bulb (0°), is called zero. This scale
was invented by Fahrenheit.
When the thermometer is immersed in melting ice,
or in freezing water, the surface of the mercury stands
invariably at the 32d degree, shortly said, at 32°, and
this is on that account called the freezing point of water.
When the thermometer is plunged into boiling water,
the mercury rises to 212°, which, therefore, is called
the boiling point of water. All bodies that are as hot
as boiling water, make the mercury rise as high as
boiling water does; and all bodies that are as cold as
melting ice, or freezing water, make the mercury sink
to 32°. If the thermometer is immersed in a mixture
of equal parts of water at 32° and 212°, the mercury
stands level with 122°; we have, in this case, an excel
lent illustration of what has been said regarding the
tendency which heat has to an equilibrium : the hot
water communicates 90° of heat to the cold, and its
own temperature is thereby reduced 90°.
The thermometer does not tell the precise quantity
of heat contained in the bodies it is applied to ; it only
shows by how many degrees of heat the temperature
of certain substances exceeds that of others. For we
cannot deprive any body of all the heat it contains.
The mercury rises by abstracting heat, and falls by
communicating it. If the mercury is sunk to 0° by
being plunged into a certain mixture, still we cannot
say that that mixture is deprived of heat, since it is
evident, that the mercury fell upon giving out part of
its heat to the mixture, and became stationary upon
the production of an equilibrium. Though the lowest
G 2
78 DIFFERENTIAL THERMOMETER.

point on the thermometer scale is 0°, yet cold can be

produced by many degrees more intense than that; so,
also, can much greater heat than that of boiling water
be produced. Thermometers for chemical purposes
are sometimes marked to 600° above 0°, and to 40° be
low it; which marks show the boiling and freezing
points of mercury.
The annexed figure represents Sir
John Leslie's differential thermometer.
This consists of two bulbs filled with
air, and connected by a capillary tube
containing oil of vitriol tinged red. The
body whose heat is to be measured is
brought into contact with one bulb, the
air of which expands, and drives the
fluid towards the other bulb. The
amount of expansion is indicated by the
scale attached.
We must now notice a very remark
able exception to the laws of expansion
upon increase of heat. When water at
32° is heated, instead of expanding, as
other bodies in the same situation would
do, it becomes denser, continuing to do
so, more and more, till it arrives at 40°,
after which it regularly expands! When
water at 212° is cooled, it contracts till
it comes to 40°, and then it gradually
expands till it comes to 32°. This pro
perty of water is a very beneficial one,
as we shall presently see. (p. 82.)
DIFFERENT BODIES EXPAND IN DIFFERENT DEGREES.
—This may be proved by the following process:–Pro
cure two glass tubes, each having a bulb at one end.
Fill the bulb of one of the tubes with water, and that
of the other with alcohol. The two liquids had better
be coloured by some vegetable infusion. Now, take
the two tubes, and plunge the bulbs together into hot
water; both the liquids will expand and rise in the
tubes, but the alcohol with far more rapidity than the
 POWER OF CONDUCTING HEAT. 79

water. The cause of the difference in the expansibility

of bodies is unknown.
HEAT PASSES QUICKLY THROUGH so ME BODIES,
SLOWLY THROUGH othBRs.—All bodies through which
heat passes are called conductors of it; those through
which it passes quickly are termed good conductors,
and those through which it passes slowly, bad con
ductors. Dense bodies are, in general, the best con
ductors; light, porous bodies, the worst. Bodies which
are the worst conductors of heat, have the greatest
capacity for it; that is to say, they take a greater
quantity of heat than good conductors, to raise an
equal bulk to a given thermometric temperature,
within a certain time. When bodies are compressed,
heat is evolved; because, as, by their condensation,
their conducting powers are increased, so are their
capacities for heat diminished. The following experi
ments prove the conducting powers of bodies to be
different.
Process 1.—Take a rod of iron a foot long, and a rod
of wood just the same size. Put one end of each into
a fire, and hold the other extremities by the hands.
When the one end of the iron has become red hot, the
other end will be almost unbearably hot; but the wood
will scarcely give any heat to the hand, though held
till nearly all consumed by the fire. Hence we learn,
that iron is a good conductor of heat, but wood a bad
Olle.

Process 2.—Prepare a number of equal-sized rods

of different substances, copper, lead, tin, iron, glass,
bone, and wood of various sorts. Coat one end of each,
by dipping it into melted wax or tallow. When they
are all ready, plunge their uncoated extremities into
boiling water, or hot sand: in a short time the wax or
tallow will be melted ; but it will be observed, that all
the coatings do not melt together, but that of each par
ticular rod in the order of its power of conducting
heat. The metallic rods (these, too, in their particular
order) produce the effect first, next the glass, and last
of all the wood,
80 DIFFUSION OF HEAT IN FLUIDS.

Fluids are bad conductors of heat.—1. The upper

surface of water, contained in a glass tube, placed in a
slanting position, can be boiled and evaporated, while
a cake of ice remains frozen at the bot
tom of the tube.
2. Let an air thermometer, that is,
a bulb tube with a long capillary neck,
be inverted in a vessel of water, so that
the extremity of the bulb is barely be
neath the surface; let a little ether be
poured upon the water, so as to form a
stratum about 4 of an inch above the
thermometer, and let the ether be in
flamed. However delicate the ther
mometer, the air in it will not expand;
the ether boils violently, but a very long
process of this kind is required to com
municate any sensible heat to the
water.
CURIOUS MOTION PRODUCED IN LIQUIDS BY HEATING
AND Cool.ING THEM.—Fill a long test tube with water,
and put into it a small quantity of powdered amber,
having previously added to the water a sufficient quan
tity of potash to produce a solution having the same
specific gravity as amber. Immerse the tube in a
glass of hot water; upon which a very singular inter
mal motion will be immediately perceived. A current
of the fluid will rise up the sides of the tube, and
another descend in the centre of it. Now take the
tube out of the hot water, and observe the effects of its
cooling. The currents will be reversed; the external
one will descend, and the internal one ascend. The
use of the powdered amber is to make the opposite
currents into which the water is thrown visible.
Rationale of this experiment.—The manner in which
a quantity of water, put in a vessel over a fire, is
heated throughout, is by the constant agitation of its
particles; for though heat is transmitted from one
particle of a fluid to another, in the same manner as
in solid bodies, yet it is only so in a very small degree.
 FREEZING OF WATER. 81

As the particles of water immediately at the bottom of

a vessel are expanded by heat, they become, of course,
specifically lighter than the rest of the fluid; and con
sequently rise to the surface, communicating, in their
progress, part of their heat to the colder particles
around them. Successive portions are thus heated at
the bottom, and rise to the surface; and this agitation
continues till all the liquid is brought to the greatest
degree of heat it can acquire, namely, to its boiling
point. If a liquid is heated at the surface, the heated
particles being specifically lighter than those below,
cannot descend, and therefore no agitation can be pro
duced to communicate the heat to the bottom of the
water. It was once asserted that heat could not
descend in a liquid, and the foregoing experiments on
the bad conducting power of liquids, were adduced in
apparent proof of this doctrine. But it has been proved
that heat is propagated downwards, by transmission
from particle to particle, though but slowly.
In the experiment just performed, the water rises at
the sides; this is because the heat is communicated
through the medium of the sides of the tube. The
descending current in the centre, is occasioned by the
sinking of the water which parts with a portion of its
heat, to the atmosphere, at the surface. When the
tube is held out of the water, the currents are reversed,
because the external particles being in contact with
cool air, are cooled; they therefore descend and force
up the central particles, which are lighter because
Warmer.
From what has been said above, it will be conceived,
that water in large quantities, as, for instance, in deep
lakes, when cooled by the atmosphere in winter, sinks
in successive portions, till the whole bulk of it is of the
temperature of 40°; after which, as it cools to its
freezing point, 32°, it continues unagitated, that is, its
cool particles, being lighter than its warm ones, remain
at the surface, and are at last converted into a sheet of
ice, which, expanding in the act of formation, becomes
lighter, and thence swims on the surface of the water.
82 RADIATION OF HEAT.

How manifest are the wisdom and goodness of the

GREAT ARTIFICER of the world in this arrangement 1
If water continued to condense till it arrived at the
temperature of 32°, the water on the surface of our
rivers would sink as it froze, another sheet of water
would freeze immediately, and sink also ; the ultimate
consequence of which would be, that the beds of our
rivers would become depositaries of immense masses of
ice, which no subsequent summer could unbind ; and
the whole world would shortly be converted into a
frozen chaos'
TO PROVE THAT WATER EXPANDS WHEN FREEZING.
—Fill a thin glass phial with water, cork it securely,
and place it in a situation where the water contained
in it may be frozen. Whenever solidification takes
place the bottle will burst.
The force with which water expands when in the act
of freezing, is immense. A small brass globe, which
would have required a force equal to 27,700 pounds to
have burst it, has been bursted by the freezing of a
little water in it. By the expansion of water during
frosts, trees and rocks are often split asunder. Slate
is dug from quarries in large blocks, which are placed
edge uppermost, exposed to the rain; this penetrates
their fissures, and when a frost takes place, expands,
and splits the slate into thin layers.
RADIATION OF HEAT.-If a thermometer be held
near an ignited body, it shows an elevation of tempera
ture. This is partly produced by the conducting
powers of the air, but it is likewise partly produced by
another impulse, which is instantaneously communi
cated, even to a considerable distance. If a large con
cave metallic mirror be placed upon the ground, and
the hot body be raised some feet above it, a thermo
meter will instantly rise in the focus of the mirror,
though it is evident that no current of hot air can pass
downwards from the body. This effect is commonly
called the radiation of heat. It is best observed by
employing two mirrors parallel to each other, and to
the surface of the earth. If the mirrors be of copper
 FORMATION OF WAPOURS. 83

tinned, and be well pol

ished, and as much as two
feet in diameter, and dis- -

tant only twelve feet, a |

small pan of red-hot char
coal, placed in the focus of
the upper mirror, will cause
gunpowder to explode in
the focus of the lower mir- =
- &
*—”

ror

Radiation of Invisible
Pſeat.—This effect does not
depend upon the light that
attends a red heat; for if a
vessel filled with boiling
water be placed in the fo
cus of the upper mirror, a
thermometer placed in the
focus of the lower mirror
will have its temperature
increased. - {=}O
Radiation of Cold,—If a
piece of ice be introduced
into the lower focus, the L
thermometer in the upper
focus will indicate a diminu
tion of temperature. Why is this? Does cold radiate?
No : in this experiment heat passes from the ther
mometer to the ice, and the thermometer, being cooled,
indicates a lower temperature. All these phenomena
are in harmony with one another.
SUDDEN CONVERSION OF A LIQUID INTO AN INVISIBLE
FLUID or WAPOUR, AND RE-CONVERSION OF IT INTO A
LIQUID.—1. Procure a long and narrow glass tube,
having a bulb at one end. Put into this instrument a
tea spoonful of sulphuric ether, and then fill it, tube
and all, with water. The water may be coloured by
sulphate of indigo. Let the mouth of the tube (the
bulb being turned upwards) be put into a vessel of
water; it may be kept in this situation by being fixed
84 FORMATION OF WAPOURS.

into a hole made in a little stool, Next pour boiling

water gently upon the top of the bulb.: the sudden
addition of heat will instantly change the ether into a
vapour, which, by its expansion, forces the coloured
water out of the vessel, and occupies its place. It is
proper, however, not to allow the whole of the water
to be forced out; but, after expansion has proceeded to
a certain degree, to pour cold water upon the vessel.
This will immediately re-convert the vapour of ether
into a liquid, condense it into a small space, and cause
the water to rush up into the bulb, to supply the va
Culum.

2. When water becomes steam by boiling, it is

merely the conversion of a liquid into an elastic fluid.
A simple instance
of this circumstance
may be given in the
ebullition of ether.
Let a little ether be
introduced into a
small glass retort
filled with water, and
inverted in water:
the ether will swim
above the water, in
the upper part of
the retort. Let a
heated bar of metal
be held near the
part of the retort containing the ether. As the heat
is communicated, globules will be seen to rise, and in
a very short time, elastic fluid will be formed in such
quantities, as to expel the water from the retort. On
removing the heat, and suffering the glass to cool, the
elastic matter will condense, and water rise again into
the vessel.
Rationale.—This experiment is intended to show
that heat has great influence on the form or state of
bodies. When solids are heated, they become liquids,
as is proved in every instance of fusion; and when
 THE STEAM-ENGINE, 85

liquids are heated, they acquire the gaseous form, and

become invisible elastic fluids, possessed of the mechani
cal properties of common air. They retain this form
or state as long as their temperature remains suffi
ciently high, but re-assume the liquid form when cooled.
Different fluids pass into the aeriform state at different
temperatures: the temperature at which a liquid be
comes changed into a vapour, is called its boiling point.
THE STEAM-ENGINE.—In the experiments just de
scribed, the water is forced out of the vessels by the pres
sure of the elastic fluids generated by the heat. The
water is afterwards forced back into the vessels when
the elastic fluids have been condensed by cold, by the
pressure of the atmosphere acting on the surface of the
water into which the mouths of the small vessels were
dipped. If the mouths of the vessels in which the
elastic fluids were generated, had been firmly closed,
the vessels would, in all probability, have been burst
by their expansive force. The facts shown in these
experiments, of the alternate conversion of the same
matter, by heat, into a bulky and powerfully expansive
vapour, and by cold, into a non-elastic liquid of small
bulk, involve the principle of the great civiliser of the
world—the Steam-Engine, I shall illus
trate the acting power of this machine
by means of Dr. Wollaston’s little steam.
cylinder, which is figured in the margin.
This consists of a glass tube of uniform
calibre, terminated by a bulb. It has a
handle, a piston, and a piston rod. The
two latter are perforated. The rod
works in a small stuffing-box which
closes the tube air-tight. The perfora
tion in the top of the rod can be closed
by a stopper. When used, the piston is
pressed to the bottom, a little water is
poured into the bulb, and boiled over a
spirit lamp. The air escapes through
the aperture in the piston rod, and when
steam freely follows it, the aperture may be closed by
H -
86 BOILING INFLUENCED BY PRESSURE.

its stopper. The piston then rises, in consequence of the

expansive force of the steam acting upon its under sur
face. If, now, cold is applied to the bulb, as, for
instance, by putting it on the surface of mercury con
tained in a glass, the included steam is condensed, and
a vacuum is formed. The piston then descends, in con
sequence of the pressure of the external air acting upon it
from above. . By this alternate heating and cooling
process, the piston may be made to ascend and descend
repeatedly; exhibiting the production of motion by the
conjoint use of the power of steam and the air's pres
Sure.
To CAUSE WATER To BOIL BY THE APPLICATION OF
COLD, AND TO CEASE To BoIL BY THE APPLICATION OF
HEAT-Provide a Florence flask, a good cork that fits
it closely, and a piece of bladder, softened by having
been soaked in water. Fill the flask half full of water,
and place it over a lamp, till the water boils; then
remove the flask, instantly cork it securely, and tie the
moistened bladder over the neck and cork, so as to
prevent the least access of air. The boiling of the
water, which continues a little while after the flask is
removed from the lamp, soon ceases entirely: but it
will immediately recommence, if the flask is plunged
into cold water; and cease again, when the flask is
held over the fire.
The explanation of the ea periment is this:—The boil
ing points of liquids are regulated by the pressure of
the atmosphere. The greater the pressure, the greater
is the degree of heat requisite for making the liquor
boil; and, consequently, the degree of heat required to
cause the ebullition of a liquid is small, under a small
pressure. In what manner do these facts explain the
curious phenomena of the above experiment? When
the flask was taken from the lamp, in order to be
closed, the upper part of it was filled with vapour,
the quantity of which was increased by that generated
during the short time that the water continued to boil,
after being removed from the lamp; and it was the
great pressure of this body of vapour, which made the
 LATENT HEAT. 87

still-hot water cease to boil. The boiling recommenced

when the flask was cooled, because, by that cooling,
the vapour was condensed into water, and a vacuum
formed. This being the case, the water will boil at a
very low temperature; and the heat that it retains is
sufficient for the purpose. The boiling of the water
ceased again, upon the flask being heated, because the
vapour formed by that means renewed the pressure on
its surface.
Sometimes Florence flasks are so thin, that, when
the vapour is condensed, the glass is broken by the
pressure of the atmosphere. The following is another
mode of showing this experiment, calculated to obviate
this inconvenience. Provide a six-ounce medicine
phial, half fill it with water, and place it in a pan of
boiling water over a fire, till the water it contains boils
also. Then cork it closely. Place this phial, thus
prepared, in a tea saucer; pour cold water upon it,
when the water in the phial will boil—next, pour hot
water upon it, when the water in the phial will cease
to boil.
The same experiment may be performed
with a large straight glass tube, or with a
bulb tube, such as is represented in
the margin. In this case the bulb
should be only half-full of water, and
not entirely filled as represented in
the figure. When the water boils and
the air has been expelled from the
tube, the cork is fixed in it securely
and the whole inverted. The conden
sation of the steam can then be con
veniently effected by dropping water
upon the bulb by means of the water-bottle.
To FREEZE WATER BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS.–Prepare
a FREEZING MIXTURE, as directed below, and immedi
ately plunge into it a tube of thin glass, about three
eighths of an inch in diameter, containing a small quan
tity of water. In a short time, the water in the tube
will be converted into ice, by the action of the freezing
88 LATENT HEAT.

mixture.—Care must be taken not to let it remain too

long, or the ice, after being formed, will be melted.
Rationale.—Whenever a body changes its form, its
relations to temperature are likewise changed, either
increased or diminished. During the liquefaction of
bodies, a quantity of heat is absorbed, which is essential
to the state of liquidity, and which does not increase
the sensible or thermometric temperature. The same
may be observed of the conversion of liquids into
vapours. And vice versa when gases are converted
into liquids, or liquids into solids, there is an increase
of sensible temperature. Consequently, if a cold solid
body, and the same body hot and in a liquid state, be
mixed in known proportions, the temperature after
mixture will not be the proportional mean, as would
be the case if both were liquid, but will fall short of it
—much of the heat of the liquid body being consumed
in rendering the solid body liquid before it produces
any effect upon its sensible temperature. "
Equal parts of water at 32°, and of water at 212°,
will produce, on mixture, a mean temperature of 122°.
But equal parts of ice at 32°, and of water at 212°, will
only produce (after the liquefaction of the ice) a tem
perature of 52°, the greater portion of the heat of the
water being employed in thawing the ice, before it pro
duces any rise of temperature in the mixture. Thus
the water is cooled 160°, while the ice is heated only
20°; consequently 140° of heat have disappeared, this
having in fact united to the solid water (ice) to produce
fluidity. Heat thus rendered insensible, or combined,
is termed latent heat.
The same phenomena are observable in all cases of
liquefaction, and we produce artificial cold, often of
great intensity, by the rapid solution of certain saline
bodies in water. Upon this principle, the action of
freezing mixtures depends.-In the above process, the
water in the tube becomes solid, by giving out its heat
of fluidity to the freezing mixture.
 LATENT HEAT. 89

TABLE OF FREEZING MIXTURES.

Mixtures. | Thermometer sinks.

Muriate of Ammonia.......... 5 parts

Nitrate of Potash...
Water.................. 16
: From 50° to 10°

Nº ºn) rººm ww.

;:... ?"}From 0 to 3.
à.g. **}From 32 to-5
Chloride of Calcium, cryst... 3 parts }
Snow.......................º ----- 2 -º-
From 32° to — 50 o

Snow, or pounded Ice.........12 parts

Common Salt.......... . 5 From + 18° to — 25°
Nitrate of Ammonia. . 5
Chloride of Calcium, cryst... 5*}
Snow............................... 4
From + 32° to — 40°

Diluted Sulphuric Acid...... ; *} From + 32° to — 23°

Snow...................

In order to produce the effects described in the above

table, several things must be attended to. The salts
employed must be fresh crystallised, and should con
tain as much water of crystallisation as possible; they
should also be quite dry, and reduced to fine powder
immediately before being used. The vessel in which
the freezing mixture is made should be very thin; and
the substance it is made of should be a good conductor
of caloric. Tin vessels answer very well; but, when it
is intended to put acid mixtures into them, they must
be coated with wax. The materials should be mixed
as quickly as possible, and must be in sufficient quan
tity to it. vessel.—When great cold is to be pro
duced, the materials for the mixture must first, separ
ately, be reduced to the temperature marked in the
table, by being placed in some of the other freezing
mixtures; and they are then to be mixed together in
a vessel placed in a similar freezing mixture.
H 2
90 woLLASTON's CRYOPHORUS.

Mercury freezes at —39°, so that, by the aid of some

of the mixtures described in the above table, put to—
gether in the manner we have just directed, the inter
esting experiment of the congelation of this singular
metal may be performed. The readiest method of
exposing the mercury to the action of the mixture, is
to place a little of it in a small glass tube, in the middle
of a pretty large mass of the freezing mixture.
To FREEZE WATER IN A FEW MINUTEs, EVEN IN THE
MIDST OF SUMMER.—Take a thin glass tube, four or
five inches long, and two or three eighths of an inch in
diameter. This must be closed at one end, and have
water poured into it, to the height of an inch. Now,
by means of the dropping tube, let a stream of sul
<=CTX=
phuric ether fall upon that part of the tube where the
water is. The ether, as soon as exposed to the atmos
phere, rapidly evaporates; but, in order to be converted
into vapour, it requires a considerable quantity of
caloric; and it therefore immediately robs the water
in the tube of its heat of fluidity. The consequence is,
that the water is changed to ice; and if a thin spiral
wire be previously put into the tube, the ice will adhere
to it, and may be drawn out.
Cold is produced in all cases of evaporation. The
inhabitants of warm climates cool their liquors for
drinking, by wrapping the vessels containing them in
wet cloths, and hanging them up in the sun. The
water in the cloth evaporates quickly, and thus pro
duces cold. A person whose clothes are wet, feels cold
even when near the fire; it is because the water, as it
evaporates, robs his body of caloric.—Under certain
circumstances, the cold produced by evaporation is very
great, being even sufficient to freeze water. This has
been proved by the above experiment; and is also most
elegantly shown by that which follows.
DR. WOLLASTON'S CRYOPHORUS, or Frost Bearer.—
This instrument is a glass tube of the fifth of an inch
 INSTANTANEOUS CRYSTALLISATION. 91

internal diameter, and about twenty-four inches long.

At each end of this tube is a bulb of one or two inches
in diameter, and the tube is bent to a right angle at the
distance of half an inch from each bulb. One of these
bulbs should be somewhat less than half full of water,
and the remaining cavity should be as perfect a vacuum
as can readily be obtained; which is effected by making
A.

g
the water boil briskly in the one bulb before sealing up
the capillary opening left in the other bulb. The cryo
phorus is employed to demonstrate the relation between
evaporation at low temperatures, and the production
of cold. To make use of it, prepare a freezing mixture,
and plunge one of the bulbs into it; upon which, the
water in the other bulb will be frozen in a few minutes.
By referring to what has been said above, we see,
that the instrument, as it was closed while the water
in it was boiling, is filled with vapour. This vapour,
when the bulb is plunged in the freezing mixture, is
condensed by the common operation of cold; and the
vacuum produced by this condensation, gives oppor
tunity for a fresh quantity of vapour to rise from the
opposite bulb. Now, the small quantity of water which
rises to supply this vacuum, takes, in order to be con
verted into vapour, a large quantity of heat from the
remainder of the water; and it is by the reduction of
temperature thus effected, that the water is eventually
changed into ice.
INSTANTANEOUS CRYSTALLISATION: A CURIOUS Ex
AMPLE OF THE PRODUCTION OF HEAT, BY THE CONVER
SION OF A LIQUID INTO A SOLID.—Into two ounces of
boiling water, put as much sulphate of soda, as it will
dissolve º three ounces). Pour as much of this
saturated solution, when boiling hot, into a phial, as
will nearly, but not quite, fill it; cork the phial closely,
and let it stand to cool. When cold, the solution is
92 INSTANTANEOUS CRYSTALLISATION.

still fluid; but the instant you draw the cork, a very
beautiful, but confused, crystallisation of the whole
mass, will immediately take place; and, at the same
time, so much heat is evolved as to make the phial warm.
The explanation of the experiment is this: water will
dissolve more sulphate of soda when hot than when
cold; and cold water will dissolve more in proportion
as the pressure of the atmosphere is diminished. The
hot water was here saturated, and, had it been suffered
to cool in an open vessel, would have deposited part of
the salt. But, in this case, none was deposited, for by
suffering the solution to cool in a close vessel, a partial
vacuum was produced at the surface of it, (the steam
which occupied the top part of the phial when the cork
was inserted, being, by the subsequent cold, condensed,)
and the water, when cold, was thus enabled to hold in
solution, all the salt which, when hot, it had dissolved.
As soon, however, as, by drawing the cork, you admitted
the usual pressure of the atmosphere, the cold water was
rendered incapable of holding so much salt in solution,
and part was, therefore, instantly crystallised. The
heat which was evolved, was the heat of liquidity of
the portion of the salt which thus became solid. If,
when the salt has crystallised, you plunge the phial
containing it into hot water, it will be again dissolved.
You may then cork the phial, as before, and the same
solution will serve for a repetition of the experiment.
 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SALTS.

I PROPOSE to give in this section, a Course OF TEST

ING adapted for beginners. The course may be fol
lowed by a single student, using the book as his guide;
but the experiments are such as can also be performed
by a large number of students, each provided with a
set of apparatus, and all working simultaneously, under
the direction of a teacher.

The object proposed, is to analyse a certain number

of the compound bodies termed Salts, embracing
those of the most important Acids, Alcalies, Earths,
and Metals.
94 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SALTS.

SUBSTANCES TO BE SOUGHT FOR. 1

The instructions now to be given apply only to com

pounds which dissolve in water, and which contain no .
other metals, and salts of no other Acids, than those I
am about to name:—

These METALS
1. Potassium. / 12. Zinc, 21. Nickel.
2. Sodium. 13. Tin, proto- |22. Chromium.
3. Ammonium. salts. 23. Iron,
4. Barium. 14. Aluminum. mixtures of
5. Strontium. / 15. Lead. persalts with
6. Calcium. 16. Tin, persalts. protosalts.
7. Manganese. 17. Antimony. 24. Mercury, per
8. Iron, proto- | 18. Mercury, salts.
salts. protosalts. 25. Gold.
9. Magnesium. |19. Cobalt. 26. Iron, persalts.
10. Cadmium. |20. Copper. 27. Silver.
11. Bismuth.

And these CLASSES OF SALTs—

1. Nitrates. 6. Sulphurets. 11. Oxalates.
2. Chlorates. 7. Fluorides. 12. Carbonates.
3. Chlorides. 8. Phosphates. 13. Sulphates.
4. Iodides. 9. Arseniates. 14. Chromates.
5. Arsenites. 10. Borates.

Any single salt, soluble in water, and containing one

of these 27 metals and one of the acids of these 14
classes of salts, can be analysed by the method now
to be described. 2

* From this point, the text may be read as instructions to

those who are to make the experiments.
* The person who gives you the salt to examine takes
care that these conditions are fulfilled, that the salt is pure, and
that ºntain. no other substances than those I have enu
merated.
 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SALTs. 95

That you may have an idea of the compounds which

you must expect to meet with, I now show you a list
of salts, acids, and bases, that will be presented to you
for analysis.
NITRATE OF CHLoRIDE OF FLUORIDE OF SULPHATE OF
1. Potash. 31. Calcium. 59. Potassium. 87. Chromium.
2. Soda. 32. Manganese 60. Silver. 88. Iron, per
3. Ammonia. 33. Iron, proto. PHOSPHATE OF and proto
4. Barytes. 34. Magne salts mixed.
5. Strontian. sium. 61. Soda.
62. Ammonia.
89. Iron,perox.
6. Lime. . Cadmium.
7. Magnesia. . Bismuth. ARSENIATE of CHROMATE OF
8. Cadmium. . Zinc. 63. Potash. 90. Potash.
9. Bismuth. . Tin, proto. 64. Soda. 91. Soda.
10. Zinc. . Aluminum.
11. Tin, prot . Tin, perox. Bor ATE of FREE BASEs,
oxide. . Antimony. 65. Potash. soluble in water.
12. Alumina. 66. Soda. 92. Potash.
13. Lead. 3.
.- UOpper.
67. Ammonia. 93. Soda.
14. Tin, per e §. 94. Ammonia.
oxide. 45. Chromium. OxALATE OF 95. Barytes.
15. Mercury; 46. Iron, mixed 68. Potash. 96. Strontium.
rotoxide. perox.and 69. Soda. 97. Calcium.
protoxide. 70. Ammonia.
}} 3.
. UOpper. 47. Mercury, FREE ACIDs,
18. §. eroxide. CARBONATE OF in aqueous
19. Chromium. 48. Gold. 71. Potash. solution.
20. Mercury, 49. Iron,perox. 72. Soda. 98. Nitric.
eroxide 73. Ammonia. 99. Chloric.
21. Silver.-- IoDIDE OF 100. Muriatic.
50. Potassium. SULPHATE OF 101. Hydriodic
CHLORATE OF 51. Sodium. 74. Potash. 102. Arsenious.
22. Potash. 75. Soda. 103.Sulphuret
23. Barytes. ARSENITE OF 76. Ammonia. ted Hydro
24. Calcium. 52. Potash. 77. Manganese gen.
25. Silver. B3. Soda.
78. Iron, proto. 104. Hydro
79. Magnesia. fluoric.
CHLORIDE OF SULPHURET OF 80. Cadmium. 105Phosphoric
26. Potassium. 54. Potassium. 81. Bismuth. 106. Arsenic.
- 27. Sodium. 55. Sodium. 82. Zinc. 107. Boracic.
28. Ammo 56. Ammo 83. Alumina. 108. Oxalic.
nium, nium. 84. Cobalt. 109. Carbonic.
29. Barium. 57. Barium. 85. Copper. 110. Sulphuric
30. Strontium. 58. Calcium. 86. Nickel. 111. Chromic.
96 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SALTS,

PREPARATION OF A SOLUTION OF THE

SALT.

You are now supposed to be furnished with a set of

testing apparatus, with reagents, and with a salt-in
tended to be analysed. You are therefore ready to
proceed.
The first thing you have to do, is to make a solution
of part of the substance for analysis.
Pulverise your salt in the small porcelain mortar, till
it feels no longer gritty between the finger and thumb.
Put the half of the powder upon the end of a slip
of glazed writing paper, and insert it, as I now show
you,” into a one ounce or two ounce flat-bottomed solu
1 Advertisement to Teachers.--The quantity of dry salt supplied
for the first experiment, may be 10 grains to each pupil; one
half to be used in forming a solution for examination by the
Indicating Tests; the other half to be kept in the solid state for
examination by the Blowpipe, or by the Confirming Tests. The
salt may be also presented upon the first occasion in its crystal
lised state, in order that the beginner may have the advantage
of any information he can derive from the physical properties of
the substance. In subsequent experiments, the quantity of the
salt should be gradually reduced from 10 grains to 1 grain, and
it should be presented in fine powder. -

In some cases, and perhaps generally after the first two lessons,
the compounds for examination, may, in order to save time, bé
resented to the class in a state of solution, each pupil being
urnished with a small bottle containing one or two drachms of
the liquid that is to be tested. In this case, the teacher or his
assistant, prepares the solution previous to the assembling of the
class, observing the precaution of making the solutions of the
same strength that ‘. would have been had they been prepared
§ the class individually, according to the instructions given in
the text.

* Method of inserting powders into deep narrow vessels-Take a

long slip ofhighly glazed writinÉ paper, as wide as the diameter of
the mouth of the vessel into which the powder is to be inserted.
Fold this longitudinally into a sort of gutter, and place the pow.
der upon one end of it. Hold the vessel in a horizontal position
and insert the paper gutter into it, the end bearing the powder
first... Then hold the vessel upright, upon which the powder
falls from the paper to the bottom of the vessel. Withdraw the
 PREPARATION OF A SOLUTION. 97

tion flask. Next, pour into the graduated measure, one

drachm of water. Add this to the powder in the flask.
Be sure not to spill any of the water on the outside of
your flask, or if you do spill it, be sure and wipe the
flask dry. As the half of your salt is 5 grains, and the
drachm of water is 60 grains, your solution will contain
1 in 12 of solid matter, which is a good proportion for
most solutions. I
Light your spirit lamp. Push down the wick till the
flame is not above an inch long. Hold the flask over
the flame. Move it gently round in a small circle about
an inch above the flame, so as to warm all parts of its
bottom, and to mix the powder with the water by the
gyration. , You will soon see dew formed on the bottom
of the flask. . Wipe the dew away with a cloth, Again
hold the flask over the flame. Again wipe off the dew.
Now place the furnace cylinder round the lamp—put
the wire trellis upon the cylinder, and set the flask
upon the trellis, exactly over the flame. Lift the flask
about once a minute, and gently shake it round, to mix
the powder with the water. As you have different salts
to examine, your solutions will not all be produced in
the same time, for some salts require more water than
others, and more time to dissolve. What I have now
to say will therefore concern only some of you. In
three or four minutes the water will boil, and if pre
sent in sufficient quantity will dissolve the salt. But
if the salt, after two or three minutes boiling, does not
dissolve, you must remove the flask from the lamp, let
the boiling cease, insert a funnel into the flask, and add
half a drachm more water. Then boil again.
The solution being thus effected, is next to be filtered.
Extinguish the flame; let the solution cool; and, in the
meantime, prepare your filter.
aper in such a manner as not to soil the neck of the vessel.
§. Griffin’s “Chemical Manipulation,” page 15.
1 To the Teacher.—As you lessen the quantity of solid matter,
you must prescribe the application of less water, else the solu
tions will become too dilute. The proportion of 1 to 12 may
serve as a general rule, though sometimes more water is necessary.
- I
98 FILTRATION OF A SOLUTION.

Take a funnel holder. Fix the horizontal branch of

it at six inches above the foot. Put into the horizontal
|-|c

a.
a', ſ
& Gº- A.
d

branch a glass funnel of 13 inch diameter. Take a cir

cular filter of 23 inches diameter. Fold it into a quad
rant. Open one of the folds so as to make a cone.
Place it in the funnel, and sprinkle water over the
paper by means of the washing bottle, till it is made
wet enough to sit close to the bottom of the funnel.
There must be a space of one eighth of an inch
between the top of the filter and the edge of the
funnel, that is to say, the filter must be so much smaller
than the funnel. Place a conical ounce test glass
below the neck of the funnel, as I now show you. [See
the cut.] Now pour the solution from the flask into
the filter. Take care not to pour in so much at a time
as to rise above the top of the filter. When the solu
tion is all run through the filter into the test glass, you
have it prepared for testing.
 INDICATING TESTS FOR METALS. 99.

CLASSIFICATION OF TEST.S.
I divide Tests into two Classes. The First Class
comprises those which are most general in their re-ac
tions, and which on being applied in proper order to
the solutions prepared for testing, serve to indicate the
metals and acids which probably compose the compounds
subjected to analysis.
The Second Class comprises those more particular
tests which on being applied to a compound presumed,
from the action of tests of the first class, to be composed
of certain constituents, serve either to confirm or to dis
prove the presumed composition of the substance sub
mitted to analysis.
The first class are called Indicating Tests; the second
class Confirming Tests.
I.—INDICATING TEST.S.
I shall begin with the Indicating Tests, which are
of two kinds, such, namely, as serve to point out the
metals contained in the salts, and such as point out the
*

A.—TESTING FOR METALS.

The application of tests always commences with the
application of the Indicating Tests for Metals. These
are five in number, namely:—
l. Carbonate of Soda.
2. Liquid Ammonia,
3. Caustic Potash.
4. Red Prussiate of Potash.
5. Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas.
The first four of these tests you have ready in solution; 1
the last you will prepare at the moment when it is re
quired. I proceed to tell you how these tests are to be
applied.
1 These and other Tests mentioned in this Section will be
described in a subsequent part of the present work. The solu
tions consist in all cases, of the specified compounds, dissolved in
distilled water.
100 INDICATING TESTS FOR METALS.

Experiment 1.—Pour six drops of the solution of the

unknown salt into a test glass. Add to it three drops
of Carbonate of Soda.” Stir the mixture with a glass
rod. If no precipitate appears, add three drops more
of the carbonate of soda. Again stir the mixture.
You will get A PRECIPITATE or No PRECIPITATE. In
either case, you are to record the result on the Assay

| Clark's Conical Test Glass.

* The drops of the reagent are
best added by means of a straight
dropping tube, 6, inches long, and
not less than $ inch in diameter,
having a very small orifice, but not
a capillary point, at one end. See
Griffin’s “ Chemical Manipulation,”
page 58, from which the following
quotation is made:–
“In using such a tube in testing,
it is seldom necessary to suck wit
the mouth. On dipping the tube
into the test, a portion enters, more
or less of it, according to the depth
of the dip. As much as may be re
quired is allowed to enter, and is
retained by applying the finger to
the top of the tube-and just as
much as may be wished is allowed
to drop into the solution under ex
amination, by a partial or complete
removal of the finger.
“A modification of this method of applying tests by dropping
tubes, may be advantageously employed:where a large number
of students in a class are furnished with solutions for analysis,
and are all to apply the same tests to their solutions. Two
ounce bottles .# be provided with large and good corks,
perforated and fitted with
pieces of straight glass
tube of the width repre
sented in the margin, and
so long as to rise half an
inch above the cork, and
to descend nearly to the bottom of the bottles. The lower end
of the tubes may be a little contracted. The test solutions are
to be put into these bottles, and the tubes used to remove them
as required. The cork must stand so high above the bottle
 INDICATING TESTS FOR METALS. 101

Note, which I now hand to you, and upon which you

will find directions for filling up the blanks.1

as to be easily caught by the thumb and

middle finger of the right hand, while the
forefinger is left at liberty to close or open
\ |
the upper part of the tube, as may be re
quired. The tests are under complete
control in this apparatus, so that any
quantity which an experiment may de- -

mand, can be administered with facility.

When a very small quantity of the re
agent is required, you lift the tube with
out closing its upper end. It then acts
like a glass rod, and takes up only a drop
or two. When you want a larger quan
tity, you lift the tube out of the liquid,
close the upper end by your forefinger,
plunge the closed tube into the liquid,
and remove your finger. The air in the \/
bottle then presses the liquid up the tube
considerably higher than the level in the
bottle. The tube can then be lifted with what it contains.

1 To Teachers.--The ASSAY NOTE affords an easy and effectual

check on the pupil’s carefulness of manipulation and power of
observation. A contrivance of this kind is quite essential when
the number of pupils is so considerable that the teacher cannot
readily see what every one of them is doing. Suppose that 20
students are engaged in simultaneous Testing. }. are fur
nished with 20 different substances selected from the list given
at page 95, and numbered 1 to 20. They are also provided with
rinted copies of the Assay Note, which at the conclusion of the
#. are returned to you, duly filled up and subscribed by
the 20 different analysts. As you know beforehand what ought
to be written in every vacant space of each Assay Note, it is, of
course, easy to check, either an inaccurate experiment, or an
erroneous deduction.
The superintendance of such a class,and the examination of
the Assay Notes, can be entrusted to an assistant, provided he
be furnished with a set of Assay Notes, filled up to correspond
with the indications that would be afforded by the substances
enumerated at page 95.

I 2
102 ACTION OF INDICATING TESTS.

ASSAY NOTE, No.

TESTS FOR THE METAL.

Carbonate of Soda,...............

Ammonia, ..........................

Potash, ..............................

Red Prussiate of Potash, ......

Sulphuretted Hydrogen, .......
METAL INDICATED, .......

TESTS FOR THE ACID.

Chloride of Barium,..............

Nitrate of Silver, ................

Nitrate of Lead,..................
Chloride of Calcium,............
ACID INDICATED,....... • * * *

DIRECTIONS.—Against the word No. , , write the number

that is marked upon the envelope of the salt, or upon the bottled
solution which is presented to you for analysis. Fill up the
blank spaces opposite the names of the tests as follows:—If you
get no precipitate, insert a cypher, 0. If you get a precipitate,
write P, and add the colour of the precipitate, thus: P white,
or P brown. If the precipitate dissolves in an excess of the test,
add S after the colour, as P white S, P brown S. When the
metal and the acid are indicated, write their names in the spaces
provided for that purpose. Sign your name below.
, Analyst.
Dale
 INDICATING TESTS FOR METALS. 103

If Carbonate of Soda produces no precipitate, the

metal contained in the salt is one of these three:
No. 1. Potassium,
2. Sodium, or
3. Ammonium.
In this case, you need apply none of the other Indi
cating Tests to your solution, for they can give no
farther information. You will discriminate these three
metals by means of the Confirming Tests, of which I
shall speak aftergoing through the set of indicating tests.
If, on the contrary, the carbonate of soda produces
a precipitate, you write P. on the Assay Note, and then
proceed to apply the next test to your solution. The
colour of the precipitate produced by carbonate of soda
is of no importance in the present case, and need not
be marked on the Assay Note. -- -

Experiment 2–Pour six drops of the unknown solu

tion into another test glass, and add six drops of Liquid
Ammonia. Stir the mixture.
If no precipitate is produced, the metal contained in
the salt is No. 4. Barium, *
5. Strontium, or --

6. Calcium.
How to discriminate these three metals, I shall show
you hereafter by means of Confirming Tests. You
can get no farther information respecting any of them
from the Indicating Tests.
If, however, you get a precipitate with Liquid Am
monia, you write P. on your Assay Note, and proceed
to the next reagent. In the present case, as in the
last, the colour of the precipitate need not be marked
on the Assay Note.
Experiment 3.—Pour six drops of the unknown solu
tion into an ounce test glass. Then take a quantity
(one or two º of Caustic Potash in a dropping
tube such as I now show you:
104 INDICATING TESTS FOR METALS.

Hold the dropping tube in your left hand, and let

the potash fall, one drop at a time, into the solution
under analysis. Stir the mixture with a glass rod after
each addition of potash.
You will, in this case, be sure to get a precipitate,
and you have two things to observe in respect to it—
first, what colour it has, and secondly, whether, subse
quent to its first production by means of a small
quantity of potash, it can be dissolved, or made to dis
appear, by adding a larger quantity of potash.
The colours of the precipitates produced by caustic
potash are white, black, blue, green, yellow, and brown.
The white precipitates are distinguishable into two
varieties; those which dissolve in an excess of potash,
and those which do not.
Although it is impossible to apply potash at this
stage of the analysis without causing precipitation, yet
it is very possible to add, in carelessness, too much of
the potash at once, and so to render the resulting preci
pitate invisible at the instant of its production. This
is the reason why I tell you to add the potash gra
dually, that you may see the precipitate when first pro
duced and notice its colour before it is re-dissolved.
Fill up your Assay Notes according to what you
observe, write P. for precipitate, then the name of the
colour, and add S. when the precipitate is soluble in an
excess of the potash.
I proceed to notice the different kinds of precipitates
produced in this experiment, beginning with those of a
white colour.

The white precipitates that are insoluble in an excess

of potash indicate these five metals:—
No. 7. Manganese. No. 10. Cadmium.
8. Iron, its protosalts. 11. Bismuth.
9. Magnesium.
I have now to tell you how to distinguish these five
metals from one another.
 INDICATING TESTS FOR METALS, 105

Experiment 4.—Take six drops of the unknown solu

tion in a test glass, and add two or three drops of a
solution of Red Prussiate of Potash.
A Brown precipitate indicates Manganese.
A Blue precipitate indicates Protosalts of Iron.
. No precipitate indicates Magnesium.
Any other precipitate is to be disregarded.
This leaves Cadmium and Bismuth undiscriminated.
Fill up your Assay Note, and proceed to the next test.
Eageriment 5.—Take a test tube six inches long and
an inch wide provided with a cork. Put into it a test
spoonful, or half a grain, of sulphuret of iron and two
~\

(G
drops of muriatic acid. Insert into the mouth of it a
slip of fine white writing paper, three inches long and
# an inch wide, wetted with a few drops of the solu
tion under examination previously mixed with a drop
or two of nitric acid. Allow a portion of the paper to
project beyond the tube and secure it in its place by
inserting the cork. Warm the bottom of the tube over
a spirit lamp. Sulphuretted Hydrogen gas will then
be produced and fill the tube, and will soon act on the
saline solution with which the white paper was wetted.
A coloured precipitate will be produced, which will
stain the white paper. -

The colour of the precipitate produced by the sul

phuretted hydrogen gas, under the given circumstances,
must be either yellow or black.
Yellow indicates Cadmium.
Llack indicates Bismuth,

Experiment 6.—The white precipitates which were

produced by caustic potash, and re-dissolved by an ex
cess of that test, indicate six metals, namely:
No. 12, Zinc. No. 15, Lead.
13, Tin, its protosalts. 16, Tin, its persalts.
14, Aluminum. 17, Antimony.
106 INDICATING TESTS FOR METALS.

To distinguish betwixt these metals, take a fresh

portion of the unknown solution, and add to it a few
drops of the solution of Red Prussiate of Potash.
A Yellow-Red precipitate indicates Zinc.
A White precipitate indicates Tin, protosalts.
Any other precipitate gives no useful indication.
Experiment 7–Take 8 drops of the unknown solu
tion, mix with it two drops of nitric acid, dip a slip of
white paper into this mixture, and expose it to an at
mosphere of Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gasſin the manner
related in Experiment 5]. The precipitate produced
will change the colour of the paper."
1 Where there are conveniences for ventilation, &c., it is a
more certain method of procedure, to pass a current of sulphu
retted hydrogen gas through the acidulated solution which is to
be tested. The apparatus best suited for that experiment is
described in the following quotation (slightly altered) from m
Treatise on Chemical Manipulation. See page 209, Edit. of 1838.
“CLARK's GAs Bottle.—The following apparatus is ex
tremely useful in preparing sulphuretted hydrogen gas, to be
Fº hydrogen gas, carbonic acid gas,
used in testing, or in
or any of those gases which do not require the application of
heat to the materials which yield them. I shall describe the
method of preparing sul
phuretted hydrogen gas,
as an example of the use
of this apparatus. a is a
glass bottle, six inches
high, and two inches wide;
c, a cork adjusted to the
neck of it; b, a round piece
of wood cemented to the
cork; d, a glass funnel
with a long and narrow
neck, passing through, and
cemented to the wood and
cork; e, is a bent tube,
nearly half an inch wide,
terminating in a spreading
mouth adapted to receive
a cork; f, is a narrow
glass tube, open at both
ends, and fixed into a cork
that suits the trumpet
mouth of the wide tube.
 INDICATING TESTS FOR METALS. 107

No precipitate indicates Aluminum.

A Black precipitate indicates Lead.
A Yellow precipitate indicates Persalts of Tin.
An Orange precipitate indicates Antimony.
Experiment 8.—The Black precipitate produced by
potash indicates
No. 18, Mercury, its protosalts,
Sometimes, however, potash produces a slight black
All the parts of the apparatus, therefore, hang together by the
wooden block b.
“Lumps of fused sulphuret of iron are put into the bottle, a,
and water is added till it rises about an inch and a-half in the
bottle. The cork, c, with its appurtenances, is then fixed in its
place; muriatic acid is poured little by little down the funnel di
upon which sulphuretted hydrogen gas is soon produced and
expelled from the mouth of the tube f. The muriatic acid is
added by degrees, in order that the disengagement of the sul
phuretted hydrogen gas may not be too rapid. This gas ought
not to be disengaged more rapidly than it can be absorbed by the
solution into which it is passed, because it produces a poisonous
atmosphere, and a noisome odour, when it escapes into a room.
For this reason, the experiment should always be made in a
well .#place. As the general purpose of preparing sul
phuretted hydrogen gas is to pass it into a º to ascertain
what coloured precipitate it gives, the size and height of the
bottle is adapted to this object. The liquid to be acted upon
is put into a test glass as represented in the figure. The tube
fis made of such a length as to pass nearly to the bottom of the
test glass. The liquid in the bottle a rises in the tube d as high
as is equal to the i. of the tube f into the liquid in the glass
g. But no inconvenience arises from this, and if the proportions
of the parts of this apparatus are properly observed, and the
materials properly mixed, there is never any violent efferves
cence, nor absorption, nor other accident produced, to interrupt
the experiment in progress.
“When the operation is over, and no more gas is required for
a time, the cork c is removed from the bottle a, the liquid is
thrown out, but not the solid sulphuret of iron; the latter is
rinsed with water, which is thrown away; and then the bottle
is filled up with clean water, the cork is put in its place, and
the apparatus is set aside till the gas is again in request.
{4 | the gas produced in such a bottle is to be collected,
as gas, in cylinders, then the straight tube fis replaced by a bent
tube h of any suitable length and curvature.”
108 INDICATING TESTS FOR METALS.

precipitate with Gold. These black precipitates can

be discriminated thus:–
To a fresh portion of the unknown solution, add a
few drops of Red Prussiate of Potash.
A Red-Brown precipitate indicates Mercury.
No precipitate indicates Gold.
Experiment 9.—The Blue precipitates produced by
potash indicate No. 19, Cobalt, and
20, Copper.
These two metals are discriminated 1 as follows:–
Pour both the solution and the precipitate into a
small flask, or a test tube,” and boil the mixture over
the spirit lamp till the precipitate changes colour.
1 Most solutions of cobalt have a red colour. Those of copper
are blue or green.
2 The annexed figure represents a tube-holder, an instrument
by which a tube or small flask, can be readily supported over a
spirit lamp flame, when a solution is to be boiled.
^
 INDICATING TESTS FOR METALS. 109

If it turns Red, the metal is Cobalt.

If it turns Black, it is Copper.
Experiment 10.—The Green precipitates produced
by potash indicate three metals, namely:
No. 21, Nickel.
22, Chromium, and
23, Iron, mixtures of persalts with protosalts.
You discriminate these three metals as follows:–
To a fresh portion of the unknown solution, add a
few drops of a solution of Red Prussiate of Potash.
A Yellow-Green precipitate indicates Nickel.
No precipitate indicates Chromium.
A Light-Blue precipitate indicates Iron.
Experiment 11.—The Yellow precipitates produced
by potash indicate two metals, namely:—
No. 24, Mercury, persalts.
25, Gold.
These are discriminated thus:–
To a fresh portion of the solution add a few drops of
a solution of Red Prussiate of Potash.
A Yellow-Red precipitate indicates Mercury.
No precipitate indicates Gold.
No precipitate however also indicates the
Perchloride of Mercury.
The discrimination of Perchloride of Mercury from
Gold, I shall show you how to effect, when I come to
speak of the confirming tests.
Erperiment 12.—The Brown precipitates produced
by potash indicate two metals.
No. 26, Iron, persalts.
27, Silver.
These you discriminate as follows:–To a fresh portion
of the solution, add a few drops of a solution of Red
Prussiate of Potash.
No precipitate indicates Persalts of Iron.
A Brown precipitate indicates Silver.
R.
110 INDICATING TESTS FOR ACIDS.

Thus far we have considered the reactions of the

Precipitants which indicate the metals or BASEs of the
salts we are examining. I proceed next to specify the
reactions of the Precipitants which indicate their
ACIDS.
-

B. TESTING FOR ACIDS.

The number of Indicating Precipitants for Acids is

four. Their names are—

1, Chloride of Barium.1 ! 3, Nitrate of Lead.

2, Nitrate of Silver. 4, Chloride of Calcium.
These you have all ready in solution, and you are to
apply them in small quantities of 4 or 5 drops at a
time, to similar small quantities of the unknown solu
tion contained in separate test glasses, in the same
manner as you applied the indicating precipitants for
the metals.
The results of the testing you will carefully mark
down upon the AssAY NOTE as you proceed.
Experiment 13.—First of all, you take in a test glass
a few drops of the unknown solution, and add to it a
few drops of the solution of Chloride of Barium.
You will observe one of three results, to wit—
No Precipitate.
A White Precipitate.
A Yellow Precipitate.
Experiment 14.—The salts which give no precipitate
with Chloride of Barium, are of six kinds, namely:
No. 1, Nitrates. No. 4, Iodides.
2, Chlorates. 5, Arsenites.
3, Chlorides. 6, Sulphurets.

* If Silver, Mercury, or Lead be among the bases, Nitrate of

Barytes must be used instead of Chloride of Barium,
 INDICATING TESTS FOR ACIDS. 111

To discriminate these from one another, you take a

fresh portion of the solution, and test it with the solu
tion of Nitrate of Silver.
No precipitate indicates Nitrates and Chlorates.
A White precipitate indicates Chlorides.
A Black precipitate indicates Sulphurets.
Any other precipitate is to be disregarded.
The Indicating Tests can give you no farther informa
tion conducive to the discrimination of Nitrates from
Chlorates. I shall hereafter show you how to effect
this discrimination by means of confirming tests.
Paperiment 15.—The Iodides and Arsenites are to
be discriminated thus:–You test a fresh portion of the
solution with a few drops of a solution of Nitrate of
Lead, and notice the colour of the precipitate:—
Yellow indicates Iodides.
White indicates Arsenites.

Experiment 16–The salts which give a white pre

cipitate with Chloride of Barium, are of seven kinds,
namely:
No. 7, Fluorides. No. 11, Oxalates.
8, Phosphates. 12, Carbonates.
9, Arseniates. 13, Sulphates.
10, Borates.
To proceed in the discrimination of these seven
classes of salts from one another, you are to mix the
solution which contains the white precipitate with a
few drops, or not more than its own bulk, of Nitric Acid,
and to stir up the mixture with a glass rod. This pro
cess separates the white precipitates into three classes,
to wit:—
Those which dissolve in nitric acid without efferves
Cé??ce.
Those which dissolve in nitric acid with effervescence.
Those which do not dissolve in nitric acid.

Experiment 17–The white precipitates which are

produced by chloride of barium, and which dissolve in
nitric acid without effervescence, and are accordingly
112 INDICATING TESTS FOR ACIDS.

denoted in your Assay NoTE—by P white S–indicate

five salts, namely:—
Fluorides. Borates.
Phosphates. Oxalates.
Arseniates.
To distinguish these from one another you are to
test a fresh portion of the solution with Nitrate of Silver.
No precipitate indicates Fluorides.
A Yellow precipitate indicates Phosphates.
A Brown precipitate indicates Arseniates.
Any other precipitate is to be disregarded.
Experiment 18.—Take in an ounce conical test glass
two drops of the unknown solution, and add one drop
of the solution of Chloride of Calcium. You will see a
white precipitate, let whatever will be present. Now
by means of the water bottle, page 31, slowly add dis
tilled water to the mixture under continual stirring, till
the precipitate dissolves, or till the test glass becomes
nearly full.
If the precipitate is soluble, the salt is a Borate.
If it is insoluble, the salt is an Oxalate.
The white precipitates which are produced by Chlo
ride of Barium, and which dissolve in nitric acid with
effervescence, and are accordingly denoted in your
ASSAY NOTE–by P white S eff—indicate Carbonates.
The white precipitates which are produced by Chlo
ride of Barium, and which do not dissolve in nitric acid,
indicate Sulphates.
The yellow precipitates which are produced by Chlo
ride of Barium indicate
No. 14, Chromates. *
sº are the reactions of the indicating
aC101S.
tests for

I shall now present you with a synoptical view of

these Indicating Tests, arranged in two separate
TABLEs, one of them showing the precipitants for
Metals, the other the precipitants for Acids.
 INDICATING TESTS FOR METALS. 113

INDICATING PRECIPITANTS FOR METALS IN SALTS.

Solutions to be Neutral. Solutions

to be Acid.

* . . ‘E; -
#5
9 ºſ) .
*...*.*.*
ndicated. :
#| || -- *** #§
§ 3 #=
None 1 Potassium.
None 2 Sodium.
None 3 Ammonium.

None 4 Barium.
None 5 Strontium.
None 6 Calcium.

White £3. 3. Brown 7 Manganese.

White #3; Blue 8 Iron, protosalts.
White că ş |None 9 Magnesium.
White = #: Yellow| 10 Cadmium.
White *.5.5 Black | 11 Bismuth.
White a 4 Yellow-Red 12 Zinc.
White #3; # | White 13 Tin, protosalts.
White #3; None | 14 Aluminum.
White E3 & Black | 15 Lead.
White
White ºf $ •r-
5 Yellow|
Orange 16 Tin, persalts.
17 Antimony.

Black, Red-Brown 18 Mercury, its

See Gold, No. 25. protosalts.
Blue, 19 Cobalt.
lf boiled, Red.
Blue, 20 Copper.
If boiled, Black.

Green Yellow-Green 2. Nickel.

Green * None 22 Chromium.
Green Light-Blue 23 Iron, persalts &
- protosalts mixed.
Yellow, Yellow-Red, 24 Mercury, its
But none from persalts.
- the Perchloride.
Yellow, None 25 Gold.
sometimes slight
and Black.

Brown None 26 Iron, persalts.

Brown Brown 27 Silver.

K 2
114 INDICATING TESTS FOR ACIDS.

INDICATING PRECIPITANTS FOR ACIDS IN SALTS.

nitrate Nitrate Chloride

Nitrate of Barytes, of o of s.ALTs
or Chloride of Barium. Silver, I Lead. Calcium. Indicated.

None None 1 Nitrates.

None None 2 Chlorates.
None White 3 Chlorides.
None Yellow 4 Iodides.
None White 5 Arsenites.
None Black 6 Sulphurets.
White None 7 Fluorides.
White |All 5 soluble in || Yellow 8 Phosphates.
White Nitric Acid, Brown 9 Arseniates.
White without White, 10 Borates.
Effervescence. Sol. in water.
White White, 11 Oxalates.
Insol.in water.

White Soluble in Acids 12 Carbonates.

with Effervesc.

White Insol. in Acids. 13 Sulphates.

Yellow 14 Chromates.

Before proceeding farther, I request you to compare

these TABLEs with your Assay NoTEs, and to draw
conclusions, from the results of your experiments, in
regard to the nature of the substance which you have
had to examine.
First, as to the METALs—suppose your ASSAY NOTE
to read thus:–

| Carbonateſof Soda, . P.

Ammonia, - - - - P.

Potash, . º - - - P. Brown.

Red Prussiate of Potash, P. Brown.

Sulphuretted Hydrogen,
 EXAMINATION OF ASSAY NOTES. 115

The interpretation must be as follows:–

Carbonate of Soda = P., shows that the metal is
not one of the three first of those on the list of com
ponents given at page 94.
Ammonia = P., shows that the metal is not one of
those from No. 4 to No. 6 in that list.
Potash = P. brown, shows that the metal is either
Iron, No. 26, or Silver, No. 27. See Exp. 12, p. 109.
Red Prussiate of Potash = P. brown, shows finally
that the metal is Silver.

Next, as to the ACIDS—let your Assay NoTE read thus:

Chloride of Barium, . P. white, sol.

Nitrate of Silver, . . . 0.

Nitrate of Lead, . .

Chloride of Calcium, .

Chloride of Barium = P. white, sol,—shows the salt

to be one of those from No. 7 to No. 11, in the list of
salts given at page 94.
Nitrate of Silver = 0, shows it to be a Fluoride."
| To Teachers.-At this point, the teacher may either collect
the Assay NoTEs, and revise what has been done, or he may go
on with the Confirming Tests, and leave the Assay NoTEs with
the pupils, until the testing is entirely finished.
The manner of teaching the methods of applying the Con
firming Tests must be regulated by the number of persons to be
taught, and the quantity of time and apparatus at command.
All the students may go through the whole series of experi
ments, or each of them may be instructed to perform only those
particular experiments which relate to the Metal and Acid in
dicated by his Assay NoTE.
 116
CONFIRMING TEST.S.

When you have applied the set of Indicating Tests,

and imagine that you have detected both the base and
the acid of your salt, it is proper to make use of the con
firming tests, in order to convince yourself that there is
no mistake.
These tests also are unavoidably necessary whenever
you have to do with a nitrate, a chlorate, an alcali, or
an alcaline earth—all of which compounds are left un
discriminated by the indicating tests which we have
employed.
To guard against the possibility of error, the rule is
good, to test the unknown substance, or its solution in
water, with as many different precipitants, or by as
many different experiments, as you can conveniently
employ—paying especial attention to the action of such
tests as serve to distinguish the particular elements of
your compound from such other elements as most nearly
resemble them.
The set of confirming tests that I am about to give
you, applies only to simple soluble salts, not to mixtures
of salts, nor to impure salts, nor to salts that are insol
uble in water, or that contain other metals or acids than
those that were enumerated at the beginning of these
Instructions (page 94).
Finally, these Confirming Tests presuppose the use
of the Indicating Tests. They are consequently confirm
ing only when taken in conjunction with the reactions
of the Indicating Tests. The reason of this is, that all
the characteristics necessary to fix the identity of the dif
ferent acids and bases, are, for the sake of brevity, not
brought into this section; but only so many as were
necessary to accomplish the particular end in view,
namely, that of discriminating the substances contained
in the limiting Table given at the beginning of these
Instructions. (See page 95.)
Consequently, you are always to begin an analysis
with the Indicating Tests, and conclude it with the
Confirming Tests.
 117

A.—CONFIRMING TESTS FOR METALS.

PoTASSIUM, SODIUM, AMMONIUM.–See Experiment

1, page 103.
Take a porcelain cup of
this size. Mix in it a test
spoonful of the dry salt,
with a test spoonful of car
bonate of soda, and a few
drops of water. Support it
over a spirit lamp and apply
heat. . If the odour of Ammonia is produced, the salt
contains Ammonium.
2. Take a bit of the salt as large as a pin's head,
fix it on the end of a platinum blowpipe wire, of this
size, and hold
it in a small Cº.
blue flame pro
duced by a reduced gas or spirit lamp flame, or else
hold it before the blowpipe oxidating flame, in this
manner:—

If a strong yellow flame is formed round the assay,

c, d, the salt contains Sodium. If a violet colour or no
colour is given to the flame, the salt contains Potassivm.
You will observe that I suppose, throughout, that the
salts under analysis are in a state of purity... The
tests which I direct to be applied are not qualified to
act upon mixtures of salts in the same manner as upon
simple salts. Thus, for example, if a salt of Potassium,
is mixed with a salt of Sodium, the mixture submitted
to the last experiment, gives only the character of
Sodium, even if the mixture contains three hundred
parts of Potassium to one part of Sodium. The per
son, therefore, who provides you with the salts that are
118 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR METALS.

to be analysed, and with the tests that are to be applied to

them, must guard against any source of error of that
description.
But since the presence of sodium in salts of potas
sium is very common and very difficult to avoid, it is
proper to apply the following direct test for Potassium,
in every analysis you make of an alcaline salt, whether
it gives the yellow flame of soda or not.
3. Add to a concentrated solution of the salt,
a drop of a solution of CHLORIDE OF PLATINUM
in spirit of wine. -

A yellow precipitate indicates Potassium.

No precipitate indicates Sodium.
BARIUM, STRONTIUM, CALCIUM.–See Experiment
2, page 103.
These three metals are most readily discriminated
by the conjoint action of solutions of YELLow CHROM
ATE OF POTASH and BICHROMATE OF POTASH.
4. To a few drops of the concentrated solution of
the unknown salt, add a few drops of a solution of
BICHROMATE OF POTASH.
If you get a precipitate, the metal is Barium.
5. If you get no precipitate, test another portion of
the concentrated solution of the unknown salt with a
few drops of a solution of YELLOW CHROMATE OF
POTASH. -

If you get a precipitate, the metal is Strontium.

If you get no precipitate, the metal is Calcium.
Action of the two Chromates of Potash, with concen
trated solutions of the Alcaline Earths.

- Yellow
Metals under Bichromate
- -- Chromate
Examination. of Potash. of Potash.

Barium. . Precip. Precip.

Strontium. O Precip.
Calcium. O O
 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR METALS. 119

These reactions do not, however, take place with

distinctness in dilute solutions of these metals.
6. Take a bit of the solid salt in the platinum blow
pipe tongs, moisten it with water, and dip it into the

upper part of the blowpipe flame, in this manner,

where c represents the points of the tongs, and b the
point of the blowpipe:—

If it gives a pale green colour to the upper part of

the flame, as at d, it is Barium.
If it gives a red colour to the flame, it is Strontium
or Calcium.
The last two metals are distinguished as follows:—
7. To a solution of the salt, add a solution of SUL
PHATE of LIME, prepared by boiling precipitated Sul
phate of Lime in water.
If it gives a precipitate, the metal is Strontium.
If not, the metal is Calcium.

MANGANESE.-See Experiment 4, page 105.

8. Take a platinum blowpipe foil, mix on it a bit of
the dry salt with a test spoonful of dry CARBONATE OF
Soda and fuse the mixture before the blowpipe. The
melted mass acquires a green colour.
9. Make a bead of Borax on the platinum wire be
fore the blowpipe, and melt in it a little of the dry salt.
I20 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR METALS.

Use the outer blowpipe flame. See Experiment 31.

The bead acquires an amethyst colour.
IRON.—See Experiments 4, 10, and 12, pages 105
and 109.
10. Add a few drops of a solution of YELLow PRUs
sIATE of PotAsH to a solution that contains a salt of
27°O77. -

A white precipitate indicates a Protosalt of Iron.

A dark blue precipitate indicates a Persalt of Iron.
A pale blue precipitate indicates a mixture of the two
species.
11. Expose a solution of a Protosalt of Iron to a
current or to an atmosphere of SULPHURETTED HY
DROGEN GAs, See pages 105 and 106. It gives no pre
cipitate. -
12. Add to the solution of the Protosalt of Iron as
much AMMONIA as gives it a strong smell of Ammonia,
and again expose it to the atmosphere of SULPHURET
TED HYDROGEN GAs. A black precipitate is produced.
13. Treat in the same manner a solution of a Persalt
of Iron. Without Ammonia, it gives a white precipi
tate; and with Ammonia, a black precipitate.
MAGNESIUM.–See Experiment 4, page 105.
ALUMINUM.–See Experiment 7, page 107.
ZINC.—See Experiment 6, page 106.
14. Mix a test spoonful of the salt with a little water,
spread it on charcoal in a flat cake of this size,
and ignite it before the blowpipe. Then mois- O
ten the ignited salt with a drop of a strong
solution of nitrate of cobalt, and again heat it before
the blowpipe to redness. When it is cold, examine
the change of colour produced:—
A salt which acquires a flesh red colour from this
treatment, contains Magnesium.
If its colour is blue, the salt contains Aluminum.
If it is green, the salt contains Zinc.
These colours are best examined by day-light.
 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR METALS. 121

CADMIUM.—See Experiment 5, page 105. -

15. Mix half a test spoonful of the salt with as much

CARBONATE OF SODA, and heat it on charcoal in
the inner (reducing) flame of the blowpipe.
A Brown powder will appear
round the assay, upon the charcoal.
[The figure shows the method of
exposing a substance on charcoal to
the flame of the blowpipe. a, is the
blowpipe lamp, b, the blowpipe, c,
the assay upon a round disc of
charcoal held by a bent slip of tin
plate.]
BISMUTH.—See Experiment 5, page 105.
16. Treat the salt in the same way as the salt of
Cadmium, in Experiment 15.
A yellow powder is perceived on the charcoal, with a
metallic bead in the centre of it.
Wrap the bead of metal in paper and give it a stroke
with a hammer. You will find it to be brittle. See
Experiment 19, page 122.
ZINC.—See Experiment 6, page 106.
17. I spoke of this metal in connection with Mag
nesium, Experiment 14.
TIN.—See Experiments 6 and 7, page 106.
18. Mix a solution of a ProtoSalt of Tin with a few
drops of a solution of CHLORIDE OF GOLD. A purple
precipitate appears.
19. Mix a small bit, not larger than a pin's head, of
a dry salt of tin, either containing the protocide or the
peroxide, with a test spoonful of dry CARBONATE OF
SoDA and half that quantity of BoFAx. Place the mix
ture on charcoal and heat it strongly and for some
time in the inner blowpipe flame, till the metal of the
salt is reduced. See Experiment 31.
You will obtain a bright white metallic bead, which
flattens when struck with the hammer. The mallea
L
122 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR METALS.

bility of beads of this metal, distinguish them from

beads of Bismuth produced in similar experiments.
(Exp. 16.) Their brilliancy distinguish them from Lead.
ALUMINUM.–See Experiment 7, page 107.
20. I spoke of this metal in connection with Mag
nesium. See Experiment 14.
LEAD.—See Experiment 7, page 107.
21. Mix half a test spoonful of the dry salt with a
test spoonful of dry CARBONATE OF SODA, place the
mixture on charcoal and heat it in the inner blowpipe
flame, till the metal is reduced.
You will obtain beads of METALLIC LEAD and the
charcoal acquires a coating of yellow powder.
These beads differ from those of Tin by being con
vertible into a volatile oxide, and from those of Bis
muth by being malleable and not brittle.
22. Mix a drop of a solution of lead with a test glass
full of water, and add a few drops of SULPHURIC ACID.
You will obtain a white precipitate.
ANTIMONY.—See Experiment 7, page 107.
23. Mix half a test spoonful of the dry salt with a
test spoonful of dry CARBONATE OF SODA, and ignite the
mixture on charcoal in the inner blowpipe flame till
the metal is reduced.
You will obtain globules of metal from which a thick
white smoke will rise.
If a melted bead of antimony is thrown on the
ground, it divides into several globules which produce
a thick white smoke (oxide of antimony).
MERCURy.—See Experiment 8, page 107.
24. Mix half a test spoonful of the dry salt with a test
spoonful of dry CARBONATE OF SODA, Put the mixture
into a little glass tube and heat it over the spirit lamp.
ſ
º
D)
 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR METALS. 123

. You will soon see metallic mercury condensed upon

the upper part of the tube.
25. Mix a solution of a salt of Mercury with a few
drops of AMMONIA.
A black precipitate indicates a Protosalt of Mercury.
A white precipitate indicates a Persalt of Mercury.
CoEALT.—See Experiment 9, page 108.
26. Make a glass bead with borax on a platinum
wire before the blowpipe. To this add a bit of the salt
of cobalt, much smaller than a pin's head and melt it
into the bead.
The glass acquires a dark blue colour, both in the
outer and inner flame.
27. Mix a few drops of a solution of cobalt with a
solution of RED PRUSSIATE OF POTASH.
You get a brownish-red precipitate.
CoPPER.—See Experiment 9, page 108.
28. Mix a few drops of a solution of copper with a
solution of RED PRUSSIATE OF POTASH.
The precipitate is yellowish-green.
29. Mix the solution of copper with a very small
quantity of AMMONIA.
You get a greenish precipitate, which dissolves in a
larger quantity of ammonia, and produces a splendid
blue solution.
30. Mix the solution of Copper with a solution of
YELLOW PRUSSIATE OF POTASH.
The precipitate is reddish brown.
31. Melt a small quantity of the dry salt in a borax
bead before the blowpipe. - -

In the outer flame, it gives a transparent green glass."

1 The following figure shows the method of exposing a sub
stance to the outer or oxidating flame of the blowpipe.

Hº
b
124 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR METALS.

In the inner flame, it gives an opaque brown glass. 1

NICKEL.—See Experiment 10, page 109.
32. Mix the solution of Nickel with a very small
quantity of AMMONIA.
You get a greenish precipitate which dissolves in a
larger quantity of Ammonia, and gives a violet coloured
solution.
33. Mix the solution of Nickel with a solution of
YELLOW PRUSSIATE OF POTASH.
The precipitate is pale green.
CHROMIUM.–See Experiment 10, page 109.
34. Melt a little of the dry salt of oxide of Chro
mium in a borax bead before the blowpipe.
It gives a transparent green glass, both in the inner
flame and outer flame.
35. Mix the solution of oxide of Chromium with a
few drops of AMMONIA.
The colour of the precipitate is grey, by candle-light
violet.
36. Mix the solution of oxide of Chromium with
YELLOW PRUSSIATE OF POTASH.
There is no precipitate.
GOLD.—See Experiments 8 and 11, pages 107, 109.
37. Mix the solution of Gold with a solution of
PROTOSULPHATE OF IRON.

| The following figure exhibits a bead exposed to the inner or

reducing blowpipe flame.
 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR ACIDS. 125

A dark brown precipitate of metallic gold is produced.

38. Mix the solution of Gold with a solution of YEL
Low PRUSSIATE OF POTASH.
The solution acquires an emerald green colour.
39. Mix the solution of Gold with a solution of
PROTOCHLORIDE OF TIN.
A purple precipitate is produced.
SILVER.—See Experiment 12, page 109.
40. Mix a diluted solution of Silver, with a few drops
of MURIATIC ACID, or of a solution of ANY CHLoRIDE.
You will get a white precipitate.
If you add AMMONLA to the mixture, the precipitate
dissolves.
If you add NITRIC ACID to the mixture, the precipi
tate remains undissolved.
41. Mix the dry salt of Silver with dry CARBONATE
OF SODA, and ignite the mixture on charcoal before
the blowpipe.
Pright metallic silver appears on the charcoal.

B.—CONFIRMING TESTS FOR ACIDS.

NITRATES.—See Experiment 14, page 110.

42. Take a porcelain cup, and a test spoonful of the
Nitrate. Prepare a solution. Add a few drops of sul
phuric acid. Place a crystal
of green sulphate of iron in
the middle of the solution.
Support the cup over the spirit
lamp, and apply heat. You
will see a dark brown colour -

produced near the crystals. Shake the cup. The

brown colour spreads through the whole liquor.
43. Mix the dry Nitrate with dry Bisulphate of Pot
ash, a test spoonful of each. Put the mixture into a
large test tube, and heat it over the spirit lamp.
You will observe the tube to be filled with dark yel
L2
126 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR ACIDS.

low gas. This experiment serves to distinguish Nit

rates from Chlorates.
44. Put the dry Nitrate into a large Test tube.
Add Muriatic Acid. Apply heat.
White vapours of Nitric Acid are expelled. They
redden litmus paper.

CHLORATES.–See Experiment 14, page 110.

45. Put the dry Chlorate into a large test tube.
Add Muriatic Acid. Apply heat.
A yellowish green gas is expelled, having a very
pungent odour.
46. Take a small test tube. Put into it a test spoon
ful of the dry Chlorate. Apply heat. The salt melts
and oxygen gas soon after issues from the tube. In
flame a bit of wood. Blow out the light, and hold the
glimmering match to the mouth of the tube. The
oxygen gas re-illumes the match. This experiment
does not distinguish Chlorates from Nitrates.
47. Take a bit of thin brass wire. Make a coil
at the end of it, and
E. melt into the coil a
crystal of microcosmic salt. Hold the coil over a small
flame till the salt ceases to effervesce, and the wire
becomes red hot. Now press the hot bead upon a bit
of the dry Chlorate, not larger than a pin's head.
Reduce the flame of your lamp as low as you can with
out extinguishing it—so low as to leave only a small
blue flame. Hold the coil with the Chlorate upon it,
so that it shall just touch the top of the reduced flame.
Thereupon a bright blue flame surrounds the subject of
experiment. This experiment completely distinguishes
Chlorates from Nitrates.
All substances that contain CHLORINE give this blue
flame, and all substances that contain IoDINE, treated
in the same way, give a splendid green flame.
CHLORIDEs—See Experiment 14, page 110.
. I have spoken already, Experiment 39, of the detec
tion of Silver by solutions of CHLORIDEs. The opera
 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR ACIDS. 127

tion of detecting Chlorides by solutions of SILVER, is the

Saline,

The method of detecting Chlorine by means of mic

rocosmic salt and a brass wire, explained already, in
treating of CHLORATES, Experiment:47, is equally appli
cable to CHLORIDES.
48. Mix the dry salt with concentrated Sulphuric
Acid in a large test tube, and apply heat.
White vapours of Muriatic Acid are formed. Hold a
glass rod moistened with Ammonia at the mouth of
the tube. A thick white smoke is produced.
49. Take a test tube. Mix in it a test spoonful of
the dry salt with a few drops of concentrated Sulphuric
Acid and a test spoonful of Perovide of Manganese.
Apply heat.
In this case Chlorine gas is disengaged. It has a
green colour and suffocating odour.
IODIDES.—See Experiment 15, page 111.
50. Take a large test tube. Put into it a test spoon
ful of the dry salt mixed with an equal quantity of dry
BISULPHATE of PotASH. Apply Heat.
You will see Violet Vapours of iodine in the tube.
The method of detecting IoDINE by means of a brass
wire, I have explained in speaking of the CHLoRATEs,
Exp. 47.
51. Mix a few drops of the Solution of the Iodide with
a few drops of NITRIC ACID and add a small quantity of
STARCH PASTE prepared with hot water, or else use a
white cotton thread impregnated with starch.
A blue colour is produced. The thread turns blue.
52. Pour the Solution of the Iodide in which the Indi
cating Test NITRATE OF LEAD, Experiment 15, page 111,
has formed a yellow precipitate, into a test tube, and
boil it with the precipitate.
When the solution cools, brilliant flat golden-yellow
crystals appear in it.
ARSENITEs.-See Experiment 15, page 111.
53. Mix the solution of the Arsenite with a solution of
SULPHATE OF COPPER,
128 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR ACIDS.

A Green Precipitate is produced.

54. Mix the solution of the Arsenite with a solution
of NITRATE of SILVER, and a very small quantity of
AMMONIA.
A yellow precipitate is produced.
55. Mix the solution of the Arsenite with a drop or
two of Muriatic acid, and expose the mixture to a cur
rent or to an atmosphere of SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN
GAs, (See pages 105 and 106).
A yellow precipitate is produced.
56. Mix half a test spoonful of the dry salt with a
test spoonful of dry CARBONATE of SoDA. Heat the
mixture on Charcoal in the inner blowpipe flame.
After a short ignition, hold the charcoal under your
nose. You will perceive the odour of garlic, by which
metallic arsenic is specially characterised. Be cau
tious in smelling the vapour of arsenic, as it is poisonous.
SULPHURETS.–See Experiment 14, page 111.
57. Take a test tube. Mix in it a test spoonful of the
#. Sulphuret with a little Muriatic Acid. Apply
eat.
Effervescence is produced, and the odour of Sulphuret
ted Hydrogen Gas is perceived. A bit of white paper
moistened with a solution of Lead, and held at the
mouth of the tube, turns black.
58. Heat a test spoonful of the dry Sulphuret on
charcoal before the blowpipe.
; odour of SULPHUROUs ACID GAs will be per
Celveol.

FLUORIDES.—See Experiment 17, page 112.

59. Take a small test tube. Mix in it the Fluoride
with dry BISULPHATE of PotAsH, a test spoonful of each.
Put a slip of moistened Brazil wood test paper into the
upper end of the tube. Apply Heat.
Hydrofluoric acid will be disengaged by the mixture,
and will corrode the inside of the tube, and change the
red colour of the Brazil test paper to yellow.
Wash and dry the tube to render the corrosion
visible.
 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR ACIDS. 129

PhosphaTEs.-See Experiment 17, page 112.

60. Precipitate a few drops of the solution of the
Phosphate with a solution of ACETATE OF LEAD. Col
lect the white precipitate upon a filter. Wash it. Dry
it. Place it upon Charcoal and melt it in the outer
flame of the blowpipe.
When the bead cools, it will be of a dark colour,
opaque, and crystallised into numerous facets. By this
character the Phosphates are distinguished from the
Arseniates. See Experiment 63.
61. Mix a solution of the Phosphate with a solution
of SULPHATE of MAGNESIA, and add AMMONLA.
You will get a white precipitate.
ARSENIATEs.-See Experiment 17, page 112.
62. In speaking of the Arsenites, I have shewn in
what manner the Arsenic which they contain can be
detected before the blowpipe (See Experiment 56, page
128). The same experiment answers also with the
Arseniates.
The differences between the Arsenites and Arseni
ates is best shown by the Indicating Tests, CHLORIDE
OF BARIUM, Experiment 14, page 110, and NITRATE OF
SILVER, Experiment 17, page 112.
The difference between the Arseniates and Phos
phates, which agree in many respects, is shewn by the
Indicating Test, NITRATE of SILVER, Experiment 17,
page 112.
It is also exhibited in an experiment which I shall
now give you.
63. Precipitate a solution of the Arseniate by a
solution of ACETATE OF LEAD. Collect the white pre
cipitate on a filter. Wash it. Dry it. Ignite it on
charcoal, in the outer flame of the blowpipe.
When the bead cools, it will not be found crystallised
into facets, as is the case with the precipitated phos
phate of Lead.
64. Again, heat the fused bead of Arseniate of Lead in
the inner flame of the blowpipe.
You will perceive a thick smoke possessing the odour
130 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR ACIDS.

of Arsenic, and you will get beads of metallic lead.

These effects are not produced by phosphate of lead.
BoFATES.–See Experiment 18, page 112.
65. Take a large test tube. Mix in it a concentrated
solution of the Borate, with some SULPHURIC ACID.
Boil the mixture, and let it cool.
You will perceive flat shining crystals of Boracic
Acid.
66. Pour off the liquid. Wash the crystals from
sulphuric acid with a little cold water. Repeat the
washing several times. Then boil the crystals with
water in a test tube. Test the solution with Litmus
paper and Turmeric paper.
The blue litmus is turned Red.
The yellow turmeric is turned Brown.
67. Take a porcelain cap. Mix the solution of the
Boracic Acid, or else a test spoonful of the solid Borate
moistened with sulphuric acid, with a few drops of
alcohol. Inflame the mixture. …ºf

You will see a green flame.

OxALATES.–See Experiment 18, page 112.
68. Take a large test tube. Put into it three test
spoonfuls of the dry oxalate. --Add a few drops of
concentrated sulphuric acid. Apply a moderate heat.
Effervescence takes place. The gas that escapes is
a mixture of carbonic acid and carbonic oxide.
Apply a light to the mouth of the tube. The car
bonic oxide burns with a blue flame.
69. Mix the solution of the oxalate, with a solution
of SULPHATE OF LIME.
You will get a white precipitate.
CARBONATES.–See page 112.
70. Mix the dry Carbonate with a little water. Add
a few drops of MURIATIC ACID.
Effervescence takes place. The gas that escapes is
withowt odour.
 CONFIRMING TESTS FOR ACIDS. 131

SULPHATES.—See page 112.

71. Mix a test spoonful of the dry sulphate with as
much dry carbonate of soda. Place it on charcoal,
and heat it in the inner flame of the blowpipe. Lay
the fused mass on a piece of bright silver, and add to
it a drop of water. After a minute’s repose, wash the
mixture from the silver.
You will perceive a black mark on the silver.
This experiment distinguishes the SULPHATEs from
all other salts in our list except the SULPHURETs.
CHROMATES.—See page 112.
72. Take a large test tube. Mix in it a test spoon
ful of the dry Chromate, with the same quantity of
CHLORIDE of SODIUM, and a few drops of concentrated
SULPHURIC ACID. Apply heat.
Effervescence takes place, and the tube becomes filled
with a splendid red gas.
73. Take a large test tube. Mix in it a test spoonful
of the Chromate, with a few drops of muriatic acid, and
a few drops of alcohol, and boil the mixture over the
spirit lamp.
The boiling liquor gives off muriatic ether, and the
colour of it becomes green.
74. Before the blowpipe, the salts of chromic acid
give the same results as the salts of oxide of chromium.
See Experiment 34, page 124.
-

To Teachers.--Where Chemistry is taught only in Lectures,

because no conveniences exist for teaching Practical Chemistry,
it is an excellent practice for the teacher to give his pupils spe
cimens of salts, such as are enumerated at page 95, to be
analysed at their own houses. This method is practised at the
German Universities with much success. The students apply
themselves to these minute analyses with great zeal, and rapidly
acquire considerable analytical skill.
 CHEMICAL STATICS.

THE STATICS OF CHEMISTRY is that branch of the

science which considers the combining weights, and
atomic constitution, of the chemical elements and their
compounds.
I believe that the readiest and most effectual method
of bringing this subject within the comprehension of a
beginner, is with the help of a particular speculative
view of it which has received the name of the ATOMIC
THEORY. I shall endeavour briefly to explain this
theory, showing the reader as clearly as I can, how
much of it is matter of fact, and how much matter of
opinion; I shall next point out the means of applying
the theory, somewhat empirically, to purposes of prac
tical utility; and then I shall leave the reader to con
sult more extensive and more able works for historical
and critical details regarding the merits and defects of
this and all other theories intended, and more or less
 DALTON's ATOMIC THEORY. 133

adapted, to elucidate the mysteries of Chemical Sta

tics. ... This volume embraces too many experimental
details, and is of too limited an extent, to admit of
any lengthened discussions on topics purely specula
tive. I shall, consequently, treat this subject somewhat
dogmatically, and, without offering a single argument,
either to prove the existence of atoms, or to disprove the
doctrine of the infinite divisibility of matter, I shall
make use of the word ATOM, wherever it offers a con
venient means of conveying useful information.

DALTON'S ATOMIC THEORY.

The following is an account of the Atomic THEORY,

in the words of its inventor, DR. JoHN DALTON :—
“ON CHEMICAL SYNTHESIS.–When any body exists in the
elastic state, its ultimate particles are separated from each other
to a much greater distance than in any other state; each par
ticle occupies the centre of a comparatively large sphere, and
supports its dignity by keeping all the rest, which, by their
gravity or otherwise, are disposed to encroach upon it, at a
respectable distance. When we attempt to conceive the number
of particles in an atmosphere, it is somewhat like attempting to
conceive the number of stars in the universe—we are confounded
at the thought. But if we limit the subject, by taking a given
volume of any gas, we seem persuaded that, let the divisions be
ever so minute, the number of particles must be finite; just as
in a given space of the universe, the number of stars and planets
cannot be infinite.
“Chemical analysis and synthesis go no farther than to the
separation of particles one from another, and to their re-union.
No new creation or destruction of matter is within the reach of
chemical agency. We might as well attempt to introduce a
new planet into the solar system, or to annihilate one already in
existence, as to create or destroy a particle of hydrogen. All
the changes we can produce, consist in separating particles that
are in a state of cohesion or combination, and joining those that
were previously at a distance.
“In all chemical investigations, it has justly been considered
an important object to ascertain the relative weights of the sim
les which constitute a compound. But, unfortunately, the
inquiry has terminated here; whereas, from the relative weights
M
134 DALTON's ATOMIG THEORY.

in the mass, the relative weights of the ultimate particles or

atoms of the bodies might have been inferred, from which their
number and weight in various other compounds would appear,
in order to assist and guide future investigations, and to correct
their results. Now, it is one great object of this work, to show
the importance and advantage of ascertaining the relative weights
of the ultimate particles, both of simple and compound bodies, the
number of simple and elementary particles which constitute one com
pound particle, and the number of less compound particles which
enter into the formation of one more compound particle.
“If there are two bodies, A and B, which are disposed to com
bine, the following is the order in which the combinations may
take place, beginning with the most simple, namely:
1 atom of A + 1 atom of B = 1 atom of C, binary.
1 atom of A + 2 atoms of B = 1 atom of D, ternary.
2 atoms of A + 1 atom of B = 1 atom of E, ternary.
1 atom of A + 3 atoms of B = 1 atom of F, quaternary.
3 atoms of A + 1 atom of B = 1 atom of G, quaternary.”
—From “A New System of Chemical Philosophy,” Part First,
by John DALTON. anchester, 1808.

The opinion which lies at the bottom of this theory

is, that in a given mass of matter, or a given volume of
gas, the number of particles is finite. This Dr. Dalton
assumes to be the case. There is, however, no proof of
it, and some other philosophers are not disposed to
agree with him. But if we have no proof of this fact,
we have ample evidence in support of another fact
which bears an intimate relation to this, namely, that
the chemical reactions of the elements are almost,
perhaps absolutely, in all cases, the same as they
might be expected to be, provided Dr. Dalton’s assump
tion were true. And this is the reason why the theory
has been so generally received, and why it is so ex
ceedingly useful, notwithstanding the hypothetical
ground upon which it stands.
We agree, then, upon the following points:–that
matter is composed of finite particles, or atoms, an
atom being an indivisible whole, or the smallest possible
particle of a substance. The existence of half atoms is
inadmissible, because the mind cannot form an idea of
a smaller particle than the smallest. But compound
atoms may exist, consisting of two or more ultimate
 ATOMIC. WEIGHTS OF THE ELEMENTS. 135

atoms combined together. Such are the chief princi

ples of the Atomic Theory. Let us now see their
application to practical chemistry.

ATOMIC. WEIGHTS OF THE EIFMENTS.

2-Al. Aluminum, 171.167|Mo. Molybdenum,598.520

3/2. b. Antimony, 806,452|Ni. Nickel, 369,675
†: As Arsenic, 470.042||N. Nitrogen, 88.518 /
º `" Ba. Barium, 856.880 Os. Osmium, 1244,487
4 & 1.3i. Bismuth, 886.920 |O. Oxygen, 100,000
B Boron, išč204|Få. Faïdium, 665.895
Br. Bromine, 489.153|P. Phosphorus, 196.143 * *
Cd. Cadmium, 696.767 | Pt. Platinum, 1233.499 -
--Ca. Calcium, 256.019 K. Potassium, 489,916
C. Carbon, 76435 Rh. Rhodium,” 65.337
Ce. Cerium, 574,796 | Se. Selenium, 494,583
Cl. Chlorine, 221.325|Si. Silicon, 277.312
Cr. Chromium, 351,815|Ag. Silver, 1351.607 –
– Co. Cobalt, 368,991 | Na. Sodium, 290,897
– Cu. Copper, 395.695 || Sr. Strontium, 547.285
F. Fluorine, 116.900|S. Sulphur, 201.165 –
G. Giuginum, 331361|Ta. Tañaum, 1153.7is
***Au. Goiá, 1243.013 | Te. Tellurium, 801.760
...5 H. Hydrogen, 6.2398|Th. Thorium, 744,900
I. Iodine, 789.750 | Sn. Tin, 735,296
Ir. Iridium, 1233.499 || Ti. Titanium, 303.662
Fe. Iron, 339.205 W. Tungsten, 1183,000
La. Lantanum, " ? W. Wanadium, 855.840
Pb. Lead, 1294.498 U. Uranium, 2711.358
L. Lithium, 80.375 || Y. Yttrium, 402.514
Mg. Magnesium, 158.353| Zn. Zinc, 403.226
Mn. Manganese, 345.887 Zr. Zirconium, 420,201
Hg. Mercury, 1265.822
By innumerable experiments, which it would be
impossible to adduce here, chemists have determined
the proportions by weight, in which the chemical
elements combine to produce compounds. The num
136 CONSTITUTION OF COMPOUNDS.

bers representing these proportions are given in the

preceding Table," and these numbers are held to repre
sent respectively the ATOMIC WEIGHTs of the different
elements: Thus, the number 100.000 placed against
Oxygen, represents the weight of an atom of Oxygen,
and 76.438, placed against Carbon, represents the
weight of an atom of Carbon; and so on for all the rest.”

CONSTITUTION OF COMPOUNDS.
Now, let us suppose it to be true, let us take it for
granted,—first, that the elements exist in the state of
atoms; and secondly, that the atoms have the relative
weights affixed to their names in the above Table :
it follows as a consequence, that compounds containing
these elements, must contain them in atomic proportions.
For example, Oxygen should be found in all com
pounds into which it enters, in the proportion of
100.000, Carbon in the proportion of 76.438, and Cal
cium in the proportion of 256.019. If compound bodies,
upon being analysed, are found to contain their elements
in such combining proportions, we have experimental
evidence in proof, to that extent, of the truth of the
theory. But if analysis gives different results, then the
theory will be disproved.
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE. CHALK.—The three ele
ments whose names I have just cited, are the compon
ents of the white mineral commonly known by the
name of chalk. If we take 632,457 parts by weight
of this compound, and heat it in a furnace, we decom
pose it into two other compounds, possessing together
the same weight, namely,
into 356,019 parts of Lime,
and 276,438 parts of Carbonic Acid gas,
together = 632,457 parts.
* The numbers given in the Table are those adopted by BER
zELIUS. See WöHLER’s “Grundriss der Chemie,” Berlin, 1840.
* It can be scarcely necessary to remark, that these numbers
represent relative, not absolute weights. They are proportional,
one to another, but indicate no absolute quantities.
 CONSTITUTION OF COMPOUNDS. 137

Again, by processes which I need not mention in this

theoretical discussion, it can be satisfactorily proved,
that 356.019 parts of Lime are composed of
256.019 parts of Calcium, and
100,000 parts of Oxygen,
together = 356,019 parts;
and that 276,438 parts of Carbonic Acid gas are com
posed of 76.438 parts of Carbon, and
200,000 parts of Oxygen,
together = 276,438 parts.
Upon comparing these experimental results, the
truth of which is incontestible, with the numbers con
tained in the above table of atomic weights, we come
to the following theoretical conclusions:—
That Lime contains . . .
- - 1 atom
1 atom of
of Calcium.
Oxygen.
- -

That Carbonic Acid contains

-

21 atoms
atom of Carbon.
of Oxygen.

That Chalk contains .

{ atom of Calcium.
1 atom of Carbon.
3 atoms of Oxygen.
So far, therefore, as this example goes, it justifies the
theory completely. Let us compare it with that sen
tence of Dr. Dalton’s account, which I have, according
to the original work, printed in italic, and which sen
tence comprises the essence of his Theory, relating to
points, the ascertainment of which, as he states, is of
importance and advantage to chemistry, -

a.) The relative weights of the witimate particles both

of the simple and compound bodies—
We have found these to be as follow :
Carbon = 76.438
Simple Bodies: Oxygen - 100.000
Calcium - 256.019
Carbonic Acid = 276.438
Compound Bodies {:
Chalk
– 356.019
- 632,457
M 2
138 CONSTITUTION OF COMPOUNDS.

b.) The number of simple elementary particles which

constitute one compound particle
We have found these to be:
11 atom
atom of
of Calcium,
Oxygen, }ºrming 1 atom of Lime.
***** -

1 atom of Carbon,
2 atoms of Oxygen, } forming 1 atom of Carbonic Acid.
vºn; - -

c.) The number of less compound particles which enter

into the formation of one more compound particle—
We have found these to be :
1 atom of Lime
1 atom of Carbonic Ada) forming 1 atom of Chalk or
Carbonate of Lime.
-

SECOND ExAMPLE. OXALIC ACID.

If 790.316 parts of crystallised Oxalic Acid are ex

posed for some time to dry air, they give off
224.96 parts of Water, and leave
565,356 parts of effloresced Oxalic Acid,
together = 790.316 parts.
On decomposing the 224.96 parts of Water, we obtain
24.96 parts of Hydrogen, and
200.00 parts of Oxygen,
together = 224.96 parts.
On decomposing the 565,356 parts of effloresced Oxalic
Acid, by means of fuming oil of vitriol, we produce
176.438 parts of Carbonic Oxide,
276.438 parts of Carbonic Acid, and
112.48 parts of Water,
together = 565,356 parts.
The composition of these three last products can be
proved experimentally to be as follows:–
 CONSTITUTION OF COMPOUNDS. 139

- :a,
176.438 Carbonic Oxide, ={ſ 100.000
76.438 Carbon.
Oxygen.
- 276.438 Carbonic Acid, ={ sº 5.º
112.48 Water.
-

={iº
_ $ 12.48 §.
Hydrogen.

If we compare these products with the numbers repre

senting the atomic weights of the several elements that
enter into the composition of the compound in question,
we are lead to the conclusion that 790.316 parts of
crystallised Oxalic Acid contain
2 atoms of Carbon = 76.438 × 2 = 152.876
6 atoms of Oxygen = 100,000 × 6 = 600,000
6 atoms of Hydrogen = 6.2398 × 6 = 37.44
together = 790.316
The same experiments lead also to the following con
clusions:—
That 176.438 parts of Carbonic Oxide contain
11 atom
atom of
of Carbon
Oxygen = }
76.438 N
= 100,000 176.438
- a. s. v.

That 276.438 parts of Carbonic Acid contain

21 atoms
atom of
of Oxygen
Carbon = }
76.438 N. 276.438
= 200,000 - - - v-

That 112.48 parts of Water contain

2 atoms of Hydrogen = 12.48
1 atom of Oxygen = 100,000
}=112.48

That 224.96 parts of Water contain

4 atoms of Hydrogen = 24.96 U.
2 atoms of Oxygen = 200,000 5T 224.96
And it would appear, from the circumstances of the
decomposition of the Oxalic Acid, that this compound
in its anhydrous state is composed of 1 atom of Car
bonic Acid united to 1 atom of Carbonic Oxide, or at
any rate of 2 atoms of Carbon and 3 atoms of Oxygen;
that this anhydrous Acid combines with 1 atom of
Water to produce the effloresced acid; and that the
effloresced acid combines with 2 atoms of Water to
produce the crystallised acid. [See page 142.]
140 CONSTITUTION OF COMPOUNDS.

THIRD EXAMPLE. SULPHATE OF LEAD.

a. When 201.165 parts of Sulphur are converted into

Sulphuric Acid by digestion with nitric acid, and the
solution is precipitated by a salt of lead, the resulting
Sulphate of Lead weighs 1895,663.
b. When 1294.498 parts of Lead are dissolved in
nitric acid, and the solution is precipitated by sulphuric
acid, the resulting Sulphate of Lead weighs 1895.663.
c. When 1495,663 parts of Sulphuret of Lead are
converted by an oxidating process into Sulphate of
Lead, the weight of the product is 1895.663.
d. When 1737.148 parts of Chloride of Lead are
dissolved in Water and precipitated by sulphuric acid,
the resulting Sulphate of Lead weighs 1895.663.
e. When 1494.498 parts of Brown Oxide of Lead are
exposed to an atmosphere of sulphurous acid gas, they
absorb 401.165 parts of that acid, and produce 1895.663
parts of Sulphate of Lead.
f. When 201.165 parts of Sulphur are burnt in
200,000 parts of Oxygen gas, the product is 401,165
parts of Sulphurous Acid gas.
g. When 1394.498 parts of Yellow Oxide of Lead
are dissolved in nitric acid and precipitated by sul
phuric acid, the product is Sulphate of Lead, weighing
1895,663 parts.
Upon comparing the weights recorded in these ex
periments with the atomic weights of the elements, we
come to the following conclusions:—
That 1895,663 parts of Sulphate of Lead contain
1 atom of Lead, (Exp. b.) = 1294.498
1 atom of Sulphur, (Exp. a.) = 201.165
(Exp. c. corroborates Exp. a. and b.)
4 atoms of Oxygen = 100,000 × 4 = 400,000
together = 1895.663
. The evidence of the presence of 4 atoms of Oxygen
in the Sulphate of Lead is contained in Exp. c, g, f,
and e. The difference in weight between the Sulphuret
 PROXIMATE AND ULTIMATE constituTION. 141

and the Sulphate is 400,000, Exp. c. The quantity of

Lead is always 1294.498. This quantity of Lead is
combined in Yellow Oxide of Lead, Exp. g, with
100.000 parts of Oxygen, which is 1 atom, or one-fourth
of the quantity requisite to make up the weight of the
Sulphate of Lead. It is, of course, taken for granted
here, that Sulphate of Lead contains nothing else than
Lead, Sulphur, and Oxygen. Again, the 1494.498
parts of Brown Oxide of Lead which, in Exp. e, pro
duce 1895.663 parts of Sulphate of Lead, contain
1294,498 parts of Lead, and 200,000 parts of Oxygen.
Then, Exp. f. shows that this quantity of Lead and
Lxygen requires for the production of the Sulphate of
Oead, as much sulphurous acid as contains 201.165
parts of Sulphur and 200,000 parts of Oxygen. Con
sequently, there is in all, 400,000 parts, or 4 atoms of
Oxygen employed.
The third Example gives us also the following infor
mation:—
That 1405,663 parts of Sulphuret of Lead contain
1 atom of Lead, = 1294,498
1 atom of Sulphur, = 201.165
That 1737.148 parts of Chloride of Lead contain
1 atom of Lead, = 1294.498
2 atoms of Chlorine = 221.325 × 2 = 442.65
That 1494.498 parts of Brown Oxide of Lead contain
1 atom of Lead, = 1294.498
2 atoms of Oxygen, = 200,000
That 1394.498 parts of Yellow Oxide of Lead contain
1 atom of Lead, = 1294.498
1 atom of Oxygen, = 200,000
That 401.165 parts of Sulphurous Acid contain
1 atom of Sulphur, - = 201.165
2 atoms of Oxygen, = 200,000

PROXIMATE AND ULTIMATE CONSTITUTION.

According to the ordinary view of the constitution of
the salts, the three elements which constitute Sulphate
of Lead, are combined among themselves as follows:—
142 ATOMIC. WEIGHTS OF COMPOUNDS.

form 1 atom of
1 atom of Read, Protoxide of Lead, form 1 atom
1 atom of Oxygen = 1394.498 of Sulphate
form 1 atom of of Lead,
º.º.º.)
3. . atoms of Oxygen siphuri. Acid,
501.165
isºgºs.
In accordance with this theoretical opinion, Protox
ide of Lead and Sulphuric Acid are called the PROXI
MATE constituents, and Lead, Sulphur, and Oxygen,
the ULTIMATE constituents, of Sulphate of Lead.
According to the same theoretical view, the proxi
mate constitution of crystallised Oxalic Acid, (page 139.)
is as follows:—
2 atoms of Carbon, = 152.876
3 atoms of Oxygen, = 300,000

1 atom Anhydrous Oxalic Acid, = 452,876

1 atom of combined Water, = 112.48

1 atom of Effloresced Oxalic Acid, = 565,356

2 atoms of Water of Crystallisation, – 224.96
1 atom of Crystallised Oxalic Acid = 790.316

I trust that these examples are sufficient to show in

what manner the ATOMIC. WEIGHTS can be used to
record the results of chemical experiments, and to
indicate the composition of chemical compounds. I do
not enter upon the question, whether those combining
quantities of the elements which we designate atomic
weights, are indivisible atoms, or divisible masses, of
matter. A thousand and one arguments could be
offered in support of either opinion; but it is needless.
It is sufficient for our present purpose to assume the
atomic theory to be correct, leaving the justice of that
assumption to be investigated afterwards by such stu
dents as may have a turn for metaphysical subtilties.
Before leaving this subject, however, let me add the
definition, that the ATOMic WEIGHT OF A CoMPOUND
 CHEMICAL SYMBOLS, 143

ãs the sum of the conjoint atomic weights of its constituents.

Of course, when compound bodies combine with one
another, the combination takes place in atomic pro
portions. Thus, the atomic weight of Lime is 356.019,
that of Carbonic Acid 276.438, and that of Carbonate
of Lime, which is assumed to contain the two former
compounds, is 356.019 + 276.438, or 632.457. The
atomic weight of Oxalic Acid in crystals is 790.316,
that of Sulphate of Lead is 1895.663, and so on.
In some chemical books, the atomic weights, both of
elements and compounds, are spoken of as combining
proportions, chemical equivalents, representative numbers,
proportionals, equivalent numbers, &c. These terms
are employed merely to avoid the use of the word atom:
they mean the same thing.
CHEMICAL SYMBOLS.
In the Table of the Atomic Weights of the Elements,
given at page 135, a symbol consisting of one or two
letters is prefixed to the name of every element. This
symbol is a short expression for AN ATOM of the element
that it indicates. Thus:
Al signifies 171.167 parts of Aluminum.
O — 100.000 parts of Oxygen.
S — 201.165 parts of Sulphur.
If you want to express two, three, or more atoms of
any element, you can do so by adding figures to that
effect. If you put the figure before the symbol, it must
be a large figure ; thus: 2Al. If you put the figure
after the symbol, it must be a small figure, printed
thus: Al” or thus: Al2. Printers call the former, 2,
a superior figure, the latter, 2, an inferior figure. In
general, the large figures are used only to multiply
several symbols at once, whereas a small figure
multiplies only the single symbol placed immediately
before it. 1
1 BERzelius uses superior figures. LIEBIG, and after him
GRAHAM, use inferior figures. I have adhered to the former
because they are neater and more distinct than the latter,
which hang down too much upon the line below them.
144 CHEMICAL SYMBOLS,

ExAMPLES.
I shall apply these symbols to the compound bodies
quoted between pages 136 and 142.
CaO = 1 atom of Lime – 356,019
CO2 = 1 atom of Carbonic Acid = 276,438
CaO, CO2 = 1 atom of Carbonate of Lime = 632.457
CO = 1 atom of Carbonic Oxide = 176.438
H2O = 1 atom of Water = 112.480
C203 = 1 atom of anhydrous Oxalic Acid = 452,876
H2O, C2O3= 1 atom of effloresced do. = 565,356
H2O,C2O3 + Aq2 = 1 atom crystallised do. = 790.316
PbS = 1 atom of Sulphuret of Lead = 1495.663
PbO, SO3 = 1 atom of Sulphate of Lead = 1895,663
PbO = 1 atom of Yl. Oxide of Lead = 1394.498
PbO2 = 1 atom of Brown do. = 1494.498
PbC12 = 1 atom of Chloride of Lead = 1737.148
SO2 = 1 atom of Sulphurous Acid = 401.165
SO 3 = 1 atom of Sulphuric Acid = 501.165
Most of the symbols are derived from the common
English names of the elements, and are, therefore,
easy to be remembered. The following are taken from
those Latin names which do not happen to coincide
with the English names:–
Ag = Silver from Argentum.
Au = Gold — Aurum.
Cu = Copper — Cuprum.
Fe = Iron — Ferrum.
Hg = Mercury – Hydrargyrum.
K = Potassium — Kalium.
Na = Sodium — Natrum.
Pb = Lead — Plumbum.
Sb Antimony — Stibium.
Sn = Tin — Stannum.
W = Tungsten — Wolframium.
In addition to the symbols given at page 135, two
others very much in use are, Aq from aqua, signifying
water, or commonly, water of crystallisation, and Cy
signifying cyanogen.
 CHEMICAL SYMBOLS. 145

The plus sign (+) used in the above formula,

H2O, C*O3+ Aq”, serves to separate from one another
the presumed proximate constituents of a compound.
The comma (,) is used for the same purpose. But the
members of a compound that stand on each side of the
comma are supposed to be combined together more
intimately than those which are separated by the plus
sign. Thus, in H20,0208+Aq*, the atom of anhy
drous Oxalic Acid indicated by C2 08 is supposed to
be much more intimately combined with the atom of
water indicated by H2O, than it is with the other two
atoms of water indicated by Aq”.
The same compound could also be indicated thus:
(H2O+C2O3)+2Aq. This formula is more in ac
cordance with mathematical rules than the former, but
it is cumbrous and less convenient for chemical use.
The multiplying power of a large figure extends over
all the symbols that follow it in the same formula,
until a comma or plus sign occurs. It also extends
over all the symbols contained in a parenthesis imme
diately following it. Thus:
2PbO, SO3 = 2Pb,20 and 1S,3O
3PbO-H2SO3 = 3Pb,3O and 2S,6O
2(PbO-H-SO3) = 2Pb,2O and 2S,6O
But, as already observed, the small figures multiply only
the single symbol placed immediately before them.
In the arrangement of the symbols constituting a
formula, the order to be observed is that of the electri
cal arrangement of the elements given at page 24, the
symbols of the elements placed first in that list, being
also placed first in the formula. In arranging the
symbols representing the proximate constituents of a
compound, an analogous method is followed—that
proximate constituent being placed first in the formula,
which contains the most electro-positive element.
Hence we write, PbO, and not OPb ; and PbO, SO3,
and not SO3,PbO.
It only remains necessary to notice some symbols
that the student will meet with in other books, though
N \'
146 ATOMIC. WEIGHTS OF COMPOUNDS.

not in this.-1. Berzelius expresses Oxygen by dots

placed over the electro-positive elements with which it
is combined, every dot representing 1 atom of Oxygen.
Thus, Pb is equal to PbO, § is equal to S03, and
PbS is equal to PbO, SO3.−2. In the same way, he
expresses atoms of Sulphur by acute accents placed
over the electro-positive elements.-3. Instead of repre
senting double atoms of the elements by placing a
small figure after them, he uses symbols which have a
horizontal line drawn through them, and which of
course can only be printed by types cast on purpose.—
4. In many English books, this method of representing
double atoms is partially imitated by a horizontal line or
dash printed below the symbol of the element.
These contrivances occasion considerable trouble and
expense in printing; they do not look neat when they
are printed, in consequence of the numerous breaks and
blank lines that they occasion; and they are seldom so
correctly printed as the plainer symbols described
above.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TABLE ATOMIC of

WEIGHTS OF COMPOUNDS.
This Table exhibits the combining weights, and the
atomic constitution, of the most important compounds
of inorganic chemistry.
The first column contains the common English names
of the substances. The second column shows their
constitution in atoms, expressed by symbols. The third
column gives their atomic weights.

ATOMIC. WEIGHTS OF COMPOUNDS.

Aluminum, . . . . Al 171.167
- double atom, . . Al? 342.334
Alumina, . . . . . Al2O3 642.33
— Sulphate, . . . Al2O3,3SOs 2145.83
 ATOMIC. WEIGHTS. 147

12O3,3SO 3
Alum (Potash) cryst., *} §§ ºA. } 5936.43
3 24

Ammonia, * NH3 107.24

— double atom, N2H6 214.47
— Sesqui-Carbonate, 2N2H8O,3CO2 1483.22
— Bicarbonate, N2H8O,2CO2+Aq21104.79
— Muriate, N2H6+ H2 Cl2 669.61
— Nitrate, N2H8O,N2O 5 1003.99
— Oxalate, . N2H8O,C2O3 779.82
— Sulphate, N2H8O,S08--Aq 940.60
Ammonium, NH4 113.48
— double atom, N2H8 226.95
— Chloride, N2H8 Cl2 669.61
— Oxide, =2NH4+ Aq=N2H8O326.95
— Sulphuret, N2H8S 428.12
Antimony, Sb 806,452
— double atom, Sb2 1612,904
— Oxide, Sb2O3 1912.90
— Sulphuret, Sb2S3 2216.40
Antimonic Acid, Sb2O 5 2112.90
Antimonious Acid, Sb2O4 2012.90
Arsenic, . . . As 470.042
— dowble atom, . As? 940,084
— Sulphuret, Realgar, As2S2 1342.41
- — Orpiment, As2S3 1543.58
— Pentasulphuret, . As2S5 1945.91
Arsenious Acid, As2O3 1240,084
Arsenic Acid, As2O5 1440,084
Barium, . . Ba 856.880
— Chloride, . Ba C12 1299.53
- - cryst., . BaCl2 + Aq” 1524.49
— Peroxide, BaO2 1056.88
— Sulphuret, BaS 1058,045
Barytes, . BaO 956.88
— Hydrate, BaO, Aq 1069.36
— Carbonate, Ba0,CO2 1233.32
— Nitrate, BaO,N2O3 1633.92
— Oxalate, - Fºº.9. 1409.75
— Phosphate, . 2BaO,P2O5 2806.04
— Sulphate, BaO, SO3 1458.05
148 ATOMIC. WEIGHTS.

Bismuth, . Bi 886.920
— Oxide, BiO 986.92
Boracic Acid, BO 3 436.20
—— cryst., B03+ Aq” 773.64
Boron, B 136.204
Bromine, . Br 489.153
— double atom, . . Br2 978.306
Cadmium, Col 696.767
— Oxide, Col O 796.767
— Sulphuret, ColS 897.93
Calcium, . Ca 256.019
— Chloride, CaCl2 698.67
— Fluoride, CaF2 489.81
Carbon, C 76.438
C (Dumas,) 75.00
—double atom, C2 152.876
— 3 atoms, C3 229.314
— 4 atoms, C4 305.752
— 6 atoms, C6 458.628
— 10 atoms, . C 10 764,380
— Oxide of, CO 176.44
CO (Dumas,) 175.00
Carbonic Acid, CO2 276.44
CO2 (Dumas,) 275.00
Cerium, Ce 574,796
Chlorine, Cl 221.325
— double atom, . Cl2 442.65
— 3 atoms, Cl3 663.975
— 4 atoms, Cl4 885.30
— 6 atoms, C16 1327.95
Chloric Acid, Cl2O 5 942.65
Chromium, . Cr 351.815
— Oxide, Cr2O3 1003.63
- oxychloride, CrO2Cl2 994.465
Chromic Acid, . CrO3 651.81
Cobalt, Co 368.991
— Oxide, . CoO 468.99
— Sulphate, Coo,so?--Aq' 1645.03
Copper, Cu 395.695
- Red oxide, . Cu2O 891.39 .
 ATOMIC. WEIGHTS. 149

Copper, Black Oxide, CuO . 495.70

— Protochloride, . Cu2Cl2 1234.04
— Perchloride, . CuCl2 838.34
— Carbonate, Basic, 2CuO, CO2+ Aq 1380.31
— Sulphuret, . . . Cu2S 992.56
— Bisulphuret, CuS 596.86
— Sulphate, cryst., Cu0,SO 3+Aq; 1559.26
Cyanogen, - N2 C2 = Cy?
- -
329.91
— Sulphuret, . . . Cy2S2 732.24
Fluorine, - - -
F 116.900
— double atom, . F2 233.80
— 6 atoms, F6 701.40
Glucinum, G. 331.261
Glucina, . G2 O 3 962.52
Gold, . . . . Au 1243,013
— double atom, . Au? 2486,026
— Protoxide, Au?O 2586.026
— Peroxide, . Au? O 3 2786,026
Hydriodic Acid, . H2I2 1591.98
Hydrobromic Acid, H2 Br2 990.79
Hydrochloric Acid, H2Cl2 455.13
Hydrocyanic Acid, H2Cy? 342.39
Hydrofluoric Acid, H2F2 246.28
Hydrofluosilicic Acid, 3H2F2+2SiF6 2696.37
Hydrogen, * -
6.2398
— dowble atom, . 12.4796
– 3 atoms, . . . . 18.7194
– 4 atoms, . . . . 24.9592
— 5 atoms, . . . . 31.1990
— 6 atoms, . . . 37.4388
– 8 atoms, . e 49,918.4
— 10 atoms, e 62.3980
— Peroxide, . . . 212.48
Iodine, . . . 789.75
— double atom, . 1579.5
Iridium, . • 1233,499
— Sesquioxide, . 2767.00
Iron, . . . . 339.205
— Protoxide, 439.21
— Proto-peroxide, 1417.61
150 ATOMIC. WEIGHTS.

Iron, Peroxide, Fe2O3 978.41

— Protochloride, . FeCl2 781.86
— Perchloride, . Fe C16 2006.36
— Protocyanide, FeCy2 669.12
— Percyanide, . #.8 6 1668.15
— Prussian Blue, . 2Fe2Cy3+3FeCy? 5343.69
— Sulphuret, . FeS 540.37
— Bisulphuret, FeS2 741.54
— Protosulphate, . Fe0,SO 3+Aq" 1615.25
La 2
Lantanum, .
Lead, . . . . . Pb 1294.498
— Yellow Oxide, . PbO 1394.50
— Red Oxide, . Pb3 O4 4283.50
— Orange Oxide, Pb2O3 2889.00
— Brown Oxide, . PbO2 1494.50
— Carbonate, . PbO, CO2 1670.94
— Chromate, . PbO,CrO3 2056.31
— Chloride, PbCl2 1737.15
— Iodide, Pb.I2 2874.00
— Nitrate, . PbO,N2O3 2071.53
— Oxalate, . . PbO,C2O3 1847.37
— Phosphate, . 2PbO,P2O5 3681.28
— Sulphate, PbO,SO 3 1895.66
— Sulphuret, PbS 1495.66
Lime, . . . CaO 356.02
— Hydrate, CaO,A 468.50
— Carbonate, . CaO, CO2 632.46
— Nitrate, . CaO,N2O3 1033.06
— Oxalate, . . . CaO,C2O3 808.89
— Sulphate, cryst., CaO,S08--Aq” 1082.14
dry, . CaO, SO3 857.18
Lithia, . . . LO 180.375
Lithium, . - -
L 80.375
Magnesia, . . . . . MgO 258.35
— Carbonate, 3(MgO, CO2,Aq)+MgOAq 1759.77
— Phosphate, . . 2MgO,P2O3 1408.99
— Sulphate, cryst., MgO,SO 8-H Aq' 1546.87
- dry, . 759.51
Magnesium, . º - §goso,
g , 158.353
— Chloride, . . MgCl2 601.00
 ATOMIC. WEIGHTS. 151

Manganese, . Mn 345.887
— Protoxide, MnO 445.89
— Red Oxide, . Mn3 O4 1437,66
— Deutoxide, . Mn2O3 991.77
– Peroxide, MnO2 545.89
— Sulphate, MnO, SO3 + Aq; 1509.45
Manganic Acid, -
MnO 3 645.89
Hypermanganic Acid, Mn2O7 1391.77
Mercury, . . • Hg
* e
1265.822
— double atom, -
Hg? 2531.644
— Protoxide, Hg2O 2631.65
— Peroxide, . . Hg.0 1365.82
— Protochloride, . Hg2Cl2 2974.30
— Perchloride, HgCl2 1708.47
— Cyanide, HgCy? 1595.73
— Iodide, HgI2 2845.32
— Protochromate, Hg2O,Or() 3 3283.46
— Sulphuret, HgS 1466.99
Molybdenum, Mo 598.520
Molybdic Acid, MoC) 3 898.52
Muriatic Acid, . H2Cl2 455.13.
Nickel, -
Ni 369,675
— Oxide, . . . . NiO 469.68
— Sulphate, . . . NiO,S08+Aq" 1758.20
Nitric Acid, hypothet., N2O 5 677.04
— sp. gr. 1.521, . N205-H Aq 789.52
— sp. gr. 1.40, . N205+Aq; 1239.44
Nitric Oxide, NO 188.52
— double atom, . N2O2 377.04
Nitrogen, -
N 88.518
— dowble atom, . N2 177.036
N2 (Dumas,) 175.
Nitrous Acid, hypothet, N2O3 - 477.04
Nitrous Oxide, • N2O 277,04
Oxygen, . O 100,000
Osmium, . - - -
Os 1244,487
Osmic Acid, . . . OsO4 1644,487
Oxalic Acid, C2O3 452,876
cryst., . . C2 084-Aqs 790.316
effloresced, C2 08-H Aq 565,356
152 ATOMIC. WEIGHTS.

Palladium, Pd 665,899
— Protoxide, PāO 765.90
Perchloric Acid, Cl2O7 1142.65
Phosphorus, P 196.143
— double atom, P2 392.286
Phosphorous Acid, P2 O3 692.28
Phosphoric Acid, . P2 O 5 892.28
Platinum, - -
Pt 1233,499
— Chloride, . . . PtCl4 2118.80
– Ammonium-Öhloride.N. His C13+PtCl4 2788.40
— Potassium-Chloride, KC13+ PtCl4 3051.37
Potassium, . . . . K. 489.916
— Protoxide (Potash,) KO 589.92
— Peroxide, . . KO 3 789.92
— Bromide, KBr2 1468.22
— Chloride, . KC12 - 932.57
— and Platinum, Chloride, KC13+PtCl4 3051.37
— Cyanide, . . . KCy” 819.82
— Sulpho-Cyanide KCy2S2 1222.16
— Fluoride, - KF2 723.71
— Fluo-Silicide, 3KF2+2SiF6 4128.90
— Iodide, - ECI2 2069.42
— Sulphuret, ECS 691.08
— Penta-Sulphuret . KS" 1495.74
Potash, . . . KO 589.92
— Hydrate, KO, Aq 702.40
— Arseniate, 2KO, As2O5 -
2619.92
— — Acid, . K0, As2O5+ Aq” 2254.96
— Carbonate, . KO, CO2 866.35
— Bicarbonate, KO,2CO2, Aq 1255.27
— Chlorate, KO, C12O5 1532.56
— Perchlorate, KO, C12O7 1732.56
— Chromate, KO, CrO3 1241.73
— Bichromate, KO,2CrO3 1893.55
— Nitrate, . . . KO,N2O5 1266.95
– Oxalate, cryst., KO,C2O3 + Aq 1155.27
– Binoxalate, cryst., KO,202 084-Aq8 1833.10
— Quadroxalate, cryst., KO,4C2 084-Aqſ 3188.76
— Prussiate, Red, 3KCy3+ Fe2Cyº 4127.64
— — Yellow, cryst., 2KCy3+ FeCy2+Aqº 2646.21
 ATOMIC. WEIGHTS. 153

Potash, Sulphate, KO,SO 3 1091.08

— Bisulphate, . K O,SO 8+ H2O,SO & 1704.73
Trussic Acid, H2Cy? 342.39
Rhodium, Rh 651,387
— Oxide, Rh2O3 1602.774
Selenium, Se 494.583
Selenic Acid, SeO3 794.58
Selenious Acid, SeO2 694.58
Silica, (Silicic Acid.) SiO 3 577.31
Silicon, . . Si 277.312
— Fluoride, SiR 6 978.71
Silver, Ag 1351,607
— Oxide, AgO 1451.61
— Chloride, AgCl2 1794.26
— Fluoride, AgF2 1585,41
— Nitrate, ". AgO, N2O4 2128.64
— Sulphate, Ag0,SOs 1952,77
— Sulphuret, AgS 1552.77
Sodium, Na 290.897
— Protoxide, NaO 390.90
— Peroxide, Na2O 3 881.80
— Chloride, NaCl2 733.55
— Cyanide, . NaCy? 620.80
— Fluoride, NaB'2 B24.69
— Sulphuret, NaS 492.06
— Iodide, NaI2 1870.39
Soda, . . . NaO 390.90
— Hydrate, NaO, Aq 503.38
— Borate, (Borax) NaO,2BO3+Aq10 2888.10
— Carbonate, . NaO, CO2 667.34
NaO, CO2+ Aqlo
cryst., . 1792.13
— Bicarbonate, cryst., NaO,2CO2+ Aq2 1168.73
— Nitrate, . NaO,N2O 5 1067.93
— Phosphate, (2Naô +Aq)+P*05+ Aq24. 4486.07
– Phosphate, . . 2NaO,P205-H Aq10 2798.88
— Sulphate, dry, . NaO,SO 3 892.06
— Sulphate, cryst., NaO,SO 84-Aq10 2016.86
Soda and Lithia, PhOS 2NaO,P2 O5+ 2927.03
phate, 2LO,P2O3
Strontian, Sr0. 647.29
154 ATOMIC. WEIGHTS.

Strontian, Carbonate, Sr0,CO2 923.73

— Sulphate, . . . Sr0,S08 1148.45
Strontium, . . . . Sr 547.285
— Chloride, . . . SrC12 989.94
Sulpho-Cyanogen, . Cy” Sº 732.24
Sulphuretted Hydrogen, H°S 213.65
Sulphur, . . . . S 201.165
— double atom, . . Sº 402.33
— 3 atoms, . . . . Sº 603.495
— 5 atoms, . . . . Sº 1005.825
— Chloride, . . . . SCl 422.49
Sulphurous Acid, . . SO? 401.165
Sulphuric Acid, dry, . S0° 501.165
— sp. gr. 1.85, . . SO3 + H2O 613.645
— sp. gr. 1.78, . . SO?--Aq” 726.12
sp. gr. 1,632, . . S08-H Aq” 838.60
Tantalum, . . . . Ta 1153.715
— double atom, . . Ta” 2307.43
Tantalic Acid, . . . Ta2O3 2607.43
Tellurium, . . . . Te 801.760
— Oxide, . . . . Te0? 1001.76
Thorium, . . . . Th 744,900
Thorina, . . . . . Th9 844.90
Titanium, . . . . Ti 303.662
Titanic Acid, . . . TiO2 503.66
Tin, . . . . . . Sn 735.296
— Protoxide, . . . SnO 835.29
— Peroxide, . . . . SnO2 935.29
— Protochloride, . . SnCl2 1177.94
— — cryst., . . SnCl2 + Aq 1290,42
— Perchloride, . . . SnCl4 1620.59
Tungsten, . . . . W 1183,000
Tungstic Acid, . . WO 3 1483.00
Uranium, . . . . U 2711.358
— Protoxide, . . . UO 2811.36
— Peroxide, . . . . U2 O 3 5722.72
Vanadium, . . V - 855.840
Vanadic Acid, . . . VO 3 1155.84
Water, . . . . . H2O or Aq 112.48
- 2 atoms, . . . . Aq2 224.96
 CHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS. 155

Water, 3 atoms, . . Aq8 337.44

— 4 atoms, . . . . Aq* 449.92
— 5 atoms, . . . . Aq" 562.40
— 6 atoms, . . . . Aq° 674.88
— 10 atoms, . . . . Aq'" 1124.80
— 12 atoms, . . . . Aq'” 1349.76
— Oxygenated, . . H*0° 212.48
Yttrium, . . . . . Y 402.514
Yttria, . . . . . YO 502.514
Zinc, . . . . . . Zn 403.226
— Oxide, . . . . ZnO 503.23
— Chloride, . . . ZnCl2 845.88
— Sulphate, . . . ZnO,S0°,+ Aq' 1791.75
— Sulphuret, . . . ZnS 604.39
Zirconium, . . . . Zr 420,201
Zirconia, . . . . . Zr2O3 1140.4

With the foregoing information before us, we can

readily explain several “Laws,” or “Doctrines,” or
properly speaking, Expressions, or Forms of Speech,
which form part of modern theoretical chemistry.
1). The Doctrine of Definite Proportions.—This doc
trine refers simply to the fact, that bodies combine in
certain proportions only, and always in the same pro
portions; so that chalk contains lime and carbonic
acid, or calcium, carbon, and oxygen, invariably in the
proportions specified in page 137; and is never composed
of any other elements, nor of the same elements com
bined in any other relative quantities.
2). The Law of Multiple Proportions.—When an
element A, combines with an element B, in more than
one proportion, the several compounds of A+ B contain
these elements in quantities that are multiples of a
single atom of each element. I have given numerous
illustrations of this law. Thus, carbonic oxide is CO,
carbonic acid CO2, and oxalic acid C2 08.
3). The Doctrine of Chemical Equivalents.—When
one element replaces another, or when one proximate
constituent replaces another, in a compound, the re
156 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTs.

placing quantity, or equivalent, is always an atomic

weight, or a multiple of an atomic weight, of the ele
ment or the compound in question. Thus, 356.019
parts of Lime, combine with 276.438 parts of Carbonic
Acid, to produce 632.457 parts of Carbonate of Lime;
with 501.165 parts of Sulphuric Acid, to produce
857.184 parts of Sulphate of Lime; and with 452.876
parts of Oxalic Acid, to produce 808.895 parts of
Oxalate of Lime. Hence,
276.438 parts of Carbonic Acid,
501.165 parts of Sulphuric Acid,
452.876 parts of Oxalic Acid,
are termed chemical equivalents, which signifies that
these are the quantities of the several substances which
serve to replace one another in combination.
In the same way, 501.165 parts of Sulphuric Acid,
combine with 356.019 parts of Lime, to produce 857.184
parts of Sulphate of Lime; and with 1394.498 parts of
Oxide of Lead, to produce 1895.663 parts of Sulphate
of Lead. Hence,
356.019 parts of Lime, and
1394.498 parts of Oxide of Lead,
are equivalent quantities or chemical equivalents,

EXPLANATION OF THE
TABLE OF DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS.
The first column contains the common English names
of certain compounds. The second and fourth columns
exhibit the atomic constitution of these compounds,
expressed in symbols. The third and fifth columns
show how much by weight of each constituent, is con
tained in 1 part by weight of the compound named in
column first.
EXAMPLES:
1 Part (that is 1 Grain, or 1 Pound) of Alumina, con
tains 0.53295 of Aluminum. -

0.46705 of Oxygen.
Total, 1.00000.
 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTs. 157

1 Part of Sulphate of Barytes, contains

0.65628 of Barytes.
0.34372 of anhydrous Sulphuric Acid.
Total, 1.00000.
Or it contains,
0.58768 of Barium.
0.13797 of Sulphur.
0.27435 of Oxygen.
Total, 1.00000.
EXAMPLES OF THE USE OF THIS TABLE.
RULE:—To find the weight of any Constituent in a given
weight of a Compound—Multiply the given weight of
the compound, by the decimal equivalent of the parti
cular constituent. The product is the weight of that
constituent.
Example.—Suppose you have 25.45 grains of preci
pitated sulphate of barytes, and wish to know how
much dry sulphuric acid it contains. To find this, you
have only to multiply 25.45 by the decimal equivalent of
the dry sulphuric acid contained in 1 part of sulphate of
barytes. According to the Table this is .34372. See
article “Barytes, Sulphate,” page 159. The product
is the weight of the dry sulphuric acid, expressed in
grains.
25.45 × .34372 = 8.7476740 grains.
Proof of the correctness of this calculation.—The
atomic weight of sulphate of barytes is 1458.045, and
that of dry sulphuric acid is 501.165. Then by propor
tion:—
1458.045 : 501.165 : ; 25.45: a = 8.7477.

RULE:—To find how much by weight of any compound

can be produced from a given weight of one of its constit
wents.—Multiply the weight of the given constituent
by 1.00000, and divide the product by the decimal
equivalent of the given constituent.
The product of the division is the required weight of
the compound.
o
158 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS.

Example.—Given, 55% grains of Iron; required, the

quantity of Peroxide of Iron, Fe2O3, which it will
produce.
The decimal equivalent of Iron, quoted at the article
“Iron, Peroxide,” page 160, is .69338. The calcula
tion is therefore, -

55.5 × 1 = Fe2O3
.69338
55.50000%
Or,
.69338
= w = 80.043 grains.
Proof–The atomic weight of Peroxide of Iron,
Fe2O3, is 978.41, and that of two atoms of Iron, Fe2,
is 678.41. Then by proportion we find:—
678.41 : 978.41 : : 55.50 : a = 80.043 grains.
Calculations of this sort, performed with the atomic
weights, are twice as long as those performed with the
decimal equivalents, the numbers expressing the latter
being so prepared as to reduce the whole operation to
a simple multiplication or division.

DECIMAL EQUIWALENTS.
Alumina, . . . . . . Al? .53295 O3 .4670.5
Aluminum, Chloride, . Al? 20496 C12 79504
Ammonia, . . . . N 82544 H3 17456
Ammonia, Muriate, . N2H6 32030 H2C12 6797O
Ammonium, Chloride, }
N2H8 33894 C12 66106
Antimony, Terchloride, Sb2 54845 C1° 45155
— Pentachloride, . . Sb2 42155 C11o 57845
— Oxide, . . . . . Sb2 84317 OS 15683
— Sulphuret, . . . Sb2 72771 S3 27229
Antimonic Acid, . . Sb2 76836 O5 23664
Antimonious Acid, . . Sb2 80128 O4 1987.2
Arsenic, Terchloride, . As? 41449 C16 58551
– Pentachloride, . . As2 29812 C11 0 70188
— Sulphuret, . . . As2 70029 S2 29971

.” As many cyphers are added to the decimal fractions of the

given quantity, as make up five figures after the point.
 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS. 159

Arsenic, Sulphuret, . As? .60903 S3 ,39097

- - . . . As” 48311 51689
Arsenic Acid, . . . As? 65280 O5 34.720
Arsenious Acid, . . . As? 75808 O3 24.192
Arseniuretted Hydrogen, As? 961.70 H6 0.3830
Barium, Chloride, . Ba 65938 Cl2 34062
— Sulphuret, . . . Ba 80987 19013
Barytes, . . . . . Ba 89.549 10451
— Carbonate, . . BaO 77586 CO2 22414
= Ba 69478 C 06198 O3 24324
— Chromate, . . . BaO 59482 CrO3 40518
— Nitrate, . . . . BaO 58564 N2O5 41436
— Phosphate, . . . 2Ba%) 682O1 P2O5 31799
— Seleniate, . . . . BaO 54633 SeO3 45367
— Sulphate, . . . . BaO 65628 34372
= Ba 58768 S 13797 27435
Bismuth, Chloride, . Bi 66707 33293
— Oxide, . . . . . Bi 89867 101.33
— Sulphuret, . . . Bi 81512 18488
Boracic Acid, . . . B 31190 68810
Boron, Chloride, . . B 09289 90711
— Fluoride, . . . . B 16239 83761
Bromine, Chloride, . Br? 30812 69188
Bromic Acid, . . . Br? 66.177 33823
Cadmium, Chloride, . Cd 61151 38849
— Oxide, . . . . . Cd 87449 12551
77597 22403
— Sulphuret, . . . Cd
Calcium, Chloride, . . Ca 36644 63356
— Oxide, . . . . . Ca 71911 28089
— Fluoride, . . . . Ca 52268 47732
— Sulphuret, . . . Ca 55999 44001
Carbon, Chloride, . C 25670 74330
- - C 14725 852.75
- - C 10324 896.76
— Oxide, . C 43323 56677
— Sulphuret, C 15965 84035
Carbonic Acid, . C 27651 72349
Chloric Acid, . - Cl2 46958 53042
Chromium, Oxide, . Cr2 70109 298.91
— Chloride, . Cr2 34635 65365
160 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS.

Chromium, Perchloride, Cr .20944 .79056

— Sulphuret, . . . Cr” 53831 46169
Chromic Acid, . . . Cr 53975 46025
Cobalt, Chloride, . . Co 45462 54538
— Protoxide, . . . Co 78678 21322
— Peroxide, . . . . Co? 71098 28902
Copper, Protochloride, Cu 64130 35870
— Perchloride, . . . Cu 47199 52801
— Protoxide, . . . Cu? 88782 11218
— Peroxide, . . . . Cu 79826 20174
— Protoiodide, . . . Cu 3.3396 66604
— Protosulphuret, . . Cu? 79733 20267
— Persulphuret, . . Cu 66296 33704
Cyanogen, Cy”, . . N2 53662 46.338
Glucina, . . . . . G2 68846 31154
Gold, Protochloride, . Au% 84886 15114
— Perchloride, . . . Au? 65182 34818
80466 19534
— Sulphuret, . . . Au%
00785 99.215
Hydriodic Acid, . . H2
O1260 9874O
Hydrobromic Acid, . H2
Hydrochloric Acid, . H2 02742 97.258
0.3645 96.355
Hydrocyanic Acid, . . H2
05067 94933
Hydrofluoric Acid, . . H2
24616 75384
Hydrogen, Carburetted, H4 14036 85964
- - H4
08712 91288
— Phosphuretted, . . He
O3830
— Arseniuretted, . . H6 96170
— Peroxide, . H2 05873 94127
Hydrosulphuric Acid, : H2
05841 941.59
Hydrogen, Sulphuretted
Hydroselenic Acid, H2 02461 97539
Hydrotelluric Acid, . H2 O1524 98.476
Iodic Acid, . . . . I2 75942 24058
Iodine, Chloride, . . I2 41627 58373
Iron, Protochloride, . Fe 43.385 566.15
— Perchloride, . . . Fe2 33813 66187
— Protoxide, . . . Fe 77232 22768
— Peroxide, . . . . Fe2 69338 30662
— Sulphuret, . . . Fe 62773 37227
- - . . . Fe? 52923 47077
 DECIMAL EQUIWALENTS, 161

Iron, Sulphuret, Pyrites, Fe .45744 S2 .54256

Lead, Chloride, . . . Pb 74519 C12 25481
— Protoxide, Pb 92.829 07171
— Peroxide, . Pb 866.18 O2 13382
— Chromate, PbO 68147 CrO3 31853
— Nitrate, . . PbO 67317 N2O5 32683
— Phosphate, 2PbO 75761 P2 O5 24239
— Sulphate, . . . . PbO 73563 SO 3 26437
= Pb 68287 S 10612 O4 21101
— Sulphuret, . . . Pb 86550 13450
Lime, . . . Ca 71911 28089
— Hydrate, e - - CaO 75991 H2O 24009
= Ca 54646 42686 H2 02668
— Carbonate, . . . 56292 CO2 43708
= Ca 40478 12086 O3 47436
– Phosphate, . . . 44.382 P2 O 5 55618
= Ca2 31916 24453 O7 43631
— Sulphate, . . . . 41532 SO 3 58468
= Ca. 29866 23469 O4 46665
Lithia, . . . . . . 44850 O 55150
Lithium, Chloride, . 15520 C12 . 84.480
Magnesia, . -
61293 38707
— Phosphate, 2MgO 36671 P2 O5 63329
— Sulphate, . . . . MgO 34015 SO 3 65985
Magnesium, Chloride, Mg 26348 Cl2 73652
— Sulphuret, . . . Mg 44046 55954
Manganese, Protochloride, Mn 4.3865 Cl2 56135
— Sesquichloride, . 34252 C13 65748
— Superchloride, 20665 C16 79335
— Protoxide, 77573 22427
— Deutoxide, . . . 69752 O3 30248
— Peroxide, . e - 63363 O2 36637
— Sulphate, . . . . 47082 SO3 52918
— Sulphuret, . . . 63228 36772
Manganic Acid, . . . 53553 O3 46.447
Mercury, Protochloride, 85117 C12 14883
— Perchloride, . . . 74091 C12 25909
— Protoxide, 96.200 O3800
— Peroxide, . 92678 07:322
— Cyanide, 79325 Cy? 20675
162 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS.

Mercury, Sulphuret, . Hg .86287 S .13713

Molybdic Acid, . . . Mo 66612 O3 33388
Nickel, Chloride, . . Ni 45508 C12 54492
— Oxide, . . . . . Ni 78709 O 21291
Nitrogen, Chloride, . N” 11763 C16 88237
Nitric Acid, dry, . . N* 26149 O 5 73351
— Hydrate, sp. gr. 1.521 N*0° 85753 Aq 14247
- N2 22423 H2 01581 O6 75996
Nitrous Acid, - N2 37112 08 62883
Nitric Oxide, . . . N 46955 O 53045
Nitrous Oxide, . . . N2 63904 O 36096
Oxalic Acid, dry, . . C.? 33757 O3 66243
Osmic Acid, . . . . Os 75672 04 24328
Phosphorus, Protochloride, Pº 22805 C16 77.195.
— Perchloride, . . . P* 15057 C11 0 84943
Phosphoric Acid, . . P2 43966 O5 56034
Phosphorous Acid, . . Pº 56667 O3 43333
Hypophosphorous Acid, P* 79688 O 20312
Platinum, Protochloride, Pt 73587 Cl2 26413
— Perchloride, . . . Pt 58212 Cl4 41788
* - • Pt 40420
- Potassium-chloride, { KC12. 30.565 Cl4 29015
—Ammonium-Chloride {§ H6 44232 Urr,
dº? Hº CI* 18076
Potassium, Chloride, . K 52534 C12 47466
— Iodide, . . . . . K 23674 I2 76326
— Sulphuret, . . . K 70891 S 29.109
Potash, . 83048 O 16952
— Hydrate, K 69749 O2 284.74 H2 01777
— Carbonate, . . KO 68092 CO2 31908
- K 56549 C 08823 O3 34628
— Chlorate, . . . . KO 38492 C12O5 61508
= K 31967 C12 28883 06 39150
— Nitrate, . . . KO 46562 N2O5 53438
= K 38669 N2 13973 O6 47358
— Sulphate, . . . . . KO 54067 SO3 45933
= K 44902 S 18437 O4 36661
Selenic Acid, . . Se 62244 O3 377.56
Silica, . . . . . . Si 48050 03 51950
Silicon, Chloride, . . Si 17284 Clº 82716
 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTs. 163

Silicon, Fluoride, . . Si .28347 F6 .71653

— Sulphuret, . . . Si 31497 S3 68503
Silver, Bromide, . . Ag 58011 Br2 41989
— Chloride, . . . . Ag 75.330 C13 24670
— Cyanide, . . . . Ag 80380 Cy” 19620
— Iodide, . . . . . Ag 46132 I* 53868
— Nitrate, . . . . AgO 68.194 N2O5 31806
— Oxide, . . . . . Ag 93.111 O O6889
— Phosphate, . . . 2Ag0 76490 P205 23510
— Sulphuret, . . . Ag 87045 S 12955
Soda, . . . . . . Na 74418 O 25582
– Hydrate, Na 57789 0° 397.32 H2 02479
— Carbonate, . . . NaO 58576 CO2 41424
= Na 43591 C 11454 O3 44955

— Carbonate, cryst., Aqio 62763 {:}}ºn

— Sulphate, anhydrous, NaO 43819 SO9 56181
- Na 32609 S 22551 O4. 44840

— Sulphate, cryst., . §5?}ºal Aq10 55769

Sodium, Chloride, . . Na 39656 C12 60344
— Fluoride, . . . . Na 55441 F2 44559
— Fluo-Silicide, . . Na3 24709 Si2F1875291
— Sulphuret, . . . Na 59118 S 40882
Strontian, . . . . . Sr 84551 O 15449
— Carbonate, . . . Sr0 70074 CO2 29926
— Nitrate, . . . . Sr0 48877 N2O5 51.123
— Sulphate, . . . . Sr0 56360 SO3 43640
Strontium, Chloride, . Sr 55.285 C12 44715
Sulphuretted Hydrogen, H° 05841 S 941.59
Sulphurous Acid, . . S 50145 02 49855
Hyposulphurous Acid, S2 66796 O2 33204
Sulphuric Acid, anhyd. S 401.39 O3 59861
— Hydrate, sp. gr. 1.85 S03 81670 Aq 18330
= S 32782 04 65184 H2 02034
Hyposulphuric Acid, . Sº 44588 O5 55412
Sulphur, Chloride, SC1 S 47614 Cl 52386
- - SC14 S 18516 C14 81484
*- - SC16 S 13156 C16 86844
Telluric Acid, . . . Te 72780 O3 27220
164 CONSTITUTION OF GASES.

Tellurium, Sulphuret, . Te 66596 S2 .33404

Tantalic Acid, . . . Ta” 88494 08 11506
Tantalum, Chloride, . Ta2 63471 C16 36529
— Oxide, . . Ta
- 92024 O 07976
Tin, Protochloride, . Sn 62422 C12 37578
— Perchloride, . . . Sn 45372 Cl4 54628
— Protoxide, . . . Sn 88028 O 11972
— Peroxide. . . . . Sn 78616 O2 21384
— Sulphuret, . . . Sn 64634 S.2 35366
Titanic Acid, . . . Ti 60293 O2 39707
Titanium, Chloride, . Ti 25542 C14 74.458
Tungstic Acid, . . . W 79773 O3 20227
Uranium, Protoxide, . U 96443 O 03557
— Peroxide, . . . . U% 94758 O3 05242
Wanadium, Suboxide, W 895.38 O 10462
— Oxide, . . . . . V 81058 O2 18942
Vanadic Acid, . . . W 74045 O3 25955
Water, . . . . . . H” 11111 O 88889
Yttria, . . . . . . Y 80073 O 19927
Zinc, Chloride, . . . Zn 47670 C12 52330
— Oxide, . . . . . Zn 80.128 O 19872
— Sulphuret, . . . Zn 66716 S 33284
Zirconia, . . . . . Zr2 73695 O3 26305
— Sulphate, . . . . ZnO 50103 SO3 49897

THE CONSTITUTION OF GASES.

SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF GASEs.

The figure in the margin of the opposite page repre

sents the apparatus by means of which the SPECIFIC
GRAVITY of Gases is determined. It consists of the
following parts:–A graduated cylindrical jar, in which
a gas can be collected over mercury, a, a light glass
globe, b, a brass cap, c, cemented to the cylinder, as a
brass, cap, d, cemented to the globe, b: two stop-cocks,
* and g; and a brass connecter, f.-The operation of
. the
011OWS :—
specific gravity of a gas, is performed as
-
 SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF GASES. 165

The globe, b, having been made perfectly clean and

dry, is filled with perfectly dry atmospheric
air, and with the cap, d, and stop-cock, e,
is weighed. It is then screwed to an air
pump, and exhausted of the atmospheric
air as completely as possible. The stop
cock, e, is closed, and the globe is weighed
again. The difference between the first
weighing and the second, shows the weight
of the atmospheric air withdrawn by the
air-pump. The exhausted globe, b, is next
connected to the receiver, a, by the inter
mediate brass work shown in the figure.
The two stop-cocks, e, g, being then opened,
gas passes from the receiver, a, into the
globe, b, and fills it. The stop-cocks are
then closed, the globe with its stop-cock, e,
is unscrewed from f, and once more weighed.
The difference between the result of this weighing,
and of the second weighing, shows the weight of the
gas submitted to trial.
If the globe, b, employed for these experiments, be
sufficiently large to contain 90.695 (=903) grains of
atmospheric air, which is about the capacity of a gal
lon, and if we call this quantity of air a volume, then,
by operating on different elementary gases, we arrive
at the following results: —
1 volume of Atmospheric Air being = 90.695 grs.
1 volume of Oxygen Gas is = 100.000 –
1 volume of Hydrogen Gas = 6.2398–
1 volume of Nitrogen Gas = 88.518 –
1 volume of Chlorine Gas = 221.325 —

That is to say, the comparative weights of an equal bulk

of these gases,—or, using another expression for the
same thing, the specific gravities of these gases, are to
one another as the numbers placed against their re
spective names in this Table,
 166

ATOMIC MEASURE OF ELEMENTARY GASEs.

If, now, we compare these results with the atomic

weights of the same elements, we perceive these rela
tions:—
Atomic Weight. Specific Gravity of Gas.
Oxygen, 100.000 100.000
Hydrogen, 6.2398 6.2398
Nitrogen, 88.518 88.518
Chlorine, 221.325 221.325

The conclusion to be drawn from this observation, is,

that although the atomic weights of these four elements
are different, the combining measures of their gases—
their atomic measures—are alike. Hence a given num
ber of equal measures of one of these gases, represent
the same number of atoms of it, when brought into
comparison with similar measures of another gas. And
since the elements combine only in atomic proportions,
and atomic proportions are here represented by equal
volumes of gas, it follows that, when these gases com
bine with one another to produce compounds, the com
binations must take place in volumes equal in number
to the number of atoms of each element which enter into
the compounds. No other result is possible.
So far, therefore, as these elements are concerned,
there must be a constant, simple, and important rela
tion, between the atomic weights and the specific gra
vities of their gaseous compounds. But this relation
ship of the atomic weights to the specific gravities of
gases, holds true, not only of such compounds as con
tain merely the four elements above referred to, but
also of such as they produce with elements that at the
ordinary temperature of the atmosphere are solid; nay,
it holds true even of gases that consist solely of ele
ments which are never gaseous when isolated.
The following are the results of experiments made
on elements, which, though solid or liquid at the ordin
ary temperature of the atmosphere, can be raised into
gas (vapour) by heat.
 ATOMIC MEASURE OF ELEMENTARY GASEs. 167
Atomic Specific Relation of At. Volume
ELEMENTs. Weight. Gravity. to Atomic Weight.
Arsenic, 470.042 940.084 , vol. = 1 atom.
Phosphorus, 196.143 392.286 vol. = 1 atom.
Bromine, 489.153 489.153 1 vol. = 1 atom.
Iodine, 789.750 789.750 1 vol. = 1 atom.
Mercury, 1265.822 632.91.1 2 vol. = 1 atom.
Sulphur, 201.165 603,495 vol. = 1 atom.
In this Table, several new features are presented.
Unlike the permanent gases, of which a volume is in
all cases equal to an atom, we have here two vaporis
able elements, of which half a volume is equal in weight
to an atom, one of which two volumes are equal in
weight to an atom, and one of which a third part of a
volume is equal in weight to an atom. It would be
possible in all these cases to alter the atomic weights
of the elements, and thus make them agree with the
weight of a whole volume of their vapour. But an
alteration of the Atomic Weights would produce prac
tical inconveniences still more troublesome than what
result from assuming differences to exist in the Atomic
Measure of these elements.
The following are elements which enter into the
composition of gases, but which cannot be procured in
the state of gases or vapours when uncombined. Their
Atomic Measures can therefore only be inferred from
the atomic measures of the compounds into which they
enter, from the circumstances attending the formation
or the decomposition of those compounds, or from the
atomic weights of the different substances concerned.
There is no known means of proving the accuracy of
these assumed Atomic Measures, nor yet of disproving it.
Eirussrs. §§ 3:::: *.*.*..."
Antimony, 806.452 1612.904 + vol. = 1 atom.
Boron, 136.204 136.204 1 vol. = 1 atom.
Carbon, 76.438 76.438 1 vol. = 1 atom.
Chromium, 351,815 351.815 1 vol. = 1 atom.
Fluorine, 116.900 116.900 1 vol. = 1 atom.
Tin, 735,296 735.296 1 vol. = 1 atom.
Titanium, 303.662 303.662 1 vol. = 1 atom.
Selenium, 494,583 247.2915 2 vols.- 1 atom.
 168

ATOMIC MEASURE OF COMPOUND GASEs.

The 18 Elements cited above are all that enter into
the composition of the compound gases which have
been discovered up to this time. Let us take for granted,
that the specific gravities and Atomic Measures of these
elements are all correctly stated, and let us proceed to
examine the relations between the atomic weights, the
specific gravities, and the atomic measures, of the com
pound gases which these elements form by combination
with one another.
We found, that when chemical elements formed a
compound by adding atom to atom, the weight of the
compound atom was equal to the sum of all its elemen
tary atoms. We now find, that when compound gases
are formed, it is by the addition of certain definite
measures of one gas to certain equally definite measures
of another gas. What, then, is the MEASURE of the
compound gas?—is it the suM of the Measures of the
elementary gases, or is it MORE, or LEss? Let us endea
vour to find the answer to this general question, by
examining two or three particular cases.
Atomic Measure of Muriatic Acid gas.
The constitution of Muriatic Acid gas (Hydrochloric
Acid gas) is represented by the formula H2Cl2, and
its atomic weight is 455.130, which is equal to
H* = 2 atoms or 2 vols. of Hydrogen, = 124796
Cl* = 2 atoms or 2 vols. of Chlorine, - 442.65
= 4 atoms or 4 vols. together, = 455.1296
But what is the specific gravity of Muriatic Acid gas?
Experiment proves this to be = 113,7825. This is the
weight of a volume of the gas, and it is the fourth part
of 455.130, the weight of the atom of the compound.
Hence the Atomic Measure of Muriatic Acid gas, that
is to say, the measure which contains the weight of an
atom, is 4 volumes. In other words, the atom of
Muriatic Acid gas, if assumed to weigh 455.130 grains,
will fill a vessel capable of containing 400,000 grains
of Oxygen gas. The Atomic Measure of this gas is
 ATOMIC MEASURE OF COMPOUND GASEs. 169

the sum of the Atomic Measures of its elements. There

is no condensation.

Atomic Measure of Ammonia gas.

The constitution of Ammonia is represented by NH3.
Its atomic weight is 107.238. It contains
= 1 atom or 1 vol. of Nitrogen, = 88,518
H% = 3 atoms or 3 vols, of Hydrogen, - 18.7194
= 4 atoms or 4 vols. together, = 107.2374
But the specific gravity of Ammonia gas is found ex
perimentally to be = 53.619, or exactly the half of its
atomic weight. The Atomic Measure of Ammonia
gas is therefore 2 volumes, or half the sum of the
Atomic Measure of its constituents added together; or
there is a condensation of one half the number of ele
mentary volumes.
Atomic Measure of Carbonic Oxide gas.
The constitution of Carbonic Oxide gas is CO. Its
atomic weight is 176.438. It contains
C = 1 atom or 1 vol. of Carbon, assumed, = 76.438
O = 1 atom or 1 vol. of Oxygen,
-
- 100,000
-

= 2 atoms or 2 vols. together, = 176.438

The specific gravity of Carbonic Oxide gas is found
experimentally to be = 88.219. The Atomic Measure
of this gas is therefore 2 volumes, or the sum of the
Atomic Measures of its constituents. There is no con
densation.

Atomic Measure of Carbonic Acid gas.

The constitution of Carbonic Acid gas is CO’. Its
atomic weight is = 276.438. It contains
C = 1 atom or 1 vol. of Carbon, assumed, = 76.438
O” = 2 atoms or 2 vols. of Oxygen, = 200,000

= 3 atoms or 3 vols, together, = 276,438

P
170 ATOMIC MEASURE OF GASES.

The specific gravity of Carbonic Acid gas, as found by

experiment, is = 138.219. The Atomic Measure of
this gas is therefore 2 volumes, which is two-thirds of
the Atomic Measures of its constituents. There is
consequently a condensation equal to one-third of the
number of elementary volumes.
Atomic Measure of Sulphuret of Mercury.
The constitution of Sulphuret of Mercury is Hg S.
Its atomic weight is 1466.987. It contains
Hg = 1 atom or 2 vols. of Mercury, = 1265.822
S = 1 atom or vol. of Sulphur, - 201.165
= 2 atoms or 2, vols, together, - 1466.987
The specific gravity of the vapour of Sulphuret of Mer
eury, has been found by experiment to be = 488.9957.
That is to say, the weight of a volume is equal to one
third the weight of the atom. Hence the Atomic
Measure of this vapour is 3 volumes. But the sum of
the Atomic Measures of its constituents is 2% volumes.
There is consequently an expansion in the ratio of 2%
to 3, or 7 to 9.

Conclusions respecting the Atomic Measure of Com

pound Gases.—The Atomic Measure of compound
gases is sometimes equal to the sum of the Atomic
Measures of their constituents; sometimes it is more,
and sometimes less. It is consequently necessary in
every case to mark what the Atomic Measure is found
to be by experiment.
METHOD of ExPRESSING THE ATOMIC MEASURE OF
CoMPOUND GASEs.
It has occurred to me that the most convenient
method of expressing the Atomic Measures of gases,
would be by means of vulgar fractions, the denomina
tors of which should represent the sum of the Atomic
Measures of their constituents, and the numerators show
the number of resulting volumes.
 ATOMIC MEASURE OF G ASES. 171

ExAMPLES:
Muriatic Acid, = H*C12 Atomic Meas. = #
Ammonia, = NH3 - = }
Carbonic Oxide, - CO - = }
Carbonic Acid, = CO2 - = }
Sulphuret of Mercury, = HgS — = 3.}s or ?
This method of expressing Atomic Measures seems
to me to be much more exact and convenient than the
method followed by many writers of using small square
diagrams for that purpose.
Relation of the Atomic Measure of a gas to its Atomic
Weight and Specific Gravity.
The Atomic Measure of a gas represents its combin
ing proportion. It contains the number of volumes the
weight of which make up its atomic weight. The
Atomic Measure of a compound gas, is not the volume
occupied by its constituents, but the volume produced
after combination.
If, of the Atomic Weight, the Atomic Measure, and
the Specific Gravity of a gas, we know two terms, it is
easy to find the third:—
Let a. m. = Atomic Measure.
a. w. = Atomic Weight.
sp. gr. = Specific Gravity.
To find the Specific Gravity of a gas, # = sp. gr.
Divide the Atomic Weight by the Atomic Measure,
the quotient is the Specific Gravity.
EXAMPLE:
Atomic Weight of Muriatic Acid=455.13
Atomic Measure = {
Then, * = 113,7825 = sp. gr.
To find the Atomic Weight of a gas, a.w. = a.m.Xsp. gr.
Multiply the Atomic Measure by the Specific Gravity,
the quotient is the Atomic Weight.
172 ExPLANATION OF THE TABLE OF GASES.

EXAMPLE:
Atomic Measure of Ammonia = }
Sp. Gr. = 53.619
Then, 2× 53.619 = 107.238 = Atomic Weight.
To find the Atomic Measure of a gas, i.- Q. 772.

Divide the Atomic Weight by the Specific Gravity, the

quotient is the Atomic Measure.
ExAMPLE:
Atomic Weight of Carbonic Oxide = 176.428
Sp. Gr. = 88.219
Then, *; = 2 = Atomic Measure.
It would add much to the clearness of the explana
tions given in elementary chemical books of the reac
tions of gases, if their authors would always speak of
gases in relation to their Atomic Measures; for as the
gases combine according to their atomic weights, so do
they also with equal strictness, combine according to
their atomic measures; and it is no less absurd to speak
of the combination of two volumes of Muriatic Acid gas
with one volume of Ammonia gas, than it would be to
say that half an atom of Muriatic Acid combines with
half an atom of Ammonia. Yet many authors who
would object to make so free with the atomic weights,
take great liberties with the atomic measures.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TABLE SHOWING

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GASES.

The foregoing particulars will, I hope, enable you to

comprehend the statical details of the following table
(pages 174 to 177,) which embraces a great mass of
information regarding all the gases, simple and com
pound, now known, except those belonging to organic
nature, of which only a few of the most important are
included. The plan of the table is as follows:–
 EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE OF GASEs. 173

The first column contains the names of the gases,

both elementary and compound; including, for facility
of reference, the non-volatile elements, Boron, Carbon,
&c., with their assumed specific gravity, atomic mea
sure, &c.
The second column exhibits the composition of the
different gases in atoms, expressed in symbols. The
value of the symbols is in all cases the same as is given
in the table of elements at page 135.
The third column contains the atomic weights of the
elements and compounds that are named in the two
preceding columns. The atomic weights of the com
pounds are, of course, the sum of the atomic weights
of their elements.
The fourth column shows the atomic measure of the
ga.SeS.
The fifth column shows the specific gravity of the
different gases, or it denotes the weight in grains of as
much in bulk of each gas as would fill a vessel capable
of holding 90.695 grains of atmospheric air, or 100.000
grains of oxygen gas. -

The sixth column shows the specific gravity of many

of these gases in reference to another standard, namely,
atmospheric air, taken equal to 1.0000. Such gases
only are enumerated in this column as have actually
been weighed, and the numbers quoted represent the
result of the weighings. The blanks show what gases
have never been weighed.
The seventh column shows the composition in
volumes, of a single volume of every different gas. In
respect to the elements, it shows also what relation a
single volume of each bears to a single atom. Thus,
one volume of oxygen is seen to be equal to one atom;
one volume of arsenic to be equal to two atoms; one
volume of mercury to be equal to half an atom; and
one volume of sulphur to be equal to three atoms. It
must be borne in mind, in examining the details of this
column, that the symbols invariably signify volumes and
not atoms, and that the fractions, are fractions of
volumes and not of atoms.
P 2
 ;
GCSpecific
#
3
Weight.
oravity.
of
Volumes,
inmposition
in = 11.0.
Air=
=
Gas.
Compound
00.000.
00.000.
sition ă
Specific
CAtomic
|
|OBSERVED
ompod; -
- Volume
ONE
||
Gravity.
GAs.
of
NAME 77e#Sb-H
T|
S–
. Cl
#
35.2135
rch.8
b2Cl6
loride,
2940.854 |.
4
2268.034
（Cl
4As4
||
6.3006
567,0085
hlor|
Tercs?
A–Cl6 ide, — $Cl
+B+
CBC16
3#
hloride,
oº
G:
Oxygen,
—
...
fas
Atoms.
the TT
2
6
-
}
i
||N+3H
||
0.5967
53.619
a14,476
2
— toms,
2N2H6
. T|
–.§
1As2
1#
I6eA419.646
ri6.1
5678,584
s-H
odide,
1464,154
3.942
66.0385
8—
.22.3124
#B+:F
FBF6
#luoride,
37.604
09,401
}
C2#
. H840
Alcohol,
0 2H6+
90.315
dSb
S—
11atom,
.
|ouble
b2
612,904 d||
A—
.
atom,
ouble
Ass?
940.084
91
10.65
40.084
A||
.1As–H3
|
13.85
240,084
Acid,
Arsenious
s?08
1240.084
Bromine,
489.153
Br
4I
Br
5.54
89,153
1Boron,
.
.
B
136.204

CONSTITUTION
GASES.
OF

}
}*.
#}
4
||
580.630
H2O
C4H100+
Hydrate,
Ether,
1.6133
|
145.1575

1Ammonia,
.
NH3
07.238 Antimony,
8.}
S06,452
b 4.
||
A70.042
Arsenic,
s

91.0000
.
Air,
0.695
 - -ºs-ºs- se -esº-*scº

H +${ †86’Off9 s S9 H ‘swoqo g. — —

ko

KN

ZI6I’I
8ZZ8’90I{ gț9’8 IZ SzH ºpºqqºrnqdȚnŞ –
Hğ+）[{ IgI’I ZI8 #’AOI gZ 1'6Ziff zd[9]H “pºqqornqdsoqq. —
Hý+ OZ 8’I g88'AMI g88'//,I z0ſH • “,9 inque O –
Hz + 0{ 9gg’0 g869’0g 168’IOI
ºseſ) qsJeſ!
0 #H
“pºļņøJnq Ieſ) –
Hğ+sył g69'Z I88'##4
CONSTITUTION OF GASES.

8Zgºſ, 16 z SV 9H “pºqqarnſuos.lv —
Hğ+qŞł 98g"ZI† 8f8'099 I « QS 9H #40 Inſuouiſqu’W –
• • •
H 8890’0 868Z’9 868Z’9 * H • • ºu83oupKH

r— cºs^*escºr- H ºve•ºcº-ºr-
JH 006'9II 006'9II * „H · · · *ouſionĻI
«HO Zg86'0 8I6'88 , 8I6'88 «HO ‘seº quegºIOºouſ 19q1'：[
#O + 9H2O +0 1 H+ O * ºpp， O ‘IKų4GI
#OH + 2 HOz
# O pH z O
N+O
}989’Z
#908'I
g10'#8Z{
996"#9I
}09 I'89#
ZI6'6Z8
{O
O z H + z'HOŤ ‘94'eſpÁHºuſ-ſoqºſºſ
0 0 i H* 0
zNz0
•
• •
• ••
qļGI •‘Iº
ºu83oue KQ
IOO {）O 6’g
968’886Z g OJOZ + 9IOJO ºppo VoļuIoIųoo.IoĻĻO
gZ84'16#{ g9ſ"#66 gI0 z 0-10 ºopſ Ioſqo KxO –
• • •
JO QI8’Ig8 gI8’Ig8 * JO * * *uunțulo Iq0
IO Ziff'Z gZ8’IZZ 938’IZZ * IO •••‘auſ Io[ųO
• • •
O + Oſ †Zg’I 6IZ’88I 88†’914 z00 º “pſov oſuoque Q
0$+$$ †08'98 #I 9Sg 0 ‘swoņo 8 — —

|
ko
/jſſf9"Z
†88'68Z{ 891'81,† « SO º “ſainų dȚnŞ –
O{+9% 60 #6'0 6IZ’88 88#91;I OO ••ºpp，0
0 88ff;'9', 88†’91, * O ·••‘uoque0
 Atomic 3.omposition
C|.|OBSERVED
Specific
-
º
i. Gravity.
Weight.
gÉÉComposition
-
rawlty.
In
AS. y G
S
0 N
Ui
OF
-
AME
- #º:the
of
Gas
Atoms.
#Oxygen
-
Gas.
Compound
Air=
00,000.
11.0. =
1=00,000.
H
#Br–H
990,786
H*Br?
#247,6965
Acid,
Hydrobromic
H
Cl- .2474
1113.7825
455.130
|.H2C12
Acid,
Hydrochloric
-

CN+}H
0.9476
342,392
85.598
H2+N2C2
.Acid,
Hydrocyanic
-

#F
H61.570
| --
246.280
.H2F2
Acid,
Hydrofluoric
-
HH
#1+!
4,44
2I?
.Acid,
1591.980
397.995
Hydriodic
2
8.716
789.750
I
.]II
Iodine,
2
1265.822
.Hg
Mercury,
7
HH .03
1
6 32.911
632.911
g
..a—g!
tom,
#Pr
Hg-H
10.11
877,4875
.|H g2
||3509.950
PBrº
— rotobromide
-

Br
Hg-H
12.16
||1122.064
2244.128
Brº
Hg
P— -
erbromide,
Hg--#Cl
8.35
743.5735
2974.294
rotochloride
PHg2C12
—
Cl
Hg-H
9.8
854.236
1708.472
HgCl2
P— erchloride,
Hg-H
16.2
1422,661
eriodide,
P2845.322
—
I.HgI2
|3.35
1.H gS
ulphuret,
S466.987
— 5.95
||;;;188997
*Hg+is
Hg2S3
atoms,
3
—
8
.NN
0.976
88.518
8.518
Nitrogen,
N+}0
1.5204
.N .77.036
2138.518
2O
||Oxide,
Nitrous
#N+40
1.0388
94.259
.N O
Oxide,
188,518
Nitric
O
1.1026
100.000
100.000
.O
.Oxygen,
 s
C}0}+Cl Cl
º
#P+ #Sn+2Cl
#P--$Cl #Si-H2Cl
O
+
Se #Si-H2F Cl
#S+ }Ti-H2C1]
#S+O H+}O
Se Si #S+30 Sn Ti
P S

4.875 5.939 2.247

9.1997 6.836
0.6235
4.58 4.85 4.03 3.01
3.6 6.9 4.7

309,544 392.286 430,059 434.256

247.2915 347.2915
277.312
535.0873 326.2373
}}
200.5825 }
603,495 422,490
250.5825
735,296 810.298 303.662 594,481 56.240

T
3.

247.2915 694,583 277.312 1605.262 978,712 201,165 603.495 422,490 1267.470 401.165 1203.495 501.165 1503,495
3.

3.
|º
619.088 196.143 392.286 1720.236 2605,536 494,583 735.296 1620.596 303.662 1188.962 112.480

.
C12
CO+
P2Cl6 P2Cl10 .
sicia SnCl4 . H2O
TiCl4
.
Se Se;
.
SeO2
Si
SiR'6
.
SC1
.
C13
S3
.
SO2
.
6
O
S3
.
SO3
.
O9
S3
.
Sn .
Ti
P.
P2 - S S3
.

atoms,
3
— - dry,
Acid,
Sulphuric
Protochloride,
— Sulphurous
Acid,
dowble
—
atom, Perchloride,
—
,
Acid,
Selenious
Phosgen
Gas, Chloride,—
— Fluoride, Chloride,
— Chloride,
— Chloride,
— --

Phosphorus, atoms,
3
—
. atoms,
3
—
. atoms,
3
—
.
atom,
,
—
.
.
Selenium, .
Sulphur, .
Titanium,
.
Silicon,
- Water,
|
.
Tin,
 178

ABSOLUTE WEIGHT OF GASES.

Before the student can derive much benefit from using
the information contained in the foregoing table, he
must know how to ascertain the absolute weight of any
measured quantity of a gas.
I have already stated, page 165, that if a given vessel,
such as the globe b, page 165, is adapted to contain a
fixed quantity by weight of oxygen gas, as for example
100 grains, then the same vessel will contain as much
more, or less, than 100 grains of any other gas, as the
gas may exceed or fall short of the specific gravity of
oxygen gas. Thus the vessel will contain 90.695 grains
of air, 113,7825 grains of muriatic acid gas, and so on.
But this method of ascertaining the weight of a gas
is not adapted to the ordinary operations of the experi
mental chemist, who has usually to deal with small and
very unequal measures of gases. He must therefore
be provided with measures so graduated that he can
ascertain the exact bulk of any quantity of a gas, and
must know how to determine the weight of the gas
from its bulk, thus measured, according to some fixed
standard.
ENGLISH CUBIC-INCH STANDARD.
In Great Britain, the vessels employed for collecting
and measuring gases, are commonly graduated
into cubic inches, and into 10ths and 100ths of
the cubic inch. The annexed figure represents
a gas tube, capable of holding 10 cubic inches,
and graduated into inches and 10ths of an inch,
or into 100 divisions in all. The large cylinder
depicted in page 165, is graduated into divisions,
each of which represents 10 cubic inches. The
bulk of a gas can be measured by vessels such
as these used with a pneumatic trough, contain
ing water or mercury, as may be necessary.
It remains to show in what manner the weight
of a gas can be calculated from the measure,
without submitting it to special trial.
According to the best estimates with which I
 CUBIC INCIH GAS MEASURE, 179

am acquainted, the absolute weight of one cubic inch of

oxygen gas, taken when the thermometer is at 60°
F., and the barometer at 30 inches, is .3418 of an
imperial grain. At the same temperature and pressure,
one cubic inch of air weighs .31 grain.
Adopting this standard, the absolute weight of any
number of cubic inches of oxygen gas is found by mul
tiplying that number by .3418. Thus, 10 cubic inches
weigh 3.418 grains, and 100 cubic inches weigh 34.18
grains.
The principle on which the weights of the other
gases are calculated, is very simple. The fifth column
of the Table of Gases, pages 174 to 177, shows the weight
of a volume of each gas, compared with the weight of
an equal volume of oxygen gas fixed at 100.000. Now
let us suppose, that this volume is a HUNDRED CUBIC
INCHES. We have assumed the absolute weight of a
cubic inch of oxygen gas to be = .3418 grain. A
hundred cubic inches is therefore 34.18 grains.
Is it not in that case evident, that the absolute weight
of a hundred cubic inches of any other gas must be as
much above, or as much under, 34.18 grains, as its
specific gravity is above, or under, 100,000? Must not
a hundred cubic inches of air weigh ſº;% of 34.18
grains? If a hundred cubic inches of oxygen gas weigh
34.18 grains, and a hundred cubic inches of air are as
heavy as only nine-tenths of that weight, must they not
be equal to nine-tenths of 34.18 grains? And if a hun
dred cubic inches of iodine vapour weigh 7.89750 times
as much as a hundred cubic inches of oxygen gas, must
not the absolute weight of that quantity of iodine be
equal to 34.18 grains X 7,89750?
The reply that must evidently be given to these
questions is, that if .3418 grain is the weight of a cubic
inch of oxygen gas, then the specific gravities quoted in
column fifth of the Table of Gases, must, when multi
plied by .3418, give the weight of 100 cubic inches of
each particular gas.
If any uneven number of cubic inches of a gas is to
be taken into calculation, the product of .3418 into
180 CUBIC CENTIMETER GAS MEASURE.

the specific gravity of the gas must be multiplied by

the number of cubic inches, and that product be divided
by 100.
Let a = the number of cubic inches of gas. Then,
Absolute weight of sp. gr. × .3418 grain X w.
a cubic inches T 100.

ExAMPLE. What is the absolute weight in grains of 50

cubic inches of atmospheric air?
90.695 50*f;
× **–154908 grains.
.695 × .3418 × 50.
.3418 ×

CUBIC CENTIMETER STANDARD.

In France and Germany the measurement of gases
is effected in vessels graduated into cubic centimeters.
The absolute weight of 1000 cubic centimeters (= 1
Litre) of oxygen gas, taken when the centigrade ther
mometer is at 0°, and the mercury in the barometer is
at 0.76 meter, is 1.43236 grammes. The absolute
weight of the same quantity of air, at the same tem
perature and pressure, is 1.299075 grammes.
Now 1,43236, the absolute weight in grammes of
1000 cubic centimeters of oxygen gas, is the product of
100.000, the specific gravity of oxygen gas, as tabled
at page 176, multiplied by .0143236.3 Consequently, the
absolute weight of 1000 cubic centimeters of any of
the gases named in the Table, pages 174 to 177, can be
found by multiplying the specific gravities given in
column fifth by the number.0143236.
If you wish to find the absolute weight of any num
ber of cubic centimeters less than 1000, say of a cubic
centimeters, you must use the following formula:
Absolute weight of sp. gr.X.0143236×a.
a cubic centimeters T 1000.

ExAMPLE. What is the absolute weight in grammes of

500 cubic centimeters of nitrogen gas?
88.518X.01432865& 500
 NEW WOLUMETER FOR GASES. 181

The last calculation may also be made as follows:–

To find the Weight in Grammes of any Measure of a
Gas, expressed in Cubic Centimeters:—
Multiply the specific gravity of the Gas, as given in
column fifth of the Table, by the number of cubic cen
timeters, and the sum by 0.0000143236. The product
is the weight of the gas in grammes.
A similar formula may be adopted in reference to
Cubic Inches.
To find the Weight in Grains of any Measure of a
Gas, expressed in Cubic Inches:—
Multiply the specific gravity of the Gas, as given in
column fifth of the Table, by the number of cubic
inches, and the sum by 0.003418. The product is the
weight of the gas expressed in imperial grains.
Example of Calculation by means of Logarithms.
To find the weight of 100 cubic inches of atmospheric
air:—
spec. grav. . 90.695 log. 1.9575833
cubic inches, 100. 2.0
constant multiplier, .003418 3.5337721

Product 31.0 grains log. 1.4913554

NEW WOLUMETER PROPOSED.
A more convenient unit for gas measures than either
of the above might be adopted:
For example, the BULK OF A GIVEN WEIGHT OF
Oxygen GAs, taken at a fixed temperature and pres
sure, say at 60° Fahr., and when the Barometer is
at 30 inches. Let us examine what would be the
advantages of gas measures graduated on this plan.
If one cubic inch of Oxygen Gas, weighed under the
given circumstances, is equal to .3418 grain, then—
1 grain of Oxygen Gas = 2.9257 cubic inches.
10 grains - = 29.257 -

100 grains - = 292.57 -

Q
182 NEW WOLUMETER FOR GASES.

a). Suppose a receiver of the capacity of 292.57

cubic inches to be divided into 100 parts, each division
will contain 1 grain of oxygen gas.
b). If a jar containing 29.257 cubic inches is divided
into 100 parts, each division will contain .1 grain of
oxygen gas. 10 divisions will be equal to 1 division of
Jar a).
c). }:a jar containing 2.9257 cubic inches is divided
into 100 parts, each division will contain .01 grain of
oxygen gas. 100 divisions will be equal to 1 division of
Jar a).
It h evident that if Oxygen Gas is collected and
measured in such vessels, the volume of the gas shows
directly the weight in grains.
Ea'amples:—
50 divisions of jar a) contain 50 grains of Oxygen.
30 divisions of jar b) contain 30 × .1 grain = 3 grains
of Oxygen.
80 divisions of jar c) contain 80 × .01 grain = 8 grain
of Oxygen. -

But if any other Gas than Oxygen is measured in

this manner, how can the corresponding weight be
ascertained?
Answer:-Multiply the volume of the gas, expressed
in degrees of jar a), by the specific gravity, as stated
in column fifth of the Table of Gases, and divide the
sum by 100. The product is the weight of the gas
in grains.
This arises immediately from the nature of specific
gravities, as explained in page 165. A vessel of 100
measures that contains 100 grains of Oxygen Gas,
contains still 100 measures, but 90.695 grains of air,
221.325 grains of chlorine gas, and so on. If only half
that measure is present, the weights are necessarily,
100 grains × 50 90.695 × 50 &c.
100 7 100 > -
 NEW WOLUMETER FOR GASES. 183

PROBLEM.–80. Measures of gas are received in jar b).

40. Measures of carbonic acid gas are absorbed by
potash. The residual 40 measures are found to be
carbonic oxide gas. What is the weight of each?
40 Measures of Jar b) are equal to 4 Measures of
Jar a).
Sp. gr. of Carbonic Acid Gas = 138,219
138.219 × 4 -

—iſſ-— 5.52876 grains.

Sp. gr. of Carbonic Oxide Gas = 88.219

*::: *=852870 grain.
Answer.—5.52876 grains of Carbonic Acid.
3.52876 grains of Carbonic Oxide.
The results of all experiments made with the use of
vessels graduated in this manner would of course be
expressed by weight.

Influence of Temperature, Pressure, and Moisture on

the Bulk of Gases.—When gases are heated higher than
the standard temperature, which in England is 60°
Fahr. and on the Continent 0° Cent, the bulk increases.
When they are cooled below the standard tempera
ture, the bulk decreases. When they are subjected to
more than the standard pressure, which is that of the
atmosphere reckoned at 30 inches of mercury in Eng
land, and 0.76 meter on the Continent, the bulk
diminishes. When the pressure is less than the stand
ard, the bulk enlarges. When moisture is present,
the bulk is greater according to the amount of moisture.
Hence the true bulk of a gas can only be ascertained
when all these influences have been examined and
allowed for.—See the Treatises on PHYSICs, CHEMICAL
ANALYSIs, &c., for instructions on these subjects.
184

DESCRIPTION OF
A CHEMICAL READY-RECKONER.

Many of the calculations which the

chemist finds it necessary to make, fall
under what is commonly termed the rule
of three (the rule of proportion). Calcula
tions of that sort can be executed rapidly
but roughly, for ordinary operations, by
means of a pair of compasses and the
diagram given in the margin.
This diagram contains GUNTER’s line
of logometric numbers. ... The compasses
employed must open easily, and have very
fine points. If you open the compasses so
wide that one leg points to 10, and the
other to 20, upon this scale, you will find
that wherever you apply the compasses
thus opened to the degrees marked upon
the scale, the numbers situated at their
two points will always bear the relation
of 10:20. Hence you can readily per
form such calculations as the following:—
10 : 20 : : 50 : 100
15 : 30 : : 45 : 90
13.5 : 27 : : 19.5 : 39
11.25: 22.5 : : 17.75 : 35.5
With any other opening of the compasses,
you come to similar results: at equal
intervals of space, the numbers on the
scale are always proportional.
Now, although such calculations cannot
be made with great accuracy, and are not
much to be depended upon when each
term consists of more than three figures;
yet the results are sufficiently correct for
many common laboratory experiments,
for checking the results of direct arithme
tical calculations, and for verifying the
 CHEMICAL READY-RECKONER. 185

calculations contained in argumentative discourses. I

shall mention a few problems in which this method of
calculation can be brought into use, in company with
portions of the foregoing Tables of Atomic Weights and
Decimal Equivalents.
PROBLEM 1. How much Sodium is contained in 27;
grains of Chloride of Sodium?–1 grain of Chloride of
Sodium contains .39656 grain of Sodium. See Table,
page 163. Hence the problem to be solved is this:—
100 : 39,66 : ; 27.5 : æ.
Place one leg of the compasses upon 100 at the bottom
of the scale, and the other upon 39% or a little beyond
39}, namely, as near to 39% as you can guess. Then
remove one leg of the compasses from 100 to 27%; upon
which the other leg will fall upon 10%, which is the
number of grains of Sodium contained in 27# grains
of NaCl2.
Proof. .39656 x 27.5 = 10.905400.
PROBLEM 2. How much Chloride of Silver is produced
by 20; grains of Silver?—1 part of Chloride of Silver
contains .7533 part of Silver. Table, page 163. Hence
the problem is this:—
75.33 : 100 : : 20.5 : æ.
Place the two legs of the compasses upon 100 and 75}.
Then remove one leg from 75% up to 20%, upon which
the other leg falls upon 27# = grains of Chloride of
Silver, produced by 20% grains of Silver.
100 × 20.5
Proof. -7553- - 27,213.

PROBLEM 3. How much Lime is contained in 100

grains of Carbonate of Lime?—The relation between
the atomic weights of Lime and Carbonate of Lime is
given at page 137, and again at page 150; namely,
35.6 Lime to 63.25 Carbonate of Lime. Set the com
Q2
186 CHEMICAL READY-RECKONER.

passes to 35% and 63} on the scale, and remove one leg
from 63} to 100. The other leg will then point to 56%
nearly.
Proof. The quantity of Lime in 100 Carbonate of
Lime is .56292. See page 161. This is found by the
proportion 632,457 : 356,019 :: 100 : w = .56292.
PROBLEM 4. How much Sulphur is contained in 17;
grains of precipitated Sulphate of Barytes?–1 grain of
Sulphate of Barytes contains.13797 grain of Sulphur.
See page 159. Hence the problem is as follows:—
100 : 13.8 : ; 17.5 : a.
If the compasses are set to 100 and 13.8, then on re
moving one leg to 17.5, the other passes far beyond the
printed scale. In such a case the quantity represented
by 13.8 may be multiplied by 5, which brings it to 69,
a number within the scale. Then with the distance
100 to 69, we take the distance 17.5 to 12. This last
number, 12, divided by 5, (to compensate the previous
multiplication by 5,) gives the required result = 2.4
grains.
Proof. .13797 × 17.5 = 2.414475.
PROBLEM 5. How much Alumina is contained in 12 lbs.
weight of crystallised Potash Alum?—The atomic weight
of Alumina is 642.33, and that of Alum, cryst. 5936.43.
Hence the problem is:—
59.4 : 6.4 : : 12 : •
As the proportions 59.4 : 6.4 cannot be measured, be
cause 6.4 is not in the scale, we double 6.4, and take
59.4 : 12.8. Then removing one leg of the compasses
from 594, to 48, = 12 × 4, the other leg points to 10},
the eighth part of which = 1; lb. is the quantity of
alumina.
Proof. 5936.43 : 642.33 :: 12 : 1.2984 = 1%.
PRQBLEM 6. How much Oxygen is contained in lb.
avoirdupois of Chlorate of Potash?–1 grain of Chlorate
 scALE OF EQUIVALENTs. 187

of Potash contains .3915 grain of Oxygen; see Table,

page 162. Half an avoirdupois pound is equal to 3500
grains.
Take the interval 100 to 39.15, as near as you can.
Remove one leg of the compasses from 100 to 35. The
other leg then falls upon 13.7. Hence, the quantity of
Oxygen contained in 3500 grains of Chlorate of Potash
is 1370 grains.
Proof. 3915 × 3500 = 1370.2500.
Those who desire more particular information on the
construction of scales of this description, are referred to
DR. WoLLASTON's paper on a Scale of Chemical Equi
valents, printed in the Philosophical Transactions, for
1814, part 1.
If such a scale, instead of being restricted to a few
inches in length, were enlarged to 4 or 5 feet, and
carefully engraved on a substantial basis of brass or
boxwood, it would serve for very accurate calculations.
A still better method would be to have it drawn on a
circle of 12 or 15 inches in diameter, and again on
another circle a little smaller than that, and then to
fasten both circles to a central axis, so that one could be
moved round upon the other while lying parallel to
it. The compasses would then be unnecessary, and
the calculations would be fully as accurate as the
ordinary results of analytical experiments.
 188

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF THE

ATOMIC. WEIGHTS OF THE EI.EMENTS
ASSUMED BY DIFFERENT AUTHORS.

It is a source of great perplexity to students of

chemistry, and often of much inconvenience to experi
enced chemists, that different authors have assumed
different sets of numbers, to express the ratios of the
atomic weights.
These numbers differ in two respects. In the first
place, many authors begin with Hydrogen, and fix that
element as unity, or 1.0. Then another set of writers
take Oxygen for unity, and call it 1.0 or 100,000. In
both cases, all the other atomic numbers are made to
correspond with the chosen standard.
In the second place, owing to the prevalence of dif
ferent opinions on certain theoretical points, authors
are not agreed on the quantity of matter which consti
tutes a single atom of certain elements. Hence, what
by one writer is called an atom of a given element, is
by another held to be only half an atom, or it may be
two atoms. These differences of opinion produce results
that are very puzzling to beginners.
As the present volume will probably be used as an
introduction, or as an appendage to systematic works
of a “larger growth,” I have thought it right to give
the reader a key by which he will be enabled to decipher
some of the riddles to which the above-mentioned want
of agreement among authors gives rise, and be conse
quently enabled to compare what is stated here with
what he finds stated elsewhere. I shall quote an
example or two, to show in what manner the key is to
be employed.
The symbol which I have given, after BERzELIUS,
to denote Water, is H2O: the atomic weight=112.48.
In GRAHAM’s Elements of Chemistry, the symbol
used for the same compound is HO: the atomic weight
= 112.5... If now you look to the “Comparative
Weights,” you will find that BERZELIUs's number for
the atomic weight of Hydrogen is only half as much as
 COMPARATIVE ATOMIG WIEIGHTS. 189

that assumed by GRAHAM, while the number which

both use to express the atomic weight of Oxygen is the
same. Hence, the atom of Water contains, according
to Berzelius, two atoms of Hydrogen, but according to
Graham, only one atom. The atomic weight of the
compound is the same on both views.
Again, BERZELIUs’s symbol for Phosphoric Acid is
P*05. That given by GRAHAM is PO. The atomic
weight of the compound, quoted by both, is 892.28.
The explanation of the difference in the symbols is,
that BERZELIUS’s assumed number for the atom of
Phosphorus is only half as much as the number adopted
by GRAHAM. See the Table, page 191.
These examples show that the formulae of compounds
given in the works of different writers, can be easily
translated into one another, by means of the numbers
contained in this Table.
Thus, H2O Berzelius = HO Graham.
P206 Berzelius = PO, Graham.
I have already explained, page 143, that the superior
figures used by Berzelius, have exactly the same signi
fication as the inferior figures used by Graham; so that
O* signifies the same as Og, and so on.
The Berlin chemists and mineralogists, namely,
Rose, Mitscherlich, Poggendorff, Schubarth, &c., and
most other German chemists, except Gmelin, follow
Berzelius’s numbers implicitly. Liebig sometimes
adopts Berzelius's numbers, as in the “Handwórter
buch der Chemie,” and sometimes uses the numbers
quoted under the head of Graham in the present
Table.
£
# źÉ
§#:=
"ă
ELEMENTS.
"E c;3 3
E |##
*
|#|
3|
3.
5
55
STANDARD.
HYDROGEN

.E
+
3
ºf
...?
ca-wn-
5H
3
5
J 32.
=}
c2
p:
$E-
Ö

|§
ă#
|
3
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&
3
§
3
S
-
3

STANDARD.
OXYGEN

110
|
13.72
1.25
171.25
171.17
||
171.167
13.7
A3.72
|
Al
luminum,8.
26 A612.90
|
Sb
ntimony,
1806.452
|
129.
129.24
64.62.
65
64612.5 Chromium,
|
Cr
4.
351.25
28
32
351.82
351.815
28.1
28.19
B886.920
|
Biismuth, Bromine,697.5
78
80
78.4
78.39
||
39.20
Br 7.
696.77
696.767
Cadmium,
Cd
56
55.8
||
55.83 36
35.4
35.47
17.74
||
4.5
442.5
Chlorine,
|
Cl
38
75.2
75.34
37.67
||
4.75
940.
940.08
470.042
Arsenic,69
|
As B8.66
|
Ba
arium,
8.5
6875.5
6
|8.6
8
856.88
856.880
72
108
71.
71.07
13.5
||
887.5
886.92 489.153
978.31
10.
980.
|Calcium,
|
Ca
2256.019
20
20.5
20.52
||
2.5
256.25
256.02
0 75.76.44
76.438
C6
|
Carbon,574.796
6.13
||
.75
6. 574,70
||
Cerium,
Ce
46.
46.05
6.25
575.
48
50
442.65
||
221.325
Copper,18
Cu
Cobalt,395,695
30
26
29.6
29.57
||
3.25
|
Co
370.
368.99
368,991 4,
397.5
395.70
||
32
31.8
31.71
9.37
||
2.25
233.75
1116,900
1
|Fluorine,
F8.74
8.7
233.808
Boron,
|
B
1.
131.25
136.25
136.204
10.5
||
10.91
1
8 1
191

Off Off 89°68 89°68 ’009 8g"#6Ë 88g"#6# ºuInquº [0Ş

Zg †g 0Z"Zg Z’Zg g"Zg9 68’Ig9 188"Ig9 ºu InſpoĻŅI
Off Off 9Z'68 9Z'68 '06Ë Z6'68# 916'68# ‘uungsstºņoq
66 #8'86 g8'86 g/,'88ZI 09'88ZI 66Ť'88ZI ‘uīnu ņeĻI
COMPARATIVE ATOMIC. WEIGHTS.

9I 9I ††‘IG Z!‘gI g"Z68 8Z’Z68 &#L’96I ºsnioqdsoĻI

†g †g 98'8g 98’8g 9°/99 06'g99 668’g99 ‘uunſpæIȚe：I
I0'8 I0'8 ’00I 00’00I 000’00I ‘u03KxO
00I 00I Z!‘66 ZA'66 ºgſz I 6###ZI 18###ZI “ųInquisO
#I #I 6L"#I 60’ſ, ºg? I †0’ſ.ſ. I 8Ig’88 ‘uoão IĮĮN
8Z 94 Z9’6Z Z9’6Z '0/8 89°698 g19"698 “[ºx{0!N
8ff; 8# 96'ſ ſy 96'ſiſ; ’009 Zgº869 0，9"86.g ‘uunuopq&ſoIN
00I &#’IOL &#'IOI gº 19ZI Z8’g9ZI ZZ8’g9ZI “Kuno.IoIN
8Z 8Z Z!'/3 Z!')， ºg f8 68'gŤ8 188’gf8 ‘øsøueºueJN
ZI ZI 69'ZI 69°ZI gſ.'8gI g8'89 I 898’89 I ‘uunţsou@eIN
††‘9 ††‘9 '08 88'08 g18°08 ‘uunțqųII
†OI †OI 8!'80I 81’80I gº/6ZI 0g"#6ZI 86 #'f6ZI ºpbørī
2 ‘uunuequer I
8Z 8Z 8I’ſ， 8L’AZ 'Òſſº IZ'688 g0Z'688 ‘uo II
96 86 #8'86 #8'86 g|'88ZI 0ç’88ZI 66 #’88ZI ‘uumipſ II
9ZI 9ZI Zg’9ZI 8Z'89 ºg 19I 09°6'19-I 09|（681 ‘auſpoI
00’I g’0 g"ZI g6! f'ZI 868Z'9 ‘uoão IpKH
00Z 00I IZ'66I 09’66 ’088 80'98 #3 8IO'8řZI ‘p[0-9
8I 8I †g'9Z †g'9Z gZ’IZZ 9Z"I88 I9Z’I&8 ‘uunuſon H)
 HYDROGEN
STANDARD.
OXYGEN
É
.8%
tº-3
E###
#ă LEMENTs.
.#
a.#
l..
tº
t;
.3
#ã#3|àº##|
|#
#
#à|
5
$
|||3
#
É
33: 3
| $4
H
22.22
14.8
SSi 8
277.312
ilicon,
|277.31
1.
185.
103.3
108
||110
108.2
|108.30
1351,61
|1
13.75352.5
1351.607
Ag|Silver,
S
Na24
||23.2
odium,
|23.31
290.90
3.
290.
290.897
SSr 44
43.85
44.
5.5trontium,
|547.29
547.285
||550.
SS 116
|16.12 6.
6.12
01.17
ulphur,
|2201.165
2.
200.
T 185
182
185.
184.90
2307.43
22.75
||2312.5
1153.715
|92.45
Ta antalum,
TTe64.25
6
|3
32
4.
400.2.
4.25
|| ellurium,
801.760
|801.76
744.90
7.5
60
59.6
59.83
Thorium,
745.
||59.65
744.900
Th
58.92
8.92
58
735.29
5|7.25
Tin,
||59.
735.296
Sn737.
24
26
24.5
3.25
306.25
TTi
|24.33itanium,
||303.66
303.662
TW 94.80
91005.
||ungsten,
|1183.00
|1
||1187.5
2.5
1183,000
V 68
856.89
68.66
|6
|857.5
V 8.6
8.66
anadium,
855.840
U217
208
217.26
|26.
||2712.5
217.
ranium,
|2711.36
U2711,358
32
32.25
36
Yttrium,
||4||4.5
Y 02.51
02.5
|402.514
|32.2
34
4
32.31
||32.2
|3203.23
403.226
4.25
402.5
Zinc,
Zn
22420.20
420,201
Zirconium,
33.67
||22.4
Zr 280.
2.75
 193

FORMUL.AE EMPLOYED IN
CAL CULATIONS RESPECTING ATOMIC
CONSTITUTION.

Let m = the mass, quantity, or absolute weight of a

substance.
a = the atomic weight.
m = the number of atoms which constitute the mass.

Formula 1, m = a X m.
The mass is equal to the atomic weight multiplied by
the number of atoms.
270.
Formula 2. = ??,

The mass, divided by the atomic weight, is equal to the

number of atoms.

Formula 3. # - Q.

The mass, divided by the number of atoms, is equal to

the atomic weight.
Use of these Formulae.—Suppose that you have ana
lysed a compound, and ascertained the relative pro
portions in weight of its elements. You want then to
know, to how many atoms of each element these relative
proportions correspond. This is found by means of the
preceding formulae, the use of which depends upon this
very simple and evident principle, that the absolute
weight, or mass, of each component of a compound, as
determined by analysis, consists of a definite number of
atoms, each atom having a definite weight. Hence the
mere division of the number which represents the mass,
by that which represents the atomic weight, must show
the relative number of atoms.

Evample:—100000 parts of Iron Pyrites afford, by

analysis, of iron 45744 parts, of sulphur 54256 parts.
R
194 DERIWATION OF FORMULAE.

The mass of iron = 45744, divided by the atomic

weight of iron = 339.205, gives the number of atoms
of iron = 13485, by Formula 2, thus: -

45744

The mass of sulphur = 54256, divided by the atomic

weight of sulphur = 201.165, gives the number of atoms
of sulphur = 26971, by Formula 2, thus:
54256
= 26971.
201165
The quotients (in this case two, but often several in
number,) are reduced to their simplest exponents by
means of a general diviser, which diviser is, in all
cases, the smallest of the quotients obtained.
26971 –2
13485 T “
18485 –1
13485 T **
This result shows that the components of Iron Pyrites
are 1 atom of Iron and 2 atoms of Sulphur. The for
mula for this compound is consequently FeS2.
Second Example:—100000 parts of Sulphate of Lead
afford by analysis, 68287 parts of Lead, 10612 parts of
Sulphur, and 21101 parts of Oxygen. The atomic
weights of these elements are Pb = 1294.498, S =
201,165, Q = 100.000. Then using. Formula 2, we
arrive at the following results:—
Pb = 1%;#### = 5275 = 1 atom = Pb.
S = ** = 5275 = 1 atom = S
O = ſººn = 21101 = 4 atoms = 04
The Formula pointed out by this process for Sul
phate of Lead is PbSO4, but the formula given at
page 144 is PbO, SO3. The former shows the ultimate
constitution of the compound; the latter shows its PRE
SUMED proximate constitution. Read the article on this
subject at page 141. Read also the article on the
 STATEMENT OF TRANSFORMATIONS. 195

different methods of forming Sulphate of Lead, given

in page 140. These articles will show you, that we
arrive at the knowledge of the ultimate constituents of
a compound by experiment; but that the grouping of
the ultimate constituents into the proximate constituents
of a compound, is entirely a matter of opinion, depend
ing on the exercise of the judgment of the chemist, or
on the play of his fancy. The grouping of the ulti
mate elements of Sulphate of Lead may be—
PbO +SO 3 PbS + O.4
PbO2+SO2 Pb +SO4
PbO 8-H SO PbO4+S
or even different from all these. We possess no ex
perimental guide in this matter. The theory of the
composition of salts commonly received, points out
PbO+SO3, as the probable proximate composition of
Sulphate of Lead. Experiment e, page 140, proves
that this compound can be formed by the direct com
bination of PbO2 with SO2, apparently producing
PbO2+S02. But several chemists are of opinion,
that the true proximate constitution is shown by the
formula Pb-i-SO4. See GRAHAM’s Elements of Chem
istry, page 158, GREGORY's Outlines of Chemistry,
page 98.

METHOD OF REPRESENTING THE

TRANSFORMATIONS THAT TAKE PLACE
DURING A CHEMICAL PROCESS.

The shortest and clearest method, one which is

equally easy to write, to read, and to be printed, is that
of putting the ingredients of a process, and its products,
into the form of an equation. As the sum of the weights
of the ingredients required for every process is pre
cisely equal to the sum of the weights of the products,
this method is equally simple and certain. Suppose
we wish to describe the preparation of carbonic acid by
the addition of muriatic acid to chalk, we do it thus:—
H2Cl2 + CaO, CO2 = CaCl2 + H2O + CO2.
196 STATEMENT OF TRANSFORMATIONS.

These symbols represent atomic weights, but if we

require to know the absolute weights of the whole or of
any of the ingredients, we can readily find it by means
of the Tables at pages 146 and 158. Thus, at page
161, it is shown that 1 lb. of chalk will give .43708 lb.
of carbonic acid.
This method of representing chemical reactions has
been adopted by LEOPOLD GMELIN, DOEBEREINER, and
Dr. GREGORY, and is certainly preferable to all others.
In Dr. REID's works a different method may be
seen. His diagrams are clear, but bulky, and when
printed, each requires an engraving.
A third method, and certainly the worst of the whole,
is followed by RICHARD PHILLIPs in his Translation of
the “London Pharmacopoeia.” The following is a
specimen:—
Carbonic Acid Gas.

Hydrogen. Oxygen.
—” Chalk.
Hydrochloric Water.
Acid.
Chlorine. Calcium.
S--——-y-—
Chloride of Calcium.
In the description of this method it is stated that, “It
is to be understood, that the new compounds formed
during a process, or constituents assuming a fresh state,
are denoted by being printed in italics.”
It is evident that this method gives as much infor
mation in half a page of a book, as the equation gives
in a single line.
 197

IMPERIAL LIQUID MEASURE.

CoRRESPONDENCE OF THE WEIGHT AND MEASURE OF WATER.
Temperature, 62°F. Barom., 30 inches. Weight, Avoirdupois.

Gallon | &#|#|
Hº
|| |d. ... pi. Grains.
P+

l 4 || 8 || 10 160 277.274 1280 || 70000

1 || 2 || 2:5 40 69°3185 320 17500
1 || 1:25 20 || 34:6593 160 87.50
To l 16 27.7274 128 7000
#5 3 2.286 3-96106 | 18286 1000
Töö T's 1.6 || 2:77274 12.8 700
1 | 1.73296 8 437.5
•5770 || 1:0 4:6164 || 252.458
•2286 || 396106 | 1.8286 100
•2083 || 361033 | 1.6667 91.1458
•16 || -277274 1.28 70
1–
Tööö " | 125
I
21862) | 10 || 54.6875
Toºwo Tööö ‘old O27727 -128 7
•0023 •003961 || 01829 l

The figures that have a dot over them are inexact.

IMPERIAL LIQUID MEASURE.
DIVIDED DECIMALLY.

Avoird. Weight
DECI- CENTI- || MILLI- S of Water at 62°F.
GALLON. GAILons. GAILons | GAILons |SEPTEMs.
GRAINs.|Pounds.

1. 10- 100- 1000. 10000 || 70000" | 10.

•l 1. 10° 100° 1000 || 7000' | 1.
•01 •l 1. 10° 100° 700. •l
•001 •01 •1 1. 10. 70. •01
•0001 •001 •01 •l 1. 7. •001

1 Quart=2500 Septems. 1 Fluid Ounce= 62.5 Septems.

1 Pint = 1250 Septems. * 1 Cubic Inch =36.06543 Septems.
R 2
 NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS,
METALLOIDS.

The following Elements do not possess the proper

ties of Metals, and they are all non-conductors of
electricity:
1. Oxygen. 6. Phosphorus. 10. Fluorine.
2. Hydrogen. 7. Chlorine. 11. Carbon.
3. Nitrogen. 8. Bromine. 12. Boron.
4. Sulphur. 9. Iodine. 13. Silicon.
5. Selenium. -
 199

1. OXY GEN. O = 100,000.

Occurrence. Oxygen occurs in greater abundance

than any other element: at least one-third of the weight
of the whole earth is oxygen. Water contains ; of its
weight, and air of its bulk, of this element. Sand
contains # of its weight of oxygen, and clay and lime
stone nearly as much. It is essential to the existence,
and enters largely into the composition, of vegetables
and animals. See page 14.
Properties. Oxygen forms a colourless, tasteless,
and inodorous gas, which is nearly insoluble in water,
has no action on lime-water, and does not change the
colour of tincture of litmus. It is distinguished from
other gases by supporting combustion with great vigour.
If a glowing match is held in a glass containing oxygen
gas, the match instantly inflames, and burns quicker
and with much greater heat and brilliancy than in
common air. Various gases which cannot alone support
combustion, acquire that property when mixed with
oxygen. This is the reason that combustible bodies
burn in common air, which contains one part of oxygen
gas mingled with four parts of nitrogen gas. Animals
live longer in a given bulk of oxygen gas than in the
same bulk of common air.
Oxygen gas is heavier than common air, in the pro
portion of 100,000 to 90.695, or 1.1026 to 1.0000, Ber
zelius. The number 100,000 is taken in this work to
represent the specific gravity of oxygen gas. A cubic
inch of oxygen gas, taken when the barometer stands
at 30 inches, and the thermometer at 60° F., weighs
0.3418, or nearly one-third, of a grain. Its atomic
measure is one volume. Its atomic weight is fixed at
100.000. Page 176.

OXIDES.—When a body is burnt in oxygen gas, it

combines with the oxygen and produces a compound
which is termed an Owide. This oxide equals in
200 OXYGEN.

weight the joint weight of the body subjected to burn

ing and the gas burnt away. Thus:–
C + O2 = CO2, H2 + O = H2O, and S + O2=SO 2.
Compounds possessing very different properties are
formed by the combination of oxygen with other ele
ments. Thus, water consists of oxygen and hydrogen;
air, of oxygen and nitrogen; sulphurous acid, of oxygen
and sulphur; aquafortis, of oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen; caustic potash, of oxygen, hydrogen, and
potassium; black oxide of copper, of oxygen and copper;
lime, of oxygen and calcium. Some of these com
pounds are called OxIDEs, others ACIDs; but none of
them exhibit either acid or alcaline properties in the
absence of hydrogen.
There is no ascertained limit to the number of atoms.
in which oxygen and the other elements combine; but
such compounds as the following are common:
º2O,
represents Oxygen, M represents any other element]
MO, M3 O4, M203, MO2, MO3, MO", etc.
Oxides combine with one another, more especially do
oxides of the metalloids combine with oxides of the
metals, and produce the important compounds called
salts. -

PREPARATION OF OxygEN GAs.

I shall describe the preparation of this Gas, and the conduct
of experiments with it at considerable length, in order to be
enabled to give a description of the pneumatic apparatus em
ployed for experiments with gases in general. The preparation
of other gases will be described more briefly. Additional par
ticulars respecting the management of pneumatic apparatus may
be seen in my work on “Chemical Manipulation.”

A. Materials from which Oxygen Gas is procured.

a). From Chlorate of Potash.-Equal parts by weight
of Chlorate of Potash and Black Oxide of Copper, well
dried and finely pounded, are intimately mingled. This
mixture is well adapted for the extemporaneous pre
paration of oxygen gas. When exposed to a gentle
 PREPARATION OF OXYGEN GAS. 201

heat, over a small spirit lamp, it becomes red hot, and

disengages a rapid current of pure oxygen gas. The

best vessel to use for the experiment is a hard German

glass tube, about an inch wide, and six inches long,
connected by a long and sound cork with a gas-leading
tube, 20 inches long and of not less than half-an-inch
bore: a smaller tube will not carry off the gas with
sufficient rapidity.
The tube may be half filled with the mixture, and
must be placed nearly in a horizontal position, over a
small spirit-lamp. The incandescence appears very
soon after the flame is applied to the tube. It rapidly
extends through the whole mixture, and the operation
is then at once ended; the discharge of gas ceases
suddenly. What remains in the tube is a dry coarse
black powder, resembling gunpowder, which does not
adhere to the glass, but can be readily shaken out. It
consists of black oxide of copper and chloride of potas
sium. The latter can be removed by washing, and the
former recovered for a repetition of the process, for
which it serves any number of times; so that the use
of the oxide of copper does not increase the cost of the
oxygen gas. ---

According to the experiments of BERZELIUs, 1 grain

202 OXYGEN.

of chlorate of potash gives 3915 grain of oxygen.

Estimating the weight of 1 cubic inch of oxygen gas
at 34 grain, this product is equal to 1-151 cubic inches.
I find that 2 grains of the black mixture above
described, containing 1 grain of chlorate of potash, give
just this quantity of oxygen gas. Hence it appears,
that, in this process, the chlorate of potash is completely
decomposed, and its oxygen entirely discharged in the
state of gas; while, notwithstanding the incandescence
that occurs, the black oxide of copper remains un
changed in composition and properties.
Cost of Oxygen Gas Prepared by this Process.—1;
grain (175 grain) of the black mixture produces 1 cubic
inch of oxygen gas. This quantity of the mixture con
tains 875 grain, or the 8000th part of 1 lb. avoirdupois,
of chlorate of potash, the market price of which is at
present 4s, per lb. Hence the cost of the gas is as
follows:—
8000 cubic inches for 4s.
1000 — for 6d.
1 imperial gallon for 1; d.
1 cubic foot for 10}d.

Advantages of this Process.-It is easy to obtain

materials of such a quality as always to ensure the
prompt production of pure gas. Excepting a trace of
chlorine and a little sublimed salt, both of which are
absorbed by the water of the pneumatic trough, the
oxygen gas produced by this process is free from all
impurities, especially from carbonic acid; one economi
cal advantage of which is, that it can be used for many
class experiments, largely diluted with common air.
No apparatus is required except a small glass tube,
which is not injured by the operation. There is no
expense incurred for fuel, no dirt produced, and no
danger to be apprehended.
The process is not only of easy and rapid execution,
but is one that can be always depended upon, so as to
save loss of time and materials. When any quantity
 PREPARATION of oxygen GAs. 203

of oxygen gas is required, it is only necessary to guage

the vessels that are to be filled, and to weigh off 1.75
grain of the black mixture for every cubic inch of gas
required. 175 grains of the mixture produce 100 cubic
inches of gas in five minutes. With a charge of 486
grains of the mixture in a six-inch tube, a receiver of
the capacity of a gallon can be filled with oxygen gas
in less than a quarter of an hour, without previous
preparation and without fail. There need consequently
be no waste either of time or materials in preparing
oxygen gas by this process. By many experiments
with different quantities of the mixture, I have ascer
tained that the process is always to be depended upon
for producing a determinate bulk of gas from a given
weight of materials. The cause of this certainty in
the result is the remarkable incandescence which takes
place when the mixture is heated. This ensures the
prompt and total decomposition of every particle of the
chlorate of potash submitted to experiment.
It is convenient to mark upon the bottle in which
the black mixture is kept, the weight of it necessary to
be taken for the purpose of filling with oxygen gas the
principle gas-holders and receivers which may happen
to be in common use. The quantity of mixture in
grains required for each vessel is found by multiplying
the capacity of the vessel, expressed in cubic inches, by
1-75. Thus, if 100 cubic inches of gas are required,
the quantity of black mixture to be taken is 100 ×
175 (or 100 + 50 + 25) = 175 grains. For a cubic
foot of gas, the quantity of mixture required is 1728 ×
175 (or 1728 + 864 + 432) = 3024 grains. In other
terms, if a. is the capacity of a gas-holder, expressed in
cubic inches, then the arithmetical equivalents of a +
#4 + 43 show the number of grains of the black mix
ture necessary to be taken to fill the gas-holder with
oxygen.
hen a large quantity of gas is required, it is best
to divide the mixture into several tubes, so as not to
heat more than 500 grains of it at once; otherwise the
disengagement of gas is inconveniently rapid.
204 OXYGEN.

Oxygen gas can be prepared from chlorate of potash

by heating it alone in a glass vessel. But the process
is very troublesome, and generally attended by the
destruction of the retort. This arises from the violent
boiling of the fused salt at a certain period of the opera
tion. Several different powders can be used to abate
the effervescence, namely, chloride of potassium, per
oxide of manganese, brick dust, and pumice stone; but
these are all inferior in convenience to the black oxide
of copper. They demand more heat and disengage
more chlorine. When pumice stone is used the chloride
of potassium is often strongly alcaline.
Theory of the production of Oxygen in this process:–
RO + C12O5 = R Cl2 + O 6.
See pages 152, 162, and 187.

Other Processes for Oxygen Gas.

b). Put into a hard glass flask, or a glass retort, a mixture
composed of bisulphate of potash, 10 parts, and powdered black

oxide of manganese, 1 part. Connect the retort (C) with a

tube (D) for conducting gas, and § heat to the retort by
means of a lamp. The mixture speedily disengages oxygen gas.
Any form of gas-leading tube, a, b, c, may be used that will lead
most easily to the vessel in which the gas is to be collected.
Theory:-(KO, SO3 + H2O, SO3) + MnO2 = KO, SO3 +
MnO, SO3 + H2O + O.
c). Pour oil of vitriol into a
tubulated retort, through a
funnel, till the retort is one- a
third filled. Take an equal
 PREPARATION OF OXYGEN GAS. 205

weight of black oxide of man

ganese, and pour it into the
retort through a warm dry
funnel, taking care to shake
the retort from time to time,
so as to incorporate the two
ingredients thoroughly, Ap
ply heat by means of a large
iamp or charcoal fire, and
let it be well sustained, so
that the water of the pneu
matic trough may not run b
back into the retort and
break it. The dry sulphate
of manganese is afterwards
removed from the retort,
by being soaked and soft
ened with water. It is
however difficult to pre
vent the bursting of the
retort by the expansion of
the sulphate of manga
nese.

Theory:—MnO2 + H2O, SO3 = MnO, SO3 + H2O + O.

d). When a large quantity of oxygen gas is required, it is
usual to ignite dry peroxide of manganese in an iron retort
or a quicksilver bottle, or 5

a gun barrel, placed in

a furnace or open fire.
Letter a in the figure
is a cast iron bottle, c, an
iron pipe screwed or
ground to fit it, b, a tube
of lead proceeding to the
gas-holder, d, a section of
a common fire-place.
The peroxide of man
ganese should be previ:
ously washed with diluted
nitric acid, to free it from
carbonate of lime, &c.
Theory:—6 MnO2 = Mnºoºº # 2Mn2O44- 04, but if not
sufficiently ignited, it gives 3 Mn2O3 + Q3. The mineral
named Manganite is decomposed by heat as follows:–3 (Mn2O3,
H2O) = 2 Mn304 + 3 H2O + O, yielding only 3 per cent.
of Oxygen gas.
S
206 OXYGEN.

e). Put a small quantity of red oxide of mercury into a very

small hard glass retort, or into a glass tube, and apply heat by
means of a large spirit lamp. The oxide is decomposed, metallic
mercury volatilises and condenses in the receiver, if one is placed
to receive it, and oxygen gas, in a state of great purity, is dis
engaged from the extremity of the apparatus.
#;"; Hg + O.
f). Oxide of Silverheated in a glass tube gives off pure oxygen
gas and leaves metallic silver. Theory:— i.” Ag+ O.
The apparatus represented on page 108, the tube being of thin
hard Bohemian glass may be employed for reducing small quan
tities of the oxides of mercury and silver. A slip of wood inflamed
at one end and blown out, but inserted into the tube while still
retaining a red hot point, will be immediately re-inflamed by the
oxygen gas.

g). Saltpetre distilled gives off impure Oxygen gas.

heory:—KO, N205 = KO, N2O3 + O2. At a greater
heat it is resolved into KO + N + 09. The oxygen, prepared
by this process always contains nitrogen, and the distilling vessel
is commonly destroyed. -

h). The salt called Bichromate of Potash is gently heated in a

retort with an excess of sulphuric acid. 3 parts of Bichromate
of Potash and 4 parts of oil of vitriol may be taken.
Theory:—KO, 2 CrO3 + 4 (H2O, SO3) = (KO, SO3 +
Cr2O3, + 3 SO3) + 4 H2O + 3 O.
For small quantities of pure oxygen gas, the best process to
follow is a). The next best is perhaps h). For large quantities
of gas the most economical process is d).

B. Method of Collecting the Gas.

When glass jars, or any other vessels, open only at
one end, are plunged under water, and inverted after
they are filled, they will remain full, notwithstanding
£heir being raised out of the water, provided their
mouths be kept immersed; for, in this case, the water
is sustained in the jars by the pressure of the atmos
phere, in the same manner as mercury is in a barometer.
It may without difficulty be imagined, that if common
air, or any other fluid resembling common air in light
ness and elasticity, be suffered to enter these vessels, it
will rise to the upper part, and the water will subside.
If a bottle, or cup, or any other vessel, in that state
 COLLECTING OF GASES. 207

which is usually called empty, though in reality full—

of air, be plunged into the water with its mouth down
wards, scarcely any water will enter, because its en- .
trance is opposed by the elasticity of the included air;
but if, while the vessel is immersed, its mouth be turned
upwards, the air will rise in bubbles to the surface of
the water, leaving the water to occupy its place in the
vessel. Suppose this operation to be performed under
one of the jars which are filled with water, the air will
ascend as before; but, instead of escaping, it will be
detained in the upper part of the jar. In this manner,
therefore, we see, that air may be emptied out of one
vessel into another by an inverted pouring. Just in
this manner are gases collected in vessels placed in
what is termed a pneumatic trough: the jars which are
to receive certain elastic fluids, are filled with water,
and placed, mouth downward, upon a shelf, and the
necks of retorts, and ends of tubes, from which gases
are evolved, are directed below holes made in the shelf
under the jars; then the gases, as they issue forth, rise
in bubbles through the water, enter the jars, driving
thence the water, and occupying its place. When,
therefore, the jars are thus emptied of water, they are
filled with gas.
The pneumatic trough is simply a
wooden tub, or vessel of tin-plate, filled
to within two inches of its top with
water. It should be provided with a
shelf, placed an inch below the surface
of the water, or with a wooden block,
cut into the form shown by the figure,
and plugged with lead to make it sink
in water. When you wish to fill a jar with gas, you
place it full of water, in an inverted position, over the
hole cut in the block, and you direct the point of the
tube whence the gas is to issue into this same hole.
The water in the tub must rise about an inch above the
top of the block. The size or form of the trough is
quite immaterial. A wash-hand basin answers the
purpose very well. The annexed figure exhibits the
208 OXYGEN.

mode of putting together

a pneumatic apparatus,
such as has been here de
scribed.
I shall describe a differ
ent sort of shelf and pneu
matic trough presently.
RECEIVERS FOR GASES.-Any kind of glass vessel
can be employed as a receiver for gases; in the last
figure, a plain cylinder is represented; but particular
experiments require vessels of a particular size and
form. This will be adverted to when necessary. Lec
turers on chemistry generally employ a metallic gas
holder to contain large quantities of oxygen or hydro
gen gas. If at any time a large quantity of oxygen
gas is prepared, when no gas holder is at hand, it may
be put into green glass wine bottles, and corked up.
Each bottle should be placed aside, bottom upwards,
with the mouth plunged into a little pot of water. The
gas will not escape.
When a bottle has been filled with gas in A
the manner described above, it may be corked
under water, and then removed from the
trough. If a jar with
a wide mouth has been
| ſ filled, you must fill a
shallow tray with wa-
l

|
ter, and slide the filled
jar from the block into the tray, the small
quantity of water contained in which will
prevent the escape of the gas from the jar.
A very useful gas receiver is represented at page
165; other kinds are shown by figures A to F.
When you want to transfer gas from a wide mouthed
into a narrow mouthed vessel, you must hold a funnel
in the mouth of the latter. All transfers of gas must
be effected under water, and, as it has been expressed
above, by an inverted pouring. As water emptied in
air descends, so air emptied in water ascends. This
 TRANSFERRING OF GASES. 209

D E F

is the principle upon which depends the decantation of

gases.
Filling of Blad
ders with Gases.—
As it is frequently
necessary to fill
bladders with gases,
I shall describe the
method of doing it.
The following fig.
represents an ap
paratus employed
for this purpose. a
is a glass receiver,
supposed to contain iſ
gas; it is open at
the bottom, and pro
vided with a brass
cap and stop-cock at
the top. A vessel
six inches in diame
ter and 12 inches
210 OXYGEN.

high, is sufficiently large for such experiments. d is

a bladder, in the mouth of which a stop-cock is fastened
by means of a ferrule. is the side of a pneumatic
trough; his the shelf, g the level of the water, e and b
are the stop-cocks by which the bladder and receiver
are connected.
Moisten the bladder with water to render it flexible,
squeeze it close to expel the common air from it, then
shut the stop-cock e, and screw it to the stop-cock b, on
the top of the receiver, which is supposed to be placed
on the shelf in the trough. Next, open both the stop
cocks, hold the apparatus in the manner shown by the
figure, gently slide the receiver off the shelf, and press it
down into the water; the gas will soon enter and fill
the bladder, being forced through the opening by the
upward pressure of the water. The stop-cocks are
then to be closed, the receiver replaced on the shelf,
and the two vessels disunited. Previously to under
taking experiments on gases, the young student should
accustom himself to the dexterous management of gases,
by performing the processes of decantation, filling of
bladders, &c., with common air.
STONEWARE GAS HOLDER.
In all cases where a series of experiments with the
same gas are to be performed, as when a teacher has
to demonstrate the properties of oxygen gas or hydro
gen gas, it is convenient to begin by preparing a
quantity of gas sufficient for the performance of the
whole series, and then to proceed uninterruptedly with
the experiments. I shall here describe a cheap and
handy apparatus for storing gas for this purpose.
Letter a in the figure on page 198, is a stoneware
bottle of about a gallon and a half capacity, or about
10 inches in diameter and 13 inches in height. It is
furnished with three necks, b, c, d. The neck d is
fitted with a cork. The neck b is provided with a stop
cock, f, which is cemented into it. The neck c is
cemented round the upper end of a metal tube, which
descends very nearly to the bottom of the bottle. There
 GAS HOLDER. 211

is a coupling screw soldered to the top of this tube, to

which the large japanned iron funnel e can be connected
when necessary. g is a flexible metallic pipe two feet
in length, connected to f by a screw.
To fill this Gas Holder with Water.—Close the neck
d with its cork. Open the stop-cock f, and pour water
into the funnel e, till it runs out at f (the tube g being
supposed away).
To fill the Gas Holder with Gas-Close the stop
cock f. Take out the cork at d, and pass into the neck
d, the delivering tube which comes from the bottle in
which the gas is being prepared. The gas will then
rise in the vessel a, and an equivalent bulk of water
will flow out at d. Of course, the gas holder must be
placed during this process over a tub sufficiently large
to receive the water that runs out. The quantity of
the water thus collected, shows the quantity of gas that
has entered the gas holder. When water ceases to
run out of the mouth d, notwithstanding the continu
ance of the delivery of the gas into it, the gas holder is
filled with gas.
STONEwARE PNEUMATIC TROUGH.—Before noticing
the method of expelling the gas from this gas holder,
it is proper to describe a new form of pneumatic trough
which is to be used with it.
h, in the figure, page 198, is this trough. It is a pam
of stoneware 11 inches in diameter, and 5 inches deep.
The shelf for supporting the jars in this trough, and for
gathering the gas beneath the jars, is the most peculiar
part of it. This is represented by letter i in the
above figure, and under different points of view by the
two figures below.
212 OXYGEN.

This shelf is an inverted stone pan, cylindrical on the

outside, but shaped like a beehive within. It is 4 inches
broad, and 3% inches high. On the side it has a round
opening of 2 inches diameter to admit the entrance of
retort necks and delivering tubes, and in the top it has
an opening of half an inch in diameter, to permit the
passage of gas from the bee hive below, into the jars
placed upon it. When this shelf is put into the trough,
but close to one side of it, there is room left for working
with pretty large cylinders. The gas is collected very
effectually from any sort of delivering pipe, and with
great readiness, and without any loss, it is conveyed
even into narrow mouthed flasks, placed in the position
indicated by figure k in the cut on page 198.
To pass Gas from the Gas Holder into a Jar—The
flexible metal pipe is first placed in the position shown
by the figure on page 198, and adjusted to the bee hive
and trough, which is filled with water to within half an
inch of the top. The jar is filled with water, inverted,
and placed upon the bee hive in the trough. The funnel
e is filled with water. You have then only to open the
stop cock f, when the gas immediately passes into the
jar k. When the jar is as full as you wish it to be,
you close the stop-cock f.
In experimenting with this apparatus it is advisable
always to use cylinders of a smaller capacity than the
funnel e, in order that one filling of the funnel may be
sufficient for each experiment.
To fill a Bladder or a Balloon with Gas from the Gas
Holder.—Attach the compressed bladder to the end of
the pipeg, pour water into the funnel e, and open the
stop-cock f.
In the same manner can the gas be forced out upon
any given object. Thus, oxygen gas can be forced out
upon burning charcoal to cause the fusion and combus
tion of metals, &c.

JAPANNED METAL WATER TRough.—The figure on

page 218, represents a very light and convenient pneu
matic trough made of japanned tinplate. It is adapted
 PNEUMATIC TROUGH. 213

for experimenting with jars of 60 cubical inches and

under. The trough is 10 inches long, 6% inches wide,
and 4 inches deep. The clear water way a measures
10 inches by 4 inches. The shelf b is , inch wide. The
shelf c is 1% inch wide. These shelves are made by
bending a tin plate into the form shown by the end of
the trough e. At the corner of the trough f there is a
small tube which carries off the water that descends
from jars when filling with gas, as soon as the level of
the water in the trough arrives within half an inch of
the edge. A separate tray, of the size of the cavity a,
is provided to catch this water, and is placed for that
purpose under the side f of the trough. The shelf d is
moveable and slides between the shelves b and c, the
whole length of the trough. A small box is made
below the shelf d, to catch the gas from the delivering
pipe, which is brought below it, and a small hole in the
upper part of the box permits the gas to pass into jars
placed above it. In operating
with this trough, you place it
crosswise on the table before
you, hand.
right with the
Theend e in
bottle towhich
your d. O

you are preparing the gas that

is to be collected, must be plac
ed upon your left hand, with
the water
the delivering tube
trough dipping into
justlowenough ||% Cº., C.

to go under the box soldered

below the shelf d. You then
fill the glass jar with water,
invert it, and place it upon the
shelf d, and adjust the latter .#
over the mouth of the deliver
ing tube. When the jar is full,
you remove it upon a small €.
tray, and place it, if you wish
to set the small tray at liberty,
in the long tray which serves to catch the overflowing
water from the trough. By this means the long tray
214 OXYGEN.

is rendered equivalent to extra shelf room in the

trough. A trough of this pattern, 21 inches long, 15
inches broad, and 11 inches deep, is sufficient for a
Lecturer who has a large audience. It is adapted for
jars 14 inches long and 7 inches wide. - --

Pneumatic Trough for experiments on Small quantities

of gasesA in glass tubes.
Figure B repre- B
sents an earthen
Co D ware ſ
is—4. inchespan
deepabout 2
and 12
UZSU inchesin diameter.
In the centre is a N
H

loose bee hive shelf, fig. A, also N

of earthenware, about 2 inches ſ |

in diameter and 1 inch in height. V

This is a convenient apparatus

for collecting gases in glass tubes.
PEPys's GAS HoLDER.—This apparatus is indispens
able where many experiments with gases have to be
made, as at Lectures. Its most convenient size is when
the receiver, a, is 16 inches in height and 12 inches in
diameter. The apparatus is unweildy if larger. Its
use is pretty much the same as that of the stoneware
gas holder already fully described, save that (b) the
pneumatic trough is in this case situated above the gas
holder. To fill it with water, close the neck g, put
water into the cistern b, close d, and open f and c.
The water descends by s, and the air escapes by f.
When it is full up to f, close that cock and open
d, by which the rest of the air will escape. e is
merely a support. k is a glass tube by which the
height of the water in a is seen. It has a scale show
ing the number of cubic inches of air contained in a
above the level of the water. The tube i is open at the
bottom and connected with the cock c, s. The end r,
and the end q, of the pipe, p, attached to the funnel o,
are adapted to the openings. When r is put into s,
and the funnel filled with water, the gas contained in
 PEPYS's GAS HOLDER. 215

a, is forced out through f or d, with a pressure of a

column of six feet of water. The spout h is intended
to carry off the water
that escapes from the
opening g, during the
collection of a gas. To Q

fill a receiver with gas

from this apparatus,
the receiver is filled
with water and invert
ed over the pipe d (or &
m in the annexed fig.)
Water is then poured r
into the trough, or into Ug
the funnel,and
cocks thenstop
d and c (or and e #d c
m) are both opened.
The gas then rises in
the glass receiver.

7ty
z
;:
7/? §
h.

*H r
C. General Observations regarding the management
of Gases.
The Tube which is to convey the gas from the vessel
in which it is generated to the gasholder, or receiver,
must be of sufficient diameter to allow the gas to pass
as rapidly as it is produced, otherwise an explosion
may occur in the generating vessel. A very sound and
carefully bored cork should be used to connect the tube
with the gas bottle, or retort. When the orifice of the
216 OXYGEN.

latter is above an inch in diameter, it is advisable to

cement a flat piece of wood to the top of the cork, as it
is rare to find so large a cork air-tight. The point of
the tube that enters the gas bottle should be cut aslant,
to let drops of liquid fall readily back. The other point
should be turned a little upwards, to facilitate the
delivery of the gas.
When the conducting tube is fixed into the bottle,
apply your mouth to the open end of the tube, and
suck strongly: you will thus ascertain whether or not
the joinings of the apparatus are completely air-tight,
and if not, they must be made so. You will, of course,
make this trial when the bottle is empty, and not while
a gas is being generated within it. If the joinings are
not air-tight, they may sometimes be rendered so by
applying a small quantity of a cement; but it is better
to fit new and sound corks on the tubes.
The materials put into a bottle to produce a gas
must never exceed in bulk the third or fourth part of
the capacity of the bottle, otherwise they are apt to
boil over when the action comes to be powerful, and
the disengagement of gas rapid. When the materials
consist of a liquid and a fine powder, the liquid should
be put into the vessel first, and the powder afterwards,
and the two should be carefully mixed by shaking the
vessel. You must take care not to respire an atmos
phere contaminated by deleterious gases. , Sulphur
etted hydrogen gas is a particularly powerful poison,
and it is fortunate that its noisome odour gives timely
notice of its presence. Chlorine gas is exceedingly
difficult to breathe, but it is not so injurious as the
preceding. Arseniuretted hydrogen gas is very deadly;
a celebrated German chemist was killed by smelling
it. Carbonic acid gas occasions suffocation if mixed
with the air in large proportions. Experiments with
deleterious gases ought not to be made in a close
apartment, but either under a large chimney or in the
open air. The first portion of gas, of whatever kind it
may be, evolved from the vessel in which it is formed,
is always contaminated with the common air with
 COMBUSTION IN OXYGEN GAS. 217

which the vessel was filled at the beginning of the

operation. A quantity of the first gas received, equal
in bulk to twice the capacity of the generating vessel,
must, therefore, in order to avoid accidents and failures,
be thrown away. The measuring of this quantity is
effected by collecting it in glass jars over water.
The moment requires to be watched when gas ceases
to come over from a glass vessel. The gas-leading
tube must then be immediately taken from the water
trough, otherwise the cold water is liable to go back
into the hot bottle, or retort, and break it. -

ExPERIMENTAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE PROPERTIES OF

OxygEN GAs.
Oxygen Gas supports Combustion.— Process 1.-Fill
a bottle with oxygen gas, and provide a small taper
fixed at the end of a wire passed
through a cork, as shown in the
figure. Light the taper, and
plunge it into the gas, taking care
to put the light in the middle of
the vessel, and not near its sides,
otherwise the heat will crack the
glass. The flame of the taper will
become extremely bright while
burning in the oxygen gas,
Process 2.—Fill a small tube with
oxygen gas, and hold in it a lighted
splinter of wood.
Process 3.−If the light of a
taper be blown out, and the taper
be let down into a glass of this gas,
while the snuff (which should be a thick one) remains
red hot, it instantly rekindles, with a slight explosion.
When the taper is relighted, it continues to burn, as
in the preceding case, with a rapidity, a brilliancy of
flame, and an evolution of light truly wonderful.
During combustion in oxygen gas the volume of the gas
often decreases, and, if the combustion continues long
enough, the gas wholly disappears. This is owing to a
T
218 OXYGEN.

combination which takes place between the oxygen of

the oxygen gas, and the body that is burnt in the
oxygen gas.
Sometimes the product of such combustion is a
gaseous body, and sometimes a solid. Thus, sulphur
produces sulphurous acid gas, and carbon produces
carbonic acid gas;—but phosphorus produces phos
phoric acid, which is deposited in a solid state, and a
vacuum is produced in the vessel wherein the com
bination of the two elements takes place.
During combustion great heat and light are often
produced, but combustion can occur without any sensi
ble production of either light or heat.
When combustion takes place in common air, the
same phenomena occur, but less rapidly, and to a less
extent. By burning substances in a given portion of
common air, the bulk of that portion of air is diminished
one-fifth, and the remaining quantity will support
neither combustion nor animal life. The portion of air
thus abstracted has been proved to be oxygen, and the
air remaining is nitrogen. And by mixing nitrogen
gas and oxygen gas in the above-mentioned proportions,
a compound is obtained which possesses precisely the
same properties as common air. Thus, therefore, the
composition, and the proportions of the constituents,
of atmospheric air, is proved both by analysis and
synthesis.
The grand uses of air being to support life and com
bustion, and its pure part being abstracted thereby, a
continual supply becomes necessary wherever those
processes are carried on. This shows us how important
it is to renew the fresh air of the rooms we live in, in
order that breathing, and the burning of fires and
candles, may be readily carried on.
CHARCOAL BURNS BRILLIANTLY IN Oxygen GAs, AND
PRODUCES CARBONIC ACID GAs.— Process 1.-Fill a
bottle with oxygen gas, or else use a deflagrating jar,
which is open at bottom and has a wide mouth that can
be closed by a cork. When full of gas, this jar
 COMBUSTION OF CHARCOAL. 219

should stand in a tray containing water.

Then put a piece of red-hot charcoal into
a deflagrating spoon, and plunge it into
the gas; allowing the instrument to be
sustained in its place by the cork, or a
flat piece of tin plate, a, which is laid
upon (not fastened into) the neck of the
bottle. The ignited charcoal must not
be allowed to go near the sides of the
vessel or the glass will crack. As soon
as the red-hot charcoal comes into con
tact with the gas, it begins to burn
very vividly, its combustion proceeds
with great splendour, and brilliant |
scintillating sparks are thrown out in all directions.
When the combustion is at an end, it will be found
that the oxygen-gas has been converted into carbonic
acid gas. The reason that the cork to which the
spoon is attached must not be screwed tight into the
neck of the bottle, is that the gas, upon being heated,
expands, and would burst the bottle, were it closely
fastened up.
The deflagrating spoon is made of iron, the bowl
about as big as a shilling, with a long wire handle,
which can be passed through a cork, or
soldered to a flat plate of metal, serving to
close the mouth of a jar containing the gas
submitted to trial.
The deflagrating spoon may also be made
of brass, to this pattern, the handle passing
through a stuffing box.
Process 2–The preceding experiment may
be performed on a smaller scale, by employ
ing a jar that holds less gas, and using a
wire, with a bit of charcoal fastened to the
end of it. In this case, beautiful sparks will
be thrown out, as before. The charcoal
should be made from a piece of bark, such
as oak bark, in order that it may burn with
sparks.
220 OXYGEN.

Process 3–The combustion of charcoal in oxygen

gas can be exhibited in a very striking manner as
follows:—A quantity of dry saltpetre, about 3 ounces,

is put into a florence flask or similar thin hard

glass vessel, and is heated over the argand spirit
lamp g, till the salt is in full fusion. The pan p,
filled with water is then put below the flask. You
have ready (previously prepared) about half an ounce
of charcoal in fine powder, and perfectly dry. The
lamp is turned round from under the flask, and the
charcoal dust is immediately poured into the flask,
where it produces a splendid deflagration. If the
i. breaks, the contents fall into the water and do no
arm, -
 COMBUSTION OF SULPHUR. 221

Process 4.—The same experiment may be performed

very easily with the help of the little apparatus figured
in the margin. It consists of a
thin hard Bohemian glass tube,
3 inches long and nearly an
inch wide. It is supported by
a narrow crook of tinplate c,
fixed by means of a cork a, into
the sliding socket of a tube
holder b. As much nitrate of
potash is used as fills about half
an inch of the tube when melted.
The heat of a small spirit lamp
is sufficient for this quantity.
The dry charcoal powder is in
serted by means of a slip of
iron d. The lamp may be
moved aside. The deflagration
is very brilliant even with this small quantity of salt
petre.
Theory:—KO, N2O3 + C = KO, CO2 + N2 + 08.
If charcoal is in excess, part of 0° becomes C0°.
See page 53.

SULPHUR BURNS BEAUTIFULLY IN OxYGEN GAs, AND

PRODUCES SULPHUROUs ACID.— Process 1–A piece of
sulphur, the size of a pea, is put into the iron spoon,
set fire to by a candle and blowpipe, and plunged into
the same jar, and in the same manner as directed for
performing the experiment with charcoal. See page
219. The sulphur burns with a beautiful violet-coloured
scintillating flame, and the jar becomes filled with sul
phurous acid gas. If superfluous oxygen and a little
water be present, the latter is converted into very
weak oil of vitriol.
Process 2.-The apparatus described in Process 4,
above, may also be used to show the combustion of
sulphur, which may be added to the melted nitre in
powder or in very small bits.
Theory:—KO, N205+ S2= KO, SO3+N2+ S0°.
T 2
222 OXYGEN.

SPLENDID COMBUSTION OF PHOSPHORUS IN OXYGEN

GAs, AND PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHORIC ACID.— Process
1.—The light of phosphorus in combustion in oxygen
gas, is one of the most splendid that can be produced.
Place the size of a small pea of phosphorus in a little
hemispherical copper cup, raised by means of a wire
stand an inch above the surface of water contained in
a tray. Fill a large globular receiver with oxygen gas,
and then press over the mouth of the receiver, as it
stands in the pneumatic trongh, a circular piece of
pasteboard, rather exceeding its diameter. Bring the
receiver filled with oxygen gas immediately over the
phosphorus; let the latter be ignited by an assistant,
then remove the pasteboard, and bring down the receiver
so as to cover the phosphorus, and immerse it in an
atmosphere of oxygen. Several holes should be pierced
in the foot that supports the cup,
through which the gas expanded by
heat may escape. When the oxygen
gas is prepared by Process a, it is
sufficient to fill only half the receiver.
Then when the phosphorus is ready,
the receiver is lifted vertically from the
water and put over the phosphorus,
without paying regard to the common
air that enters, which does no harm.
The inflammation of the phosphorus is
so extremely brilliant, that it is almost impossible for
the eyes to bear the light. The odorous compound
produced is phosphoric acid,
which settles on the sides
of the receiver in white
flakes, and finally dissolves
in the water, producing an
acid solution.
Process 2. —When a
small quantity of phospho
rus and gas is employed, the
experiment may be per
formed in the way exhibited
y the cut, where a is a
 COMBUSTION OF IRON. 223

cylindrical receiver containing oxygen, and d a sup

port for the phosphorus, standing in water.
Process 3.—The foregoing experiment may also be
performed, by fastening a bit (of the size of half a pea)
of phosphorus to a wire, or putting it in the iron
spoon, and then immersing it in a bottle of oxygen gas.
Process 4.—Phosphorus in small bits not much larger
than pins' heads, may be dropped into a tube contain
ing fused nitre. See Process 4, page 221.
The student is particularly cautioned against using
larger pieces of phosphorus than those directed.
IRON MAY BE BURNED IN 0xYGEN GAs: THE COM
BUSTION IS ATTENDED BY A BRILLIANT LIGHT, AND THE
PRODUCT IS A METALLIC OXIDE.-Prepare a bottle of
oxygen gas and a wire as described below. Light the
inflammable matter at the bottom of the wire, and
plunge it into the bottle, suspending the whole by the
cork. The flame will be instantly communicated to
the wire, which will continue to burn with an appear
ance inconceivably brilliant and striking: proceeding
with a meteor-like body, in a spiral form, and throwing
out beautiful sparks in all directions.
These sparks, upon being examined when cold, are
found to be very different from the iron of which they
have been formed.—They are brittle and destitute of
metallic lustre. The weight of the drops, too, is greater
than that of the metal made use of; so that, in burning,
something must have been added to them: this some
thing is oxygen. The term applied to this compound
is owide of iron, or iron and oxygen. When the drops
fly off in their fused state, they are so hot, that
unless the bottom of the jar be covered an inch
or two with sand or water, they are apt to crack
it.
The marginal figure represents aspiral iron wire
with a cork on its upper part that fits the neck of
a gas bottle. The kind of wire to be used is
about 1-30th of an inch thick, and is called by
the ironmongers binding-wire. In order to bring
224 OXYGEN.

it into the spiral, or cork-screw shape, it is coiled

lightly round a stick of one-third of an inch dia
meter, and then drawn off. Afterwards, the cork
is fitted on, it is drawn out to a proper length,
say # that of the bottle, and has a morsel of
tinder, charcoal, or thread dipped in brimstone or
turpentine, fixed upon its lower end. A more ef
fective method of burning iron wire, when it can be
procured very fine, is to twist several pieces of it to
gether like the fibres of a cord. This makes a finer
experiment.—When iron wire is burnt in a jar with
an open bottom, the oxygen gas being pure, and the
cork fitting tight into the neck of the jar, the gas dis
appears and the water rises to the top of the jar.
A steel watch spring can be burnt in pure oxygen
gas, exhibiting a very brilliant appearance.
CoMBUSTION OF ZINC, AND FORMATION OF OxIDE of
ZINC.—Substitute, for phosphorus in the experiment
above described, a small ball formed of turnings of zinc,
in which about a grain of phosphorus is enclosed. Set
fire to the phosphorus, and cover it expeditiously with
the jar of oxygen. The zinc will be inflamed, and burn
with a beautiful white light.
CAOUTCHOUC, CAMPHoR, and many other combustible
substances burn in oxygen gas with great energy.
PROOF THAT METALS ARE INCREASED IN WEIGHT BY
CoMBINING witH Oxygen.—Coil up a drachm of very
slender iron wire, put it into the bowl of a pipe and
place it in a clear fire. Have ready a bladder filled
with oxygen gas. When the iron in the pipe is red
hot, force from the bladder, through the pipe, a stream
of oxygen gas. The iron will burn very rapidly, and,
by combining with the oxygen, be converted into oxide
of iron. If the bowl of the pipe is kept free from dust,
the iron will be found to have increased considerably
in weight by its oxidation.
 OXYGEN GAS BLOWPIPE. 225

The experiment last cited can

be made in a more accurate
manner as follows:–Letter b b
represents a bent tube of hard &
green glass, in size 10 inches
long by # inch diameter. It is I IP
supposed
gen gas, toand
be half
to be º
full of oxy- o | NX +

over mercury in the trough a.

By means of tongs
that have a receiver
consisting of two &

small hemispheres, -

a, a, that fit close -

together, a weighed piece of metal, such as Arsenic or

Potassium, is put through the mercury and lodged in
the upper bent part of the tube, c, where it comes into
contact with the oxygen gas. Heat is then applied to
the metal externally, by means of a spirit lamp, upon
which the oxygen is absorbed and the mercury rises in
the tube. The amount of absorption can be ascertained
from a graduated scale engraved on the tube.
USE OF PEPYS's GAS HOLDER AS A BLOWPIPE.
The Oxygen Gas is compressed in the Gas-Holder,
by water poured into the trough, or when greater force
is desired, by water poured
into the long funnel described
at page 215. The gas then
escapes with velocity through
the horizontal stop-cock mark
ed f in the figure at page 215,
and l in the present figure.
Inflamed bodies, such as are
referred to in the preceding
experiments, held against this
jet of gas, burn with vigour.
Even a steel watch spring S$
can be burnt thus, the com ...!

bustion being commenced by

226 HYDROGEN.

first passing the oxygen gas through the flame of a

spirit lamp, which is afterwards removed. A brass or
platinum blowpipe jet with a fine orifice, w, is screwed
upon the cock l. The gas is forced through the flame
of a spirit lamp, and produces a blowpipe jet, h, of
intense power. Platinum, and many other substances
commonly considered infusible, can be melted in this
Jiet.
ETHER LAMP.-The following little ap
paratus produces a powerful heat. a, a, is
a glass tube about 3inches long and 1 inch
in diameter. b, a cork, through which passes cº
a narrow metallic pipe, c, c, having a blow
pipe orifice at the upper end, and adapted
below, by means of the cork, d, to a gas
holder or other vessel containing oxygen
gas. e, a stoneware or metal wick-holder,
such as forms part of a small spirit lamp.
The wick is of asbestus, and the lamp is to
be filled with sulphuric ether. The point of
the pipe c must be close to the surface of
the asbestus wick. When the lamp is
lighted and the pressure of oxygen set
on, the flame becomes very small and
gives little light, but it has such intense
power as to be able to melt platinum
instantaneously.

2, HYDRO GEN. H = 6.2398.

Occurrence. It exists in water, nine parts by weight

of which contain one part of hydrogen. It is also an
essential constituent of all animal and vegetable sub
stances. This element is therefore of immense im
portance as a constituent of the material world. See
page 14.
JProperties. At the ordinary temperature it is a Gas,
colourless, tasteless, inodorous, insoluble in water, and
without action on test papers. It is easily combustible,
and if inflamed at the mouth of a pipe in oxygen or
 PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN GAS. 227

air, it gives a flame of intense heat, but scarcely any

light. If hydrogen gas and oxygen gas are mixed,
and then inflamed, they burn with violent explosion.
The gases disappear in the proportion of two volumes
of hydrogen to one volume of oxygen. The product is
water. Hydrogen Gas is unfit for respiration, yet may
be safely breathed once or twice if pure, and is said to
give a shrillness to the voice. But it is difficult to pro
cure hydrogen gas perfectly pure, and fatal to breathe
it when containing certain impurities.
Hydrogen gas is the lightest known body, its specific
gravity bearing to that of air the relation of 62398 to
90.695, or of 0-0688 to 1-0, or nearly of 1 to 14}. The
weight of a cubic inch is 0.02.133 grain. Its atomic
measure is one volume. Its atomic weight = 6.2398.
These are BERZELIUS's numbers; but in this country,
the atomic weight is commonly doubled, and the atomic
measure taken at two volumes. See page 191.
PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN GAs.
NoTE.—The reader is supposed to be master of the in
formation given at B, page 206, and C, page 215.
a). Put into a tall test glass a small quantity of
diluted sulphuric acid, of about 200° or 400° of strength.
Then dip into the acid a long slip of thin
sheet zinc, or drop in a few pieces of granu
lated zinc. Effervescence (page 48) will im
mediately commence about the metal, which
begins to dissolve, and an immense number
of bubbles of air will rise through the liquid
and escape at its surface. These bubbles are
Hydrogen gas.
b). Clean iron, in the form of nails, wire,
turnings, filings, borings, &c., put into the
same acid, also disengages Hydrogen gas; but the gas
prepared with this metal is commonly more impure than
when prepared with zinc, and has a more disagree
able smell.
c). Diluted Muriatic acid may be used with the same
success as Diluted Sulphuric acid. -
228 HYDROGEN.

d). When the gas is to be collected for experiments,

it may be prepared in a Gas Bottle of the form repre
sented in the margin. The capacity
of the bottle may be from 1 oz. to 40
oz. according to the quantity of gas
that may be desired. Such sizes as
8 oz. and 16 oz. are generally used
for preparing small quantities of gas.
The bottle is most handy when made
of hard green glass with a flat bottom.
The mouth should be very round and
rather less than an inch in diameter,
because it is difficult to fit it with an
air-tight cork if wider. The cork should have the
full length of a wine-bottle cork, and the part that
projects beyond the bottle should be coated with strong
varnish to fill up the pores. The bent glass gas lead
ing tube should be passed through a hole in the cork
carefully bored to fit the tube by means of a brass cork
borer. The length and bend of this tube should be
such that the gas may be conveniently passed from the
bottle into the gas holder, page 211, or the pneumatic
trough, page 213, &c. The bore of the tube must be
large enough to permit the gas to escape as rapidly as
it is produced. Tubes of
such sections as the an- O
nexed figures are conve
nient. If the tube be very nar
row, and too much or too strong
acid be taken, the pressure of the gas may burst the
bottle. Sulphuric acid of 400° gives a rapid current
of gas. Acid of 200° is generally preferable.
e). For the sake of greater convenience, and in order
to prevent accidents, the Gas Bottle is often arranged
in another manner. The neck is chosen wider, namely,
about 14 inch diameter, and the cork is twice per
forated. If a sound cork, both long enough and wide
enough, can be got, you may be thankful; for a good
cork is a treasure to a man who has to prepare a
Gas bottle. But it commonly happens that corks
 PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN GAS. 229

more than an inch in diameter

are too short to be useful for bot
tles that require to be frequently .
uncorked. It is necessary, there
fore, to lengthen them, as repre
sented in page 106, by cement
ing to the upper end a disc of
plane-tree wood, half an inch
thick, a little wider than the cork,
and milled on the edge. The
wood and cement entirely close the
pores of the cork, and the wood
serves as a handle for the sys
tem of tubes fixed within it.
The wood must, of course, be
bored with two holes, corresponding with the holes in
the cork, and which holes are prepared to suit the glass
tubes that are intended to be fixed in them. These
tubes are shown in the figure, where a represents a glass
funnel with a neck from 15 to 24 inches long, b a glass
tube bent in the form of letter T, d a gas delivery tube
of the form already described, and c a flexible tube of
caoutchouc used to connect b to d, so as to leave d a
little moveable. The wooden
top is not shown in this figure.
The next figure shows prin
cipally a different form of bottle,
which requires to be made of
hard German glass with a thin
flat bottom. Flint glass bottles
with thick bottoms, and if flat
with punty marks, are unfit for
gas bottles. They answer in
deed for hydrogen gas, but not
for the preparation of other
gases that require the help of
heat.
The reason that the funnel a
is made so long, is explained at page 107, namely, it is
because the liquid in the bottle rises in the funnel,
U
230 HYDROGEN.
according to the pressure exercised on the end of the
delivery pipe d, by the water of the pneumatic trough
or otherwise.
To prepare Hydrogen Gas with this bottle, proceed
as follows:—Put into the bottle some metallic zinc, in
the state of granulated zinc, turnings of zinc, or slips
of rolled zinc. Fix the cork with its system of tubes
in the neck of the bottle; pour a little water through
the funnel, so as to fill about one-third part of the bottle,
or at any rate, to cover the lower end of the long funnel,
and then add strong oil of vitriol in small quantities at
a time. The disengagement of gas commences imme
diately, and when it slackens, may be invigorated by
adding a little more acid. It is thus very easy to
regulate the production of the gas, causing it to be either
slow or rapid, by the proper management of the acid.
The first gas collected, to the extent of twice the
contents of the bottle, must be rejected as impure.
Theory:—H2O, SO3 + Zn = ZnO, SO3 + H2,
or when Muriatic Acid is used,
H2Cl2 + Zn = ZnCl2 + H2.
We sometimes find these remarks in books. “Hy
drogen is always obtained by deoxidising water.” “It
is not easy to explain the fact of the ready decomposi
tion of water by zinc, in the presence of an acid or
other substance which can unite with the oxide so pro
duced.” The reason of the difficulty of explanation
is, that the fact itself is disputable. No excess of zinc
can expel from any quantity of water more hydrogen
than is furnished by the atomic quantity of hydrated
sulphuric acid that is neutralised by the dissolved zinc.
H2O, SO3 gives H*, and no more. On the other
hand, Zn gives H*, and no more, however great the
excess of acid and water with which it may be placed
in contact. Therefore none of the hydrogen comes
from deoxidised water, at least, according to the
ordinary meaning of that term. It is all from the oil
of vitriol. It is, however, the general fashion to say
that oil of vitriol contains an atom of water, and this
opinion is expressed in the symbol H2O, SO3, yet even
 PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN GAS. • 231

that is not a certainty, for the arguments at page 195

show that oil of vitriol may not only be represented as
H2O, SO3 but as H2 + SO4, or as H2O2 + SO2, in
which cases the oxygen and hydrogen are not present
as water, but in a different state of combination. Hence
the declaration, that “hydrogen is always obtained by
deoxidising water,” is not the expression of a mere
matter of fact, but of a pre-conceived theory, which
may possibly be true, but possibly may be erroneous.
It is, indeed, true that the mixture H2O, SO3 + Zn,
without additional water, does not give off hydrogen
gas, but the reason is, that the zinc becomes instantly
coated with sulphate of zinc, which is insoluble in
strong sulphuric acid. The use of the water is to dis
solve the generated sulphate of zinc and expose con
tinuously a clean surface of metal for the acid to act
on. Instead of the explanation usually given of this
experiment, namely, “that the acid assists the metal
to decompose the water,” it would be more exact to
state, that the water assists the metal to decompose the oil
of vitriol. In one respect, however, it is true, that the
hydrogen comes from deoxidised water, and this is, that
the hydrogen contained in oil of vitriol is originally
procured from water. But this ultimate truth is not
what is commonly referred to.
f). Preparation of Hydrogen Gas without an Acid.—
Fill a small gas bottle with a solution of caustic potash
of 400°, or sp. gr. 13161. Add fine zinc turnings and
cast-iron borings. Apply a cork and gas-leading tube,
fill the tube with the solution of potash, and insert the
end of it under a gas jar filled with water, and inverted
in a pneumatic trough. In a short time hydrogen gas
is disengaged by the mixture, and when the current
slackens, it may be increased by applying a gentle
heat to the gas bottle. The zinc dissolves, but not the
iron. If the materials are pure and the liquids pre
viously boiled to expel atmospheric air, very pure
hydrogen gas may thus be prepared, with the utmost
ease and in considerable quantities.
Theory:—KO, H2O + Zn = KO, ZnO + H2.
232 - IIYDROGEN.

This experiment seems to me to confirm the argu

ments urged in the preceding article. The hydrogen
produced is exactly equal in quantity to that contained
in the decomposed portion of hydrate of potash. The
water employed acts merely as a solvent, and is not
concerned in the chemical changes that occur. The
use of the iron is to form a galvanic circuit, to hasten
the solution of the zinc. It is not essential to the
decomposition, for zinc dissolves slowly in a solution of
potash, when iron is absent.
Hydrogen gasis also disengaged when zinc and iron are
put into solutions of caustic soda and caustic ammonia.
The two following are genuine examples of the libera
tion of hydrogen gas from water.
g). Fill a glass test tube, half an inch wide and four
inches long, with mercury, and invert it in a small
porcelain cup containing mercury. Pass up a little
water into the tube, and afterwards pass up a very
small piece of metallic potassium. When the latter
touches the water, it will be dissolved, and a quantity
of gas will be disengaged. Close the mouth of the
gas tube with the thumb, lift and invert it, and apply
a lighted taper to its mouth, upon which you
will perceive the gas to burn like hydrogen.
Pour the water from which the potassium ex
pelled the gas into a test glass, and test it with
litmus paper or the application of coloured
vegetable solutions. See page 31. You will
find it to be alcaline. Thus, then, potassium
disengages hydrogen from water, and converts the
latter into a solution of potash. .
Theory:—H2O + K = RO + H2.
h). When clean iron wire is twisted up and put into
a porcelain tube b, traversing a furnace a, and is made
red hot, and water is
passed over it in the _L-L
state of steam, the 3.
water is decomposed, l (f=\ | T
theironisoxidised,and a.

bydrogen is set free. -

 PURIFICATION OF HYDROGEN GAs. - 233

Theory: 3Fe+ 4H2O = Fe3O4 + H8.

The last two processes are introduced to show interest
ing facts, not as methods of preparing hydrogen gas.
To Purify Hydrogen Gas.
a.) Connect the gas bottle with a second bottle con
taining a solution of caustic potash, a, through which
the gas is to be passed. The figure explains the details.

b.) Pass the gas through glass tubes filled with

pumice stone, moistened with a solution of causti
potash; and after- s -

wards through a
glass tube contain
ing pumice stone
moistened with a
solution of sulphate of
silver. The gas is thus
deprived of its odour.
Glass tubes of any of the
following forms may be
used. The V-shape and
U-shape are commonly
used when a large quan
tity of gas is to be purified.
U 2
234 HYDROGEN.

To Dry Hydrogen Gas.

A glass tube is filled with lumps the
size of small nuts, of chloride of cal
cium that has been recently heated to
redness in a crucible. This substance
is extremely deliquescent, and there
fore readily abstracts moisture from any
wet gas that is brought into contact
with it. One end of this drying tube
must be connected with the vessel
containing the wet gas, under
pressure, and the other end of it
with the apparatus into which
the dry gas is to be driven. Care t
must be taken that the drying tube does not become
choked.—Another method of drying gases is to pass
them through a U-shaped or V-shaped tube, filled with
knobs of pumice stone, saturated with concentrated sul
phuric acid, or through a small quantity of sulphuric
acid put into the bend of the tube, as shown in the
figures, or through a tube containing lumps of anhy
drous phosphoric acid. This last is a very effective but
expensive process.
These vessels are used in purifying and drying all
sorts of gases; but the substances requisite for the drying
or purifying of different gases depend upon their natures.
The purifying or drying substance must have the
greatest possible power of absorbing the impurity that
is to be separated, and the least possible action on
the gas that is to be purified.
EXPERIMENTS ILLUSTRATING THE PROPERTIES
OF HYDROGEN GAs:—

Levity of Hydrogen Gas.-Fill a small jar

with hydrogen gas, turn its mouth up and leave
it open; in a short time, the gas will have
escaped, and the jar be filled with common air.
Hydrogen gas can be put out of one vessel into
another in the open air, by a species of in
verted pouring.
 COMBUSTION OF HYDROGEN. 235

A large light glass globe, fig. F. page 209, is to be

suspended, mouth downward, by a slight net-work of
threads, to the end of a balance, and counterpoised.
A flask containing hydrogen gas is to be opened and
placed, mouth upwards, below the counterpoised globe.
The air in the globe will descend, and be replaced by
hydrogen gas, and the weight of the globe will appear
to be diminished, for it will rise.
Combustible Nature of Hydrogen Gas—Apply a light
to the mouth of a small jar containing hydrogen gas.
The latter will take fire and burn with a pale blue
flame, that descends into the glass, and finally dis
appears.
At the lecture table, experiments of this kind may be
performed with plain cylinders, 6 inches by 1%, or 9 inches
by 2. For private experiments, small glass tubes may be
wsed, such as 3 inches by 1.
Hydrogen Gas does not support Combustion.—Into
an inverted jar filled with hydrogen gas, introduce a
wire bearing a lighted taper on its sum
mit: the flame of the taper will be ex
tinguished.
MINIATURE BALLOONs.—A MODE OF
ILLUSTRATING THE EXTREME LIGHTNESS
OF HYDROGEN GAS.—Fill a bladder with
hydrogen gas, in the manner directed at
page 209 or 212, and adapt a common
tobacco pipe to the mouth of the bladder
by means of a stop-cock. Some care is
required in preparing a bladder for such
experiments. The bladder should be
well washed in warm water with potash,
and the fat neck should be soaked in
pretty strong warm potash water, and then scraped
with a piece of wood. When cleaned thoroughly, a
brass collar, fig.
B, must be tied A
firmly into its -

neck, and to this -------

must be fitted a
stop-cock, with
236 HYDROGEN.

two male screws, such as fig. A. The tobacco pipe, fig, a,

may be made either of clay or brass. It must be cemented
in the end of a connecter, having at the other
end, b, a screw adapted to one end of the stop
cock A. Prepare a strong solution of soap, (a
lather such as children use to blow common
soap bubbles with,) dip the bowl of the pipe
into it, and by compressing the bladder, after
having opened the stop-cock, fill soap bubbles
with the hydrogen gas. These, when shaken
from the pipe, instead of falling downwards,
like common bubbles, will rapidly ascend to
the ceiling of the room. This experiment affords not
only an illustration of the lightness of hydrogen gas,
but also of the principles of Aerostation: for it is with
hydrogen, or carburetted hydrogen gas that air balloons
are inflated. -

If one of these soap bubbles be arrested in its flight

by the application of a lighted paper, the hydrogen gas
will take fire, and the bubble will burst with a vivid
flash of light.
N.B.-Take care not to inflame the bubbles till they
are detached from the pipe, or the whole of the gas in .
the bladder may take fire.
AIR BALLOONs.—A very pretty apparatus, of recent
invention, is now to be had of the philosophical instru
ment makers. It is a little balloon, in shape resem
bling a bladder, and is to be had of various sizes. It
is made of fish bladder, and is so extremely light that,
when filled with hydrogen gas, and left free in the
atmosphere, it ascends.
Balloons are also made of gold beaters’ skin. This
material is thicker, but the balloons are more durable.
If of 6 or 8 inches diameter, they will ascend with
pure and dry hydrogen gas. If of 10 or 12 inches
diameter, they will ascend when filled with good dry
coal gas. The mouths of such balloons must never be
wetted, even with the lips. When blown by the mouth
to ascertain their soundness a glass tube should be
used. They should be preserved in a tin case or a
 COMBUSTION OF HYDROGEN. 237

closed bottle, with camphor, otherwise insects eat holes

in them. They cannot be conveniently filled with
hydrogen gas direct from the bottle in which the gas is
prepared. It is necessary first to collect the gas in a
receiver, and then to transfer it. See page 209. In
transferring the gas, it should be passed through a
desiccating tube, containing chloride of calcium, in
order to dry it and render it light. Before you begin
to fill a balloon, you should have ready the whole
quantity of gas necessary to fill it. If your mounted
receiver, page 209, a b c, or page 165, a c g, is too small
to hold the proper quantity, the remainder of the gas
may be held ready in bottles or jars.
THE PHILOSOPHICAL TAPER—AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE
COMBUSTIBILITY OF HYDROGEN GAS.-Fit a narrow
glass tube into the neck of a glass bottle, into
which materials for producing hydrogen gas
have previously been put. In a short time
the gas will issue from the top of the tube.
Let it escape till you think as much air has
issued as served in the beginning to fill the
bottle, then apply to the top of the tube a
lighted paper; upon this the gas will be in
flamed, and will burn with a bluish-coloured
jet, as long as it continues to be produced. 23:
This flame is scarcely visible in the day-time, Kº-S
but notwithstanding its dimness, it is intensely –%
hot. The reason that a quantity of air must fºſſ
be suffered to escape has been explained.
Hydrogen gas mixed with common air vio-
lently explodes when inflamed, so that particular care
is requisite, in this experiment, to let all the common
air escape. The glass jet must be made of hard
(infusible) glass, pretty strong in substance, particularly
near the point, otherwise it will melt and close up, and
cause an explosion to occur. The orifice should be
very small. The lower part of the tube, within the
bottle, should be ground off aslant, that it may not
become choked by drops of water. A little oil put on
238 HYDROGEN.

the surface of the liquor in the bottle, causes the gas

to pass off with more regularity.
Another mode of performing this Experiment, is by
fixing a tube to a bladder filled with hydrogen gas,
when, by pressing the bladder more or less, a very
pretty jet, or stream of fire, either large or small, is
easily produced. No danger need be apprehended,
because the smallness of the hole in the end of the pipe
prevents the flame from entering into the bladder.

These figures represent brass jets provided with

screws to fix them to the stop-cocks of bladders, &c.
Thus the screw B of the above jet fits the stop-cock A,
page 235.
MUSICAL SOUNDS PRODUCED BY THE COMBUSTION OF
HYDROGEN GAs.-Take a glass tube, from 18 to 24
inches long, and from 1 to 2 inches wide, and open at
both ends. See b in the figure on the preceding page.
Bring it down a few inches over the flame of the
philosophical taper, and very strange but pleasing
sounds, somewhat resembling those of an AEolian harp,
will be immediately produced. By raising or depress
ing the tube, or by using tubes of different sizes, the
intensity of the musical chord may be greatly varied.
Two tubes may be so chosen as to produce a difference
of an entire octave in the tone. The production of the
sound is occasioned by the rushing of the air into the
tube, to supply the vacuum repeatedly formed by the
condensation of the oxygen of the air into water, as it
combines with the burning hydrogen.
EXPLOSIVE POWERS OF A MIXTURE OF TWO PARTS OF
HYDROGEN GAS WITH ONE PART OF OxygeN GAS (OXY
HYDROGEN GAs).-DETONATING BALLooNs.—Bubbles
blown with this mixture, with the help of a bladder and
tobacco-pipe, page 236, will ascend in the air, though
 EXPLOSIVE OXYHYDROGEN GAS. 239

not so rapidly as those filled with pure hydrogen. But,

upon the application of flame, they will explode with
far greater violence; without, however, occasioning any
accident, unless they are fired before they are away
from the pipe. -

If a strong solution of soap, contained in an iron

mortar, be blown up by this mixture into a large cauli
flower head, by means of
a bladder and pipe, and a
light held at the end of a
long stick be applied, an
explosion of an extremely
violent description is pro
duced, with a report like ,--
that of a cannon.
If a similar mixture be KYC -

put into a strong pint bot- W /

tle, and the bottle be en- ºff
veloped in many folds of a || ||
coarse cloth, and the mix- T
ture be inflamed by withdrawing the cork and applying
a light to the mouth of the bottle, a similar stunning
explosion is produc
ed.—Instead of a ~)
lass bottle, a small Cºffse:
#: bottle of tin- s=2
plate may be used -

for this experiment. Its capacity may be one fluid

ounce; the neck, narrow and provided with a closely
fitting cover, which should be broad enough to serve
for a foot. A small quantity of the ex
plosive mixture may also be inflamed
with perfect safety by means of a
strong German glass tube, about 3
inches long, and of this thickness and
diameter. The tube may be held by
the fingers. It never bursts if made
of well annealed glass.
The electric spark explodes this mixture as readily
240 HYDROGEN.

as common flame. The figure represents a

small cannon made of tinplate or brass—
a a, are two wires with knobs, b b, at their
outer ends. The wires pass through small
glass tubes set in the sides of the cannon,
and approach very near to each other with
out absolutely meeting. Fill the cannon
with the mixed gases at the water trough,
and close the mouth with a cork. Then
pass an electric spark through the mixture
from knob to knob. The gases explode, and the cork
is thrown out like a shot.
The following is a similar experiment. A large
bladder is closed by a cork, through which passes a

glass tube e and two wires, the ends of which nearly

meet inside, and are furnished with knobs outside. The
bladder is filled with gas by fixing the tube e to the
stop-cock of the apparatus depicted at page 209 or 215.
The tube is closed with wax when the bladder is filled,
and the two knobs are connected by wires with the outer
and inner side of a Leyden
jar, which must be charged
with electricity by means of an -

electrophorus. The electric

spark passes through the gase
ous mixture from wire to wire
at i, and a tremendous explo
sion is produced, which shat- =El
ters the bladder to pieces.
The electrophorus is figured in the margin.
 EXPLOSIVE RESIN BUBBLES. 241

Resin Balloons.—Böttger gives the following in

structions for preparing Detonating Balloons: Mix 8
parts of resin with one part of refined
lintseed oil, in an iron or porcelain
capsule b, placed over a water bath a.
Melt the mixture and retain it fluid at
about the temperature of 200°. This
mixture may be used instead of soap
lather to blow balloons, either with
common air or the gases, using a com
mon tobacco pipe to blow with. To
prevent their bursting on separation
from the pipe, they must be allowed to fall on a sheet
of paper strewed with powder of Lycopodium. These
balloons have an elegant appearance in sunshine. If
thrown from a high window, they do not burst till they
come into contact with the ground.
When oxyhydrogen gas is used, and the balloons are
blown with the assistance of the bladder apparatus
described at page 236, they may be cautiously deposited
upon porcelain plates, strewn with powder of Lycopo
dium. Though excessively thin, they retain the gases
perfectly, and for some experiments they are preferable
both to bladders and caoutchouc balls.
The explosive power of oxyhydrogen gas may be
effectively demonstrated at Lectures by one of these
balloons. Suppose one to be prepared of from 3 to 4
inches diameter, or containing about 30 cubic inches
of the mixed gases, and to be lying upon a porcelain
plate. The inner surface of your left hand is to be
strewn with Lycopodium, and the resinous ball is to be
gently rolled from the plate to the hand. A lighted
paper is to be taken in the right hand, the face turned
aside from the left hand, and the balloon to be inflamed.
A violent explosion is instantly produced, for 30 cubic
inches of oxyhydrogen gas is a large quantity to ignite
at once; yet the hand that sustains the explosive mix
ture is only slightly shaken, and suffers no injury
whatever.— Böttger.
X
242 HYDROGEN.

Oxyhydrogen Blowpipe.—The explosive mixture of

oxygen and hydrogen gases, when burnt gradually and
with suitable precautions at a small jet, produces an
intense degree of heat, possessed of great fusing power.
One of the simplest forms of apparatus for this pur
pose is re
presented in
the margin,
and known
as Hemmings’s Jet. It consists of a brass
tube, a, packed quite full of very fine brass
wires. The perfection or safety of this
instrument consists in the fineness and the close pack
ing of these wires. The gases are first mixed in a jar
and passed thence into a sound bladder mounted with
a bladder-piece and stop-cock, as figured in page 209,
and the jet is connected with the stop-cock by means of
the screw b. The stop-cock being opened and the
bladder pressed, the mixed gas escapes at the orifice c,
where it is inflamed. The ball d of the jet can be
removed and the pipe c screwed into the tube a. This
alteration allows the flame to be sent in different direc
tions. If the tube a is loosely packed, the flame may
pass back into the bladder, and cause the explosion of
the whole mass of gas. The jet should on this account
never be used in connection with a gas-holder formed
of solid materials. -

Eageriments with this Blowpipe.-1. A piece of plati

num wire or foil melts in the flame easily. 2. If the
flame is directed upon a hole in a piece of charcoal,
containing metals and other substances of difficult fusi
bility in ordinary furnaces, they soon melt. 3. A steel
watch-spring burns and throws off brilliant sparks.
4. A piece of lime or magnesia becomes intensely hot,
and shines with a light so bright as to be insupportable
to the eye.
The Hydrogen Lamp. —When hydrogen gas issues
from a small orifice and strikes upon pure spongy pla
tinum, held in the open air, it causes the platinum to
become red hot. If the current of hydrogen gas con
 HYDROGEN GAS LAMP. 243

tinues, the red hot platinum inflames it. The hydrogen

lamp was contrived, to apply this re
markable property of hydrogen gas
to a useful purpose. This lamp is
figured in the margin. a is a glass
cylinder containing very dilute (from
100° to 200") sulphuric acid. . . is a
cylinder of zinc, the solution of which
in the acid, produces the hydrogen
gas. The gas collects in the funnel
f, which is cemented to the top e, and
closed by the stop-cock c. The acid
is gradually driven from the funnel
into the cylinder, until the funnel is
filled with gas. When the stop-cock c is opened, by
pressing down the lever, the gas issues from the jet b
and strikes upon the platinum held in the brass collar
d, immediately after which a flame appears between d
and b, at which matches of paper may be lighted.
Brimstone matches spoil the platinum.
The platinum is fixed in the collar in the
manner shown by the marginal figure.
When the apparatus is first set up, the
common air must be taken from the fun
nel, by covering the collar d with paper, and then open
ing the stop-cock c. The funnel is then allowed to fill
with hydrogen gas, which is let off in the same manner,
without being allowed to strike upon the platinum.
This is repeated once or twice, after which the
gas will be pure. The paper is then taken away and
the pure hydrogen gas is allowed to strike upon the
platinum. If the gas does not take fire, it must be
inflamed by a lighted paper, in order to dry the plati.
num. After that it will act properly. As the acid
becomes saturated with zinc, crystals of sulphate of
zinc form in the cylinder. At the end of some months
the solution must be thrown out and fresh acid put into
the cylinder.
The figure at page 92, represents an ornamental
hydrogen lamp, constructed on the same principle.
244 HYDROGEN.

COMPOUNDS OF OxygEN AND HYDROGEN.

There are two compounds of oxygen and hydrogen;

namely, Water and Peroxide of Hydrogen.
WATER. H2O = 11248.
Water is a liquid of which the most useful properties
are universally known, and properly appreciated.
Without it, neither vegetable nor animal life could be
supported. When pure,it is perfectly transparent,colour
less, tasteless, inodorous, and not liable to change. At
32° of Fahrenheit's thermometer it freezes, and forms
ICE. At 212° it boils, and is converted into STEAM, in
which case it expands from 1 volume to 1700. In other
words, a pint of water produces 1700 pints of steam.
Water is nearly incompressible. It is composed of 100.
parts of oxygen and 12:48 of hydrogen, or nearly 8 parts
of oxygen to 1 part of hydrogen by weight, and it can
be decomposed so as to produce these elements, in the
same proportions. 1700 cubic inches of hydrogen gas,
and 850 cubic inches of oxygen gas, combine and pro
duce 1700 cubic inches of steam, which condense to 1
cubic inch of water. See page 177. It is capable of
dissolving many substances, and producing solutions.
It enters into various solid compounds, in the state of
combined water, saline water, water of hydration, or
water of crystallisation. Rain water is the purest we
see in nature, but even that is never absolutely pure.
Spring water has always some mineral impurities, and
sea water still more. It is easily purified by distillation.
The “Experiments on Heat,” pages 73–92, exemplify
many remarkable properties of water in its different
states.

METHODS OF COMPOSING WATER FROM ITS ELEMENTs.

It has been already stated, that when oxygen gas

and hydrogen gas, in the ratio of one volume of the
former and two of the latter, are burnt together, the
product is water. I proceed to show by what experi
ments this statement is proved to be true.
 COMPOSITION OF WATER. 245

EXPERIMENT 1. To prove that when Hydrogen gas is

burnt in the presence of Oxygen gas, the product is WATER.
—The figure represents a combination of glass tubes,

of which the tube, o, e, g, is about 10 inches long and

# inch wide, and the tube, c, o, about half-an-inch in
the bore.
A current of hydrogen gas, dried by chloride of cal
cium in the tube, a, issues from the blow-pipe jet, b,
and is inflamed. The flame should be about 4 inch
long. The tube, c, must be fixed vertically over the
flame. The tube, o, e, g, must be quite dry. The tube,
f, must contain cold water. The diameter of this tube
is a little less than that of the tube in which it is placed.
It is fixed in its position by two small cork wedges, at
f, g, which are cemented to the tube, f.
The heat of the flame causes the atmospheric air
(consisting, as will be hereafter shown, of oxygen and
nitrogen) to rush into the vertical tube, c. The oxygen
of the air combines with the burning hydrogen, and
forms water, which passes, in the state of steam, mixed
with nitrogen and superabundant air, into the bent
tube, o, g. The steam there comes into contact with
the tube f containing cold water, and is condensed,
while the excess of air and the nitrogen escape into
the atmosphere by the spaces at f, g. In half-an-hour
a considerable quantity of water is collected at the
knee, e.
The method of separating vapours from incondensible
gases, by means of the cold water tube, f, can often be
advantageously employed by the practical chemist; as,
X2
246 HYDROGEN.

for example, when digesting substances in a flask with

aqua regia, alcohol, and other volatile solvents.
The liquid thus produced can be taken from the bent
tube and examined as to its properties. Thus it can be
shown, that it is not an acid, nor an alcali; that it is
wholly volatile, and contains no fixed substances in
solution; that it boils at 212° F., &c. In
short, that it is water.
When such an apparatus as that just
described is not at command, the produc
tion of water may be shown, by holding
over the jet of the philosophical taper, page
237, a small glass globe with a wide neck, B
figure B in the margin. The water con
denses on the inner sides of the globe.
EXPERIMENT 2. To prove that the Gases combine
in the proportion of Two volumes of Hydrogen and
ONE volume of Oxygen.—For this experiment it is
necessaryto have B

o-zº alºudiometer,one
form of which
|-O
(Volta's Eudio

f meter) is repre
sented byfigure A
in the margin. It
is a strong glass
tube, closed at
one end, pierced
by two platinum
wires melted in
air-tight,andgra
duated into any
number of equal
parts, such as
hundredths of a cubic inch. It is to be
filled with, and inverted in, either mercury
or water.
A small quantity of pure oxy
gen gas is then introduced; and the mea
sure of it is accurately taken by sinking
 COMPOSITION OF WATER. 247

the eudiometer in the trough till the water within and

without the tube is at the same level. Twice the volume
of pure hydrogen gas is then added, and measured in
the same way; or the quantity of the hydrogen gas may be
a little more or a little less, the difference being of no
importance provided the exact measure be known. The
eudiometer is now fixed firmly in the pneumatic trough,
e, as represented in the figure, and an electrical spark
is passed through the gaseous mixture by connecting
the platinum wires, b and c, with the outer and inner
coating of a charged Leyden jar, d. See page 240.
An explosion is produced, and a quantity of gas dis
appears. If a residue of gas appears and another
spark is sent through it, no farther explosion is pro
duced. The residual gas after being carefully mea
sured may be transferred to a small tube, and tried
whether it is oxygen or hydrogen. If the original
quantities were precisely 2 volumes of hydrogen and
1 volume of oxygen, there will be no residual gas. If
the hydrogen exceeded 2 volumes, there will remain an
excess of hydrogen. If the hydrogen was deficient of
2 volumes, there will remain a corresponding excess of
oxygen. This experiment, carefully performed, shows,
beyond a possibility of doubt, that the two gases com
bine precisely. in the indicated proportions of two
volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen. The
water produced in this manner cannot be measured,
even when the experiment is performed over mercury.
The intensity of the explosion is such that only a very
small quantity of the gas can be operated upon at once,
. . and as 2550 volumes of the mixed gases produce only
one volume of water (see page 244), all the water that
is produced in one experiment is merely sufficient to
damp the surface of the eudiometer.
There is another and a very interesting and con
venient method of causing the combination of oxygen
and hydrogen to take place; namely, by means of a
eudiometer ball of spongy platinum, or, strictly
speaking, of a mixture of 1 part of platinum with
4 parts of clay, the latter being added to prolong
248 HYDROGEN.

and weaken the action of the platinum. The ball

is mounted on a wire of platinum, which is fastened
to a longer wire of iron. The mixed gases being
ready in the eudiometer over mercury, the ball
is ignited in a spirit lamp flame to dry it, and is
then, by means of the iron wire, pushed through the
mercury till it comes into contact with the gases, which
then combine gradually and without explosion. This
experiment cannot be made over water.
ExPERIMENT 3. To prove that 112:48 parts of WATER,
by weight, contain 100 parts of Oxygen and 12:48 parts
of Hydrogen.—The substance called black oxide of
copper is composed of copper 395-7 parts, and oxygen
100 parts. When this substance is placed at a high
temperature in contact with pure and dry hydrogen
gas, the black oxide is changed into metallic copper,
losing weight in the proportion of 100 parts out of
every 4957 parts; while, at the same time, a quantity
of pure water is produced, which, when collected and
weighed, is found to be at the rate of 11248 parts of
water for every 100 parts lost in weight by the black
oxide of copper. The difference between 11248 parts
of water and 100 parts of oxygen, is 12:48 parts, which
of course is the weight of the hydrogen absorbed in the
process. This experiment can be performed with a
great degree of accuracy with the help of the following
apparatus. a and b represent a flask for preparing
 COMPOSITION OF WATER. 249

hydrogen gas, in the manner described at page 229.

c, c, are bulbs to condense a portion of the aqueous
vapour that rises with the gas. d is a tube containing
dry chloride of calcium for absorbing moisture from the
gas. Instead of this tube any of those described at
page 233 may be used, e is a tube of infusible glass
with a bulb containing black oxide of copper. g is a
similar bulb destined to receive a portion of the water
formed in the process. h is a chloride of calcium tube
to absorb the residue of the water, i is an open tube
through which the excess of hydrogen gas escapes into
the air. The different portions of this apparatus are
connected together by short tubes of indian rubber tied
on closely. There is a defect in the figure which it is
necessary to mention, namely, the tube e should project
in a long narrow point directly into the centre of the
bulb, g, which is necessary in order to prevent a loss
of water at the joint between the two bulbs. The
operation is as follows:—The bulb, e, is first weighed
empty, and then when half full of well dried and
pure black oxide of copper. The bulb, g, is weighed
empty, and the chloride of calcium tube, h, with its
contents is also weighed. The connexions are then
made with care. Acid is poured down the funnel, b,
and the hydrogen gas is allowed to escape freely at the
orifice, i. When it has passed away for some time, a
light is applied at i, and if the hydrogen gas burns
quietly, it may be considered that the atmospheric air
is all expelled from the apparatus and replaced by
hydrogen gas. Sufficient acid is supplied at b to keep
up a continuous current of hydrogen gas, and an argand
spirit lamp is now brought under the bulb, e. The
oxide of copper soon begins to glow and suffers decom
position, and water is seen to gather in the bulb, g.
When the process is ended and dry atmospheric air
has been sucked through the apparatus to drive out the
hydrogen, the tube, e, with its contents, is again weighed
and the loss of weight or amount of abstracted oxygen
is thus found. The tubes, g and h, are also weighed,
and the gain of weight on the two, shows the quantity
250 HYDROGEN.

of water produced and condensed in them. Deducting

from this, the weight of the oxygen lost by the black
oxide of copper, the difference shows the weight of the
hydrogen.
` As this analysis occupies much time, it is not adapted
to be shown at a lecture. But the interesting experi
ment of the production of water, by passing dry hydro
gen gas over dry black oxide of copper, can be easily
shown at a lecture by means of the following modifica
tion of the foregoing apparatus. a is the hard glass

bulb tube containing the oxide of copper. The

end of this modified tube is bent downwards and cut
aslant to allow the water to run easily out of it, and it
is connected by a cork, d, to the bent tube, c, e, g, which
is fitted with a cold water condensing tube, f, in the
manner described in page 245. The dry hydrogen gas is
passed in the direction indicated by the arrow, and a
considerable proportion of the water produced collects
at the bend, e, but since a little of the water escapes in
company with the excess of hydrogen gas, at the open
ing, f, g, there can be no conclusions drawn from this
experiment as to the weight of the water produced.
METHODS OF DECOMPOSING WATER.
Process g, page 232, affords an example of the
analysis of water, by an operation which is of easy per
formance, so as to give results approaching to truth, but
 DECOMPOSITION OF WATER. 251

very difficult of accurate performance. The experi

ment is made as described at page 232, but in a gra
duated tube of a large size. The volume of the gas
thus produced is measured, and the weight of it is
determined from the measurement, by calculation. See
page 178. The solution of potash is then conveyed into
a glass jar, the whole of it being carefully washed from
the graduated tube with distilled water. The amount
of potash contained in it is then determined by the
alcalimetrical process of adding test acid from a centi
grade alcalimeter. It being known that 589-92 parts
of potash = KO, contain 100 parts of oxygen, it is easy
to compare the weight of the hydrogen set free, with the
weight of the oxygen combined with the potassium to
form that quantity of potash which the test acid detects
in the solution.

Galvanic Decomposition of Water.—The apparatus

figured in the margin represents a bottle containing a
pair of parallel metallic plates
communicating with two ex
ternal wires, and a gas-lead
ing tube passing through the
cork and communicating with
a small pneumatic trough,
where T is a graduated gas
tube, and B a beehive shelf
to support it. The plates
within the bottle act best
when made of platinum, in
which case the liquor put into the bottle is water acidu
lated with sulphuric acid to make it a conductor of
electricity. . But as this metal is expensive, the plates
may be made of steel, and the liquor must then be ren
dered a conductor by the addition of a little caustic
potash. The wires may be either of platinum or copper.
The binding screws, C, Z, are of brass. The apparatus
being prepared, and the galvanic battery in action, the
wire, C, is fastened to the wire proceeding from the
copper end of the battery, and the wire, Z, is similarly
attached to the wire proceeding from the zinc end of
252 HYDROGEN.

the battery. The ends of all the wires before being put
into the binding screws must be cleaned bright with
scouring paper. If the battery is powerful enough, the
current of electricity that now passes through the bottle
will decompose the water into the explosive mixture
of two volumes of hydrogen gas and one volume of
oxygen gas, which will pass into the gas tube, T, and
may be analysed or examined. If collected in small
strong tubes of 3 by # inches, the gaseous mixture may
be safely exploded by lifting the tube and presenting
its mouth to a candle. See page 239.
Method of conducting this Experiment so as to produce
the Oxygen Gas and Hydrogen Gas in separate vessels.
—Instead of the bottle apparatus described
above, it is necessary to use two tubes, hav- ||o h
ing a plate of platinum in each, as repre
sented by the figure in the margin, where
o is the tube for collecting the oxygen gas, Cz,

h, the tube for collecting the hydrogen gas,

a, a bent tube containing acidulated water,
and p, p, the two platinum plates terminated
exteriorly by rings, into which the connect
ing wires from the galvanic battery are
hooked. This form of apparatus is difficult
of construction, and may be replaced by the
following, which is very easily put together
and convenient in use. O, H, are two glass P P
tubes open at the lower end and closed
above by corks, through which pass
copper wires soldered below to slips z C

of thin platinum foil, which may be

6 inches long by 1 inch diameter, or M

any other size to fit the tubes. The

latter are filled with acidulated water
and placed in a small china pan con
taining
ends ofthe
thesame liquor.
copper wires The
are other
then o

connected by the bindings screws,

C, Z, to the copper and zinc ends of
the galvanic battery. After some Sºº
time, more or less considerable
 GALWANIC BATTERIES. 253

according to the strength of the galvanic battery, the

water in the apparatus is decomposed, and the oxygen
gas and hydrogen gas are collected in the two tubes,
without any admixture of the gases the one with the
other. In proportion, the gases collected are two
volumes of hydrogen to rather less than one volume of
oxygen. The reason of the deficiency in the quantity
of the oxygen gas is commonly said to be, that oxygen
gas is more soluble in water than hydrogen gas. I am,
however, of opinion, that in this analysis of water, a
quantity of peroxide of hydrogen is usually produced,
which is to a certain degree rendered stable in conse
quence of the presence of the sulphuric acid, and thus
occasions a deficiency of free oxygen.
Proper Batteries for this Experiment.—The figure
represents a form of galvanic battery, commonly called
Young's Battery.
It consists of twen
ty-four pairofplates
of zinc and copper,
about two inches |Ānniääfiſääiſſ,
square, fitted in a |||||| |||||
wooden frame, and
adapted to a stone
ware trough, with
in which it can be
sunk, so as to be
covered with the
acid during an experiment; and when the power is not
wanted, it can be lifted and supported by hooks upon a
transverse wire, as shown in the figure. The acid
charge for this battery is water 24 parts, oil of vitriol
# part, nitric acid part. The wires that extend from
either end of the battery must be connected with the
binding screws, C, Z, of the preceding instruments.
When the experiment is ended, the battery must be
immediately well washed from the acid, otherwise the
zinc plates will soon be dissolved. One of these bat
teries will readily disengage the mixed gases from the
first apparatus, but two of them connected together are
Y -
254 HYDROGEN.

necessary to discharge the gases separately from the

double tube apparatus.
The great fault of Young's battery is, that its powers
soon cease. There are other batteries in which the
power is sustained, but in these the power is not of the
description that effects the decomposition of water. A
single cell battery, however large its dimensions, and
however powerful it may be in giving shocks to the
human frame, cannot decompose water. That effect
requires, the united power of a number of pairs of plates
or cells. It is not necessary that the plates be large,
but it is indispensable that they be numerous. The
sustaining battery that I have now
to describe is, therefore, not fit for
the above experiments; but since
from 6 to 12 cells of it will answer
the purpose, and as it is a very
cheap instrument and useful for
other experiments, it may be worth
description. P, is a cylinder of
glazed stoneware; the thick line,
Z, is a cylinder of zinc open at
both ends, and C, is a beaker of
plumbago, with a spreading mouth
and a small cup, M, formed on
one side. The size of the outer
cylinder is 4 inches in height, and
3 inches in diameter. A copper
wire is soldered to the upper end
of the zinc cylinder, and a little
mercury is put into the cup. The battery is charged
with nitric acid inside the plumbago, and a solution of
chloride of sodium around the zinc. The action imme
diately commences and continues for many days. A
single cell of this battery is sufficient to use with a coil
in giving shocks; also for electro-magnetic and many
electrotype operations, and, as already mentioned, a
º cells of it combined are equal to the decomposition
Of Water.
 PURIFICATION OF WATER. 255

Decomposition of Alcaline Salts by Galvanic Action.

—This pleasing and instructive experiment, having
some relation to the foregoing,
may be described here. The
V-tube is filled with a weak
solution of sulphate of soda,
coloured by blue cabbage liquor.
A plate of copper foil soldered
to a copper wire is inserted at
each end, and connected by
the binding screws, C and Z,
with the galvanic battery. The sulphate of soda is soon
decomposed; the soda being disengaged at one end of
the V-tube, where it colours the cabbage liquor green,
and the sulphuric acid being set free at the other end
of the tube, colouring the liquor red; the central por
tion of the liquor retaining its blue colour. By attach
ing the wires at C, Z, to the contrary poles of the
battery, the changes of colour may be reversed.
PURIFICATION OF WATER.
It being impos
sible to make any
progress in analyti
cal chemistry, or in
any exact chemical
experiment, without
the use of pure wa
ter, I shall describe
several methods of
performing the oper
ation of Distillation,
by which common
water is rendered
pure. This figure
shows very clearly
the nature of the
process of distilla
tion. a, is a small
glass retort contain
256 , HYDROGEN,

ing water that is made to boil by the flame of a spirit

lamp. c b, is a bent glass tube open at both ends and
serving as a receiver. To prevent the latter from becom
ing warm, in which case the steam would escape uncon
densed at the upper end, cold water, or a rag wetted
with cold water, is applied outside the tube b, or a cold
water condensing tube is inserted into b, in the manner
explained at page 245. In either case pure water soon
condenses at the bend c.
When the impurities contained in water submitted
to distillation are more volatile than water, they go
over with the first portion of water distilled, which
ought therefore to be thrown away. When they are
less volatile than water, they remain in the retort after
the water has distilled over. Commonly, therefore, the
middle portion of the water distilled is the purest. The
distillation ought never to be continued to dryness.
When a water contains muriate of magnesia, it must
be mixed with lime before distillation, otherwise the
distilled water will contain muriatic acid. When car
bonate of ammonia is present in an impure water, a
little sulphuric acid must be added, otherwise ammonia
distils over with the water.
The next figure represents an apparatus for distil
ling water in quantities for use;—S is a tinplate still of

the capacity of 2 quarts, fis a funnel that reaches nearly

to the bottom of the still, p, c, a, e, is a block-tin pipe with
joints at a. and a and between a and e. The joint at
a between p and c is not essential. A is a japanned ease
of zinc or tinplate in which the tube a, a, is soldered air
tight. This case is kept always full of cold water, the
 DISTILLATION OF WATER. 257

water being run in continuously by the funnel h, and

as continuously run off in a warm state by the waste
pipe c.
The cold water is supplied from a water bottle a, so
placed that the water from
the cock c runs immediately
into the funnel h. A pail is
placed to receive the warm
water that runs from the
waste pipe c.—The still S is CŞ
placed over a common kit
chen or parlour fire, in order
to obtain heat economically.
The condenser A must be
supported by a stool,or a pile of
bricks. When the water boils
down below the end of the
funnel f, steam issues from the funnel and gives notice
that more water is required; but the still should never
be more than half full, lest the impure water should
boil over.—The distilled water escapes by the bent pipe
e, where a bottle is placed to receive it. With this still,
4 quarts of distilled water can be prepared in 3 hours.
At the end of the operation, all the vessels should be
immediately emptied, the still washed out, and the
whole be dried. This still should never be used for
any thing but the distillation of water.
The following apparatus is more powerful than the
foregoing, and applicable, not only to the distillation
of water, but to that of alcohol and all kinds of volatile
oils. It presents the great advantage over many
forms of distilling apparatus, that every part of the
interior of it can be readily got at for the purpose of
thorough cleaning. The still S has nearly the same
shape as that described above. It has, however, a
moveable head, which can be fastened on by 4 screw
nuts, a washer of many folds of filtering paper being
placed on a broad flange between the head and the
still. There is also a moveable pierced false bottom,
which is only used in the distillation of volatile oils,
Y 2
258 HYDROGEN.

the use of it being to prevent rose leaves, &c., from touch

ing the bottom of the still, to sodden in the water, or

to suffer from burning. The heat is afforded by a por

table furnace fed with charcoal. An iron jacket is put
upon the furnace round the still, to prevent the loss of
heat by radiation. The carbonic acid of the fire escapes
by a large hole in the upper part of this jacket.
The condenser consists of a hollow cylindrical body,
the two concentric walls of which form a space that is
kept continually full of cold water. This is supplied
from a water bottle by the funnel, F, and the warm
water flows away by the waste pipe, P. The head of
the condenser is separate from the body, and fastened
on by screw-nuts in the same manner as the head of
the still. The steam passes from the still directly into
the cavity, C, of the condenser, where it is in contact
with the cold water of the circular cistern, close against
which it is pressed by the solid block, B, which allows
only 4 inch of space all round for the steam to pass by;
 WATER AS A SOLVENT. 259

and as the steam comes here into contact with the

coldest water issuing continually from the lower end of
the funnel, F, it is effectually condensed, and flows out
of the pipe, W, in the state of water more or less warm
according to the more or less effective state of the con
densing power. In adjusting the apparatus for use,
the condenser is first mounted on a three-legged stool,
having a hole in the centre of the top for the reception
of the delivering pipe, W. The furnace is then brought
to a proper level by means of a stack of loose bricks.
With this apparatus several gallons of distilled
water may be prepared in a day. When a distillation
is ended, the whole vessels should be emptied, washed
and dried without delay, otherwise the still and con
denser, both of which are made of tinned iron, will
become rusty. The outside of the condenser may be
japanned. An apparatus of this form, consisting of a
copper still and a block tin condenser, may be used in
pharmacy, and for a variety of important distillations.
It gives purer water than a similar apparatus made
from tinplate, principally because the solder used for
the joints of tinplate vessels contains lead, which steam
dissolves. As, however, a very small surface of solder
is presented to the steam in a well-made apparatus of
this kind, the impurity thence arising is commonly of
no importance. A new tinplate still and condenser is
always soiled by resin about the joints, which must be
washed off with warm spirit of wine applied with a
rag, otherwise the distilled water produced will be
muddy and smell of resin.
SOLVENT POWER OF WATER.
Distilled Water is the chemist's universal solvent.
It is always used first, when an unknown body is sub
mitted to analysis, because it dissolves more substances
than any other liquor, and with less alteration of the
properties of the things submitted to examination.
See page 36.
A liquor supposed to contain something in solution
is tried for acids and alcalies by the processes given at
260 HYDROGEN.

page 31, and for solid matters generally as follows:–

You put two or three clear drops of the colourless liquor
on the flat surface of a slip of platinum foil, or, for want
of that, on a slip of window glass; you slowly evaporate
this liquor to dryness: if it consists of water alone,
nothing will remain after evaporation. If a white film
of solid matter remains, it proves that something exists
in the solution. Next, you ignite the solid film, by
holding the support before the blowpipe flame, or in the
flame of a spirit lamp. If the film disappears, the sub
stance in solution is of a volatile nature: if not, it is a
fixed substance.
SUBSTANCES SOLUBLE IN WATER.
Acids, formed by non-metallic | Nitrates
simple bodies.
Alcalies.
- Chlorates,
Bromates,
A. ºld
and neutral,
-

Alcaline Earths. Sulphates, many.

But Magnesia very little. Seleniates, many.
Chlorides, \, Most of them, both Alcaline Salts. . All, except a
Bromides, ſ neutral and acid. few double salts.
Iodides, a few of them. Sulphurets. Those of the metals
Iodates, most of them. of the Alcalies and Alcaline
Earths.

SUBSTANCES INSoLUBLE IN WATER.

Metals. -
(All of them, ex
Non-metallic Elements. cepting those of
But Iodine colours water, the metals of the
though it requires 7000 Sulphurets, Alcalies and the
parts for solution Seleniurets, Alcaline Earths;
Metallic Acids. Except those and the double
of Arsenic and Chromium, Sulphurets and
and the slightly soluble acids Seleniurets which
of Vanadium, Molybdenum, they produce.
and Osmium. Carbonates, ) Many neutral and
Metallic Oxides. Borates, basic salts of these
The non-alcaline,with Phosphates, and other oxy
Earths, the addition of Mag Sulphates, gen acids, where
nesia. Sulphites, the bases are
}. most of them. Seleniates, earths or metal
romides,
}
Chlorides, A few of them. Selenites,
Salts of the
lic oxides.
Metallic Acids.
Subchlorides. Also many other Except the neutral and basic
basic salts of Hydrogen Acids. salts of the alcalies.
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 261

COLOURS OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONs.

In some cases the colour of a solution indicates the
substance contained in it. The following are examples:
Colours. Substances probably present.
Blue, Copper, Wanadium.
Copper, Iron, protosalts.
Green Nickel, Molybdenum.
5. Uranium, protosalts, Manganates.
Chromium.
Yellow, Neutral Chromates.
Yellow-Red, Bichromates.
Permanganates.
Red, { Cobalt
Manganese, Bromine.
Iron, persalts, Platinum.
Uranium, persalts, Iridium.
Brown-Yellow, 3 Gold, Rhodium.
Molybdenum, Osmium.
Sulphurets.
Manganese, persalts, Palladium.
Copper, protochloride, Iridium.
Brown, Sulphurets, Osmium.
Molybdenum.
Alcalies, Earths.
Colourless, Metals other than the above.
Salts other than the above.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
Water is almost universally taken as the standard
of specific gravities, that is to say, as a standard of
well-known weight, with which the relative weights of
other bodies, solid and liquid, are compared.
An avoirdupois pound of water, or 7000 imperial
grains, when at the temperature of 62°F., constitutes
the tenth part of an imperial gallon measure, and this
quantity I propose to call a DECIGALLON.—See the
Table in page 197. If we divide the Decigallon by
1000, we get a measure that contains 7 grains of water,
and which I call a SEPTEM Measure. Of course,
1000 septems = 1 decigallon measure.
When water is fixed as the standard of specific
262 HYDROGEN.

gravities, it is usual to number it 1000 or 1'000, and to

calculate all other numbers to agree with it. Thus:—
1.000 = sp. gr. of water.
1850 = sp. gr. of oil of vitriol.
0.796 = sp. gr. of alcohol.
These numbers mean that 1000 septems of oil of
vitriol weigh as much as 1850 septems of water, and
that 1000 septems of alcohol weigh as much as 796
septems of water. We thus readily see the relation
existing between the bulks and weights of these sub
stances. There is another advantage gained by fixing
upon water at 1.000 as the standard of densities,
namely, the numbers show the weight per decigallon of
any liquor in avoirdupois lbs. and decimal parts of a lb.
Thus, sp. gr. 1.85 is equal to 11% lb. per decigallon or
184 lb. per gallon.
The specific gravity of a liquid is determined by
weighing a quantity of it in a small bottle with a nar
row neck, such as is here figured. The
liquor being brought to the tempera
ture of 62°F. is poured into this bottle
until the lower part of the curve at its
surface touches the line cut across
the neck. The bottle is then weighed.
There must be a counterpoise for the
weight of the bottle, and it must be
known how much water the bottle
contains when filled in the same man
ner up to the mark. The bottle when
full of heavy liquor must not be heavier
than the balance to be used has power to weigh
correctly. It is convenient when the bottle holds such
a quantity of water, that the calculation to be made after
the experiment is performed, is easy. For that pur
pose it is necessary that the number given by the
weighing should state the sp. gr. after being either
multiplied or divided by a single figure. I shall give
several examples to illustrate this method:—
 IIYDROMETERS. 263

Contents of the bottle

in grains of Water. Calculation. Sp. Gr.
200 . . . divide by 2 - 100
250 . . . multiply by 4 - 1000
300 . . . divide by 3 - 100
500 . . . multiply by 2 - 1000
600 . . . divide by 6 - 100

Suppose you have to use the third of these bottles,

and find that on weighing it full of oil of vitriol,
the weight of the latter is 555, grains. Dividing
this number by 3, you have 185 for the sp. gr. of oil
of vitrol, which is correct as stated against water at
100.
There is another method of taking the specific gravi
ties of liquids, which is much in use in the chemical
arts. This is by means of an
instrument called the hydro
meter, several forms of which
are shown in the figure. This
is so constructed that when
put into water, it sinks till a
point in the stem marked
1.000 exactly touches the
surface of the water, after
which the instrument rests in
quiet. When the same in
strument is put into oil of
vitriol, it sinks till a point
marked 1850 touches the sur
face of the liquid, when it
again rests. Thus, the hy
drometer tells the sp. gr. of liquids by resting in them
in such a manner as to show the density of the liquor
by the mark on the stem, where it is cut by the surface
of the liquor. .
In the chemical arts it is usual to employ hydrome
ters with such arbitrary scales as give short numbers to
express the specific gravity of liquids. The hydrometer
commonly used in this country is Twaddell’s, of which
every degree indicates an additional weight of 35 grains
264 HYDROGEN.

on the pound of water, or 5 septems of water upon the

decigallon. Thus:–
Deg. of
Twad. Sp. Gr.
0 = 1.000 = 1000 septems of the liquor weigh
as much as 1000 septems of water.
1 — 1:005 - 1005 septems of water.
2 — 1:010 - 1010 septems of water.
3 - 1:01 5 = 1015 septems of water.
TEST SOLUTIONS.
What I have to say under this head, relates to the
method of preparing chemical solutions with such atten
tion to the proportions of reagents and water, that the
experimenter may at all times know the precise chemi
cal strength of any of his test solutions.
The atomic weights of chemical substances, given in
the table at page 146, state a quantity of each which,
when weighed in English grains, constitute what I will
call a Test atom. Thus, 667:34 grains is the test atom
of anhydrous carbonate of soda; and 501-165 grains
is the test atom of anhydrous sulphuric acid. The
bottle figured in the margin con- ** º

tains, when filled up to the mark

on the neck, 1 decigallon, or 1000 l (
septems, or 's gallon, of any
liquor.
When a test atom of any sub- f
stance is dissolved in water, and ar,

the solution is farther diluted

with water till it occupies the
bulk of a decigallon, at the tem
perature of 62°F., I call that a
solution of one hundred degrees of
strength, and I mark it 100°.
Thus, solution of carbonate of
soda of 100° contains 667:34
grains of that salt in a decigallon
of solution. Sulphuric acid of
100° contains 501-165 grains of
 CENTIGRADE TESTING. 265

the dry acid in a decigallon of the diluted acid. If

two test atoms of the dry test are contained in the same
bulk of solution, I call its strength 200°, &c. It is
evident from this that equal measures of solutions of f
the same degree are equivalent to each other, and that
any quantity by weight of the dry test can be taken by ! |
measuring off a corresponding quantity of the solution. ;
For operating in this way, it is necessary to be provided;
with certain kinds of graduated glass instruments
such as I shall now describe.
\ Y : B .

}|
ſ

-)

A is called a centigrade alcalimeter. It is a narrow

glass jar, with a grooved stopper, by using which the
contents can be poured out very slowly. It is graduated
into a hundred equal parts, each part being equal to a
septem, and the whole 100 parts being equal to a centi
Z
266 HYDROGEN.

gallon, or the 10th part of a decigallon, B is a test

mixer divided into a hundred parts, each equal to 10
septems, and the whole equal to 1000 septems, or to a
decigallon. C is a pipette so graduated that when
filled up to the mark a, b, it delivers exactly 100 septems
of solution. The last drop must be blown from the
point, by applying the mouth to the upper end of the
tube, while the lower end touches the inside of the glass
receiving-vessel. D is a pipette for measuring from
1 to 20 Septems of a liquor. In measuring liquors with
graduated glass vessels, the line cut on the glass is to
be made to coincide with the lower part of the curve
formed by the surface of the water, as shown at a, b,
page 264, and at c, b, fig. C. This line is seen most
distinctly when a bit of thin paper is held against the
back of the vessel.
By means of these instruments the test atom of any
substance can be easily divided into 1000 or any smaller
number of equal parts, or any fractional quantity of a
test atom may be taken that is desirable for any parti
cular purpose. With the addition of a few other glass
vessels, these instruments afford the means of testing
the strength and purity of alcalies, acids, and many
articles of importance in the arts. It would be out of
place to enter here into full details of such analyses.
Certain useful particulars will be given in treating of
different solutions, the relations of which this general
notice is intended to explain.
PEROXIDE OF HYDROGEN. H2 O2. 212'48.
This substance is also called Oxygenated Water. It
is of very difficult and expensive preparation, and inca
pable of being preserved for any length of time. It is
a colourless liquid of sp. gr. 1453. It possesses power
ful bleaching properties, and some other characters
similar to those manifested by solutions containing
chlorine in a bleaching state.
 267

3. NITRO GEN. N = 88.518. N2 = 177.036.

Occurence. Principally in atmospheric air, which
contains about four-fifths of its volume of nitrogen. It
is also contained in many vegetable and animal sub
stances. See page 14.
JProperties. A colourless gas, destitute of odour and
taste. Lighter than air. Sp. gr. = 0.976, air being
1:00, or = 88518, oxygen being 100. See page 176.
Incapable of supporting life, and thence sometimes
termed Azote. Without action on coloured test papers.
Insoluble in water. Gives no precipitate when shaken
in a bottle with lime water. Not combustible. Incap
able of supporting combustion, on which account the
combustion of burning bodies is stopped when they are
plunged into it. Nitrogen is more difficult to be recog
nised than other gases, because its properties are all of
a negative character.
Nitrogen combines with Oxygen, producing nitrous
gas, nitrous oxide gas, hyponitrous acid, nitrous acid,
and atmospheric air.
Other compounds of Nitrogen.—With oxygen and
hydrogen it forms aquafortis, or hydrate of nitric acid,
pure or dry nitric acid being a suppositious compound;
with hydrogen it forms ammonia; with oxygen and
metals it forms the salts which are called nitrates; with
carbon it forms cyanogen; with carbon and hydrogen
it forms prussic acid; with a certain quantity of hydro
gen it forms a prime constituent of a series of salts, in
which the compound of nitrogen and hydrogen seems
to act the part of a metal (ammonium). Aquafortis or
hydrate of nitric acid is a true nitrate, differing no
otherwise from the nitrates of metals than in contain
ing an equivalent of hydrogen, in place of an equi
valent proportion of a metal.
Nitrogen cannot be combined by a direct process
with any other element, except in very minute quan
tities and in the presence of water.
Preparation of Nitrogen Gas—5 volumes (measures)
of atmospheric air contain 4 volumes of nitrogen gas,
268 NITROGEN.

and 1 volume of oxygen gas. If the latter is absorbed

by a combustible body, the former remains in an
uncombined state.
1). Put a morsel of phosphorus into a little porcelain
capsule, place the capsule upon a large cork swimming
on the water of the pneuma
tic trough, d; set fire to the
phosphorus, and cover the
capsule with a bell glass gas
receiver, a, open at bottom
and closed at top. The
oxygen of the air combines Is
with the phosphorus, and
produces white vapours of
phosphoric acid, which dis-àº
solve in the water, and leave
the nitrogen gas in a state of
tolerable purity. 10 cubic inches of air require about
1 grain of phosphorus to render this experiment suc
cessful.
2). Introduce a lighted taper under a glassjar, stand
ing over water, and filled with common air. The light
will shortly be extinguished, a cloudiness will be per
ceived, which, however, will soon subside, and the
water in the basin will rise in the jar.—Rationale.
The atmospheric air is decomposed; the oxygen is
absorbed by the burning taper, and the nitrogen
remains. The cloudiness proceeds from the uncon
sumed smoke of the taper. The water rises in the jar,
because the included volume of air is diminished by the
absorption of its oxygen. The nitrogen gas produced
by this process is less pure than that afforded by the
first process.
3). Mix nitrate of ammonia with granulated zinc,
distil the mixture in a retort, and pass the disengaged
gas through water into a receiver. The gas is a mix
ture of ammonia and nitrogen. The former is absorbed
by the water, namely, that of the pneumatic trough,
and the nitrogen gas remains alone.
4). A mixture of 14 parts of iron filings and 10 parts
 ATMOSPHERIC AIR. 269

of dry saltpetre in powder, heated in a narrow tube of

hard glass, gives off gas, which, when passed through
water, leaves nitrogen.
5). Pass dry atmospheric air through a tube of hard
glass containing copper turnings heated to redness.
The copper absorbs the oxygen, and nitrogen gas
remains free. This process gives pure nitrogen.
6). Chlorine gas passed into liquid ammonia dis
engages nitrogen gas; but the process is dangerous,
because an explosive compound is liable to be produced.
Experiments.-Nitrogen gas, prepared by any of
these processes, will be found to possess the properties
cited in page 207. Plunge a lighted taper into it.
Shake it in a bottle with lime water. Try it with test
paper. Endeavour to set fire to it at a jet.
ATMOSPHERIC AIR, is the term applied to that
immense mass of permanently elastic fluid which sur
rounds the globe we inhabit. It is colourless, tasteless,
inodorous, soluble in water to only a very limited extent,
compressible, and elastic. For a long time this sub
stance was supposed to be simple, but it has now been
proved, by experiment, to be a compound of oxygen
and nitrogen. 5 parts of common air contain 1 part
by measure of the former body, and 4 of the latter, or
100 parts contain 21 parts of oxygen, and 79 parts of
nitrogen. The exact proportions are disputed. The
proportions of these two gases, in atmospheric air, are
uniform and constant. They have been found to be the
same in all parts of the world, and in all seasons of the
year. The two gases are commonly held to be mixed
mechanically, yet the mixture answers to the chemical
formula N40. The density of air is the 825th part of
that of water. A cubic inch (barometer 30 inches,
thermometer 60°) weighs 0.31 grain. The sp. gr. of
air is 1.000 when that of oxygen gas is 1:1026, and it
is 90-695 when oxygen gas is 1.000. See page 174.
Air which has been breathed, is found to have lost its
oxygen, and is then no longer fit to support life. This
element is retained in the lungs, where it is absorbed
Z 2
270 NITROGEN.

by the blood, from which it expels carbonic acid gas,

and which it renders capable of supporting life. The
red colour of the blood is owing to the oxygen it acquires
in passing through the lungs.
Formation of Atmospheric Air.—If one measure of
oxygen gas is mixed with four measures of nitrogen
gas, the resulting mixture is one which agrees in all
its properties with the air of the atmosphere.
Analysis of Atmospheric Air.—Air is confined in a
graduated glass tube, over diluted sulphuric acid. A
piece of copper foil is passed up into the tube through
the diluted acid, and the apparatus is then left un
touched for some hours. The moistened plate of copper
during that time combines with all the oxygen of the
air, and leaves nothing but nitrogen gas in the tube.—
Processes 1 and 5 for preparing nitrogen gas show
other methods of analysing atmospheric air. The
oxygen gas can also be separated from atmospheric air
by explosion with hydrogen gas, as described at page
246. The residue is nitrogen gas.
Atmospheric air commonly contains carbonic acid
gas in about the following proportion:
Oxygen,.......... 500
Nitrogen,.........1900 X = 2401 parts.
Carbonic Acid, 1
The presence of carbonic acid in atmospheric air is
capable of easy demonstration. See Carbonic Acid.
To show that the Atmosphere contains Water, even in
the Driest Weather.—1. Expose to the open air for a
few days, a spoonful of dry carbonate of potash, or
chloride of calcium, spread in a saucer; the salt will
attract so much moisture from the air, that it will
become liquid.—2. Put a given quantity of strong sul
phuric acid into a vessel exposed to the air; at the
expiration of twenty-four hours, its weight will be found
to have increased considerably.—3. Put very cold
water, or a mixture of salt and snow, into a thin glass
vessel. Dew will form on the outside of the vessel, aris
. from the condensation of the moisture contained in
the air.
 PROPERTIES OF COMMON AIR, 271

Method of determining the Hygrometric state of Atmos

pheric Air.—It is often of importance to know how
much water is contained in a given bulk of air. This
you can readily and ac
= curately determine by the
following process, employ
ing the apparatus repre
sented in the margin:—
Water is run from the
vessel, a, into the gradu
ated vessel, i, where the
quantity can be accurately
measured. The water
escaping from the vessel,
a, is replaced by an equal
measure of atmospheric
air. This enters through
the tube, l, b, which is loosely filled with asbestus,
moistened with strong oil of vitriol. The latter absorbs
the water from the air which passes over it. The tube,
l, b, with its contents, is weighed both before and after
the experiment, and the increase in weight shows the
quantity of water absorbed from a measure of air,
equal to the quantity of water that is ran from a into i.
The tube, d, e, is filled with lumps of chloride of calcium,
in order to hinder the oil of vitriol in the tube, l, b, from
absorbing vapour from the vessel, a.
Compressibility and elasticity of Air.—The figure
represents a glass cylinder about 2 inches in diameter
and 12 inches in height, nearly filled with E
water, and bound over air-tight at the top by a
sheet of caoutchouc. Within it is a figure of
º
glass, of a grotesque form, commonly called a
cartesian devil. It is hollow, and has a small
opening in one of the feet or in the tail. The
weight of the figure is so adjusted, that, with
the included air, it is very little lighter than
water, and floats at the top of the jar. Never
theless, when pressure is applied by the hand
to the caoutchouc cover of the jar, the image
272 NITROGEN.

sinks to the bottom of the water. As soon as the

pressure is removed, the figure rises again to the top.
The reason of this is, that the pressure of the hand
condenses the air between the water and the cover
of the jar. The condensed air then presses more
heavily upon the water, and that in its turn upon the
air contained within the image. This air is accord
ingly condensed into less space, and the image admits
a little water, the addition of which makes the image
and its contents heavier than the surrounding water,
and therefore it sinks. When the hand is removed, the
compression ceases, whereupon the elasticity of the air
begins to act. The air within the image, resuming its
original volume, expels the water through the hole by
which it had entered, and the image, thus restored to
its original weight, rises in the water.
Note. If the image has too much water forced into
it, it will no longer act properly. It should then be
wiped dry, and be gradually warmed until the heat
forces out of it a sufficient quantity of the superfluous
water.
Air expands, not only when pressure is removed
from it, but also when heat is applied to it. This can
be proved by means of an instrument called a pulse
glass, consisting of a glass tube bent as shown in the

figure, and having a bulbat each end. The instrument

is filled with air, with the addition of as much alcohol
as fills about the half of one of the bulbs. If, when the
apparatus is in the position shown by the figure, a
warm hand is applied to the bulb A, the small quantity
of air remaining in the bulb is speedily so much
expanded as to force the liquid with velocity into the
other bulb.
The expansion of air may also be shown by tying the
mouth of a soft bladder, containing a small quantity
 PNEUMATIC APPARATUS. 273

of air, and exposing the bladder to heat before a

fire, upon which the air will expand and fill the
bladder.
The fact, that air expands when pressure is removed,
so that the smallest quantity of it fills, in a uniform
manner, the largest vessel, is that upon which is
founded the exhaustion of vessels by the instrument
called the air-syringe, or the air
pump. The annexed figure re
presents one of the forms of this
apparatus. a, is a brass cylinder,
bored with the greatest accuracy,
and containing a piston, of which b
is the rod and handle. This piston
contains a valve that opens up
wards but not downwards, so that
when the piston is forced down
wards, the pressure of the air below
opens the valve, and the air passes
through it, but when the piston is
drawn upwards, the pressure of the
air above closes the valve, and no
air then passes through the valve. b
There is a small hole at d, by
which the atmosphere communi
cates with the hollow part of the
cylinder above the valve. This syringe is connected
to vessels, from which air is to be exhausted, by means
of adjuncts, of which I will give distinct figures:
"...n Aº B

º
A and B represent stopcocks.
\\\\ jºThe moveable part
in the middle, which can be turned by a handle, and
which completes or cuts off the air-course, is termed
the plug. The projecting screws of A are termed male
274 NITROGEN.

screws. The projecting screw of B is also termed a

male screw, and the hollow screw is termed a female
C D

ºf la
|
screw. C, D, E, represents connectors. C is termed
a double female connector, D a double male connector,
E a male and female connector. There is one other kind
of useful connector, which is represented by a in figure
F, and by h in the
figure in page 273.
This is called a coup
ling joint. This con- 0. Flſ b
nector is employed º --...}}:{{...}}|-|--|--|--|--|--|
whenneither
cock object lººk rºº |-|-|--|--|--|-l
nor thethestop- Q

that is to be attached to it can be turned round, so as to

make the screws enter the one into the other. It is a kind
of connector a good deal used in fitting up gas pipes.
The neck b of figure F is intended for insertion into a
bag, or the neck of a gasholder. Figure G represents
I

a cap intended to be cemented

on the neck of a glass globe or a
glass cylinder. Figure H is
adapted for a bag, bladder, flex
ible pipe, or the mouth of any soft vessel that can be
tied round it. Figures I and J are blocks of brass,
intended to be screwed by three screws to a table or
block of wood, for the purpose of fixing syringes, &c.
 PNEUMATIC APPARATUS. 275

in particular postures, vertical, oblique, or horizontal;

the inclination being determined by that of the surface
of the wooden block to which it is screwed. All these
adjuncts have female screws. -

have been particular in describing these little

things, because they are of great importance in pneu
matic chemistry. The student must learn what instru
ments are at his command, and by what technical names
the instrument makers distinguish them. All these
adjuncts should be made to fit each other precisely,
that is to say, the screws should have what is techni
cally called the same thread, and it is most convenient in
a laboratory to have only one kind of screw or thread.
When stopcocks, connectors, &c., are ~

screwed together there should be a

piece of oiled leather, a washer, of the
form of figure K, placed between K
them, to insure an air-tight joint.
These washers must always be kept
clean and soft, and the screws should
be frequently cleaned and slightly oiled.
The foregoing description will enable you to under
stand exactly the component parts of the apparatus
represented in page 165. a and b are vessels
of glass, c and d are caps with female screws,
b
similar to fig. G, page 274, f is a double
female connector, similar to fig, C, page 274,
e and g are stopcocks, with double male
screws, similar to fig. A, page 273.
I now return to the description of the air
syringe, represented in page 273, c is the
neck of the syringe, and contains a female
screw, g is a stopcock with two male screws.
;
o,
e is called a cross-piece, and is bored through
from h towards i, and from the middle of that
bore upwards towards g. The lower branch
of the cross-piece is solid, and ends in a male
screw, by which it is connected to the clamp,
f, screwed to the edge of a table, t. The :
:
clamp, f, is not an essential part of the appa
276 NITROGEN.

ratus, for the cross-piece is often more conveniently

fixed to the middle of a table, by means of one of the
blocks, I, J, represented in page 274. The cross-piece
is terminated at the end, i, by a female screw, to which
the figure represents a stopcock, fig. A, page 273, as
attached. The cross-piece is terminated at h by a
coupling joint, or it may have another female screw.
The process of eachausting Air from Vessels.-The
use of the apparatus is now evident. A vessel contain
ing air, whatever may be its form, whether, for example,
it be a globe or a tube, can be attached by one of the
contrivances shown above, to one end of the cross-piece,
and the other end of the cross-piece can be closed by a
stopcock, or by a connector closed up at one end. The
piston of the syringe being then lifted, the body of the
syringe is filled by air from the vessel, which expands
so as to fill both the vessel and the syringe. The piston
being then pressed downward, its valve opens, and the
air in the cylinder that was below the piston passes
above the piston. The piston being again lifted, that.
portion of the air is forced through the hole, d, in the
upper part of the syringe into the atmosphere, while
another portion of air passes from the vessel into the
body of the syringe. The process is thus continued,
until the air in the vessel is reduced to so small a
quantity that its elasticity is insufficient to raise the
valve in the piston, when the exhausting power of the
apparatus is at an end.
When it is intended to exhaust the globe, b, page
165, the parts of the apparatus marked b, d, e, on that
figure, are connected with the syringe, a, page 273, by
screwing the stopcock, e, directly to the neck of the
syringe, c. The stopcock, e, is then opened, the
exhaustion completed, the stopcock, e, is shut, the
apparatus, b, d, e, is separated from the syringe, and is
again screwed to the connector, f, page, 165. Or, the
stopcock e of the globe, may be screwed to the cross
piece, instead of the stopcock i, page 273.
Condensation of Air in a Globe.—When it is intended
to condense air in a globe such as that just referred to,
 THE AIR-PUMP. 277

the parts, b, d, e, are connected to the syringe, by

screwing the stopcock of the globe, e, into the hole, d,
in the upper part of the syringe, the hole, d, being pro
vided with a female screw for that purpose. The neck
of the syringe, c, is left open to the atmosphere, or con
nected with a vessel containing any gas that is to be
condensed in the globe. In the latter case, the globe
is first exhausted of air by the process already described.
The apparatus being connected together, the piston of
the syringe is lifted, and a certain quantity of air is
driven from above the valve, through the hole, d, into
the globe. The stopcock of the globe is then closed,
and the piston driven downwards, by which the barrel
of the syringe is filled with air from below, which lifts
and passes through the valve of the piston; the stop
cock of the globe is again opened, and the piston lifted,
by which a second portion of air is forced into the globe;
and this process is repeated until the globe is sufficiently
filled, or the power of the instrument exhausted.
Glass globes that are to be exhausted, or to be filled
with condensed air, require to be made of well-annealed
glass, otherwise they split during the operation. In
general, German glass fulfils the conditions better than
English flint glass.
The Air-Pump. —The air-pump differs essentially
from the air-syringe only in having a table or horizon
tal plate of glass or brass, ground
perfectly smooth and flat, attached
to its neck. In the apparatus repre
sented in the figure, the neck with
its female screw is situated in the
centre of the plate below the cylinder,
a. A tube passes thence through the
body, or below the mahogany table
that connects the whole together, till
it reaches the lower end of the syringe.
A small air-screw is added there, by which atmos
pheric air can be admitted into an exhausted vessel
when required. The use of the ground table is merely
to connect the air-syringe conveniently with vessels
2 A
278 NITROGEN.

that have broad mouths like the jar, a, in the figure.

The syringe is sometimes screwed to the table at an
angle of about 45°. The apparatus is usually fastened
to a table by one or more clamps.
The annexed figure represents an air-pump of a
superior kind for chemical use, but on the same prin
ciple as the instruments
already described. The
barrel, a, is 11 inches
long and 2 inches dia
meter. The plate, c, is
of ground glass, and 9
inches in diameter. The
mahoganytable is square
and has a catch under
each corner, by means
of which, with 3 clamps,
e, e, e, the apparatus can
be firmly attached to any
corner of a lecture or
work table, d, d. k, is
a wide cylinder intended
to be exhausted, and is
intended for use when substances are to be dried in a
vacuum, f is a mercurial gauge to show the amount of
exhaustion, l is the tube by which the air is drawn into
the syinge, h is the air-screw by which air is let into
the exhausted vessel, i is the stuffing box in which is
placed the screw to be used when condensation is to be
effected, g is a wrench by which the screws may be
screwed up close, or unscrewed when stiff; below the
glass table is a cup, intended to catch any mercury that
may be spilled on the glass plate, and prevent its
entering the syringe. A substantial apparatus of this
kind is much preferable to a pump with two small
barrels with rack-work. The latter exhausts quicker
and with somewhat less labour; but it gets out of order
much sooner. The best rule to go by in purchasing a
pump is, that the price being fixed, it is better to have
one barrel than two for that money, unless the pump is
 NITROUS OXIDE GAS. 279

to be a large one, that is to say, unless each barrel is

to be at least 10 inches long, and 2 inches in diameter.
Experimental proof that Air has Weight.—The appa
ratus and experiment described at page 165 afford the
means of proving this fact in the most precise manner.
The following experiment also serves to prove it, in an
easy and satisfactory manner when no air
pump is at command. Connect a narrow
glass tube, by means of a sound cork, to a
globular flask, draw out the external end
of the tube to a very fine point, which
must be left open. The joints must be
completely air-tight, and the cork may be
varnished to ensure this condition. The
apparatus being prepared, the flask is to be gradually
heated over a spirit lamp or charcoal fire, and is finally
to be made very hot, to drive out as much as possible
of the included air. The point of the tube is then to
be suddenly brought into the flame of a spirit lamp or
a blowpipe jet, and closed by fusion. The best way to
do this, is to use a second spirit lamp and blowpipe,
while the apparatus is being heated over a separate
lamp. Allow the apparatus to cool, and counterpoise
it in the pan of a balance. Then break off the point of
the tube, upon which air will rush into the flask, the
apparatus will become heavier, and the counterpoise
will be overbalanced.
Condensation of Air by Cold,—Exhaust a flask as
directed in the last experiment, and when cold, break
off the point of the tube under water. The air remain
ing in the flask will be condensed into a small volume,
and water will rush up and fill the apparatus. See
page 183.

NITRous OxIDE GAs. Protocide of Nitrogen. N*O

= 2.77.036.
Properties. A colourless gas heavier than common
air. Sp. gr. = }}#}} air, {}}}}} oxygen gas. Atomic
volume = }. P. 176. It supports combustion, but,
though it may be respired, it is not capable of supporting
280 NITROGEN.

life. It has a sweet taste, and a faint but agreeable

odour. Water which has been boiled, absorbs only
about one-half of its bulk of it. It is reducible by a
pressure of 50 atmospheres to the liquid state. Does
not form red vapours when mixed with air or oxygen gas.
The most extraordinary property of this gas, is its
action on the human body, when respired. The sensa
tions that are produced vary greatly in persons of dif
ferent constitutions; but in general they are highly
pleasurable, and resemble those attendant on the plea
sant period of intoxication. It has been called intoxi
cating gas, laughing gas, and gas of Paradise. This
characteristic of nitrous oxide gas was discovered by
Sir Humphry Davy.
To procure Nitrous Owide, or Intoxicating Gas.-Put
a quantity of pure nitrate of ammonia into a glass
retort, or a gas bottle, page 228, and apply the heat
of a lamp, which must be gentle and well regulated.
The salt will in a short time liquify, and must then be
kept gently simmering, avoiding violent ebullition,
otherwise the gas will be impure. The gas may be
collected over water, and must be allowed to stand a
few hours before it be used; during which time it will
deposit a white vapour, and become perfectly trans
parent. When great purity is required, the gas may
be passed through a U-tube, page 234, containing a
solution of protosulphate of iron. Four ounces of
nitrate of ammonia produce a cubic foot of nitrous
oxide gas.—Do not dip the neck of the retort into the
trough till the gas passes out rapidly, which you ascer
tain by holding the mouth of the retort in a small
capsule containing water.
Theory:—N2H8O + N2O5 = 2 N2O + 4 H2O.
Erperiments showing the properties of Nitrous Ocide
Gas.-1. A candle burns in it with a brilliant greenish
flame and a crackling noise.—2. Phosphorus, charcoal,
sulphur, and iron wire burn in it. The experiment
may be performed in the same manner as is directed
for experiments with oxygen gas, page 217; but bodies
that are to be burned in nitrous oxide gas must be
 INTOXICATING GAS. 281

introduced into it in a state of complete ignition.—3.

When mixed with hydrogen gas, it burns with explo
sion.—4. A bit of potassium passed up into a jar of this
gas standing over water, inflames and burns brilliantly.
Intoxicating power of Nitrous Oxide Gas.—Though
this gas is not fitted to support life, yet it may be
respired for a short time, and the effects produced by it
upon the human frame are among its most extraor
dinary properties. The manner of breathing it is as
follows:—Put nitrous oxide gas that has been purified
by washing with water, over which it should rest for
some hours, into a large bullock's bladder, or awaterproof
bag, with a perforated wooden mouth-piece, such
as is figured in the margin, fixed in its neck.
Hold the bladder by means of the mouth-piece
in the right hand. Close the nostrils with the
left hand, and exhaust the lungs of common
air by a long expiration. Then put the tube
into your mouth and breathe the gas from and
into the bladder as long as you can. The effect pro
duced is a sort of delirium, which differs greatly accord
ing to the constitutions of the persons by whom the
gas is respired. In general, however, the effects are
highly pleasurable, and resemble those attendant on the
agreeable period of intoxication. “Exquisite sensa
tions of pleasure—an irresistible propensity to laughter
—a rapid flow of vivid ideas—singular thrilling in the
toes, fingers, and ears—a strong incitement to muscular
motions”—are the ordinary feelings produced by it.
The celebrated Mr. Wedgewood, “after breathing the
gas some time, threw the bag from him, and kept
breathing on laboriously with an open mouth, holding
his nose with his fingers, without power to remove
them, though aware of the ludicrousness of his situa
tion; he had a violent inclination to jump over the
chairs and tables, and seemed so light that he thought
he was going to fly.” What is exceedingly remark
able, is, that the intoxication thus produced, instead of
being succeeded by the debility subsequent to intoxica
tion by fermented liquors, does, on the contrary,
2 A 2
282 NITROGEN.

generally render the person who takes it cheerful and

high-spirited for the remainder of the day. In some
cases, however, the effects are unpleasant, such as
headache, a rush of blood to the head, and a tendency
to stupor. The experiment should therefore be made
cautiously. It is best when the bag of gas is managed
by an assistant, because it often happens, that even
when the effect is unpleasant, the experimenter has not
the power to remove the bag from his mouth. For
this reason a side opening is made in the mouth-piece,
which the assistant closes with a cork or his thumb, and
can readily open when necessary. The patient then
breathes only atmospheric air.
NITRIC OXDE. Nitrous Gas. NO = 188:518.
Properties. A gas, spec. grav. = };}}}} air, ºft;
oxygen gas. Atomic volume = }. P. 176. It is colour
less, but when suffered to mix with air, or with oxygen
gas, it produces brilliant red suffocating fumes, being by
its union with oxygen converted into nitrous acid gas,
which immediately disappears if in the presence of
water. Nitrous gas does not redden litmus. It is not
combustible; it is fatal to animal life, and extinguishes
flame. There are, however, a few bodies that can be
burnt in it, such as phosphorus and charcoal. Water
absorbs about 1-20th of its bulk of this gas.
Preparation of Nitrous Gas—Put 100 grains of
shreds of copper into a gas bottle, page 229, and add
300 grains of nitric acid, diluted with an equal weight
of water. Collect the gas which is disengaged over
water, first allowing a quantity to escape to get rid of
the common air of the gas bottle. See page 216. When
the evolution of gas ceases, the application of a gentle
heat will cause the production of another portion of
gas. A blue liquid will remain in the retort, which
liquid is a solution of nitrate of copper. Preserve it
for other experiments.
Theory:–3 Cu+4N2O5=3(CuO, N2O5)+2 NO.
Erperiments.—1). Add a few drops of sulphuret of
carbon to a jar of this gas. If a light is now applied,
 NITROUS ACID. 283

the mixture burns with a bright blue flame.—2). Nit

rous gas is readily absorbed by a saturated solution of
protosulphate of iron or protomuriate of iron. The
resulting dark brown solution readily absorbs oxygen
gas.-3). If nitrous gas is collected in a bottle or gas
tube containing weak solution of litmus, or which has a
slip of blue litmus paper pasted along the inside, the
blue colour of the litmus remains unchanged, but if
common air or oxygen gas is let into the bottle, the
litmus immediately turns red, because nitrous acid is
formed.—4). Charcoal or phosphorus may be burnt in
this gas. The experiment is to be performed as
described at page 219.—5). If a lighted taper is plunged
into this gas, the light is extinguished.—6). Exhaust
the globe of the apparatus represented at page 165.
Partially fill it with nitrous gas, by screwing the globe
to the cylinder, opening the stopcocks, and letting a
certain quantity of that gas pass up from the cylinder
to the globe. Then close the stopcocks, clean the
cylinder, and put into it some oxygen gas, the cylinder
standing over water. Open the stopcocks, upon which
red fumes will immediately appear, and if there be no
excess of either gas, the water will rise and fill the
globe, absorbing all the gas. A long slip of blue litmus
paper may be passed into the globe through its cap
before it is exhausted of air, in order to render the
production of acid obvious.-7). If a solution of an
alcaline sulphite is brought into a bottle containing
nitrous gas, and shaken with it, the gas is transformed
into nitrous oxide gas, and no longer produces nitrous
acid when mixed with air or oxygen gas.
HYPONITROUS ACID. N2O3 = 477.036,
NITROUS ACID, N2O4 = 577,036.

These two compounds have been frequently mistaken

for one another. The term NITROUS ACID has been
applied to both of them, and the first is sometimes called
HYPONITROUs ACID, and the last HYPONITRIC ACID.
The salts that have commonly been called Nitrites
284 NITROGEN.

contain the Hyponitrous Acid N*O8, and ought there

fore to be called Hyponitrites.
N2O4. Whenever nitrous gas comes into contact
with oxygen gas, or atmospheric air, dense yellow fumes
are produced, which are nitrous acid gas, N*O4.
When dry nitrate of lead is distilled, and the product
received in a vessel, artificially cooled, nitrous acid is
procured in a liquid form:—
Theory:—PbO, N2O5 = PbO + O + N2O4.
At the temp. of —4° F. this acid forms colourless
prismatic crystals. The liquid acid is colourless at
—4°F., but assumes various colours, darkening through
yellow to red as its temperature rises. It reddens
litmus. It is decomposed by water, at a low tempera
ture, partly into hyponitrous acid, and partly into
nitric acid:—
2 N2O4 + 5 H2O = N2O3 + N2O5, 5 H2O.
But with warm water, it forms nitric acid and nitrous
gas:—
3 N2O4 + 2 H2O = 2 (N2O5, H2O) + 2 NO.
Some chemists consider this acid to be a compound of
N2O3 with N2O5, and not a true acid. It does not
form salts.
N° 0° is at —4° F. a blue liquid. When mixed
with N*O4 it becomes green. The blue acid is ex
extremely volatile, boiling at 14° F. The vapour is
reddish yellow. At 32° F. N2 08 dissolves in water.
forming a pale blue solution. Above that temperature,
it decomposes into nitric acid and nitrous gas —
3 N2O3 + æH2O = 4 NO + N2O5, a H2O.
The Hyponitrites (KO, N308) are produced by
igniting the Nitrates (KO, N*05) till one-third of their
oxygen is expelled.
ANHYDROUS NITRIC ACID. N2O 5 = 677'036.
HYDRATED NITRIC ACID. N2O5, H2O = 789,516.
Anhydrous Nitric Acid is a hypothetical compound
that cannot be obtained. The liquid commonly called
nitric acid is hydrated nitric acid.
 NITRIC ACID. 285

Properties. A colourless fuming liquid; odour, pun

gent and peculiar; taste, excessively sour and corrosive;
it colours litmus red; acts very destructively on organic
bodies; communicates a yellow colour to such as con
tain nitrogen, for example, the human nails and skin,
also feathers, horn, silk, and cork. When concentrated
it abstracts water from the atmosphere. Its specific
gravity is about 1:521. Most commonly it is of a yellow
colour, in consequence of containing nitrous acid.
The following table shows the composition of the
most important compounds of nitric acid with water:
TABLE OF NITRIC ACID.

N2 0°. Test Atom 677.036 Grains. Temperature 62°F.

Specific Ratio of Grains of Atoms of | Septems

Gravity N2O5 N2O5 N205 || containing
of the in in 1000 in 1000 l l Atom of
Acid. 1:00000. Septems. | Septems. N2O5.

1°521 •85753 91.30-1 13°485 74°154'

1.5091 '83344 8801-5 13:00 76-923
1-485 '7506 7802.5 11:524 86-772
1'4518 •666.22 6770-4 10:00 100.00
1.42 .60077 5971-7 8,8203 || 113-37
1:3602 '49775 4739.3 7:00 142.86
1-2305 "3144 27.08.1 4.00 250.00
1.1207 '17261 1354.1 2:00 500.00
1-0619 •09108 677.036 1:00 1000-0
1:0064 •0096 67-704 O'10 10000
1.0007 -00107 67704 0.01 100000

The acid of 1348;" is the protohydrate = N*05,

H2O. The strength of the second hydrate, N° 0°,
2 H2O is 11523°. N2O4, 3 H2O is 1002°. N2O3,
4 H2O is 882°. This last compound is the acid that
distils without alteration of strength. Its boiling point
is 248°F. A stronger acid is weakened by boiling, and
a weaker acid is strengthened by boiling, till both come
286 NITROGEN.

to sp. gr. 1:42, or 882° of strength, when the maximum

boiling point of 248° F. occurs. The commercial liquor
termed aquafortis is weak and impure nitric acid.
Single aquafortis has commonly a strength of 400°, and
dowble aquafortis a strength of about 700°. When
strong nitric acid is diluted with water, condensation is
effected, and heat is disengaged. The space occupied
by a test atom of anhydrous nitric acid in the solution
of 1348}” is 58 septems. The same quantity of acid in
the solution of 1° occupies 27 septems. There is con
sequently a condensation of 31 septems per test atom
between these limits. Acid of 1348}* mixed with snow
produces heat. Acid of 882° mixed with snow produces
cold.
Preparation of Hydrated Nitric Acid.—Nitric Acid
is prepared by distillation from any of the following
mixtures:—
1. Purified nitre 100 parts, oil of vitriol 100 parts.
Theory:—KO, N2O3 + 2 (H2O, SO3)=(KO, SO3
+ H2O, SO3) + H2O, N2O5.
2. Purified nitrate of soda 100 parts, oil of vitriol
60 parts.
Theory:—NaO, N2 0° 4- H2O, SO3 = NaO, SO 3
+ H2O, N2O5.
3. Purified nitrate of soda 100 parts, oil of vitriol
120 parts, water 30 parts.
Theory:—NaO, N2O3 + 2 (H2O, SO3) = (NaO,
SO3 + H2O, SO3) + H2O, N2O5.
Whichever of these mixtures is preferred, the salt in
coarse powder is put into a plain retort, the capacity of
which must be twice as great as the bulk of the mixture.
The neck of the retort is wiped clean by a cloth tied on
a stick, a long acid funnel, figure B, is put into it, and
the sulphuric acid is poured through, so as to pass into
the body of the retort without soiling its neck. The
retort is then to be inclined in such a manner that the
funnel can be withdrawn without dropping the least
acid on its neck. The retort is to be connected with a
large globular receiver, the neck of which must grip the
retort as close as possible, for no cork must go between
 NITRIC ACID. 287

them. A moderate heat is to be applied by means of a

sandbath placed over a lamp or gaslight, and the tem
perature should never exceed 260°. ... The receiver must
be covered with a cloth, B, and be well cooled by a stream
of cold water run on it continuously, as represented by
figure D. For large quantities, the apparatus shown by
figure C is useful. A is the retort, contained in a
288 NITROGEN.

sandbath placed in a portable furnace. B is a globular

receiver covered with a net, the use of which is to spread
the cold water over its whole surface. This receiver
must be very large and have a short neck, in order that
the beak of the retort may pass into the middle of the
receiver. , C is a trough with cold water, i the pipe that
supplies the cold water. The apparatus represented by
D E

figure D is very convenient for affording a current of

water in such operations. c, d, represent a stool, the
height of which can be regulated to suit the elevation of
the distilling apparatus. a is the water bottle, and b
the stopcock to regulate the supply. Figure E shows
a quilled receiver, which is sometimes used in the dis
tillation of nitric acid. The neck of the retort is passed
through the side neck of the receiver, and the long spout
is put into a bottle or vertical receiver, plunged up to its
neck in cold water. - -

A small quantity of nitric acid may be prepared,

merely to illustrate the process, by means of the tube
retort and receiver, shown in the following figure: The
 PREPARATION of NITRIC AcID. 289

materials are put into the retort, a, without soiling the

neck, the bent part of the receiver, d, b, is dipped into
cold water, and a cold water tube is put into the branch,
b, as shown at page 245. The nitric acid is collected
at the bend, c. A support for this apparatus is described
at page 108. And another at page 255.
The first tenth part of the total quantity of acid
which the materials can afford in any distillation, is to
be first collected and set apart. It contains muriatic
acid and other impurities. When the drops of acid
that fall from the neck of the retort do not precipitate
a solution of nitrate of silver, pure nitric acid will be
coming over and may be collected in a clean receiver.
The distillation is continued as long as any acid comes
from the retort. Towards the end of the distilla
tion the acid again becomes less pure. When the
retort is nearly cold, warm water may be put into it,
to dissolve the salt that remains (bisulphate of potash
or sulphate of soda).
Fuming Nitric Acid is produced when nitre is distilled
with only half the usual quantity of oil of vitriol.
Impurities contained in commercial Nitric Acid.—
Nitrous Acid, known by its yellow colour. Separable
in part by boiling in a retort, when nitrous acid and a
little nitric acid distil over together. Chlorine; gives a
precipitate with solution of nitrate of silver, Separable
like nitrous acid by boiling in a retort. Sulphuric
Acid; gives a precipitate when diluted and tested with
2B
290 NITROGEN.

solution of nitrate of barytes. Separable by re-distilla

tion with a little additional nitre. Or when chlorine
is also present, the nitric acid may be diluted to 900°
or to sp. gr. 1:42, precipitated with nitrate of silver
and nitrate of barytes, decanted and distilled. Iodine:
Neutralise the nitric acid with potash, add a little
starch, and then sulphuric acid drop by drop slowly.
A blue colour is produced. Fired substances are
detected by evaporating a little of the acid to dryness.
Pure nitric acid is entirely volatile.
Preparation of concentrated Nitric Acid.—We obtain
nitric acid at its highest degree of concentration, by
mixing acid of sp. gr. 1448, for example, with 5 parts
of concentrated sulphuric acid, and distilling at a tem
perature not above 300° F. There goes over nearly
nine-tenths of the weight of the nitric acid employed,
at sp. gr. 1:52, which we may distil as often as we
please with sulphuric acid without causing any further
alteration.
We can in this manner concentrate the Nitric Acid of
commerce.—After one or two distillations, we obtain
acid of the density of 1:52.
To take away the Yellow Colour.—The acid thus
prepared has sometimes a yellow colour, but it arises
more from the influence of the light than of the sul
phuric acid. To render it colourless, it is only neces
sary to add a little peroxide of lead. The nitrate of
lead produced is insoluble in the acid, and falls to the
bottom.— Pelouze.—Berzelius, Rapport Annwel, 3°
Année.
Production of Nitric Acid.—Pass a current of ammo
niacal gas, mixed with an excess of atmospheric air,
through a glass tube that contains spongy platinum.
No re-action takes place at the ordinary temperature
of the air, but when the platinum is heated, it gradually
becomes red hot, and produces vapours of nitric acid,
mixed with nitrous acid. – If the platinum is too
strongly heated, it produces nitrous acid only.—If an
excess of ammonia is used, nitrate of ammonia is pro
duced.—Kuhlmann.
 TESTING OF NITRIC ACID. 291

Determination of the chemical strength of Nitric Acid.

—Process:—Put into a bottle of the capacity of 3 or 4
ounces, provided with an accurately
ground stopper, 100 septems of water.
Add 12 drops of solution of litmus.
By means of the graduated pipette,
fig. D, page 265, put into the bottle
5 septems of the nitric acid which is
to be tested. Dip the stopper of the
bottle into water. Close the bottle
with it, and shake the mixture, which
will have a bright red colour. Fill the
centigrade test tube, fig. A, page 265,
with solution of ammonia of 100° of strength. Adjust
the measure accurately to 0°. To do this easily, you
may fill it rather above the mark, then put in the
stopper, grease the lip of the test tube to prevent the
liquor flowing down the outside, and pour the extra
ammonia back into its bottle, drop by drop, till the
proper measure is obtained. The next step is to neu
tralise the nitric acid with the ammonia, which is to
be poured from the graduated tube into the bottle in
small portions of 2 or 3 septems at a time. After each
addition of ammonia, the bottle is to be stopped and
shaken. When the bright red colour of the acid
begins to appear a little fainter, the ammonia must be
added in quantities of 2 drops at a time. At last the
red colour is suddenly converted into blue, at which
point the acid is totally neutralised.
Result:—Having determined how many septems of
solution of ammonia of 100° is required to neutralise 5
septems of nitric acid, the degree so found is either to
be multiplied by 20, or divided by 5. Suppose 35
septems of ammonia are used, then 35 × 20 = 700
septems, or 35 —– 5 = 7 septems. The former shows
the quantity of test ammonia that would be required
to neutralise 100 septems of the same nitric acid.
The latter shows that the acid is seven times as strong
as the ammonia of 100°. Hence it contains 7 test
atoms, or 700°, of anhydrous nitric acid per decigallon.
292 NITROGEN.

See page 264. Acid of that strength has the sp. gr.
1:3602. See page 285. -

When accuracy is required, it is proper to repeat

the analysis thus:–100 septems of the strong acid,
carefully measured by the centigallon pipette, fig. C,
page 265, is to be put into the measure, page 264, and
diluted with water to the bulk of a decigallon. Of that
mixture of acid and water, 100 septems, measured as
before by the pipette C, is to be put into the mixing
bottle, page 291, without further dilution with water,
and to be tested in the manner already described. It
is evident that this diluted acid must have the strength
of 70°, provided the first analysis was correct. The
second analysis may therefore be abridged by adding
rapidly about 60 or 65 septems of the test ammonia, and
beginning only then to add the test in small quantities.
Preparation of diluted Nitric Acid of a precise strength,
say 100°.-It is extremely useful to have important
liquid re-agents prepared of well known degrees of
strength. Thus, nitric acid of 100° will be equivalent,
bulk for bulk, to the test ammonia of 100° referred to
in the last paragraph. If you have acid of 700°, such
as I have just supposed to be analysed, you must take
of it 142.86 septems, or very nearly 143 septems, that
being the atomic measure of 100° of acid, as shown by
the table in page 285. This quantity of acid is to be put
into the test-mixer, figure B, page 265, and to be diluted
with water till it makes 1000 septems. At first you add
about 500 septems of water. Then put in the stopper,
and shake the mixture. Afterwards you add more
water, at two or three times, until the measure is equal
to 990 septems. The mixture is left to cool to the
temperature of 62°F., which must be tried by a
thermometer. When this temperature is attained,
water is slowly added, at first 3 or 4 septems, and
the remainder by a small dropping tube that
cannot deliver above 1 drop at a time, till the
measure is exactly 1000 septems. This adjust
ment requires care, because not one drop of
water must be added in excess.
 NITRIC ACID AN OXIDISER. 293

It is easy to prepare acid of any other fixed strength

from the same strong acid. Thus, 142.86 septems
of acid of 700°, namely, the atomic volume of 100°
of acid, produces by the addition of water, acid of 400°
of strength when diluted to 250 septems, and acid of
200° when diluted to 500 septems. See the table in
page 285. All the quantities stated in the last column
of that table are equivalent to one another, that is to
say, they all contain the same quantity of real acid.
When it happens that the strength of your acid in
degrees, as determined by experiment, is a number not
contained in the last column of the table, the atomic
measure may be calculated by dividing 100000 by the
degree of the acid. Thus, to suit the case cited above,
where the degree was found to be 700°, we have
1%0 = 142.86 septems.
In this manner you can find the quantity in septems of
any aqueous acid, containing 1 test atom, or 100°, of
anhydrous acid.
Owidising power of Nitric Acid.—Although nitric acid
is one of the strongest acids, it is very liable to suffer
decomposition, giving off its oxygen to other combus
tible substances.
a. Heat a little sublimed sulphur with strong nitric
acid in a glass tube. Effervescence takes place, red
fumes of nitrous acid are formed, and the sulphur dis
appears. The liquor in the tube then contains sul
phuric acid, and may be tried by the proper tests for
that acid,
b. Into a portion of nitric acid, put very small bits
of granulated tin, a little at a time. Red fumes appear,
and part of the metal dissolves. Pour some of the
liquid into a test glass, and add a solution of caustic
potash. A yellowish white precipitate appears, which
is oxide of tin. Hence the tin is oxidised at the cost
of one portion of the nitric acid, and is partially dissolved
by another portion. The potash merely displaces it
from the nitric acid.
c. Upon a quantity of granulated tin, pour nitric
2B
294 NITROGEN.

acid a little at a time. Red fumes appear, and the tin

is converted into a similar yellowish white oxide, but it
does not dissolve; for when tin is oxidised, it becomes
permanently insoluble in acids, unless at the instant of
production it is in the presence of a quantity of acid
and water sufficient for its solution.
d. Galena, or black sulphuret of lead, reduced to fine
powder, is to be heated in a small flask with strong
nitric acid. Red fumes appear, and after a time the
black powder is changed to a white powder. PbS is
converted into PbO, SO3, or sulphate of lead; the
necessary oxygen being abstracted from a portion of
decomposed nitric acid. This product is insoluble in
water.
e. Litharge is dissolved in nitric acid without the
production of red fumes. The solution, mixed with a
little sulphuric acid, such as that produced in experi
ment a, gives a white precipitate similar to the insoluble
product of experiment d.
The reason that no red fumes are produced in experi
ment e is, that litharge is an oride of lead, and therefore
is capable of dissolving in nitric acid without farther
oxidation. In consequence, we avoid the waste of acid
that occurs when substances require to be oxidised by
the acid previous to solution.
f. Solution of copper in nitric acid. See page 62.
g. Into a little nitric acid put a piece of chalk, or
carbonate of lime. Effervescence takes place, but the
gas given off is not in red fumes. In this case, there- .
fore, the nitric acid is not decomposed. The gas given
off is carbonic acid from the chalk, and the lime, or
oxide of calcium, combines with the nitric acid, and
forms nitrate of lime.
h. Spread a little pounded indigo upon a flat porcelain
capsule, and pour nitric acid over it. The blue colour
will be destroyed, and the mixture will become yellow.
i. Oil of turpentine poured into strong nitric acid
bursts into flame. This experiment should be performed
in the open air; the acid must be put into a gallipot,
 NITRATES, AMMONIA. 295

and the turpentine be held in a bottle tied to the end of

a long stick. A little oil of vitriol should be mixed
with the nitric acid.
k. Nitric acid is decomposed by heat. Make a
platinum or porcelain capsule red-hot over a spirit
lamp, and place upon it a drop of nitric acid. It will
be instantly decomposed, and red fumes of nitrous acid
will be formed. Red-hot charcoal also decomposes
nitric acid. See page 53.
NITRATES. Nitric acid combines with bases and
produces the salts called nitrates. The formula of the
neutral nitrates is MO, N° 0°. Thus nitrate of potash
is KO, N2O5.
The neutral nitrates are all soluble in water, so that
they give no precipitates unless they contain precipit-
able bases. They are all decomposed by sulphuric acid,
and they all deflagrate with red-hot charcoal. See page
53. A few basic nitrates, that is to say, nitrates with
excess of bases, are partly insoluble in water.
Detection of Nitric Acid and Nitrates. See page 125.
NITROGEN AND HYDROGEN.

AMMONIA.—N2H6 = 214'47. Berzelius.

N2H6 - 212:50. Thomson.
Synonyme.—The Volatile Alcali.
Occurrence.— In sal ammoniac; in the urine of
animals, especially of birds and reptiles; in guano; in
a few minerals; and in the air of the atmosphere in .
small quantities.
Properties.—In the gaseous state it is colourless and
transparent; has a powerful stinging odour; is unfit for
respiration, and destructive of animal life; has a strong
alcaline taste; gives a brown colour to turmeric paper,
which vanishes in the air; is reducible by cold and
pressure to the state of a thin colourless liquid; dissolves
rapidly and in great quantity in water; very slightly
combustible; does not support the combustion of other
bodies. The sp. gr. of the gas is {:}}}} air, or tº:###
oxygen gas. Its atomic volume is #. See page 174.
296 NITROGEN.

When mixed with acid gases, it forms thick white

clouds.
Preparation of Ammonia Gas—1. Put liquid ammonia
into a flask, and heat it. The gas is rapidly disengaged.
2. Take one part of sal ammoniac and two parts
of quicklime, each separately powdered. Mix them
intimately by a rapid pounding in a mortar and intro
duce them into a glass flask. Apply a gentle heat, and
the gas will soon be evolved. If this gas is conveyed
into water, it is rapidly absorbed: the water acquiring
the properties of what is known by the name of liquid
ammonia. The gas cannot, therefore, be collected over
water. It may be collected over mercury, or less
accurately by the displacement of air.
Theory of the production of Ammonia—Sal ammoniac
has the composition indicated by N*H* + H2C19, and
burnt lime is CaO. Therefore:—
(N2H3 + H2Cl2) + CaO = CaCl2 + H2O + N2H9.
Method of drying Ammonia Gas.-The sal ammoniac
and lime are put into the flask, a, the receiver, b, is

empty, and the tube, c, is filled with lumps of fused

caustic potash. Heat being applied, the operation
 cooper's GAS RECEIVER, 297

proceeds. Part of the water is condensed in the

receiver, b, and the rest is absorbed by the potash in
the tube, c. Chloride of calcium cannot be used to dry
this gas, because the two compounds act chemically
upon one another. The ammonia gas escapes from the
potash tube, c, in a perfectly dry state, and is ready to
be collected over mercury.
Collection over Mercury in Cooper's Receiver.—The
method of collecting the gas is shown in the following
cut, where, however, the intermediate drying apparatus
d

is not represented; a is the flask in which the ammonia

is prepared, d, d, is Cooper's Mercurial Receiver, which
may be 12 inches long, and # inch wide; b is the gas
leading tube, and ef, ef, are two tube-holders, by which
the vessels are held together in suitable positions. At
the beginning of the operation the receiver, d, d, is
filled with mercury, and a basin is placed below the
mouth of it, to catch the mercury as it is displaced by
298 NITROGEN.

the gas. The operation is stopped when the gas fills

the tube nearly to the bend.
Mercurial Trough.--The figures represent a horizon
tal and a vertical section of a stoneware mercury

GOIL
trough, which can be worked with 5 lbs. of mercury,
and be used with gas cylinders as large as 6 inches
long, and 1 inch in diameter. There should be a set
of 6 or 8 cylinders, from the size just mentioned down
to 1 inch in length by , inch in width. These should
be made of strong glass tube, smooth or ground on the
edge, and some of them graduated into hundredths or
tenths of a cubic inch. See figures C, D, E, page 209.
The trough is placed for use in
a flat any
catch earthenware
mercury pan,
that A, to
may 2–
- A.

flow over its edge, and there -

must be at hand a few porcelain

trays, B, 1+ inch in diameter, in
which to lift tubes filled with gas | B
and confined by a little mercury.
See page 208. In using this trough, the gas tube is
filled with mercury and inverted over the shelf, a.
 EXPERIMENTS WITH AMMONIA. 299

The point of the gas-delivering tube is put under the

shelf at o, when the gas rises through the hole, e, and
fills the tube placed above it. The tube when filled can
be slid off the shelf into the little tray, and set aside
while other tubes are being filled in like manner.
Collection of Ammonia Gas by displacement of Air.—
Gases that are lighter than atmospheric air, such as
ammonia, can be collected in a state of sufficient O

purity for some experiments as follows:—The

gas delivery tube is made narrow,long,and quite
straight, and passes directly upwards from the
gas bottle, as shown in the annexed figure.
The gas receiver is brought over this tube,
and forced down till the tube touches the top
of the receiver. The light gas escaping from
the tube, settles at the upper part of the
receiver, and as its quantity increases, it
gradually depresses the atmospheric air, and
finally drives it wholly from the receiver. By
holding a slip of wet turmeric paper, or red
litmus paper at the mouth of the jar, you easily ascer
tain when it is full of ammonia, because the test
paper then changes colour. A jar that
is to be filled in this manner may be
supported by a perforated plate of tin or
glass, laid on the ring of a retort stand.
The gas delivering tube is put up through
the hole in the plate. Gases thus col
lected may be secured by shallow trays
containing a little mercury, or by plates of greased
glass, or in bottles with greased glass stoppers or sound
corks. But they always contain a certain admixture
of atmospheric air.
Experimental Illustrations of the properties of Ammonia
Gas.—A. Its solubility in water.—1. A gas tube or
small stout jar filled with the gas, and standing in a
tray of mercury, as shown in the figure, is depressed
into a basin, of water, until the mouth of the tube
is below the surface of the water. The tray is then
separated from the jar, upon which the water rushes
300 NITROGEN.

up into the jar with violence, and if the gas is pure it

disappears entirely. One measure of water
dissolves above 600 measures of gas. If the
water is previously slightly reddened by litmus
it turns blue when in the jar.—2. A globular
bottle is filled with the gas, and is stopped by t

a cork traversed by a narrow glass tube,

having a very small opening at the end put
within the bottle. The external end of the
tube is put into water, upon which the water
produces a jet or fountain in the bottle.—3. Displace a
little mercury from the open end of Cooper’s Receiver,
and fill the space with a few drops of water. Close the
mouth of the tube with your thumb, and incline the
tube so as to pass a little of the gas, bubble by bubble,
into the water. The gas disappears instantly. Red
litmus paper, dipped into the resulting solution becomes
blue, and the solution will be found to have the smell
and taste of liquid ammonia. Remove the liquor with
a pipette, carefully dry the tube with blotting paper
folded on a wire, and fill up the receiver with mercury,
taking care to prevent any water passing into the body
of the tube, else the whole gas will be absorbed.—
4. A tube full of ammonia being on the shelf, a, of the
trough, page 298, a tube of the size of the
annexed figure is filled with reddened water H
and put into the mercury, so that the mouth
of the tube goes down to the space, o. The
trough is widened in front of the shelf to
admit the finger and thumb of the experi
menter, to manage the tube for this purpose.
The tube being forced into the space, o, i, the
water rises from it through the hole, e, the l
gas is absorbed, and the mercury rises to fill
the tube. . The tube used to contain the ammonia for
this experiment must be of very stout glass.
B. It extinguishes flame, but is slightly combustible.—
4. Try it in the same manner as hydrogen gas. See
page 235. It will be seen that the flame is much
enlarged before it is extinguished, showing the com
 LIQUID AMMONIA. 301

bustibility of the ammonia.—5. Close the mouth of

Cooper's Receiver with the thumb, bring round into
the short limb a small quantity of gas, and insert an
inflamed splinter of wood, the light of which will be
extinguished.—6. Ammonia gas issuing from a narrow
tube, if inflamed in a jar containing oxygen gas, burns
continuously with a yellow flame.
C. It combines with acid gases.—7. Warm a small
flat bottomed porcelain capsule, put into it a few drops
of muriatic acid, and set over it a tube full of ammonia
gas, in the manner shown by the figure given in experi
ment 1. The tube will immediately be filled with a
dense white fume. In this experiment muriatic acid
gas and ammonia gas combine and form solid salam
moniac. N2H6 -- H2C12 – N2H6, H2Cl2, or N2H8
+ C1°.—8. If carbonic acid gas and ammonia gas are
mixed together, they condense into a solid white com
pound—9. Some liquid nitric acid is --

put into a porcelain acid-holder, fig. N Z. A

B, and some strong liquid ammonia
into a capsule, A. The latter is
set upon the former, and the whole
covered withappear,
fumes soon a glass shade. White
but these gº
gra- \} B

dually diminish, and at the end of

two days the acid-holder, B, will St-
º - *

contain crystals of nitrate of am

monia, and the capsule, A, a weak solution of nitrate
of ammonia, that salt being produced by the combina
tion of the hydrated nitric acid with the ammonia.
N2O5, H2O + N2H6 = N2H8O, N2O5.
SOLUTION OF AMMONIA. LIQUID AMMONIA.
Preparation in small quantities.—We have seen that
ammonia gas dissolves abundantly in water and pro
duces an alcaline solution. The best way to prepare
a small quantity of this solution, commonly known by
the name of liquid ammonia, is the following:—A
little water is put into a U-tube, and the U-tube is
plunged into cold water, (mixed with ice if possible)
2 C
302 NITROGEN.

contained in a beaker glass, as represented in the figure.

The water must not exceed the third part of the capa
city of the tube, because it expands SN |

one half when saturated with ammo

nia. The gas delivering tube is con
nected by a sound cork with one end of
the U-tube, and the other end of the
tube is closed by a cork traversed by a
very narrow tube open at each end.
Ammonia gas is then to be very slowly
passed into the U-tube. The water
rises into the opposite branch of the
U-tube, and by its pressure causes a
rapid absorption of the gas. When the ammonia gas
bubbles freely through the liquor and escapes by the
narrow tube, the water will be saturated, by which
time the solution will be expanded till it nearly touches
the cork containing the narrow tube, and the strength
will be about 1000°.
When very pure liquid ammonia is required, the U
tube is to be connected with the V-tube, the latter either
being filled with pieces
of caustic potash, or con- “
taining a little of a strong
solution of caustic potash,
and the ammonia gas is
to be slowly passed
through the V-tube to be
purified beforeit is passed
into the U-tube for ab
sorption.
To prepare strong Liquid Ammonia from weak Liquid
Ammonia.-Put part of the ammonia into the U-tube
and the rest into a gas bottle. Connect them together,
and by a very gentle heat drive the ammonia from the
gas bottle into the U-tube.
By the above processes, strong and pure liquid
ammºnia can be easily prepared from the liquid ammo
nia of commerce, when quicklime may not happen to
to be at command.
 PREPARATION OF AMMONIA. 303

Preparation of Liquid Ammonia in large quantities.

—A large globular flask, k in the figure, is half filled
with an intimate mixture of well pounded sal ammo
niac and unslacked lime in equal portions. A bent

gas leading tube s, and a bent acid funnel h, are

passed through a cork, and the cork is adapted to
the neck of the ballon by an envelope of caoutchouc,
tied on so as to secure an air-tight junction. The neck
of a caoutchouc bottle is a convenient adapter for this
purpose. The other end of the tube s is passed into the
bottle t, which is to be two-thirds filled with cold water.
The point of the tube reaches to the bottom of the flask,
because the solution of ammonia being lighter than
water, rises to the surface. 1 lb. of water may be taken
for every pound of sal ammoniac, but the water must be
put into a number of small equal sized bottles; because,
as the gas condenses, the water becomes heated, and is
then unfit to absorb more gas. As fast, therefore, as
each bottle becomes warm, it must be exchanged for
another bottle containing cold water, and be placed
aside where it can be cooled. From time to time, small
quantities of water are poured into the ballon through
304 NITROGEN.

the funnel h. The combination of this water with the

lime produces heat, and occasions a rapid disengage
ment of the ammonia gas. When this action ceases,
heat may be applied to the sand-bath m, and gradually
increased until the thick mixture in the ballon boils,
and then is to be sustained until the gas ceases to be
disengaged. Very pure ammonia is yielded by this
process, the empyreumatic substances contained in
the sal ammoniac being less decomposed than they
usually are when the sal ammoniac and quicklime are
heated to fusion without water.—Mitscherlich.
Ammonia gas can also be prepared in a porcelain
retort, made as represented in the figure. Round the
neck of the body, there is a deep
2--> groove into which the cover dips.
{% When the materials have been put
© into the body, the groove is filled
jº with plaster of paris mixed with
O- water, the head is then put in its
place, and the plaster hardens so
as to form an effective lute. On
each side of the retort and head, is
a pair of corresponding ears, which may be fastened
together with thumb-screws, or tied firmly with soft
flexible iron wire.
The composition of a series of important aqueous
Solutions of ammonia is represented in the opposite
Table.
Eaglanation of this Table.—The first four lines
represent solutions that do not exist at the tempera
ture of 62°F. The strongest liquor that can be pre
pared at 62°F. is that of 1000°, or sp. gr. 0.875. Sp.
gr, '708333 is the density of anhydrous ammonia as it
exists in aqueous solutions. The sp. gr. of anhydrous
alm Inonla, COn

densed by cold
and pressure
in an appara
tus ofthis form,
a, b, is 0.731.
 TABLE OF AMMONIA. 305

FARADAY. — Sp. gr. 787878 is the hypothetical oxide of

ammonium, N*H8O = N*H* + H2O, equivalent to
anhydrous potash. Sp. gr. 833333 is the assumed
hydrate of that oxide = N*H*O + H2O, a compound
corresponding in its properties with caustic potash.
Sp. gr. 862747 is the compound N*H*O + 2 H2O.
This compound can be formed by saturating water
with pure ammonia, at a temperature a little above
42° F. Sp. gr. 883.333 represents the compound
N2H8O + 3 H2O, or N2H6 -- 4 H2O, which can be
easily prepared at 62°F. The compounds N2H8O
and N*H8O + H2O, exist in salts; but I do not know
whether they exist in an uncombined state. The last
possibly may exist at a very low temperature, or under
pressure.

SOLUTION OF AMMONIA.
N2H9. Test Atom 212.5 Grains. Temperature 62°F.
Water = H2O. Test Atom 112.5 Grains.

Specific Ratio of Grains of Atoms of Septems

Gravity N2H6 N2H6 N2H6 containing
of the in in 1000 in 1000 || 1 Atom of
Solution. 1:0000000. Septems. Septems. N2H6.

•708.333 1:00000 4958-3 23-33 42-857

•787878 '65385 3606-1 16-97 58-929
'833333 || 48571 2833'3 13:33 75,000
'862747 || 386.36 2333-3 10.98 91 071
-87.5000 || 34694 2125-0 10:00 100.00
‘88.3333 || 32075 1983-3 9-333 || 107-14
•9 •26984 1700.0 8:00 125:00
•925 •19691 12750 6:00 166-67
•95 •12782 850. 4.00 250-00
•975 •062271 425. 2:00 500 00
•9875 -030741 212.5 1.00 1000-0
•99375 •015274 || 106.25 0.50 2000-0
•99875 •003040 21:25 O'10 10000
•999875 || 000304 2-125 0-01 100000"
2C 2
306 NITROGEN.

Ammonia has the remarkable property of possessing

the same bulk in all its combinations with water. It
never expands or condenses in consequence of combin
ing with, or being diluted by, water, in which property
it differs essentially from the fixed alcalies and the
liquid acids. The atomic volume of water is 16-071429
septems, and its weight 112.5 grains. The atomic
volume of ammonia is 42-857.143 septems, and its weight
212.5 grains. The volume of H2O is therefore equal
to § of that of N*H", or the relation is the same as
that of the volumes of elementary gases that constitute
the respective compounds. The weight of 1° (the
hundredth part of a test atom) of ammonia is 2-125
grains. Its volume at 62°F. is precisely equal to that
of 3 grains of water. Every degree of ammonia, added
to an aqueous solution, displaces 3 grains of water,
reduces the weight of a decigallon of solution to the
extent of 3–2.125 = 875 grain; and diminishes the
specific gravity by .0001.25. From this principle pro
ceed two important practical rules:—
1). Given, the Sp. Grav. of a solution of Ammonia,
to find its Chemical Strength.-Deduct the sp. gr. from
1.000000, and divide the remainder by .0001.25. The
product is the chemical strength expressed in degrees.
2). Given, the Chemical Strength of a solution of
Ammonia, to find its Specific Gravity.—Express the
chemical strength in degrees; multiply it by .0001.25,
and deduct the product from 1000000. The remainder
is the required specific gravity.
Determination of the Chemical Strength of Liquid
Ammonia.-This process is the same as that for the
testing of nitric acid. Page 291. 5 septems of the
ammonia to be tried are mixed with 100 septems of
water and 12 drops of solution of litmus. The centi
grade test tube is to be filled with muriatic acid of 100°,
and the alcali is to be neutralised with all the precau
tions described in relation to nitric acid. Page 291.
The operation is finished when the blue mixture sud
denly becomes red.
The result is calculated in the manner described at
 TESTING OF AMMONIA. 307

page 291. As the strongest solution of ammonia at

temperatures not under 62° F. cannot contain above
1000° of ammonia, and as most of the solutions liable
to be presented for analysis are much weaker, we may
take 10 septems, instead of 5, for analysis. In calcu
lating the result, in that case, the number of septems
of muriatic acid of 100° used to neutralise the ammonia
is to be either multiplied or divided by 10. Thus,
suppose 85 septems of muriatic acid are required to
neutralise 10 septems of the liquid ammonia, then,
85 × 10 = 850, is the strength of the ammonia
expressed in degrees, and 85 –– 10 = 8.5, shows the
strength of the ammonia as compared with the strength
of the test acid, taking the latter as unity. Every
100° of ammonia is equal to 212.5 grains of ammonia
gas contained in the decigallon of solution.
Preparation of Liquid Ammonia of 100°.-Dilute the
Atomic Measure of 1 test atom of ammonia, ascertained
as described at page 293, to 1000 septems. The way
to do this is described at page 292. The atomic mea
sure depends upon the chemical strength of the solu
tion. Thus, if you have ammonia of sp. gr. 9, the
chemical strength of which is 800°, then 125 septems
of it is the atomic measure, and will produce 1000
septems of solution of 100° or of sp. gr. 9875. See
page 305. The hydrometer indicates the strength of
liquid ammonia in a very rough way; for 40 chemical
degrees of ammonia, mark only 1 degree of a scale like
that of Twaddell's hydrometer.
Uses of Liquid Ammonia.—It is employed by the
chemist to neutralise acids, and to precipitate insoluble
bases. As the residual ammonia and most of its salt can
be volatilized by heat, it communicates no fixed impurity
to the solutions. It is much employed in medicine, and
is the best antidote to the poison of prussic acid.
Precipitates produced in Solutions of Salts by Liquid
Ammonia.
WHITE PRECIPITATE:—Magnesia, if the solution is
neutral. Alumina. Glucina. Yttria. Thorina. Zir
308 SULPHUR.

conia. Cerium. Manganese, turning brown. Zinc,

soluble in excess. Cadmium, soluble in excess. Iron,
protosalts, turns brown. Lead. Tin, the protoxide
insoluble, the peroxide soluble, in excess. Bismuth.
Mercury, persalts. Antimony.
YELLow PRECIPITATE :-Copper, protosalts; with
excess, a colourless solution. Uranium, peroxide.
Platinum, peroxide. Gold.
GREY PRECIPITATE:-Mercury, protosalts, from very
acid solutions.
GREENISH-BLUE PRECIPITATE :-Copper, deutoxide;
with excess, a blue solution.
REDDISH-BLUE PRECIPITATE : — Cobalt, a brown
solution, with an excess.
APPLE-GREEN PRECIPITATE:—Nickel; with excess,
a violet solution.
GREEN PRECIPITATE :-Chromium. Uranium, prot
oxide. Platinum, protoxide.
BROWN PRECIPITATE:—Manganese, deutoSalts. Iron,
persalts. Silver, soluble in excess.
BLACK PRECIPITATE:—Mercury, protosalts.
No PRECIPITATE:-Potash. Soda. Lithia. Ammo
nia. Barytes. Strontian. Lime. Silver, if in a very
acid solution. Magnesia, the same.
The SALTs of Ammonia will be described in the sec
tion on AMMONIUM ; because the base of these salts is
not the compound N*H*, but the hydrate of that com
pound = N*H" + H2O, equivalent to the oxide of
ammonium = N*II* + O.

4. SULPH.U.R. S = 201:165.
Occurrence.—See page 17.
Properties.—At the ordinary temperature of the
atmosphere, sulphur is a solid substance, exhibiting a
shelly fracture and a yellow colour. When it is obtained
in crystals by proper treatment of a solution of sulphur,
or when found in the vicinity of burning mountains, it
is transparent; but when it has been submitted to
fusion, it is opaque. When obtained in the state of
powder, and particularly when produced in an aqueous
 EXPERIMENTS WITH SULPHUR. 309

solution, its colour is nearly white. It is brittle. Its

specific gravity is 1:98. It is insoluble in water, and
not poisonous. It burns in the air with a blue flame,
and diffuses a peculiar odour, which is due to the
presence of sulphurous acid gas. It fuses at a tempera
ture rather higher than that of boiling water, about
230° F., and forms a thin yellow fluid, while at a still
higher temperature, about 320° F., it becomes thick
and gluey, and acquires a brown colour. If the thick
fluid is put into water, it produces a brown tenacious
mass, which remains soft for some time, but ultimately
becomes solid, brittle, and yellow. If the melted
sulphur is raised to a very high degree of heat, about
600°F., in closed vessels, it boils, and is converted into
a deep orange-coloured gas, which appears to the eye
like nitrous acid gas. The volume of this gas is 500
times greater than that of the solid sulphur. Its sp.
gr. is {:} air, or ###:### oxygen gas. Its atomic
volume is . See page 177. If this gas is inflamed in
the air, it burns, like sulphur, with a blue flame and a
smell of sulphurous acid. It is in consequence of the
production of this peculiar odour by combustion, that
the presence of sulphur is very easy of detection.
When sulphur is boiled with nitric acid in a flask, it
dissolves, and produces oil of vitriol, Nitric acid of
ordinary strength effects this oxidation with much diffi
culty; but fuming nitric acid is capable of dissolving
sulphur with far greater facility. Muriatic acid does
not dissolve sulphur. Aqua regia, or a mixture of
nitric acid and muriatic acid, converts sulphur into oil
of vitriol more readily than either of the acids alone.
Chlorine gas led over powdered sulphur produces
chloride of sulphur. A solution of pure potash dissolves -

sulphur at a boiling heat, and the resulting solution

contains sulphuret of potassium and the saline com
pound termed hyposulphite of potash.
ExPERIMENTS witH SULPHUR.
Fusion and Crystallisation.— 1. In a small glass capsule exposed
to a gentle heat over a spirit lamp, put a small lump of sulphur.
310 SULBHUR.

When that is melted, add another lump and so on till the glass
is nearly full of melted sulphur. Take care to keep the tem
F. as low as possible, consistent with the
usion of the sulphur, which at 230° F. will
form a limpid, citron-coloured liquid. Put
out the lamp and observe the cooling of the
sulphur. Fine crystals will be seen to shoot
from the sides and stretch towards the centre.
When these increase, so as to seem to be
ready to cover the whole surface as with a net, the glass may be
suddenly inverted and the residual liquid be drained out. The
capsule may be taken hold of by the fingers for this purpose. If
the ejection of the fluid sulphur is effected at the proper moment,
the glass will contain an elegant collection of slender, delicate
transparent needles of sulphur. The process may be repeated
till a good product is obtained.
2. Melt about a pound of sulphur in
a crucible at the lowest temperature
that will ensure fusion; remove the
crucible from the fire, and let it cool
till a crust is formed on the surface.
Prick a hole in the crust, invert the
crucible, and let the residue of the liquid
sulphur run out. When the crucible is
cold break it to get at the mass of
crystals which must be sawn across, as
shown in the figure.
Fusion at a high temperature.—3. Melt sulphur in a porcelain
capsule over a spirit lamp or gas light, and gradually increase
the heat, until the thin lemon
coloured liquor turns thick,
and changes its colour, passing
from yellow to red, brown, and
almost to black. At this point
lift the capsule and pour the
sulphur from a height into water
contained in a pan. The brown
sulphur will form a soft tough mass, which possesses great
ductility, so that it can be pulled into strings, and which does not
become hard and brittle, or resume its yellow colour for some
days. , If melted sulphur in the state of a thin yellow liquor, is
poured into water, it immediately forms a yellow brittle solid.
Combustibility of Sulphur.—4. Heat a fragment of sulphur upon
al|. of broken glass or china. It first melts and afterwards
takes fire, burning with a blue flame, and the well-known suffo.
gºing odour of burning brimstone. This odour results from the
diffusion of sulphurous acid gas. Sulphur burnt on charcoal
before the blowpipe, or at the flame of a candle, or in an open
 EXPERIMENTS WITH SULPHUR. 3.11

glass tube, produces the same effect. Sulphur burns with a

brilliant flame in oxygen gas. Page 221. -

Volatility of Sulphur.—5. Heat a small Fº of sulphur in a

tube of hard glass, closed at one end, and held over the flame of
a spirit lamp at an angle of about 45°. The upper end of the
tube may be partly closed by a square cork. See page,48. The
sulphur at first melts, and then rises in red vapour, which con
denses in a fine powder on the upper cooler part of the tube.
This powder is flour of brimstone, or sublimed sulphur.
Distiſlation of Sulphur.—6. Sulphur can be purified from fixed
substances by distillation in close vessels. A small quantity of
it is fused in a retort, a,
by the heat of a spirit
lamp. The sulphur soon
rises in the state of gas,
which, being coloured, is
visible. In the cool part
of the neck of the retort,
c, this gas becomes con
densed, that is to say,
where the temperature is
reduced below 230° F.
It then forms a yellow
crystalline powder (sub
limed sulphur.) On con
tinuing the distillation,
the neck of the retort gradually becomes warm, upon which the
powder melts, and as soon as it is sufficiently fluid, it runs down
the neck of the retort into the receiver, b. The whole of the
sulphur can be thus driven out of the retort into the receiver.
If it contained clay, sand, or other mineral impurities not
volatilizable, these remain behind in the retort. It is by such a
process as this that most of the sulphur of commerce is prepared
from mineralised sulphur procured in Sicily and other countries.
Sulphur is also separated by heat from some metallic sulphurets,
as that of iron. Thus FeS2 = FeS + S. The roll sulphur is
prepared by running fused sulphur into moulds. The sublimed
sulphur is prepared in quantities, by distilling sulphur in a
current of warm air, but at a temperature too low for combustion.
As the air cools, the sulphur is deposited from it in powder, just
as gaseous water falls from cold air in the form of snow.
Precipitated Sulphur.—7. Boil powdered sulphur in a solution
of caustic potash. It produces a transparent brown liquor which
holds sulphur in solution. If the clear liquor is mixed with
diluted sulphuric acid, the sulphur is precipitated in the form of
a greyish-white powder.
Crystallisation of Sulphur from a solution.—8. Sulphur dissolves
in hot oil of turpentine, and more readily in sulphuret of carbon.
312 SULPHUR.

The last named fluid is extremely volatile, and readily flies off in
vapour when exposed to the air in an open vessel. Hence a
solution of sulphur in sulphuret of carbon very soon gives crystals
of sulphur. #. form of the crystals of sulphur obtained at
volcanoes is the same as the form of those that are obtained by
crystallisation from solutions and by slow sublimations, .# a

rhombic octahedron; but the form of the crystals of sulphur

produced by fusion is different and belongs even to a different
system of crystallisation.
Imitation of Medals and Seals in Sulphur.—9. A mould is first
made in plaster of paris. The medal to be copied is surrounded
by a rim of paper, and is slightly oiled over its whole surface. A
thin mixture of plaster of paris and water is poured over it, and
allowed time to consolidate. This forms the mould, which is
separated from the mould when quite solid, and is well dried by
exposure to a moderate heat. It is slightly oiled, and a band or
rim of paper is fastened round it. Sulphur is then fused, and
when liquid, is poured into the mould. When it is cold, the
impression will resemble that of the original medal. It may be
bronzed by rubbing over it a little plumbago.
Spontaneous Combustion of Metals in Gaseous Sulphur.—10.
Sulphur is to be boiled in a long test tube of hard glass, one inch
in width, till the tube is full of gaseous sulphur. The tube may
be supported as shown in page 108. Or instead of using a tube,
the sulphur may be boiled in a vessel of hard
#. similar to a florence flask, as shown in this
gure.—l. Nickel, in fine powder, poured into
it, spontaneously inflames.—2. Thin films of
copper do so also.-3. A bit of potassium fixed
on a thin iron wire, inflames and sets fire to the
iron, which does not inflame alone.—4. A thin
plate of copper becomes red-hot when held in
the gaseous sulphur.—5. If thin iron wire is
coiled round such a plate of copper, and the
two metals plunged together into the gaseous
sulphur, first the copper becomes red-hot, then
the iron takes fire and burns with a brilliant
light, and finally the plate of copper melts.
6. Narrow slips of tinfoil inflame.—7. Pretty
thick
in slips
drops of of sheet-lead
sulphuret inflame and fall down
of lead. w

When pieces of iron and copper wire cannot

be procured sufficiently thin for the above ex- -

eriments, the action may be promoted in the following manner.

he tube is to be chosen pretty long, and to be placed almost
horizontally; the sulphur put at the bottom and the twisted
wire near the middle of it. That part of the tube is first to be
heated where the metal lies, and then another spirit lamp is to
 sulphufous AcID. 313

be used to boil the sulphur, the vapour of which acts more

readily when the metal is thus previously heated. The com
pounds produced by these combustions are metallic sulphurets.

SULPHUROUS ACID. SO2=401-165.

This compound gas is colourless, incombustible,
incapable of supporting combustion, and possessed of a
peculiar suffocating odour; it reddens wet litmus paper,
and bleaches many vegetable and animal colours (straw,
nuts, wood, jelly, sponge, silk, wool, &c.) The specific
gravity of sulphurous acid gas is #:### air, or #}}:####
oxygen gas. Its atomic volume is #. See page 177.
Hence it contains nearly equal weights of oxygen and
sulphur. By pressure or exposure to the temperature
of 4° F., it is made to assume the form of a liquid, which
boils at 14° F. and produces great cold by its evapora
tion. It is not decomposable by heat. It combines
directly with brown oxide of lead and produces white
sulphate of lead. PbO2 + SO2 = PbO + SO3. Sul
phurous acid dissolves without decomposition in water,
and the solution possesses the odour and many of the
properties of the gas. This solution is converted into
sulphuric acid if long exposed to the air.
Preparation of Sulphurous Acid Gas—Take equal
weights of metallic mercury and concentrated sulphuric
acid; pour them into a retort or flask, and
apply the heat of a lamp. This gas is absorb
able by water, and cannot be collected in jars
placed over the water trough. It must, there
fore, be collected over mercury, or else by the
method of displacement described at page 299.
But in this case, as the gas is heavier than
common air, it must be collected in a receiver
placed with the mouth uppermost. Let each J)
bottle of gas be corked and secured with soft
cement as soon as it is full.
2. Copper turnings may be used for this purpose
instead of mercury. Theory:—
Cu + 2(H2O, SO3)=(CuO, SO3) + 2H2O + SO2.
3. Mix intimately three parts of black oxide of copper
2 D
314 sulphur.

with one part of sulphur, put the mixture into a narrow

glass tube, and put above it half its bulk of oxide of
copper. First heat the latter red-hot, and then heat
the mixture, which will give out sulphurous acid gas.
It may be passed through a tube containing chloride
of calcium, or through oil of vitriol contained in a V
tube. The gas so prepared is pure.
Experiments with Sulphurous Acid Gas.-1. If a
lighted candle is let down into a jar of this gas, it is
immediately extinguished. When the gas is breathed,
even when largely diluted with common air, it excites
violent coughing.
2. Sulphurous acid gas bleaches a great variety of.
vegetable colours, sometimes first turning them red.
Try litmus paper; also tincture of cabbage. Its solution
in water produces the same effects.
3. This gas is rapidly absorbed by water. If a bottle
of cold water, saturated with this gas, is plunged into
a basin of hot water and uncorked, an infinite number
of small bubbles will be instantaneously extricated, and
the water in the bottle will appear to boil.
4. A red rose loses its colour when dipped in a
solution of sulphurous acid. The red colour is restored
by dipping it in diluted sulphuric acid.
Preparation of solution of Sulphurous Acid in water,
or in solutions of Alcalies (Sulphites.)—1.) The sulphur
ous acid gas for this purpose may be prepared by the
following easy and economical process:—We have seen
that sulphur burnt in atmospheric air, produces sulphur
ous acid. By the assistance of the apparatus shown in
the annexed figure, the acid so produced may be collected
and applied to use. a is a glass funnel, b a metallic
cup, such as was described at page 222, d a V-tube, fg
a water, bottle, c e connectors, q p a tube support.
When the water runs from the stopcock g, air passes
through the apparatus in the direction of the arrow,
from a into f, and therefore passes through any liquor
put into the V-tube at d. , If the cup on the support b
is filled with burning sulphur, the products of the com
bustion are drawn with the atmospheric air, through
 SULPHITES. 315

the V-tube, and the sulphurous acid is absorbed by the

solution put into the bend of the V-tube, whether it be
merely water or a solution of an alcali.
2.) Instead of the pieces of apparatus a, b, it is better
to connect the tube c with a piece of stoneware or por
celain tube placed horizontally, and to put the sulphur
into the end of this tube, with a lamp placed imme
diately below, to keep up the combustion. In this
manner sulphurous acid can be conveniently prepared
in any quantity.
Ea'periments.-Pass, in this manner, sulphurous acid
through a solution of cabbage, which is first reddened
and then bleached; or through a solution of bichromate
of potash, the yellow colour of which turns to green,
owing to the reduction of the chromic acid to oxide of
chromium; or through a solution of carbonate of soda,
which produces sulphite of soda.
SULPHITES.—Combinations of potash, soda, and other
bases with sulphurous acid. The sulphites of these
alcalies dissolve in water. The neutral sulphites of
potash and soda are alcaline. The bisulphites are acid,
in relation to test paper. Sulphuric acid added to
their solutions, converts the basis into sulphates and
expels sulphurous acid gas, but gives no precipitate of
sulphur. The sulphites, namely sulphite of soda, can
be readily crystallised.
316 SULPHUR.

ANHYDROUS SULPHURIC ACID. S.08 = 501-165.

HYDRATED SULPHURIC ACID, H2O, SO3 =613-645.
FUMING SULPHURIC ACID. SO3 + H2O, SO3 = 1114,810.

Properties of Hydrated Sulphuric Acid. –When

sulphur is burnt in oxygen gas, and the gaseous com
bination of sulphur and oxygen is dissolved in water,
and exposed to atmospheric air so as to absorb more
oxygen, the liquid product is found to possess, in a very
eminent degree, the distinguishing properties of acids.
This liquid, when concentrated to the specific gravity of
1845, is termed oil of vitriol. It freezes at —31°, and
boils at 617°. It is caustic, and therefore poisonous.
It has a powerful charring action on organic substances,
small portions of which give it a brown colour. Its
density is nearly twice that of water; for which body it
has a strong attraction. When mixed with water,
great heat is produced. It abstracts water from the
atmosphere. Sulphuric acid is prepared in the large
way, by burning sulphur mixed with a small portion of
mitre, in closed chambers lined with lead. The nitre
furnishes oxygen to the sulphur, and the acid, as it is pro
duced, combines with a quantity of water, which is forced
into the chambers in the state of steam. This liquid
acid is afterwards boiled, first in lead pans, and then in
glass or platinum retorts, to free it as much as possible
from water. The use of sulphuric acid in chemistry,
metallurgy, bleaching, dyeing, medicine, and other
arts, is very extensive. It is required for the prepara
tion of most other acids. Some metals dissolve in cold
sulphuric acid, and disengage hydrogen gas. Other
metals dissolve in hot sulphuric acid, and disengage
sulphurous acid gas.
Production of Sulphuric Acid.—1). Mix six parts of
sulphur with one of nitre, in a small cup, supported
over the surface of water in a dish. Ignite the mixture,
and place over it a large glass, so as to dip into the
water, and form a close vessel. By this process the
water in the dish is converted into very dilute
sulphuric acid, as may be known by applying the proper
 SULPHURIC ACID. 317

tests for that compound. Sulphuric acid is also pro

duced by boiling sulphur in aqua regia or in strong
nitric acid.
2). The apparatus recommended to be used in the
production of sulphurous acid (page 315, process 2), is
to be set in action, and the point of a tube from which
nitrous gas is issuing, is inserted into the mouth of the
tube, whereat the sulphur is put in for burning. The
current of air then carries forward a mixture of sulphur
ous acid gas, moist nitrous gas, and superfluous
atmospheric air. This mixture must not, in this case,
be drawn through a V-tube, but through a large
receiver containing a small portion of water, in which
sulphuric acid will gradually be deposited.
When a mixture of sulphurous acid gas and moist
atmospheric air is carried thus through a wide glass
tube over a mass of spongy platinum, heated to dull
redness by a spirit lamp, concentrated sulphuric acid is
immediately produced.
Too strong a heat hinders the production of the acid.
For wse, the acid can be bought ready made, in a
state of considerable purity. Great care is required in
operations performed with this acid. It must not be
dropped about carelessly, as it burns all that it touches.
It can be purified by distillation, but it is dangerous to
expose it to a boiling heat, as it boils with explosive
violence. The distillation of this acid cannot be safely
executed by an unpractised experimenter.
The best distilling apparatus consists of a retort and
receiver of the form shown by A B, page 287, connected
by an adapter, formed of a very long and wide tube.
All these should be of hard German glass, free from
lead. The tube should go over the neck of the retort,
and enter into the middle of the receiver. There must
be no corks or lute at the joints, and no condensing
water applied to the receiver. The retort must contain
a quantity of crooked wire or foil of platinum, and the
heat is best applied by means of a circular gas flame,
produced by a radiating gas burner. Berzelius recom
mends the application of heat to the sides of the retort,
2D 2
318 SULPHUR.

as follows: A is a cone of sheet iron, with a hole to fit

the retort; a charcoal fire is made on this cone, and
hemmed in by the bricks, E. E. An iron hood, C, serves
to prevent the condensation of the acid before it reaches
the neck of the retort. A tile, F F, is used to keep the
neck of the retort from the hot brick, E. The same
end is accomplished by resting the retort on an empty
iron pot, put within a furnace, and making the charcoal
fire round about the outside of the pot. The object of
these contrivances is to prevent the violent succussions
that occur when heat is applied directly to the bottom
of the retort.
The great power that platinum wire possesses of
facilitating the quiet evaporation of certain liquids may
be shown by hanging a twisted platinum wire, pre
viously cleaned and ignited, in a flask containing
water, strong nitric acid (900°), or oil of vitriol. The
boiling in all cases is effected at a lower temperature
than when the wire is omitted, and proceeds without
bumping. If these liquids are brought near to the
boiling point, and the wire is then put in, boiling com
mences immediately, and in the case of oil of vitriol,
violently. It is therefore dangerous to put platinum
wire into oil of vitriol when hot. It must be put into
the retort with the cold acid.
 TABLE OF SULPHURIC ACID, 319

TABLE OF SULPHURIC ACID.

SO3. Test Atom 501-165 Grains. Temperature 62°F.

Specific Ratio of Grains of Atoms of Septems

Gravity SO3 SO3 SO3 containing
of the in in 1000 in 1000 || 1 Atom of
Acid. 1:00000. Septems. Septems. SO3.

1-896 •8991 11933. 23.81 41-999

1848 •8167 10565. 21:08.1 47.437
18393 '7785 10023. 20:00 50,000
1.78 •69029 8599.8 17-16 58.276
1.7279 •6629 8018.6 16:00 62.500
1.6321 •59762 6827.6 13-623 73°403
1:4795 •4839 5011.6 10:00 100-00
1°3033 •3296 3007-0 6:00 166-67
1.2112 •237 2004.7 4:00 250-00
1-1078 •1292 1002-3 2:00 500.00
1.0567 •0682 501-16 1.00 1000-0
1:0066 -00712 50-116 0.10 10000
1-0014 •00081 50-116 0-01 100000

Explanation of this Table.—See the explanation of

the Table of Nitric Acid, page 285. This table is on
the same plan. The principal hydrates of the acid
SO 3 are as follow:—
Sp. Gr. Degree. Hydrate.
1896 2381. SO3, H2O+ SO3 Nordhausen Acid.
1-848 2108.1 SO3, H2O Oil of Vitriol.
178 1716; SO3, H20+ H2O. Crystallisable Acid.
1.6321 1362-3 SO3, H2O+2H2O
1.0567 100, SO3, H2O+60H2O Test Acid of 100°.
The numbers given in the last column of the table
show how to produce diluted acid of a given strength,
by adding water to any strong acid. Thus, 50 septems
of acid of 2000°, produce 1000 septems of acid of 100°.
See page 293.
Determination of the Chemical strength, or Degree, of a
given sample of Sulphuric Acid.—Test it with ammonia
320 SULPHUR.

in the manner described at page 291. You will observe,

that oil of vitriol CAN occuR of twenty-one times the
strength of test ammonia of 100°, and that fuming
sulphuric acid can occur of twenty-four times that
strength. These are the limits. 5 septems of the acid
would require, in one case, 105 septems of test ammonia,
and in the other case, 120 septems, to neutralise it.
These numbers show that sulphuric acid is an extremely
soluble substance, and that its concentrated solutions
contain a large proportion of acid. When the acid that
is to be tested is known to be strong, it may first be
diluted tenfold, as prescribed at page 292 in respect to
nitric acid.
Preparation of Sulphuric Acid of 100°, with the help
of Carbonate of Soda-Prepare a solution of carbonate
of soda of 100°, as described under that article. Take
of that solution 100 sep- B A
tems, by means of the cen
tigallon pipette, fig. A, or
C, page 265. See page 266.
Putit into a conical mixing
jar, figure B. Add 12 drops
of tincture of litmus. Fill
your centigrade alcalime
ter, figure A, page 265,
(see also
diluted page 291,)
sulphuric acid with
con- C

taining 1 part of oil of \ J

vitriol mixed with about
4 parts of water. This
mixture is to be made by
putting the water into a
thin glass flask, C, adding
the acid to the water gra
dually, and allowing the
mixture to cool to 62° F.
Neutralise the 100 septems
of solution of soda with
acid poured from the alca
limeter, and ascertain how many septems of acid are
 TESTING OF SULPHURIC ACID. 321

required. In doing this the following points are to be

attended to carefully. Place a sheet of white paper
below the jar, B, to enable you to see the changes of
colour that occur. Add the acid in quantities of about
5 septems at a time. Shake the jar with a circular
motion to facilitate the mixture. After a time the blue
litmus becomes of a pale claret colour. The jar must
now be placed over a sandbath or waterbath until the
mixture becomes almost boiling hot. The acid is then
to be slowly added, one or two drops at a time, until the
colour of the litmus changes from claret red to a pale
scarlet colour. Towards the end of the neutralisation,
after every addition of one drop of the acid and agitation
of the liquor, a drop of it is to be taken on the fine point
of a glass rod and applied to a piece of blue litmus
paper. See page 32. As soon as the alcali is perfectly
neutralised, and the liquor contains the least excess of
acid, the litmus paper turns red where touched by the
wetted glass rod.
The number of septems of the diluted acid that are
required to neutralise the soda, show the number of
septems of the acid that contain one-tenth part of an
atom of anhydrous sulphuric acid, or that quantity
which forms 100 septems of solution of 100°. The
experiment must be repeated with great care that you
may be quite certain what this number is. I shall
suppose it to be 55 septems. In that case, all that it
is necessary to do to produce sulphuric acid of 100°, is
to put 55 measures of the diluted acid into the test-mixer,
B, page 265, and to add as much water as dilutes the
55 measures to 100 measures. I have already described
the precautions that are to be taken in the performance
of this operation. See page 292. If the sulphuric acid
of 100°, prepared in this manner, is pure, the sp. grav.
of the solution will prove on trial to be 1.0567. If
impure, it will be denser, according to the amount of
impurity.
Concentration of Sulphuric Acid.—All the hydrates of
sulphuric acid that are weaker than H2O, SO3 are
converted into that hydrate by distilling off the super
322 SULPHUR.

fluous water. But as the hydrate H2O, SO3 is vola

tile, no stronger acid can be prepared by distillation.
The fuming acid, H2O, SO3 + SO8 is prepared by
distilling partially dried and partially peroxidised proto
sulphate of iron, (green vitriol,) = Fe0, SO3 + æ H2O
+ æ Fe2O3, 3 SO3. The solid residue is peroxide of
Fe2O3, and a quantity of sulphurous acid SO? is dis
engaged, part of which is absorbed by the fuming acid.
The anhydrous acid SO 3 is produced by distilling the
fuming acid H2O, SO3 + S08. The anhydrous acid
passes over into a dry and cold receiver in silky crys
tals, which explode when put into water, producing
H2O, SO3.
Condensing power of Sulphuric Acid.—The atomic
volume of the test atom of anhydrous sulphuric acid is
very nearly 36 septems. When it combines with # test
atom, or 8 Septems of water, it condenses 2} septems.
With 1 atom or 16 septems of water, it condenses 5
septems. With 2 atoms or 32 septems of water, it
condenses 10 Septems. In all these cases, the conden
sation is equal to nearly one-third part of the entire
bulk of the water. With 6227 atoms or 100105 septems
of water, it condenses 105 septems. In this case, the
condensation is equal to only one-thousandth part of
of the bulk of the water, but it is equal to three times
the bulk of the uncombined acid. It is curious to
compare this chemical condensation with the amount
of that which can be effected in water by the direct
application of mechanical pressure. A weight of 1 lb.
avoirdupois applied to a cube of water of the bulk of 1
septem, diminishes its height to the extent of fifty
millionths, whereas 1 lb. avoirdupois of sulphuric acid
= 14 test atoms, applied to 450 septems of water =
28 test atoms, occasions a condensation equal to 143
Septems, and if applied to 100000 septems of water, it
occasions a condensation equal to 1400 septems. The
compressing power of chemical combination is conse
quently immense.
4ction of Sulphuric Acid on Organic Bodies.—A
striking experiment illustrative of the powerful action
 SULPHATES, 323

of concentrated sulphuric acid on organic matters con

sists in mixing about equal bulks of very strong syrup
and oil of vitriol. In a few seconds the mixture
becomes black and hot, effervesces, and is at last con
verted into a solid magma of charcoal, or rather of a
highly carbonised substance resembling charcoal in
appearance. The hydrogen and oxygen of the sugar
appear to form water, under the influence of the power
ful affinity of the sulphuric acid in that compound, the
carbon of the sugar being set at liberty.— Parnell.
Detection of Sulphuric Acid.—Dissolve white sugar
in water, and evaporate the solution in a white flat
porcelain capsule, so as to produce a thin varnish of
sugar. Upon this, while still warm, let fall a drop of
the liquor which is suspected to contain free sulphuric
acid (such as adulterated vinegar). The water of the
diluted acid will evaporate, and the acid becoming
concentrated, will char and blacken the film of sugar.
SULPHATES.–When metals are dissolved in diluted
hydrate of sulphuric acid, they produce salts that are
termed sulphates. Thus:—
Fe-H H2O, SO3 = Fe O, SO3 + H2
See page 230. And when oxides of metals, or bases,
dissolve in hydrated sulphuric acid, they also produce
sulphates. Thus, lime produces sulphate of lime, and
hydrate of soda produces sulphate of soda.
CaO + H2O, SO3 = CaO, SO3 + H2O.
H2O, NaO + H2O, SO3 = NaO, SO3 + 2 H2O.
See pages 140, 142, and 156.
JEageriment.—Add 100 septems of sulphuric acid of
100° to 100 septems of carbonate of soda of 100°, and
warm the mixture to drive off the carbonic acid. The
mixture should be newtral. If not so, add a drop or two
of the deficient solution. Pour the liquor into a capsule,
evaporate, and crystallise. Sulphate of soda in crystals
NaO, SO3 + 10 H2O will be obtained. See page 47.
Detection of Sulphates. See page 131.—Sulphates
that are insoluble in water: those of barytes, strontian,
and lead. Nearly insoluble: lime, silver, and mercury.
324 SULPHUR.

Most of the other sulphates are soluble in water. The

solutions of the sulphates of the alcalies, and of lime,
magnesia, manganese, and silver, do not redden blue
litmus paper; but solutions of the sulphates of other
metals do redden litmus. . The sulphates of the alcalies
and earths are not decomposed by a red heat. But
the sulphates of the common metals are decomposed
when made red hot.
The sulphates of barytes is one of the most insoluble
salts known to exist, and as it bears a red heat without
alteration, it is by means of a solution of barytes (the
nitrate or chloride) that sulphuric acid is separated
from other substances in quantitative analyses.
Hyposulphurous Acid. , S2O3.
Hyposulphuric Acid. , S2O3.
Sulphuretted Hyposulphuric Acid. Sº 0°.
Bisulphuretted Hyposulphuric Acid. S40°.
Acids of much less importance than SO? and SO3.
SULHURETTED HYDROGEN. H2S = 213.645.
Sulphuretted hydrogen is a gas, whose component
principles are hydrogen and sulphur. Its specific gravity
is § §§ air, or +}}:### oxygen gas, being consider
ably higher than that of common air. Its atomic
volume is #. See page 175. It burns (when lighted)
with a pale blue flame, depositing sulphur. It does
not support combustion. Its odour is extremely fetid,
resembling that of rotten eggs. Its taste is sour. It
reddens vegetable blues. It is absorbed by water. It
blackens metallic silver and copper. It can be reduced
to the liquid state by pressure. Of all the gases, sul
phuretted hydrogen is perhaps the most deleterious to
animal life. A dog of middle size is destroyed in air
containing only the 800th part of its bulk of it. Indeed,
it has been proved, that to kill an animal, it is sufficient
to make the sulphuretted hydrogen act on the surface of
its body, when it is absorbed by the inhalents. Yet, to
the présence of this gas, is chiefly owing the beneficial
medicinal properties of Harrowgate, Aix-la-Chapelle,
 SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN. 325

Moffat, and some other mineral waters. Sulphuretted

hydrogen is employed by the chemist as a re-agent.
With most metallic oxides it suffers decomposition, the
products being metallic sulphurets and water. Thus:
BaO + H2S = BaS + H2O.
But with the sulphurets of the alcaline metals it com
bines, so as to produce double sulphurets. These seem
to be a species of salt, in which the sulphuretted
hydrogen acts as an acid, and the metallic sulphuret
as a base. Example: KS + H2S.
Preparation of Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas.-1. Mix
in a gas bottle 2 parts of iron filings with 1 part of
sublimed sulphur; add as much water as will make the
whole into a thick paste. Heat the mixture for some
time, then add strong muriatic acid, and apply heat.
The gas produced in this way is liable to be mixed with
hydrogen gas.
2. Mix pulverised grey sulphuret of antimony with
four or five times its weight of strong muriatic acid.
It is necessary to apply a slight heat to the bottle which
contains the mixture. The gas may be collected over
hot water, salt and water, or mercury.
3. A better process than either of the above is
described at page 106. But when only a small quantity
of the gas, or a slow current of
it is required, the apparatus may
be modified as shown in the annex
ed figure. There being no funnel
to this apparatus, the muriatic
acid and water must be mixed
and put into the bottle before the
cork is inserted. When a slow
current of gas is desired, as in all
cases of testing, one or two large
lumps of sulphuret of iron and a
little weak acid must be taken.
When the current of gas is to be
more rapid, the sulphuret may be powdered, and the
acid be less dilute.
2E
326 SULPHUR.

4. When a large quantity of gas is required, as in

preparing sulphuret of sodium, the apparatus figured
in page 106 may be used, and sulphuret of barium may
be substituted for sulphuret of iron.
Theory of the production of sulphuretted hydrogen
gas in these processes:—
FeS + H2 Cl2 – FeC12+ H2S.
ExPERIMENTS witH SULPHURETTED HYDRogen GAS.
1. A slip of paper having invisible figures drawn upon it with
solutions of sugar of lead, nitrate of silver, or nitrate of bismuth,
if passed into sulphuretted hydrogen gas, unfolds its secrets, by
exhibiting legible figures of a beautiful dark brown colour. A
caricature face drawn on a sheet of white paper, is rendered
visible by passing below it the bottle from which the gas is being
*::::::
2. Moistened blue litmus paper becomes red in this gas.
3. Paper dipped in nitric acid becomes yellow in sulphuretted
hydrogen gas, acquiring a coating of reduced sulphur.
4. A mixture of equal measures of oxygen gas and sulphuret
ted hydrogen gas produces a sharp detonation when inflamed, in
the same manner as a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gas.
(page ...}
5. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas burns in contact with the air,
with a pale blue flame.
6. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is readily absorbed by alcaline
solutions, which produce solutions of metallic sulphurets.
7. Tin and other metals when fused in sulphuretted hydrogen
gas, combine with the sulphur, and set the hydrogen at liberty.
Sn 4- H2S = SnS + H2.
Liquid Sulphuretted Hydrogen.—Pass sulphuretted
hydrogen gas into water, until the water is completely
saturated. This test only acts well when it is newly
prepared, because the gas rapidly escapes or becomes
decomposed. The bottle which contains it ought always
to be retained in an inverted position, with the neck
and stopper dipped into water. When a small quantity
of the solution of this gas is required, it may be pre
pared by connecting the gas delivering tube with one
end of a U-tube, as described at page 302. Larger
Quantities may be prepared by passing the gas into
cold water contained in a flask with a very narrow
mouth.
 SULPHURET OF AMMONIUM. 327

When exposed to the action of air, nitrous acid, or

chlorine, the solution of sulphuretted hydrogen becomes
milky in consequence of the presence of reduced sul
phur. If boiled, the gas is driven off undecomposed.
If mixed and shaken with bleaching powder, the odour
entirely disappears, the compound being decomposed.
METALLIC SULPHURETs. – Sulphur combines with
most metals, producing an important class of com
pounds called sulphurets. The ores of many metals
are sulphurets. When sulphur is made to combine
with a metal in the dry way, the act of combination is
sometimes accompanied by ignition. See page 312.
Most sulphurets can be prepared in the wet way. Sul
phur, like oxygen, often combines with metals in mul.
tiple proportions. Thus: KS, KS*, KS", &c. These
supersulphurets lose a portion of their sulphur when
subjected to a strong heat. In this manner sulphur is
produced in large quantities for useful purposes from
iron pyrites. FeS2 = FeS + S. The sulphurets
formed by the metals of the alcalies are all soluble in
water. Their colour is yellowish or brownish white.
Some of them combine with water and produce crys
tals. The sulphurets of the metals of the alcaline
earths are also soluble in water; but the sulphurets of
barium and strontium are more readily dissolved than
the sulphuret of calcium. The solutions of these sul
phurets give a blue colour to red litmus paper. The
solutions of the alcaline protosulphurets are colourless,
but they become yellow in the air, like the solutions of
the persulphurets. These solutions are all readily
decomposed by other acids; the mixture discharging
sulphuretted hydrogen gas, and retaining a metallic
salt. Thus: KS + H2O, SO3 = H2S + KO, SO3.
The metals of the non-alcaline earths can scarcely be
said to produce sulphurets, for when sulphuret of
ammonium is added to solutions of their salts, the base
(for example, alumina,) precipitates in the state of
hydrated oxide, a salt of ammonia remains in solution,
and H*S is discharged as gas. A great many of the
heavy metals produce sulphurets that are insoluble in
328 SULPHUR.

water, and possess very characteristic colours. Upon

these last-named properties depends the use of sulphu
retted hydrogen as a chemical test.
Detection of Sulphurets-See page 128.
HYDROSULPHURET OF AMMONIA. N2H6 -- H2S.
SULPHURET OF AMMONIUM. N2H8 -H S.

Preparation.—1). Mix chloride of ammonium with

sulphuret of barium, and distil the mixture. The pro
duct consists of colourless, volatile, soluble crystals,
having the above composition.
Theory.—N2H3Cl2 + BaS = BaCl2 + N2H3S.
2.) Pass a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas
through a fixed quantity of a strong solution of ammo- .
nia, say 100 septems of ammonia of 400°, until the
liquor is saturated. The solution will be the Hydro
sulphuret of sulphuret of ammonium = N*H*S + H2S.
To this solution, add a second dose of 100 septems of
ammonia of 400°, when the solution will contain the
neutral sulphuret = N*H*S. Both these solutions
are easily decomposed by atmospheric air.
The apparatus employed to contain the ammonia
while being saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen may
be a U-tube, a V-tube, or a flask with a narrow mouth.
3.) In the preparation of this solution for use as a
chemical test, the rule to follow is, to pass a slow cur
rent of sulphuretted hydrogen gas continuously into
liquid ammonia of 200° or 300° of strength, until the
solution ceases to give a precipitate with a solution of
sulphate of magnesia. The solution must be preserved
in a well-stoppered bottle of lead-free glass, because the
re-agent decomposes flint glass and deposits lead, and
is itself readily decomposed by atmospheric air. It
should be used soon after being prepared.
 PRECIPITATED SULPHURETS. 329

PRECIPITATION OF METALLIC SULPHURETs. – The

great importance of sulphuretted hydrogen and sul
phuret of ammonium, as means of detecting and sepa
rating many of the metals in analytical operations,
induces me to give the following tables explanatory of
their re-actions. -

The mark 1 signifies that the action takes place only with
salts of particular acids, or under peculiar circumstances.
ACTION OF SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN.
Applied either as Gas or in Aqueous Solution.

Metals Precipitable, and from what Solutions.

Not
Precipitable. Acid Neutral Alcaline
Solutions. Solutions. Solutions,

Potassium. ! Manganese. Manganese.

Sodium. ! Zinc. Zinc.
Lithium. Cadmium. Cadmium. Cadmium,
Ammonium. ! Iron. Iron.
- ! Nickel. Nickel.
Barium. ! Cobalt. Cobalt.
Strontium. | | Lead. Lead. Lead.
Calcium. Tin. Tin. ! Tin.
Magnesium. || Bismuth. Bismuth. Bismuth.
- Copper. Copper. Copper.
Glucinum, Silver. Silver. Silver.
Yttrium. Mercury. Mercury. ! Mercury.
Aluminum. Palladium. Palladium. | | Palladium.
Zirconium. Platinum. Platinum.
Thorium. Rhodium. Rhodium. Rhodium.
- Iridium. Iridium.
Cerium. Gold. Gold.
Uranium. Osmium. Osmium. Osmium.
! Silicium. Tellurium. Tellurium.
Titanium. Antimony. Antimony.
Tantalum. ! Tungsten. (Tungsten.)
! Chromium. | Molybdenum. Molybdenum.
Arsenic. ! Arsenic.
Selenium.) | (Selenium.)
anadium.
Uranium.

2 E2
330 SULPHUR.

ACTION OF HYDROSULPHURET OF AMMONIA.

|
Precipitable as Sulphurets.
Not Precipitable
Precipitable. as Oxides. Insoluble Soluble
in excess. in excess.

Potassium. Glucium. Manganese. ! Tin.

Sodium. Yttrium. Zinc. ! Mercury.
Lithium. Aluminum. Cadmium. ! Platinum.
Ammonium. Zirconium. Iron. ! Iridium.
— . Thorium. Nickel. ! Gold.
Barium. Cerium. Cobalt Tellurium.
Strontium. | | Silicium. Lead. ! Antimony.
Calcium. Titanium. | Tin. Tungstenum.
! Magnesium. | Tantalum. Bismuth. Molybdenum.
Chromium. Copper. ! Vanadium.
Silver. Arsenic.
! Mercury. (Selenium.)
Palladium.
Rhodium.
Osmium.
! Antimony.
Uranium.

METALS INDICATED BY THE COLOURS OF THE

PRECIPITATES.

BLACK, BRow Nish Black, AND DARK BRowN.

Silver. Bismuth. Platinum.
Copper. Nickel. Palladium.
Mercury, persalts. Cobalt. Iridium.
Mercury, protosalts. Tin, protosalts. Rhodium.
Iron. Uranium. Tellurium.
Lead. Molybdenum. Gold.

WHITE.
Zinc. Zirconia. Mercury.
Manganese. Thorina. Iron, persalts
Alumina. Cerium. Titanic Acid.
Glucina. Silica. Tantalic Acid.
Yttria. (Sulphur.)
 SELENIUM. PHOSPHORUS. 331

Colours of Precipitates by HPS, continued.

GREEN......................Chromium (oxide of).
FLESH RED....... .........Manganese.
PALE YELLow..... ....Tin, persalts.
LEMON YELLOW... ....Arsenic. Cadmium. Selenium.
ORANGE.............. ....Antimony.
Reddish BRowN........Mercury. Lead.
YELLowish BRowN.—Osmium.
LIGHT BROWN............Tungsten.

5. SELENIUM. Se - 494-583.
Selenium is solid, brittle, and of shelly fracture. Its
sp. gr. is 4:32. It has a metallic splendour; its colour
is black or dark grey; it is opaque. Thin slips have a
red colour, and are transparent; the fine powder is
dark red. It readily fuses; heated and protected from
air, it boils and produces a dark yellow gas. It burns
in the air with a blue flame, and diffuses a powerful
odour of decayed horse-radish. It dissolves when
heated in nitric acid or aqua regia, and produces
selenious acid.
Compounds of Selenium.—They very much resemble
those of sulphur. With oxygen, it forms selenious acid;
with hydrogen, it forms seleniuretted hydrogen; with
oxygen and hydrogen jointly, it forms selenic acid;
with oxygen and metals jointly, it forms seleniates,
which are very similar to sulphates; with metals, it
forms seleniurets. The composition of the compounds
of selenium are equivalent to those of sulphur, except
ing that every atom of the latter is replaced by an atom
of the former. Selenium is extremely rare.
6. PHOSPHORUS. P – 196-143. P2 = 392.286.
Occurrence.—See page 18.
Properties.—Phosphorus, at the ordinary tempera
ture of the air, is solid, of a yellow colour, transparent,
flexible like wax, and heavier than water. Its specific
gravity is 175. It melts upon being gently heated, at
113° F., or when warm water is poured upon it. If
excluded from air, and exposed to a higher temperature,
332 PHOSPHORUS.

it volatilises, and can be distilled at 572°F. Its gas is

colourless. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in
oils, alcohol, ether, and sulphuret of carbon. It crys
tallizes in rhombic dodecahedrons.
In the presence of air, phosphorus readily inflames;
a gentle friction is sufficient to cause its combustion. In
hot weather it often inflames spontaneously, especially
if exposed to the air upon rough bodies, such as coarse
blotting paper. It burns with a bright flame, and pro
duces a thick white smoke. It gives light in darkness;
and this light is, most powerfully produced when a stick
of phosphorus is placed in nitric acid, in such a manner
that a portion projects above the liquid. It diffuses
white vapours in the air. When kept in vessels exposed
to light, it acquires an opaque brown coating of oxide,
even though immersed in water. Its odour is peculiar,
but somewhat resembles that of garlic. It is poisonous.
Compounds of Phosphorus.-With oxygen, it forms
anhydrous phosphorous and phosphoric acids; with
hydrogen, it forms a very inflammable gas; with oxy
gen and hydrogen jointly, it forms phosphoric acid,
hypophosphorous acid, and phosphorous acid; with
chlorine, it forms two compounds; with metals, it forms
phosphurets; with metals and oxygen jointly, it forms
phosphates, phosphites, and hypophosphites.
Nitric acid and aqua regia easily dissolve phospho
rus, and produce phosphoric acid. Muriatic acid does
not dissolve phosphorus. If chlorine gas is passed
over heated phosphorus, it produces a solid or a liquid
chloride of phosphorus, according as more or less chlo
rine is employed. In a solution of pure potash, phos
phorus dissolves under disengagement of spontaneously
inflammable phosphuretted hydrogen gas.
Preparation.—Phosphorus is prepared by distilling
a mixture of burned bones and charcoal. The opera
tion is too troublesome and dangerous to be undertaken
by unpractised students. The method is as follows:–
Mix 3 parts of white burnt bones with 30 parts of
water and two parts of oil of vitriol, and put the mix
ture to digest in a warm place for 24 hours. It will
 PREPAIRATION OF PHOSPHORUS. 333

then contain sulphate of lime and superphosphate of

lime. Add 50 parts of water, which dissolves only the
superphosphate. Strain to separate the sulphate of
lime, and evaporate in an iron pot, till the mixture
forms a jelly. Then add as much powdered charcoal
as is equal in weight to # of the bones used. Stir the
mixture thoroughly, and heat it gradually till red-hot.
It is then to be imme
diately put into a
stoneware retort, a,
the neck of which is
adapted to a wide tube
of copper, b, whose ||
other end dips about ||
# inch only into cold ºs
water. Heat is to be
applied to the retort $V.
and gradually increas- ſº
ed, upon which the is
phosphorus distils over i
into the water. In the
retort, there remains
neutral phosphate of
lime. A safety tube is
added to the flask, to allow the escape of incondensable
inflammable gases that are produced in the distillation.
The phosphorus thus obtained is cut under water into
small pieces, put into a glass tube that is corked at the
bottom, and the upper end of which is funnel-shaped.
Cold water is added, and the tube is then plunged into
warm water, when the phosphorus melts and fills the
narrow part of the tube, while the water and impurities
rise to the surface. The tube is then put into cold
water, when the phosphorus becomes solid. The cork
is removed, the phosphorus pushed out of the tube, and
the impurities cut off—Phosphorus can be purchased
for experiments in sticks like those of caustic potash.
These must be preserved in water, corked in a bottle,
and placed in a dark and cool situation. Phosphorus
requires to be handled with much caution, because the
334 THOSFHORUS.

heat of the hand inflames it, and it causes very painful

wounds.
To render Phosphorus Colourless and Transparent.—
A concentrated solution of bichromate of potash is
mixed with sulphuric acid, and in this mixture the
yellow or reddish opaque phosphorus is melted. The
bottle is then to be closed and violently shaken, for the
purpose of dividing the phosphorus and bringing it into
contact with the solution. The phosphorus falls into
minute balls, which, when left quiet, again unite and
form a liquid, which even retains the liquid form after
cooling, until it is touched by some solid body, upon
which it immediately congeals. Phosphorus can also
be purified by being melted under water that contains
ammonia or caustic potash.

ExPERIMENTS WITH PHOSPHORUS.

In all experiments with this substance, the greatest degree of
care is required, on account of its very combustible nature. A
very small portion of it (the quantity is generally mentioned in
the experiment) should be operated upon at once. When it is
taken in the hands, it never should be held for more than a few
seconds, for the heat thus applied is sufficient to inflame it, and
a burn from phosphorus is more painful than any other kind of
burn. It is better always to handle it with pincers. A basin of
cold water ought always to be at hand, to dip the phosphorus in
occasionally ; and, when it is cut in pieces it must be cut in
water. Phosphorus can only be preserved by keeping it in
laces where neither light nor heat has access. It is obtained
rom druggists in rolls about the thickness of a quill; these
should be put into a phial filled with cold water, that has been
previously boiled to expel air from it, and the phial should be
inclosed in an opaque case. Experiments made with phosphorus
create a very disagreeable odour in the house where the opera
tions are carried on.
Fusion of Phosphorus.-Into a glass tube half filled with warm
water, put a small piece of phosphorus; it sinks to the bottom
of the water and melts. It does not burn because cut off from
air, and it cannot, like potassium, decompose water.
Writing which is luminous in the dark-Trace letters or figures
on a smooth board, or on dark coloured paper, with a stick of
phosphorus, in the same manner as you would trace them with
a crayon. Every line thus made will be beautifully luminous in
the dark, and will continue so for some minutes." Rationale.—
 EXPERIMENTS WITH PHOSPHORUS. 335

The luminous appearance of the writing arises from a slow com

bustion of the phosphorus which adheres to the board.
To show the Inflammable nature of Phosphorus-l. Wrap a grain
of it, dried on blotting paper, in a piece of brown paper, and
rub it with some hard body; it will set fire to the paper. 2. Put
into the middle of some dry cotton, a piece of phosphorus the
size of a large pin’s head, (previously dried as before); strike it
with a hammer and it will inflame. 3. Upon a piece of glass,
lay a small piece of phosphorus, and place the glass upon a cork
on the surface of hot water in a basin; the phosphorus will
inflame. 4. If a chip of dried phosphorus be brought into con
tact with iodine on a watch glass, inflammation instantly ensues.
5. When oxide of copper is heated with phosphorus in a glass
tube over a spirit lamp, a vivid combustion, attended by a green
flame, is produced.
Preparation of Phosphorised Ether.—Suffer sulphuric ether to
stand for some time over a quantity of phosphorus in a well
stopped phial. The solution is aided by occasional agitation.
Preparation of Phosphorised Oil.—Put one part of phosphorus
with six parts of olive oil into a florence flask, and digest the
mixture in a gentle sand heat for two hours. The solution must
be kept in a dark place.
To make Waves of Fire on the surface of Water.—On a lump of
loaf-sugar, let fall a few drops of phosphorised ether, and place
the sugar in a glass of warm water; a very beautiful appearance
will be instantly exhibited, and the effect is increased, if the
surface of the water is made to undulate, by blowing gently with
the breath.
To make the Face and Hands Luminous, so that, in the dark, they
appear as if on Fire.—Though the phosphorised oil and ether
are luminous in the dark, yet they have not the power to burn
any thing; so that either of them may be rubbed on the face and
hands without danger; and the appearance thereby produced
is most hideously frightful. All the parts of the face that have
been rubbed, appear to be covered with a luminous bluish flame,
and the mouth and eyes appear as black spots. When the
bottles containing phosphorised oil and ether are opened in the
dark, light enough to tell the hour on a watch is evolved.
Brilliant Combustion under Water.—See Oxide of Phosphorus,
page 337.
Combustion of Phosphorus in Oxygen Gas.-See page 222.
Preparation of Phosphorus for the Instantaneous production of
Light.-Put a little phosphorus, dried on blotting paper, into a
small phial; heat the phial by placing it in a ladle full of hot
sand, and turn it round, so that the melted phosphorus may
adhere to its sides. Cork the phial closely, and it is prepared.
Another method of preparing it, consists in mixing one part of
flowers of sulphur, with eight parts of phosphorus. On putting
336 PHOSPHORUS,

a common sulphur match into this fire-bottle, stirring it about

a little, and then withdrawing it into the air, it will take fire.
Sometimes, however, it is found necessary to rub the match,
when withdrawn from the phial, on a cork, before it will inflame.
Matches that take Fire without Erplosion, when rubbed.—The
matches that inflame with explosion always contain chlorate of
otash. Those which take fire quietly are free from that salt.
ince the manufacture of matches with chlorate of potash is
always attended with danger, it is advisable, if possible, to dis
pense with the use of it.
The best mixture for the preparation of a combustible sub
stance, adapted to burn without explosion, when fixed upon
wood, papers, German tinder, &c. is, according to my experi
ments, as follows:—
Gum Arabic, 16 parts by weight.
Phosphorus, 9 parts.
Nitre, free from deliquescent chlorides, 14 parts.
Peroxide of Manganese in very fine powder, 16 parts.
Red lead may be used instead of manganese, if a red colour
is desirable in the inflammable mixture. Gum tragacanth may
be advantageously used instead of gum arabic, since 1 part of
tragacanth makes as thick a mucilage with 100 parts of water,
as 1 part of arabic does with 4 parts of water.
The matches are prepared as follows:—The gum is first made
into a strong mucilage with water in an evaporating basin, with
the aid of heat. The manganese is first added, and then the
phosphorus, previously cut into very small pieces. These must
be immediately enveloped by the gum water. Heat is then
tº: to melt the phosphorus, but this must be kept below
140°F. When the phosphorus melts, the whole is to be well
mixed, and the phosphorus very finely diffused, by means of
thorough stirring with a flat spatula. The nitre is then added,
and the heating and active stirring is continued till the whole is
brought to a uniform paste, and of that degree of consistence
which only experience can indicate as the proper working point.
At this stage of the operation, the particles of phosphorus must
no longer be visible to the naked eye.
When the mixture is thus prepared, the wood matches pre
pared with sulphur, or the paper prepared with nitre, is dipped
into it, and then dried in the air.
As it is known that phosphorus slowly becomes oxidised at
the expense of the oxygen º the air, and produces phosphorous
acid, which greedily absorbs moisture, it is proper to provide
* the consequent spoiling of the matches, by giving them,
when prepared or dried, a very thin coat of copal varnish,
applied by means of a brush. This effectually hinders the spoil
ing of the matches by damp.
 OXIDE OF PHOSPHORUS. 337

The following is a cheaper mixture for the preparation of

matches:—
Phosphorus, 4 parts.
Nitre, 10 parts.
Carpenters’ Glue, 6 parts.
Red Lead, 5 parts.
Smalt, 2 parts.
The glue is to be soaked 24 hours in a small quantity of water,
till it produces a jelly. It is then to be put into a porcelain
mortar placed over a hot plate or sand-bath, the other ingre
dients are to be added, and the whole is to be thoroughly mixed
with a porcelain pestle, at a temperature not higher than 150°
F., till the product is a uniform stiff paste that can be drawn
into threads.
Paper Matches that burn without flame.--The above mixture is”
put on the end of small rolls of paper, prepared by soaking the
paper in a strong solution of nitre, and then drying it.
Paper Matches that burn with flame and produce a scent.—Dip
writing paper into a solution of benzoic acid. Dry it, cut it into
slips, and anoint the ends of the slips with the above-described
combustible mixture. Then roll up the slips into matches.
Matches of Wood to burn with flame, prepared without Sulphur.
—The wood must be very dry, the ends of the matches dipped
first into melted wax, and then into the melted combustible
mixture,
These matches take fire when rubbed upon glass paper.—Dr.
Böttger.
OXIDE OF PHOSPHORUS = P3 O.
1. Drop a piece of phosphorus, half the size of a small
pea, into a deep glass containing a little cold water,
and add a good quantity of hot water,
which will melt the phosphorus but not
inflame it. Then force upon it, from a
bladder with a jet-pipe fitted to it, a
stream of oxygen gas. Upon this, there
will be produced a flame of great vivid
ness below the water. Phosphoric acid
is formed, and dissolves in the water,
but solid red flocks which remain undis
solved, are oxide of phosphorus.
2. Into a glass tube, 3 feet long and , inch wide,
put, at about 6 inches from one end, a piece of phos
phorus of the size of half a pea. Melt the phosphorus
2 F
338 PHOSPHORUS.

by holding a spirit lamp below. Then blow suddenly

and strongly into the tube, applying your mouth to
that end near which the phosphorus is placed, upon
which a large flame is produced, and the whole tube
becomes coated with red oxide of phosphorus. This
experiment is very dangerous to a careless experimenter.
If you suck air from the tube, instead of blowing air
into it, you will be seriously burnt.
HYPOPHOSPHOROUS ACID = P2 O.—It forms salts
called hypophosphites. Unimportant.
Phosphorous ACID = P2 O*.— In the anhydrous
state, a white powder, volatile and combustible. In
the hydrated state, a thick acid liquor, that gives
crystals after slow evaporation. The water cannot be
driven off by heat. Pre- /
pared as follows:– Put º
small sticks of phosphorus “ETI)
into a series of glass tubes - _f
having a narrow opening
at one end, and place these tubes in
a funnel adapted to a bottle. Cover
the whole with a bell glass, to keep
off dust, but not fitting so close as to
cut off atmospheric air. A solution
of hydrated phosphorous acid gra
dually accumulates in the bottle.
This solution, if long exposed thus
to the free access of air, becomes
converted into phosphoric acid.
This acid forms salts called phos
phites, which are not of importance.
PHosphoric ACID. P206 = 892.286. Ҽ
Preparation.—1. By the combustion of phosphorus in
oxygen gas or in air, pp. 222 and 268. 2. By dissolving
phosphorus in nitric acid and evaporating the solution.
3. By digesting at a moderate heat, for several days, a
mixture of 3 parts burnt bones, 2 parts oil of vitriol
and 10 parts water. The mixture is to be often stir
red, and finally is to be strained from sulphate of
 PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHORIC ACID. 339

lime, made alcaline by ammonia, filtered, and evapo

rated to dryness.
Process 1, which can be executed in many ways,
gives anhydrous phosphoric acid; process 2 gives pure
hydrate of phosphoric acid (glacial phosphoric acid);
and process 3, which is that commonly adopted, gives
hydrated phosphoric acid, more or less impure, accord
ing to the skill of the operator.
Illustrative Process.-Phosphoric acid is produced
when phosphorus is burnt in a current of air. A stone
bottle of one gallon capacity, d, provided with a stop

cock at its lower end, f, is filled with water, and con

nected with a large bottle, e, half filled with water, and
an inverted funnel, a, by means of the wide glass tubes,
b and c, and the corks, o, o, o. The diagram shows the
details of the arrangement, but represents the gallon
bottle as too small in proportion to the other figures.
The tube, b, should be # inch wide, and 2% feet long.
The funnel, a, should have a hole drilled in the side,
and an earthen plate should support it below. A piece
of dry phosphorus is placed upon the earthen plate,
near the hole in the funnel, and is inflamed by a hot
iron wire. The stop-cock, f, is opened, and as water
runs out of the bottle, d, its place is supplied by air
340 PHOSPHORUS.

drawn from the rest of the apparatus, and of course in

at the hole in the funnel. Hence a current of air passes
over the burning phosphorus, and the phosphoric acid
which is produced is carried with the air, in the form
of snow, into the tube, b, a portion only of the acid §.
ceeding so far as the flask, e, in the water of which it
dissolves. When the phosphorus first put into the
funnel is burnt, a second piece is put in through the
hole in the funnel, and is inflamed by the support
heated by the combustion of the portion inserted pre
viously. This operation is repeated till the tube, b, is
full of phosphorus, or the jar, d, is exhausted of water.
The phosphoric acid in the tube is afterwards dis
solved in the water of the flask, e, and evaporated in a
capsule of platinum. The occurrence of flashes of fire
from the concentrating solution, indicates the presence
of a small portion of phosphorous acid, which, however,
can be converted into phosphoric acid, by the addition
of a little nitric acid.
The above apparatus is on the same principle as that
described at page 315. The method of producing a
current of gas by means of a fall of water, was invented
by Brunner, who calls the vessel from which the water
falls, an Aspirator.
Properties of Phosphoric Acid.—The anhydrous acid
P” 0°, produced by the combustion of phosphorus in
oxygen gas, is a white light substance, fusible at a red
heat, volatile at a white heat, without odour, deliques
cent, and easily soluble in water.
The hydrated acid, after ignition, forms a solid trans
parent colourless mass resembling ice. It dissolves
readily in water, forming a solution which has a power
ful but pure acid taste, and is not corrosive. When
evaporated, it forms a thick syrupy liquid. If the solid
acid is not wholly soluble, it is not pure. The proper
ties of this hydrated acid before and after fusion are
different.
Phosphoric acid affords remarkable examples of what
are termed Isomeric bodies. There are, namely, three
 WARIOUS KINDS OF PHOSPHATES. 341

compounds possessed of different properties, but all

possessing the same atomic composition of P*O".
There are, consequently, three phosphoric acids, and
three kinds of phosphates.
1. Metaphosphoric Acid. Monobasic Phosphoric Acid
= H2O, P209. Glacial Phosphoric Acid. The ignited
hydrate of phosphoric acid. The phosphates of this
acid have the formula, MO, P205.
2. Pyrophosphoric Acid. Bibasic Phosphoric Acid
= 2 H2O, P” O’.—The phosphates are either neutral
= 2 MO, P2 O 5, or acid = MO, H2O, P2 O 5.
3. Common, or Tribasic Phosphoric Acid = 3 H2O,
P*O".—The hydrate of phosphoric acid previous to
ignition. The phosphates have the formula 3 MO,
P*Oº, but occur in the following varieties:–3 MO,
P2 O 5; 2 MO, H2O, P205; and MO, 2 H2O, P2O5.
PHOSPHATES.–Properties which they possess in
common:—Not volatile, but certain bases can be expel
led from them by ignition. Most of them fusible to a
glassy mass. Decomposable by sulphuric acid. The
phosphates of the alcalies soluble in water; those of
other bases insoluble. All of them are soluble in nitric
acid, from which solution acetate of lead precipitates
phosphate of lead.
Detection of Phosphates.—See page 129.
Metaphosphates.—The solutions are acid. They give,
with solutions of chloride of barium and nitrate of sil
ver, white gelatinous precipitates.
Pyrophosphates.—Phosphates that have been ignited.
The neutral salts are slightly alcaline. The acid salts
have an acid action. The solutions of both give, with
solutions of chloride of barium and nitrate of silver,
white pulverulent precipitates.
Common Phosphates.—Their solutions give, with salts
of lead, a white precipitate, and with nitrate of silver,
a lemon yellow precipitate.
Solutions of 3 MO, P*05 are strongly alcaline.
Solutions of 2 MO, H2O, P” O’ are feebly alcaline.
Solutions of MO, 2 H2O, P205 are acid.
2F2
342 PHOSPHORUS.

PHOSPHURETTED HYDROGEN. H0 P2 = 429.725.

There are two varieties of this compound, alike in
composition, but differing in properties. One of them
is endowed with the faculty of taking fire spontaneously
upon escaping into the atmosphere, the other requires
to be set fire to before it can burn.
Spontaneously inflammable Phosphuretted Hydrogen
is a gaseous compound of phosphorus and hydrogen.
It is colourless; sp. gr. 3.}}#} air. Its characteristic
property is extreme combustibility: it inflames by
merely coming into contact with the atmosphere. A
very brilliant white light attends its inflammation in
oxygen gas. When brought into contact with chlorine,
it detonates with a brilliant green light. It has a very
disagreeable smell, resembling that of putrid fish, and
is poisonous. It combines in a very slight degree with
water. It is not acid. Those flashes of light, called
by the vulgar will-of-the-wisp, and by some ignes-fatui,
which are often seen in church-yards, and other places
where vapours are exhaled from putrifying animal
matter, are produced by the formation and inflamma
tion of this gas.
Preparation.—A small piece of phosphorus is put
into a little retort, which is them filled with a concen

|
K| >
Mile-Rºlliſº
|

trated solution of potash, or a milk of lime and water.

A long tube is joined to the retort, and a very gentle
 PHOSPHURETTED HYDROGEN GAS. 343

heat is applied by a spirit-lamp. The tube-neck of the

retort is made to dip a little way into water contained
in a capsule, or a little below the surface of the water
of a pneumatic trough. When the gas passes over,
bubble by bubble, as it rises in the air, it explodes with
a small flame, producing elegant wreaths or rings of
thick white smoke, which, if the air be tranquil, gra
dually float away, enlarging in diameter as they go up
higher and higher. If a small glass filled with oxygen
gas is held over the mouth of the retort, the bubbles, as
they rise and explode in the oxygen gas, produce a
light of extraordinary brilliancy.
Experimenting with this gas is not free from danger. Some
times explosions occur in the retort which smash it to pieces.
In particular, the exploding of the gas in oxygen is subject to
accident, and ought never to be exhibited without putting a wire
safe round the glass containing the oxygen gas. But if the cylin
ders of oxygen gas contain not above 3 or 4 cubic inches of gas;
if the current of phosphuretted hydrogen gas is slow, and each
bubble explodes as it rises into the oxygen, there is no danger.
This only occurs when a large quantity of the gas explodes at once.
To prevent explosions in the retort, you must fill it entirely,
tube and all, with the milk of lime, or you may use a gas bottle.
After putting in the materials, a match, with a good supply of
brimstone upon it, may be burnt in the upper part of the flask
to absorb the free oxygen, after which there is very little danger.
The flask should be nearly filled with liquor, and the heat be
gentle and regular. Young students may satisfy themselves
with the following modified experiment:—
A Fount AIN OF FIRE–ForMED BY PHOSPHURETTED HYDRO
GEN GAs.-Put 15 grains of finely granulated zinc, and 6 grains
of phosphorus, cut into small pieces under water, into a conical
glass. Mix, in another glass, a drachm by measure of
sulphuric acid, with two drachms of water. Now,
take the two glasses into a dark room, and there
pour the diluted acid over the zinc and phosphorus in
the other glass: in a short time phosphuretted hydro
en gas will be produced, and beautiful jets of bluish
É. will dart from all parts of the surface of the
liquid, the mixture will be quite luminous, and a quan
tity of beautiful luminous smoke will rise in a column
from the glass. A Fountain of Fire is a very apt name
for the appearance that is produced. The experiment is very
easily performed, and is a very beautiful one.
344 CHLORINE.

CURIOUS PROPERTY OF PHosphurET of LIME.-Process 1.

Drop a small piece of phosphuret of lime into a wine glass of
water: in a short time bubbles of gas will be produced,
which, rising to the surface of the water, will take fire
and explode. After each explosion, a beautiful column
of white smoke will ascend from the glass. If the phos
phuret of lime be not fresh made, it may be proper to
warm the water it is added to. If the residue of the phos
phuret of lime be dried, and have muriatic acid poured
upon it, it will inflame.
Process 2. Put into a glass, one part of chlorate of pot
ash, and two parts of phosphuret of lime, in pieces about
the size of peas (not in powder), or instead of the phos
phuret of lime, use a few small pieces of phosphorus the
size of canary seeds. Fill the glass with water, and put
into it a tube funnel that will reach to the bottom. Pour
through this, six or eight parts of strong sulphuric acid,
upon which flashes of fire dart from the surface of the
fluid, and the bottom of the vessel is illuminated by a beautiful
green light.

7. CHLOIRINE. Cl– 221.325. Cl2 = 442.65.

Occurrence.—See page 16.
Properties.—Chlorine forms a transparent gas of a
yellowish green colour. Its sp. gr. is 2:47, air being
1:00, or 221:325, oxygen gas being 100'000. Its atomic
volume is 1. See page 174. It is reducible by pressure
to the state of a dark yellow oily liquid, of sp. gr. 1:33.
Chlorine gas has a suffocating odour, and if respired
pure, it produces immediate death. It is capable of sup
porting the combustion of a variety of substances; many
even inflame in it spontaneously. With a small quantity
of water, it forms yellow crystals; with a large quantity,
it produces a solution commonly called liquid chlorine;
this solution has a choking odour like the gas, and
possesses the property of bleaching all vegetable colours,
which property is also possessed by the gas when mixed
with vapour of water, but not otherwise. The solution
does not absorb a very large quantity of chlorine, nor
does it remain long without undergoing decomposition.
Chlorine destroys the noxious fetid effluvia that are
produced by the corruption of vegetable and animal
 PREPARATION OF CHLORINE GAS. 345

bodies. It also destroys the miasma that occasion

particular diseases. Hence its use in checking the
spread of fever, cholera, &c.
Chlorine combines with oxygen in several different
proportions. With oxygen and hydrogen, it forms
chloric acid; with oxygen and metals, it forms the salts
termed chlorates; with hydrogen, it forms muriatic
acid; with the metals, it forms the important com
pounds or salts termed chlorides, an example of which
is afforded by common salt, a compound of chlorine and
sodium; with sulphur, nitrogen, carbon, and other ele
ments, it produces a great variety of chlorides and
more complex compounds.
Muriatic acid is a true chloride, differing from the
chlorides of metals only in having an equivalent of
hydrogen instead of an equivalent of a metal. Muriate
of ammonia is also a true chloride, containing hydrogen
and nitrogen jointly in place of a metal. The German
chemists call it chloride of ammonium, and suppose the
hydrogen and nitrogen to form a metal which they call
ammonium. This supposed metal has never, however,
loeen obtained in a separate state.
Preparation of Chlorine Gas.-Put into a glass flask
or gas bottle, three or four ounces of muriatic acid of
500° of strength, and add an
ounce of finely pulverised peroxide
of manganese, previously warmed
to make it pour easily through a
dry funnel. Shake the flask as the
powder is poured in, to make it
mix well with the liquid. Fit a
gas tube to the neck of the flask,
and expose the mixture to a gentle
and regular heat, applied by
means of a sand-bath or lamp. .
The gas is disengaged pretty ra
pidly, when acid of the above
strength is employed: By dilut
ing the acid with water, the current of gas is made to
pass off slower. On the contrary, when sulphuric acid
346 - CHLORINE,

is added to the mixture, it strengthens the muriatic acid,

and renders the disengagement of gas more rapid.
Theory.—MnO2+2H2Cl2=MnCl2+2 H2O+C12.
Eaglanation.—One atom of manganese takes 2 atoms
of chlorine to produce chloride of manganese ; but in
the state of peroxide of manganese it is combined with
2 atoms of oxygen. This quantity of oxygen requires
4 atoms of hydrogen to convert it into water. Hence
two equivalents of muriatic acid are necessary. Of
the chlorine belonging to this quantity of acid, the
half is required for combination with the manganese,
and the other half is set free. What remains in the
retort is a solution of chloride of manganese containing
chloride of iron, and chloride of calcium, mixed with
sand, heavy spar, and other impurities, derived from
the manganese. If the manganese contains much car
bonate of lime, it should be first washed with diluted
muriatic acid of 50°, otherwise it effervesces in the gas
bottle, and gives off carbonic acid, which is inconvenient.
The following apparatus for the preparation of chlo
rine is copied from Professor Mitscherlich’s Lehrbuch.
Chlorine gas, being absorbable by about half its
-
 PREPARATION OF CHLORINE GAS. 347

volume of cold water, must be received in bottles filled

with, and inverted in, warm water, of a temperature
made by mixing two parts of cold with one of boiling
water. The bottles must have wide necks, and be
provided with accurately ground stoppers, which must
be introduced under water while the bottles remain
full of gas, and no water must be left in the bottle
with the gas. See figure B, page 209. Chlorine gas
cannot be collected over mercury, because it com
bines with that metal at the ordinary temperature of
the air; but as it is more than twice as heavy as com
mon air, it may be collected in dry vessels by the
method of displacement described at page 313. The
peculiar colour of this gas enables one to see when the
bottles are full. A solution of common salt absorbs
chlorine gas less freely than pure water does.
In eaſperiments with this gas, great care should be taken
that it do not escape in any considerable quantity into the
apartment, as its action on the lungs is eatremely injurious.
Preparation of Dry Chlorine Gas—As chlorine gas
is saturated with moisture, when it issues from the
gas bottle, it may, when required dry, be prepared
with an apparatus such as the following:—The gas is
348 CHLORINE.

produced in the flask, a, it deposits a portion of its

water in the receiver, b, and is deprived of the remain
der by lumps of fused chloride of calcium contained in
the tube, c. Instead of the straight tube c, such tubes
as I have described at page 234 may be used for this
purpose.
Liquid Chlorine, or Solution of Chlorine.—Pass a slow
current of chlorine gas into cold water till it ceases to
be absorbed. One measure of water absorbs about two
measures of the gas at mean temperature. The water
must be previously boiled to free it from air. During
the saturation, the water may be contained in a globular
receiver provided with a very long neck, placed almost
horizontally, or in a retort placed
in an inverted position, as shown in
the figure. The gas-delivering tube
must reach into the body of the re
`sſ)
tort. The saturated solution should be kept in small
opaque bottles, quite filled, and closely stopped. Stone
ware bottles may be used. The solution decomposes
when exposed to light. In bright sunshine it disen
gages oxygen gas, and is converted into muriatic acid.
Cl2 + H2O = H2Cl2 + O.
Hydrate of Chlorine. Cl2 + 10 H2O.-The satu
rated solution of chlorine, cooled below 32° F., deposits
this compound in crystals. If a bent glass tube, page
304, is nearly filled with these crystals, and then closed
hermetically, and heated to 100°F., the crysta's melt
and form two liquids; the under one is anhydrous liquid
chlorine, the upper one is aqueous solution of chlorine,
and above all is highly compressed chlorine gas. If the
tube is then cooled below 32°F., the hydrate of chlorine
is again formed.
ExPERIMENTS witH CHLoRINE GAs.
Particular care must be taken not to breathe the chlorine gas, nor
the vapours produced in the experiments, such as chloride of arsenic,
&c., It would be highly dangerous to make these caperiments in a
small unventilated apartment.
All the experiments in which metals are to be combined with
chlorine by spontaneous combustion, succeed best when the gas
 EXPERIMENTS WITH CHLORINE GAS. 349

is dried by chloride of calcium, and collected by displacement in

$º. bottles provided with stoppers.
00 cubic inches are suitable.
Bottles of the capacity of

1. Plunge a lighted taper into a jar of chlorine gas; it begins

to burn with a dull red flame, and a copious emission of dense
fumes; but the flame is soon extinguished.
2. Add a few drops of water to a quantity of chlorine gas
contained in a bottle, and suspend some coloured flowers in the
midst of the moistened gas. In a short time, the flowers will be
deprived of their colours. This bleaching property is not pos
sessed by dry chlorine gas. In all probability, the effect pro
duced in this experiment is owing to the formation of peroxide
of hydrogen.
3. Writing done on paper with common ink is effaced when
the paper is held in moistened chlorine gas.
4. A slip of paper moistened with very concentrated liquid
ammonia, inflames spontaneously in chlorine gas. -

5. Introduce a grain of phosphorus, well dried on bibulous

paper, and divided into small pieces, into a bottle of chlorine gas,
suspending it in the iron spoon, page 219. It immediately
inflames spontaneously, and burns with a pale green flame, pro
ducing chloride of phosphorus.
6. # a folded slip of filtering paper, moistened with spirits of
turpentine, be immersed in a jar of chlorine gas, it inflames
immediately, with evolution of much smoke.
7. Partly fill a jar with sulphuretted hydrogen gas over water:
pass a little chlorine gas into it. Sulphur will be deposited, and
the water will rise in the jar, muriatic acid being formed.
8. A bit of potassium passed up into chlorine gas contained in
a jar over water, burns with flame.
9. Camphor, caoutchouc, ether, &c., inflamed and put into
chlorine gas, continue to burn therein.
10. A jet of chlorine gas burns in an atmosphere of hydrogen
gas, or coal gas.
11. If equal volumes of chlorine gas and hydrogen gas are
mixed and kindled by flame, an explosion is produced. The
product is muriatic acid. See page 239.
12. Equal volumes of chlorine gas and hydrogen gas mixed in
a clear colourless glass bottle, and exposed to bright sunshine,
combine, with violent explosion, producing muriatic acid. The
action is so rapid, that if the bottle is suddenly thrown up into
the air, the explosion occurs before the bottle falls to the ground.
Consequently, it is necessary to be careful how you mix these
ases in a lighted laboratory. All danger is avoided in the fol
f. experiment:—
13. Into a japanned cylinder of plate iron, of the capacity of
12 cubic inches, put equal measures of hydrogen gas and chlorine
gas. When the cylinder is full of gas, set it, mouth upwards,
2G
350 CHILORINE.

upon a table, keeping the mouth closed by the palm of the left
hand. Take in the right hand a bent copper wire, having the
lower end loosely covered with a leaf of Dutch gold. Remove
your left hand, and dip the Dutch gold into the mixed gases.
A loud, but not dangerous, explosion takes place immediately.
14. Mix one volume of olefiant gas with two volumes of chlorine
gas, and inflame the mixture. It burns quickly, with a lurid
flame, producing muriatic acid and a deposition of charcoal.
15. Into a similar mixture contained in a long and wide glass
cylinder, dip a º wire loosely enveloped with Dutch gold,
as in experiment 13. A very beautiful spontaneous combustion
occurs, and vapours of muriatic acid, mixed with charcoal, pro
duce thick black clouds that settle on the sides of the vessel.
16. Melt a little sulphur in the deflagrating spoon, and put
it while liquid into a bottle of chlorine gas. It will immediately
take fire, and burn rapidly.
17. Heat a little mercury in a deflagrating spoon, and imme
diately introduce it into a bottle of chlorine gas. It immediately
takes fire, and burns with a reddish flame, producing a chloride
of mercury.
18. If mercury is boiled in a small retort, the neck of which
is passed into a vessel containing chlorine gas, the vapour of
mercury, issuing from the retort, will burn in the atmosphere
of chlorine. The vapour may be kindled by applying a bit of
phosphorus on a wire.
19. Throw powdered antimony into a long tube filled with
chlorine gas, and held mouth upwards. It will produce a
shower of burning stars of a yellow light.
20. Powdered metallic arsenic, employed in like manner,
exhibits white stars.
21. º leaf introduced into chlorine gas inflames imme
diately. Dutch gold burns in the same manner.
22. Many different metals, in the state of spiral-formed wires,
page 223, can be burnt in dry chlorine gas, if the bottom of the
spiral is loosely enveloped in a leaf of Dutch gold, for the pur
pose of commencing the combustion.
23. Illustration of the Art of Bleaching.—Put into a phial of
liquid chlorine, strips of linen or cotton cloth, dyed of different
colours. The colours will be quickly discharged.
24. A solution of chlorine discharges the blue colour of the
solution of sulphate of indigo.
25. Litmus paper is bleached by solution of chlorine.
26. Bleaching Power of Chloride of Lime.—Make a clear solu
tion of chloride of lime, or bleaching powder, and immerse
a strip of pink-coloured paper in it. #h. paper will come out
white, Linen cloth stained by fruit or wine, is purified from the
stains by the same solution.
27. Extemporaneous Formation of a Bleaching Liquid.-Add a
 OHLORIC ACID. 351

few grains of chlorate of potash to a few septems of muriatic or

sulphuric acid diluted with half a test glassful of water. The
liquid thus formed will possess the bleaching property of that
described in the preceding paragraph. This experiment must
not be made with large quantities of materials, because
an explosion might occur.
28. Test for Chlorine.—Put a little chlorine water into
a test glass, and add a few drops of a solution of nitrate
of silver. A white curdy precipitate is formed, which is
chloride of silver. See page 126.
COMPOUNDS OF CHLORINE AND OxYGEN.
Hypochlorous Acid C12O. Protoxide of Chlorine.
Chlorous Acid C12O4. Peroxide of Chlorine.
Chloric Acid Cl2O 5.
Perchloric Acid C12O7.
Cl2O: Supposed to be contained in bleaching powder.
It can also be isolated. A yellow explosive gas.
C1° 04: Produced by the action of concentrated acids
on chlorate of potash. A deep red liquor, or a greenish
yellow gas, very explosive, and dangerous to experi
ment upon. The safest experiment is that pointed out
by Böttger:-Put into a tall test glass, 4 oz.
of powdered chlorate of potash. Add 2 or 3
ounces of muriatic acid of sp. gr. 1:12, or of 400°
or 500°. The mixture immediately acquires a
deep yellow colour, and in a few minutes a brisk
disengagement of gas takes place. Throw in 6
or 8 pieces of phosphorus as large as pins'
heads, which will burn brilliantly under the *
liquid.—Another safe experiment is to mix a few grains
of powdered chlorate of potash with a few drops of con
centrated sulphuric acid, in a test tube. Chlorous acid
will appear in yellowish green vapours. A bit of phos
phorus, or a ball of sponge or tow dipped in ether,
affixed to one end of a long wire bent in the middle at
a right angle, may then be dipped into the vapour to
cause an explosion to occur.
C12O5 and C12O7 are hypothetical; but both com
ounds can be procured in combination with water.
C12O5 + H2O, is the model of the salts called chlo
rates, of which the principle one is chlorate of potash
352 - CHLORINE.

KO + C12O5.—C12O7 -- H2O is the model of the

perchlorates. Other compounds of chlorine and oxygen
are supposed to exist, but they are not very well known,
and few of them can be examined by young chemists
without danger. See Gregory's Outlines of Chemistry,
page 75.
Properties of the Chlorates.—See page 126. They
deflagrate when heated on charcoal. When ignited,
they give off oxygen gas, and are converted into metallic
chlorides. See page 200. They are all soluble in
water, and give no precipitate with a solution of nitrate
of silver; but after ignition, by which they are con
verted into chlorides, they do give a precipitate.
MURIATIC ACID. H2Cl2 = 4.55:13.
Synon.—Hydrochloric Acid. Spirit of Salt.
Properties.—A colourless gas, sp. gr. 4:3### air, or
####### oxygen gas. Its atomic volume is #. See
page 176. Fumes in moist air; taste sour and corro
sive; odour pungent and peculiar; extinguishes flame;
is destructive of animal life; reddens litmus; is incom
bustible: capable of reduction to the liquid state by
cold and pressure; absorbed in large quantity by water,
i.e., 1 volume of water will absorb nearly 500 volumes
of muriatic acid gas, producing a liquid acid of the
specific gravity of about 1.2. This solution, when pure,
is colourless, but owing to impurities, the muriatic acid
of commerce has usually a straw colour. The usual
.impurities are iron, chlorine, nitrous gas, organic mat
ters, sulphuric acid, and sulphurous acid. Muriatic
acid is always procured from common salt, and hence
3.
has been called spirit salt. It is an acid that is much
used in the arts and chemical laboratories.
Preparation of Muriatic Acid Gas.-The source of
muriatic acid, or, strictly speaking, the source of its
chlorine, is common kitchen salt (sea salt, rock salt,
chloride of sodium). This substance, NaCl2, contains
39.656 per cent. of sodium, and 60.344 per cent. of
chlorine. It is easily decomposed by oil of vitriol, and
the products of the decomposition are as follow:—
NaCl2 + H2O, SO3 = NaO, SO3 + H2 Cle.
 MURIATIC ACID GAS. 353

That is to say, 1 equivalent of chloride of sodium, and

1 equivalent of hydrate of sulphuric acid, produce 1
equivalent of sulphate of soda and 1 equivalent of
muriatic acid, which is disengaged in the state of gas.
Put 6 parts by weight of pure salt into a gas bottle,
page 228, and add a mixture containing 10 parts of oil
of vitriol and 4 parts of water, previously mixed and
cooled. Adapt the gas-leading tube by means of a
cork, and apply a gentle heat, upon which the muriatic
acid gas will be given off. This gas, being soluble in
water, must be collected over mercury, or by the method
of displacement, as described at page 313.
When the gas is required pure and dry, it may be
passed through concentrated sulphuric acid contained
in a V-tube, and afterwards through a tube filled with
lumps of pumice stone, moistened with concentrated
sulphuric acid.
Experiments with Muriatic Acid Gas.-1. Fill a long
tube with muriatic acid gas. Insert the open end of
it into a basin of water coloured blue by litmus. The
water will rush up into the tube, absorbing the whole
of the gas, and acquiring a red colour from the pre
sence of the dissolved acid.
2. Perform the same experiment by means of the
fountain bottle described at page 300, experiment 2.
3. Bring a glass containing ammonia gas mouth to
mouth with a glass containing muriatic acid gas.
White fumes will appear, and settle as
a powder on the interior of the glasses.
This is sal ammoniac. If a little of it
is put into a wine glass with lime, it dis
charges ammonia gas, perceived by the
smell. If a little is treated with oil of
vitriol, it disengages muriatic acid gas.
If any two vessels disengaging ammonia
and muriatic acid are brought near to
each other, the gases combine as repre
sented in the cut, and produce a white smoke of muriate
of ammonia.
4. An inflamed taper is extinguished by this gas.
2G2
354 CHLORINE.

5. A bit of ice held in muriatic acid gas very soon

melts. The ice may be suspended in a tall test glass
above a mixture of salt and sulphuric acid.
6. The production of muriatic acid gas, by the com
bination of chlorine gas with hydrogen gas, has been
already described, page 349, exp. 11, 12, 13.
7. When muriatic acid gas is exposed to air, it pro
duces white fumes.

Preparation of Solution of Muriatic Acid.—This con

sists in passing a slow current of the gas into cold water,

contained in a flask. The annexed figure shows the

apparatus recommended by Mitscherlich to be used for
this process, when large quantities are required. a. is
a large glass ballon placed in a sand-bath; b, a stopper
of serpentine, turned to fit the neck of the ballon; g,
a receiver with a little water to intercept impurities;
h, the water that is to absorb the gas. The tubes are
fastened into the stopper by a lute of clay and linseed
oil, and plaster of paris is applied over the joint to close
 PREPARATION OF MURIATIC ACID. 355

all apertures. The acid is poured in portions through

the funnel, d, upon the heated salt. No heat is applied
while the gas goes over without it. The bottle, h, is
cooled externally by ice-cold water, because the con
densation of the gas produces great heat. The gas
delivering tube is dipped but a very little way, say *
inch, into the water, because the solution of muriatic
acid sinks to the bottom as it is produced. The bottle,
h, should be changed whenever the gas appears to rise
through the water unabsorbed. Two parts of water by
measure produce three parts of saturated solution of
acid.
Professor Gregory has recently altered this appa
ratus in so far, that he dispenses with the acid funnel
and the intermediate vessel, and uses a tube of the form
shown by fig, b, in page 205, but without the bend at
the end, and with a bulb near the top of the descending
branch, which then acts as a safety tube. The quantity
of water put into the bottle, h, is equal to the weight of
the salt used. The bottle, h, is kept in a bath of cold
water. This process, with pure salt, and the mixture
indicated at page 353, produces pure muriatic acid of
sp. gr. 1-14 to 1:15 (about 500°), by a single operation.
—Outlines of Chemistry, page 72. -

To Purify Commercial Muriatic Acid. Dilute it to

sp. gr. 1:11, or to 350°, add a little chloride of tin in
crystals, or a few pieces of granulated tin, and distil
the acid from a retort into a receiver.—Dr. Clark.
See pages 287 and 289. The first and last portions
that distil over are least pure. The intermediate por
tion is the purest. Concentrated acid cannot be pre
pared in this manner; but acid thus purified may be
strengthened by the addition of pure muriatic acid gas.
For very small quantities, the tube apparatus described
at page 302, may be used.
356 CHLORINE.

TABLE OF MIURIATIC ACID.

H2Cl2. Test Atom 455:13 Grains. Temperature 62°F.

Specific Ratio of Grains of Atoms of Septems

Gravity H2Cl2 H2Cl2 H2Cl2 containing
of the in in 1000 in 1000 1 atom of
Acid. 1:00000. Septems. Septems. H2Cl2.

1.2109 '4243 3596-5 7.9021 126-55

1-2 •40777 3425-3 7:5259 || 132.87
1-1891 '38276 3185.9 700 142-86
1-1662 •334.52 2730.8 6:00 166-67
1-1408 •28497 2275-6 5:00 200 00
1-1148 •2333 1820-5 4.00 250-00
1.094 •19 1455-0 3 1969 312-30
1.0878 •1793 1365.4 3:00 333-33
1.0599 12269 910-26 2.00 500-00
1.031 •0631 455-13 1:00 1000-0
1-0032 •00648 45-513 0.10 10000
1-0003 •00066 4-5513 0.01 100000

The strongest muriatic acid that can be prepared at

the temperature of 62°F., has the strength of nearly
800°. Its formula is H2Cl2 + 5, H2O. There is
a point of concentration at which this acid distils with
out alteration of strength. Professor Clark found its
sp. gr. to be 1-110. The chemical strength is about
350°. Weaker acids give off water when boiled, and
stronger acids give off muriatic acid gas. Extremely
little condensation is effected by diluting muriatic acid
with water. The most useful strengths of muriatic
acid for laboratory use are, 100° for testing; 200° for
preparing gases without heat, H°S, &c.; and 500° for
preparing chlorine, dissolving metals, &c. Concen
trated acid is only required for special experiments,
and it cannot be preserved without loss.
TESTING OF MURIATIC ACID.
1. By 4mmonia.-The process is exactly the same
 TESTING OF MURIATIC ACID. 357

as that for testing nitric acid by ammonia, as described

at page 291, except that 10 septems of acid may be
taken for trial, instead of 5 septems. As the greatest
strength of muriatic acid at 62°F. is below 800°, the
greatest quantity of ammonia of 100° which can be
required to saturate 10 septems of acid, will be under
80 septems.
2. Preparation of Muriatic Acid of 100°, by means of
Carbonate of Soda.-The process is exactly the same
as that for the preparation of sulphuric acid of 100°.
See page 320.
3. Testing of Muriatic Acid by means of a solution of
Nitrate of Silver.—1. Prepare a solution of pure nitrate
of silver of 10° of strength, in the manner directed
under that article.—2. Dilute the muriatic acid that is
to be examined, to 10 times its volume, in the manner
directed at page 292.-3. Pre
pare the following apparatus:
a, is a cylinder containing a
spirit lamp; b, a perforated
iron top; c, a porcelain water
bath containing a little hot
water; d, a bottle with an
accurately fitted stopper, and
of the capacity of 250 septems
(4 fluid ounces).-4. Put into
the bottle, d, 100 septems of
water, 12 drops of solution of
litmus, and 10 septems of the
tenfold diluted muriatic acid.
Close the bottle with its stop
per, after first dipping the
latter into pure water.—5. Fill
the centigrade test tube, fig.
A, page 265, with the solution of nitrate of silver of 10°,
adjusting the measure with accuracy, as pointed out at
page 291,-6. Then pour the nitrate of silver from the
test tube into the bottle, d, until it ceases to produce a
precipitate of chloride of silver. The solution in the
bottle, d, must be kept pretty hot. After each addition
358 CHLORINE.

of nitrate of silver, the bottle is to be stoppered, put

into a cylindrical case of brown paper, and to be vigor
ously shaken, the bottle being held firmly in the right
hand, with one finger fixed on the stopper. This agi
tation causes the chloride of silver to coagulate and
precipitate, leaving a clear liquor, which can be tested
by a single drop of nitrate of silver. If a cloudiness
appears, more nitrate of silver is to be added, and the
whole is to be heated and again shaken. This is to be
continued until the nitrate of silver ceases to cause a
precipitate to be formed.—7. The accuracy of the
analysis may be checked, by repeating the operations
described in 4, 5, 6. RESULT:—The number of septems
of nitrate of silver required to precipitate 10 septems
of the diluted muriatic acid, multiplied by 10, gives the
strength of the undiluted muriatic acid, expressed in
degrees.
CHLORIDES.--Some metals dissolve in muriatic acid
under disengagement of hydrogen gas; for example,
zinc and iron. See page 230. In such cases the metal
merely replaces the hydrogen. Zn + H2 Cl* = H”
+ Zn Cl”. Metallic oxides also produce chlorides.
Thus, hydrate of potash produces chloride of potassium.
KO, H2O + H2Cl2 = K Cl2 + 2 H2O. Chlorides are
also produced by the direct combination of metals with
chlorine. See page 350. The salts called carbonates
can also be transformed by muriatic acid into chlorides.
Thus, chalk is converted into chloride of calcium,
CaO, CO2 + H2C12 = CaCl2 + H2O + CO2. In this
case the carbonic acid is discharged as gas. Page 48.
Dry muriatic acid gas and dry chlorine gas are
sometimes used by the analytical chemist to decom
pose metallic oxides, and convert them into chlorides,
or to separate metals from one another, by producing
chlorides of different degrees of volatility. The follow
ing apparatus is employed. The gas is produced in the
flask, a, and is dried in the tubes, c and d. The metals
to be converted into chlorides are put into the bulb e,
and heated by the lamp placed below. The gas then
 CHLORIDE OF SULPHUR. 359

being driven over, the oxides or metals are converted

into chlorides, and the volatile chloride is driven into

the flask, k, while the non-volatile chloride remains in

the bulb tube, e. When oxygen is set free, it passes
off by the open tube in k.
Detection of Chlorides.—See page 126. The metallic
chlorides are all soluble in water, except chloride of
silver, and the protochlorides of copper, mercury, gold,
and platinum. Chloride of lead is only soluble in a
large quantity of water.
CHLORIDE OF NITROGEN.—Formed when chlorine
gas is passed into a solution of sal ammoniac. A yel
low oily liquid, violently explosive. Dulong and Davy
were dangerously wounded by accidents attending its
examination.
CHLORIDE OF SULPHUR.—A current of dry chlorine
gas is prepared by means of the apparatus figured at
360 BROMINE.

page 347, and is passed into the retort, c, depicted in

this cut, by means of the tube, n. In the retort, c, a
quantity of sulphur is kept boiling by a lamp placed
below. The tube, m, must be long enough nearly to
touch the melted sulphur. The dry chlorine combines
with the gaseous sulphur, and produces chloride of
sulphur, which passes into the receiver, which must be
cooled externally. The tube, l, is led into a chimney,
or out of a window, to carry off the superfluous gases.
Chloride of sulphur is a reddish yellow liquid of very
unpleasant odour, fuming, volatile, heavier than water,
by which it is decomposed. º

NITRO-MURIATIC ACID.—Aqua Regia.-This is a

mixture of nitric acid and muriatic acid, usually
employed to dissolve gold and platinum, to convert
sulphur into sulphuric acid, and to decompose metallic
sulphurets. The relative proportions of the two acids
differ according to the object to be accomplished. In
general, there should be an excess of muriatic acid.
The action exercised by nitromuriatic acid on metal is
as follows:–H2Cl2 + N2 0.5 + M = MCl2 + H2O
+ N2O4. The nitrous acid is discharged in the state
of gas. The acids should be newly mixed for every
operation.

8. BROMINE. Br = 489-153. Br2 = 978-306.

Occurrence.—In sea water, in certain saline springs,
in the water of the Dead Sea. Rare.
Properties.—At the ordinary temperature of the
atmosphere, bromine forms a dark reddish brown
liquid, which is heavier than water. Its sp. gr. is 2.99.
It possesses a penetrating odour, which peculiarly and
painfully affects the temples, and is thus distinguished
from chlorine, which acts on the throat, and from
iodine, which affects the nose. It boils at a low tem
perature, 11.7°F., and produces a reddish brown gas,
the sp. gr. of which is ### air, or ###### oxygen gas.
Its atomic volume is 1. See page 174. At —-igº F. it
freezes to a crystalline lead-grey semi-metallic mass.
 IODINE. 361

With a small quantity of water, it forms crystals;

with a large quantity, it gives a hyacinth-red solution.
It colours the skin yellow, and destroys it. It bleaches
vegetable colours, and forms with other elements, a
series of compounds which much resemble those formed
by chlorine.
Bromine is usually preserved in glass bottles with a
little water above it. The bottle should be well stopped
and kept in a dark place. The water becomes satu
rated with bromine, and forms a hydrate that very
easily crystallizes at a low temperature. When it
crystallizes, it expands considerably. Hence the bottle
should never be kept full of liquid, as it is in danger of
bursting the first cold night that occurs.
BROMIC ACID. Br” 0°-Hypothetical.
HYDRATE OF BROMIC ACID. H2O, Br2O5.—The
model of the salts called bromates, which very closely
resemble the chlorates, but they give a precipitate
with solutions of silver.
HYDROBROMIC ACID. H*Br”. – Nearly related in
its properties to muriatic acid. A colourless acid gas,
which dissolves in water, producing liquid hydrobromic
acid.
BROMIDES.–Salts formed with metals on the model
of hydrobromic acid. Thus bromide of potassium is
KBr”. Solutions of bromides give a white precipitate
with a solution of nitrate of silver. White starched
cotton dipped into a solution containing a bromide
acidified by muriatic acid, becomes yellow.

9. IODINE. I = 78975. I2 = 1579.5.

Occurrence.—See page 19. It is manufactured from
particular kinds of kelp.
Properties.—Iodine, at common temperatures, forms
soft pulverulent black semi-metallic crystals, which
resemble plumbago. It is heavier than water. Sp. gr.
4.948. Its odour is something like that of chlorine, but
weaker, and distinguished by the difference noted under
Bromine. It fuses at a temperature a little above that
2H
362 IODINE.

of boiling water, 222°F.; and when strongly heated,

volatilises in the form of a splendid violet-coloured
gas. The sp. gr. of the gas is #:}}} air, or ###:#
oxygen gas. Page 176. Its taste is sharp and acrid; it
is poisonous; it bleaches vegetable colours slightly; it
colours the skin yellow, and makes paper brown, but
the colours are fugacious. It is slightly soluble in
water, 1 lb. of which dissolves 1 grain of Iodine. The
solution has a yellow colour, and the peculiar sea-side
odour of iodine. It is readily soluble in alcohol and
ether, giving brown solutions. It gives violet-coloured
solutions with sulphuret of carbon and mineral naptha.
It forms a blue compound with starch.
The compounds which iodine forms with other ele
ments, bear a great resemblance to the compounds
produced by chlorine.
Test for Iodine.—Starch that has been boiled in water,
when put in contact with free iodine, loses its white
colour, and becomes blue. Iodine in combination does
not effect this change. There are different ways of
applying the test. 1). Mix a little starch with the
liquid supposed to contain iodine, and then add a few
drops of oil of vitriol, or, what is better, a very little
chlorine. The latter is done by inclining over the mix
ture a bottle that contains chlorine water. In such a
bottle, there is always a stratum of heavy chlorine gas
floating above the liquor, and if the bottle is inclined, a
portion of the gas flows out. This is preferable to
adding the solution of chlorine. 2). Thick cotton thread
is passed through a paste of starch prepared with hot
water. It is dried, the superfluous starch is gently
washed off in lue warm water, and the cotton is again
dried. This thread, which is perfectly white in colour,
becomes blue when dipped into a solution that contains
an. extremely minute quantity of any compound of
iodine; the solution being previously mixed with a few
drops of nitric or muriatic acid.
. Toform beautiful Crystals of Iodine.—Dissolve iodine
in bºiling alcohol, and let the solution cool. Splendid
crystals, an inch and a half long, are produced in a
 VIOLET WAPOUR OF IODINE. 363

few minutes. Fine crystals can also be produced by a

slow sublimation. See page 49. The sublimation can
be effected between two watch glasses.
Combustion of Potassium in Iodine.—Take a bent
glass tube, which is to be placed in a horizontal position.
Put a little iodine at the bottom,
and a bit of potassium in the
middle of the tube. Wolatilise
the iodine by heat, and when the
tube is full of its beautiful vapour,
e-n) -

heat the potassium by holding a

lamp below it. The metal will then burn with a violet
light in an atmosphere of iodine. The product is iodide
of potassium.
Production of a Gas possessing a splendid Violet
Colour.—Put a little iodine into a small flask, or a test

<=< D
tube, and draw out the mouth of the vessel till the
opening is extremely small. Then expose the flask to
heat, upon which the iodine will rise in vapour, and, if
in sufficient quantity, will expel the atmospheric air
through the capillary opening, and fill the whole vessel,
exhibiting a very beautiful appearance. By means of
a blow-pipe, the mouth of the vessel may now be sealed.
When it cools, the violet vapour disappears, and the
iodine is seen on the sides of the ves
sel in little crystals; but whenever
the apparatus thus prepared is ex
posed to heat, the violet gas is again
produced. A temporary apparatus
may be prepared by means of a white
glass ballon, which can be closed by
a good cork, traversed by a very nar
row glass tube, the outer end of
which can be stopped at the proper
moment by a little wax or soft ce
ment.
364 IODINE.

IODIC ACID. I2O 5.

HYDRATE of IoDIC ACID. H2O, I2O 5.

Preparation.—Heat 1 part of iodine with 4 parts of

the most concentrated nitric acid. The heat must be
gentle, to prevent a loss of iodine. The iodic acid forms
small white grains. Evaporate these with the excess
of nitric acid to dryness, and expose the product to the
air at 60° F. until it has deliquesced. Remove the
preparation to a warmer and drier place, upon which
fine crystals of anhydrous iodic acid will be formed.
The anhydrous acid I* O' crystallizes in six-sided
tables. White, semi-transparent, heavier than oil of
vitriol, reddens litmus, Very soluble in water, forming
the hydrate H2O, I* O’. With metallic oxides, it
forms the salts called IoDATEs.
Properties of Todates.—A class of compounds that
nearly resemble the Chlorates. Decomposed by heat,
sometimes producing oxygen and Iodides, as KO, I* O'
= KI* + O." ; sometimes producing metallic oxides,
oxygen, and iodine, as Ba0, I*0% = Ba0, I*, 0° ; and
sometimes the metallic oxide retains a little Periodic
Acid, I* O7. Most iodates deflagrate with red-hot
charcoal. They are decomposed by sulphuric acid.
Hence the hydrate of iodic acid can be prepared by
adding sulphuric acid to iodate of barytes. BaO,
I2O3 + H2O, SO3 = BaO, SO3 + H2O, I2O5.
IIYDRIODIC ACID. H.2 I2 = 1591-980.
A colourless gas. Sp. gr. #:# air, or §§§:}}; oxygen.
Atomic volume #. Page 176. Reddens litmus; smells
very acid, like muriatic acid gas; suffocating; produces
white clouds in the air; not combustible; condensable
to the liquid state by pressure; dissolves in water
rapidly and in large quantity.
Preparation of the Gas-i). Phosphorus, 1 part, and
iodine, 9 parts, are put into a tube apparatus, such as
is depicted in page 201. Powdered glass, wetted with
water, is stratified between the materials, in the order
of iodine, glass, phosphorus, glass, &c., till the tube is
 HYDRIODIC ACID AND IODIDES. 365

two-thirds filled. A gentle heat is used, and the gas

is collected over mercury.—2). Phosphorus 1 part, iodine
20 parts, iodide of potassium 14 parts, water a small
quantity. The mixture is to be very gently warmed.
Preparation of the Acid in Solution.—Pass a current
of pure sulphuretted hydrogen gas through water in
which iodine is kept suspended by agitation. When
the iodine is dissolved, and the solution becomes colour
less, boil it to drive off the excess of sulphuretted
hydrogen. Theory:—I* + H2S = H*I* + S. A
colourless solution, which can be concentrated to sp. gr.
1700, at which it can be distilled without losing gas.
Possesses strong acid properties. It soon decomposes
spontaneously.
IoDIDES.–These compounds bear the same relation
to hydriodic acid, that the chlorides do to muriatic
acid. Their composition is indicated by the formula
MI”. Hydriodic acid, with metallic oxides, forms
iodides and water. Thus: H2 I?-H KO = H2O+ KI2.
Many of the metallic iodides possess very beautiful
colours. See the precipitates produced by iodide of
potassium. Many iodides can be ignited without suf
fering decomposition. They are readily decomposed
by chlorine, both at a red heat and when in solution.
Concentrated sulphuric acid and bisulphate of potash,
when heated, decompose iodides, and set iodine free.
Some iodides (those of alcaline metals) dissolve in
water; most of them are insoluble ; and some of them
are decomposed by it. They are poisonous.
Detection of Iodides.—See page 127.
Preparation of ſodides.—See Iodide of Potassium.
IODIDE OF NITROGEN.—Rub powdered iodine in a
mortar with liquid ammonia; after some time, filter
the liquid. The filter paper will
exhibit a dark brown powder, which
is the iodide of nitrogen. 1. It very
often explodes spontaneously if
dried in too warm a place, so that
it requires cautious management.
It should be divided, while wet, into
2 H 2
366 FLUORINE.

small portions, and put on separate pieces of blotting

paper to dry. 2. It explodes if gently pressed with a
hammer, producing a violent report, and a violet light.
3. It explodes in the same way when a bit of paper con
taining a small portion is lifted with the tongs and
thrown on a fire. Consequently, experiments on this
substance must be made with the utmost caution.
MoNA-CHLoRIDE of IoDINE. I*C12. Liquid.
TRI-CHLORIDE OF IODINE, I2C16. Solid.
1). Put dry iodine into a glass tube, and pass over
it a current of dry chlorine gas, page 347, until the
solid iodine becomes liquid. That product is I*C12.—
2). Continue to pass the current of dry chlorine gas for
six hours. Apply heat to the product, and sublime it
frequently. When completely saturated with chlorine,
it is I2C19.-The mona-chloride is a red-brown oily
liquid, the vapour of which powerfully attacks the nose
and eyes, and even makes the fingers smart. It
bleaches vegetable colours and indigo. It does not
make starch blue. The tri-chloride forms orange
coloured crystals. It acts much like the mona-chloride.
Both dissolve in water, with partial decomposition.
BROMIDE of IoDINE.—Add bromine, drop by drop,
to an alcoholic solution of iodine, until the liquor
acquires a fine red colour. Then dilute the mixture
with water until it has a fine straw yellow colour. This
liquor can be preserved for occasional use; but it is
necessary, from time to time, to add a little bromine
water, because the bromine gradually escapes by eva
poration. -

10, FLUORINE. F = 116-9. F2 = 23:3-8.

Occurrence.—See page 21. It also forms an ingre

dient of animal bones, the enamel of the teeth, &c.
Properties.—Fluorine has never been completely
separated from other substances. All its compounds
can be readily decomposed; but when the fluorine is
liberated from one element, it instantly seizes upon
another. It is like the Alchymists' Universal solvent,
 IIYDROFLUORIC ACID. 367

which was to be able to dissolve every thing, and which

therefore must have dissolved the very vessels which
they intended to put it in—when they had discovered it!
Compounds of Fluorine.—With hydrogen, it produces
hydrofluoric acid; with metals, it produces fluorides.
Hydrofluoric acid is a true fluoride, in which an equi
valent of hydrogen occupies the place of an equivalent
proportion of a metal. -

HYDROFLUORIC ACID. H.2 F2 = 246'28.

This acid is equivalent in composition to muriatic
or hydrochloric acid. It is composed of equal atoms of
hydrogen and fluorine. It contains no oxygen. When
the fluorine combines with a metal to form a fluoride,
it gives up the hydrogen with which it is combined in
the hydrofluoric acid. The fluorides contain two atoms
of fluorine united to one atom of a metal. Derbyshire
fluor spar is a native fluoride of calcium.
Preparation.—Powdered fluor spar, free from silica,
is gently heated with twice its weight of oil of vitriol.
The operation needs to be performed in vessels of gold,
silver, platinum, or lead, because
the hydrofluoric acid decomposes
glass and porcelain immediately
upon coming into contact with them.
Hence it must also be collected and
preserved in metallic vessels. A
little water should be placed in the receiver to absorb
the gas as it passes from the retort. The receiver
should be cooled by iced water.
Properties.—Soluble in water; intensely sour; red
dens litmus, corrodes and dissolves glass, acts injuri
ously upon the organs of respiration, the vapours pro
duce pain at the finger ends, and drops on the skin act
like a red-hot iron, producing very painful sores. Used
in mineral analyses. -

To Engrave Figures on Glass.-Cover one side of

a flat piece of glass, after having made it perfectly clean,
with bees’ wax, and trace figures upon it with a needle,
taking care that every stroke cuts completely through
the wax. Next, make a border of wax all round the
368 CARBON.

glass, to prevent any liquid when poured on from run

ning off. Now, take some finely powdered fluor spar;
strew it evenly over the glass plate, upon the waxed
side, and then gently pour upon it, so as not to displace
the powder, as much sulphuric acid, diluted with thrice
its weight of water, as is sufficient to cover the powdered
fluor spar. Let every thing remain in this state for
three hours, then remove the mixture, and clean the
glass by washing it with oil of turpentine. The figures
which were traced through the wax will be found
engraven on the glass; while the parts which the wax
covered will be uncorroded. Rationale.—The fluoride
of calcium is decomposed by the sulphuric acid, sul
phate of lime is formed, and hydrofluoric acid is dis
engaged and corrodes the glass.
Theory:—CaF2+ H2O, SO3 = CaO, SO3 + H2F2.
FLUORIDEs.-Hydrofluoric acid with metallic oxides,
produces metallic fluorides and water: H2F2 + MO
= MF2 + H2O. The fluorides of platinum, sodium,
mercury, and silver, are soluble in water, but those of
most other metals are insoluble. Some of the metallic
fluorides combine with hydrofluoric acid, and become
soluble.
Detection of Fluorides.—See page 128.

11. CARBON, C = 76.438. Berzelius.

C = 75'000. Thomson and Dumas,
Occurrence.—See page 14.
Properties.—The different kinds of carbon, or char
coal, have a very different appearance, and also
extremely different properties. The purest variety of
carbon is the diamond. This is crystalline and colour
less, possessed of remarkable brilliancy, and a hardness
exceeding that of all other bodies. Occasionally, it is
found coloured. The other varieties of carbon, which
often contain very small quantities of foreign substances,
are all black, opaque, and in general dull. Sometimes
they are pulverulent, sometimes solid and porous,
sometimes glossy and crystalline, as in the instance of
 EXPERIMENTS ON CARBON. 369

plumbago. In the presence of air, most sorts of carbon

burn into carbonic acid gas or carbonic oxide gas, and
so fly away, leaving behind only a small residue of
ashes. Diamond and plumbago require, however, a
high temperature for their combustion. All the varieties
of carbon are insoluble in water, infusible by heat, and
incapable of being volatilised. When common charcoal
is boiled in nitric acid, it disengages carbonic acid gas;
when it is mixed with nitre and heated, it explodes.
Carbon has a strong tendency to combine with
oxygen, especially at a red-heat, and is on that account
often employed to separate oxygen from other substan
ces. It is employed with advantage to purify various
substances, particularly the variety called bone black,
or ivory black, which is a mixture of charcoal and
phosphate of lime. Carbon combines with oxygen, and
produces a gas called carbonic acid, and another called
oxide of carbon. When combined with hydrogen gas,
it forms carburetted hydrogen gas, of which there are
two varieties, a mixture of which forms the common
coal gas used for illumination. Carbon combines also
with nitrogen, chlorine, and many metals, and its
compounds with oxygen and other elements, combine
with one another to form an extensive variety of impor
tant substances.
The specific gravity of carbon varies greatly accord
ing to its condition. In the state of diamond, its sp.
gr. is 3-5; in the state of graphite it is 2:2; in the state
of wood charcoal it is about 1:6; and some varieties, as
lamp black, are still lighter, according to the mode of
preparation.
ExPERIMENTs.
1. Wash a piece of pure white linen cloth till all soluble sub
stances are removed from it. Then burn it in the open air until
nothing remains but a white ash. Put this into water, when a
portion will dissolve, and the solution will give a blue colour to
purple, iitmus paper, showing the presence of a fixed alcali
derived from the linen. The insoluble portion of ash consists of
salts of earths and metals.
2. If you expose sugar, starch, cotton, or wood, to a strong
heat over a spirit lamp, in a glass tube, these substances will
370 cARBON.

be decomposed, and you will obtain charcoal—the oxygen and

hydrogen of the compounds escaping in the state of water. See
page 55.

The purest kind of carbon that can be prepared by art, is

obtained by calcining sugar that has been purified by repeated
crystallisations. Even that, however, contains a little potash,
and about a halfp. cent. of oxygen and hydrogen.
3. The flame of a candle or argand lamp is rendered brilliant
by the presence of innumerable particles of carbon in the act of
undergoing combustion at a white heat. If a cold incombustible
body is held in the flame, the consequent abasement of tempera
ture is attended by a deposition of carbon in fine powder (soot),
or, if the central air way of the lamp is stopped, the carbon
goes off in smoke for want of oxygen to burn it. :
4. The flame of carburetted hydrogen and coal gas deposits
soot for the same reason.
5. A bit of resin heated on a frag
ment of glass over a lamp, burns
under production of much smoke,
which is finely divided carbon or
lamp black. The annexed figure
represents one of the methods of
preparing lamp black in quantities
for use in the arts, as the preparation
of printingink, &c. The combustible
organic matter, resinor tar,isheated
in an iron pot, to which only a limited
..". of air is permitted to have
3.
access, arrangement it is
made to burn so as to produce butg
little flame and a vast quantity of:
smoke. This passes with the currentº
 EXPERIMENTS ON CARBON. 371

of air from the pot, a, into a small house, b, the walls of which
are lined with flannel, and which has a moveable cover or
canopy, d, made of canvas. The superfluous air, the carbonic
acid, and other gaseous products of the combustion escape from
the house through the canopy; but the smoke is deposited
either on the floor, the flannel lining of the walls, or in the
canopy, and is collecting from time to time by agitating the
canopy, after which the lamp black is removed from the floor.
6. Inflame a slip of wood, a match, and plunge it, as the com
bustion proceeds, into a glass test tube or vial. The wood will
be converted into a black porous mass of charcoal, having the
same form as the original wood. That this charcoal is impure,
may be proved by burning it completely in the open air, when a
small quantity of white ash will remain. This consists of silica,
potash, lime, and other mineral substances which exist in all
organic bodies. See pages 55 and 20.
7. Calcine a fragment of flesh, (lean beef or mutton), in a
small porcelain crucible closed with its cover. The product is
animal charcoal.
8. Calcine, in the same manner, a fragment of bone. The
product is bone black or ivory black, which, besides charcoal,
contains phosphate of lime and other impurities. When bone
black is calcined in the open air, the charcoal burns away, and
the product is a white powder called bone ash. Animal charcoal
may be partially purified from earthy matter by digestion in
muriatic acid and subsequent washing with water.
9. Charcoal has the property of removing colour from veget
able substances, and also of destroying odours. Thus, when it is
shaken in a bottle with red wine, and the mixture filtered, the
wine becomes colourless and loses its odour. If charcoal is
shaken with water that has the odour of putrid vegetables, the
bad odour is destroyed. Charcoal is, for these reasons, employed
in the refining of sugar, in the distillation of brandy, in the filtra
tion of water, and in other useful arts.
10. Newly burnt vegetable charcoal, especially that made from
hard woods, has the property of absorbing a very large quantity
of some kinds of gas. A cubic inch of boxwood charcoal absorbs
of ammonia gas 90 cubic inches, of muriatic acid gas 85 cubic
inches, of hydrogen gas 13 cubic inches, and different quantities
of other gases. Cork charcoal and other light kinds absorb
scarcely any quantity of gas. Owing to its power of absorbing
gases, large masses of newly burnt powdered charcoal are liablo
to undergo spontaneous combustion, when exposed to damp air.
11. The combustion of charcoal in oxygen gas has been
already described. See page 218.
12. Brilliant Inflammation of Charcoal.--Support a short and
wide hard glass test tube in a vertical position, by a tin crook,
as shown by the figure in page 221. Put into the tube about
372 CARBON.

half a fluid ounce of strong fuming nitric acid. If the acid is

not of the strongest kind, it may be warmed gently. By means
of a pair of crucible tongs, take hold
of a stick of charcoal pastile, º©
are used to cut glass, or formed of a == =
mixture made of charcoal powder, © => - N
carbonate of soda, and rice paste;
or of any other carbonaceous mixture that will burn continuously
without flame. The stick should be a few inches long and a
quarter of an inch thick. The end of it is to be set on fire, and
is then to be dipped into the tube containing the fuming nitric
acid. As soon as the glimmering end of the charcoal comes into
the acid vapour, the combustion is greatly promoted; but when
the point is dipped into the liquid acid, the combustion becomes
extremely brilliant. The experiment is not hazardous, if care
fully performed.
13. Indelible Ink for Writing on Paper.—Common black writing
ink, which consists in the main of gallate of iron, can be obli:
terated by oxalic acid, chlorine, or any substance capable of
decomposing the gallate of iron. Indelible inks must have carbon
for a basis, because no liquor can dissolve carbon without des
troying the paper which bears the writing. It is, however, diffi
cult to fir carbon upon paper, so that it shall not rub off mechani
cally. The following mixture effects the purpose to a certain
extent. Mix—
China Ink, 2 parts.
Water, 30 parts.
Strong solution of Caustic Potash, 13 part.
Strong solution of Caustic Soda, 3 part.
This mixture is hygroscopic, and therefore continuously fastens
the black colouring matter to the paper.
Another mixture that has been recommended, is carbon in
the state of china ink, lamp black, or some other finely divided
form, ground up with gluten, and diluted to a due consistence
for writing.
14. Ink for Printing on Linen with Types.—Dissolve 1 part of
asphaltum in 4 parts of oil of turpentine; add fine lamp black in
sufficient quantity to render the ink stiff enough to print with
types, or with a brass stamp.
15. Indelible Inks, useful for Writing Labels for Bottles contain
ing Acids, &c.—l. Take oil of lavender, 200 grains; gum copal,
in powder, 25 grains; and lamp black, 3 grains. Dissolve the
copal in the oil of layender, in a small flask or phial, by the aid
of a gentle heat; and then mix the lamp black with the solu
tion, by trituration in a porcelain mortar. After a repose of
Some hours, the ink, before use, requires to be shaken, or must
be stirred with an iron wire. If it be found too thick, it may be
diluted with a little oil of lavender, or of turpentine.—2. A solu
 BLOWPIPE SUPPORTS. 373

tion may be made, in like manner, of 120 grains of oil of laven

der; 17 grains of copal, and 60 grains of vermillion.—3. Boil one
ounce of finely rasped Brazil wood, and half an ounce of alum,
in 12 ounces of water, till the liquid is reduced to 8 ounces; then
decant the clear part, and add to it an ounce of calcined man
ganese mixed with half an ounce of gum arabic.—4. Amber
varnish, ground with lamp black, makes a black ink; or ground
with vermillion, it makes a red ink, , both of good colour, but
slow to dry.
16. Tooth Powder.—Finely powdered charcoal (calcined bread,
or sugar) forms an excellent tooth powder; it cleanses the mouth
both mechanically and chemically; but as it is dusty, and not
easily miscible with water when alone, it may on this account
be mixed with an equal weight of prepared chalk, and, if agree
able, be scented with a few drops of oil of cloves.
17. Black Chalks for Drawing.—Saw fine-grained charcoal into
the size of crayons. Put them into a pipkin containing melted
bees’ wax, and allow them to remain near a slow fire for half an
hour or more, according to the thickness of the crayons. If the
crayons are required to be hard, you must mix a little rosin with
the wax. If you want them soft, you must add butter instead
of rosin.

Charcoal as a Reducing Agent.—A great number of

interesting experiments may be easily performed on
metallic substances, by means of charcoal and the
blowpipe. See pages 54, 121, 128, &c. - As such expe
riments often replace those that require a furnace, they
deserve the particular notice of students who are defi
cient in apparatus. In a paper read before the Philo
sophical Society of Glasgow, in 1843, I have pointed
out a method of making a kind of small charcoal cru
cible, adapted for blowpipe experiments. The following
particulars are abridged from that paper:
The blowpipe experiments that require the assistance of char
coal, may be divided into two classes:—In the first class may be
named, the formation of beads with microcosmic salt, the trial
of fusibility per se, and the roasting of the metallic compounds
that contain such volatile elements as sulphur and arsenic. The
second class of experiments is restricted to the fusion of minerals
or metallic compounds with carbonate of soda, or with soda and
borax, for the purpose of effecting particular combinations, or of
procuring their metals in the state of regulus. For these two
classes of experiments, I make use of two different composition
supports, the first of which I shall call Supports for Fusions, and
2 I
 374 CARBON.

the second Supports for Reductions. These are alike in appear

ance—the form and size of both being shown by fig. a. Each

tº

consists of two parts, an upper or combustible portion, and a

base or incombustible portion. The former is the proper substi
tute for the ordinary charcoal, the under portion only acting as
a crucible in which the combustible portion is contained. I
shall first describe the composition and formation of the sup
ports, and afterwards show the way to use them.
The incombustible portion of both supports is made of fine
pipe clay and charcoal powder, mixed in equal parts by weight,
with as much water, slightly thickened by rice paste, as is suffi
cient to form a stiff plastic mass.
The combustible portion of the Support for Fusions consist of
Charcoal in fine powder, 12 parts.
Rice Flour, - - * —
Water, - ... about 8 —
The rice is boiled in the water to form a paste, with which the
ºl is afterwards mixed into a mass of the consistence of
dough.
The upper part of the Support for Reductions consists of the
following mixture:–
Charcoal in fine powder, 9 parts.
-

Carbonate of Soda, crystallised, 2 —

Borax, crystallised, . . 1 —
Rice Flour, .
Water, . -
.
-
.
..
.
about
% -

The water is boiled, the soda and borax are dissolved in it, and
the rice is then added to form a paste, with which the charcoal
is finally incorporated, and the whole well kneaded into a stiff
Inas.S.
The mould in which these compositions are pressed to form
the supports, is made of boxwood, and consists of four pieces,
represented by figs. A, B, C, D.
D is a cylindrical block, having a conical hole through the
centre; A, B, C, are pestles or stampers fitted to this hole. The
mould, D, when in use, is set upon a clean surface of iron, such
as a blowpipe anvil. A round ball of the clay composition,
inch in diameter, is put into it, and pressed to the bottom by
means of the pestle A. This forms a conical cup or crucible
 BLOWPIPE SUPPORTS. 375

similar to the under portion of fig. E, which represents a vertical

section of a support. A round ball of the combustible composi

tion, of either kind, , inch in diameter, is next put into the

mould, and pressed firmly down with the pestle, B, and the pestle,
before being withdrawn, is gently turned round to smooth the
surface of the ºppº, The mould is now lifted from the anvil,
and the pestle, C, is applied below to push the support out of
the hole.
The principal points which require attention, to insure success
in this process, are, to have the materials in the state of very fine
powder, and the moist compositions of a proper degree of con
sistency. If they are too soft, the support will not quit the
mould without losing its form. If too dry, the particles of the
support will not cohere. The º: state is found after a few
trials. It is most convenient to begin by making the mixture
too soft, and then drying it slowly till found to be hard enough
to work easily. The composition is rolled into little balls of the
size before mentioned by means of the fingers. The moulds
should be kept clean, and the forming parts of the pestle, B,
and the ring, D, should be oiled. The best way to clean the
hole in the mould, D, is by means of a long conical cork, rasped
to a rough surface and oiled. The point of the pestle, A, must
not be oiled, because grease prevents the adhesion of the com
bustible portion of the support to its clay base.
When the support is taken from the mould, it is put on a hot
plate or a sand bath to dry, after which the rough edges are
taken off by a rasp. It is then ready for use. The bottoms of
the supports for reductions are painted with red ochre mixed
with rice paste, to distinguish them from the other kind. The
size I have fixed upon is as follows:—height inch, diameter at
the top 3 inch, at the bottom # inch.
376 CARBON.

The handle by means of which the supports are to be held in

the blowpipe flame, consists of an iron wire, 3} inches long and
*5 inch in diameter, one end of which is bent into a ring about
# inch in diameter, while an inch of the other end is forced
through a round cork 1 inch long and , inch in diameter, as
represented by figs, b, c. The operator fixes the support in the
ring of this wire, and holds it by the cork handle, which is
intended, not so much to protect the fingers from heat, as to
provide the power of varying the position of the support in the
flame, as the progress of an ignition may require.
I shall now describe one or two experiments which show the
method of using these supports.
1). The surface of one of the Supports fºr Fusions is heated
before the blowpipe till it is red hot. If then removed from the
blowpipe flame, the support continues to burn, like an ordinary
pastile, till it is consumed down to the clay. . The ignited sup
port is to be rested on a porcelain capsule in the manner repre
presented by fig. d, and a quantity of microcosmic salt, sufficient
to form a bead, is placed upon its red-hot surface. The salt
instantly smelts and sinks into the central cavity, so as to form a
bead, fig. F, the heat, the form, and the smoothness of the sur
face of the support, facilitating this part of the process. The
salt is then heated before the blowpipe till it is melted into a
transparent colourless bead. The support is again placed on
the porcelain capsule, and the metallic substance intended to be
incorporated in the bead, is added to it. The support continu
ing to be red hot, and the bead consequently continuing soft,
the substance so added is immediately absorbed, and its loss by
dispersion prevented. Whereas, upon common charcoal, the
fused salt solidifies soon after it is removed from the flame, and
the substance added for examination, not adhering to it, is often
blown away by the first blast from the blowpipe jet. The bead
is now again fused till the substance added to it is decomposed,
and the resulting glass is observed to fuse quietly. It is then
ready for examination, but it is sunk in the bottom of the hollow
in the support, (see fig. F.) and cannot be seen by transmitted
light, unless the projecting sides of the support be removed.
This is effected as follows:—The support is placed as before upon
the porcelain capsule, and the operator blows with his mouth,
without using the blowpipe, strongly down upon its surface.
The pastile then burns away rapidly, and the force of the blast
of air disperses the ashes, until the
whole rim of the support is consumed F G
down to the part marked, in fig, F,
with dotted lines. The bead then
appears situated on the summit of a
cone, as shown in fig. G, and can be
examined either by reflected or trans
 CARBONIC OXII) E G AS. 377

mitted light. It is also in a position adapted for exposure to

the different action of the oxidating and reducing flames, so as
to have the character of the included metal fully developed.
2). If the surface of one of the Supports for Reductions is heated
before the blowpipe, it burns at first like the simple charcoal
support, but in proportion as the charcoal is consumed, the
fluxes which were mixed with it, and which are not volatile,
concentrate and fuse upon the surface of the residue. If, there
fore, a reducible metallic compound is heated upon such a sup
port, it becomes exposed at once to the reducing action of the
high temperature, of the nascent oxide of carbon, and of the
carbonate of soda, whilst any earthy matter that it may contain
is vitrified by the attendant borax. It is easy therefore to con
ceive that these supports should possess a powerful reducing
action, and so in fact they do. . For example, a crystal of sul
phate of copper, as large as the surface of a support, can be
decomposed upon it, and all its elements be driven off except
the copper, which is finally obtained in a single metallic bead.
A globule of metallic tin, an eighth of an inch in diameter, can
be kept boiling upon a support without being converted into
oxide. A crystal of quartz can be fused into soda glass. Flint
glass can be melted with metallic oxides, in such quantities as
to form beads of enamel or coloured glass the sixth of an inch
in diameter. And these effects are producible upon a support
of the weight of only 16 grains, and during the combustion of
perhaps not more than 3 or 4 grains of charcoal. Indeed, many
striking results are produced by a combustion of only 2 grains
of charcoal, but then this combustion is effected under very
favourable circumstances, where very little more charcoal is
heated than is intended to be burnt, and where no more is burnt
than is required to produce the intended effect.

CARBONIC OXIDE. CO = 176°438.

Properties.—Carbonic oxide is a gas; colourless and
tasteless; of a weak but peculiar odour; burns in the
air with a bright blue flame, producing carbonic acid;
does not support the combustion of other bodies; very
poisonous; cannot be breathed; animals die in it imme
diately; nearly insoluble in water. Its sp. gr. is {:}#}}
air, or ſºn:#}} oxygen gas. Its atomic volume is #.
See page 175.
The blue flame that sometimes appears on the surface
of a clear red coal fire is occasioned by the combustion
of carbonic oxide gas. The carbonic acid produced by
combustion at the lower part of the fire, is converted
2I 2
378 CARBON.

into oxide of carbon by the action of the large mass of

red-hot coal. The oxide of carbon, on coming into
contact with fresh oxygen at a red heat, is again con
verted into carbonic acid.
Preparation of Carbonic Owide Gas.-1. Boil oxalic
acid with oil of vitriol in a glass tube. Apply a light
to the mouth of the tube, and a blue flame will be pro
duced, arising from the combustion of the carbonic
oxide gas produced by the decomposition of the oxalic
acid.
The gas disengaged in this process is a mixture of
carbonic oxide and carbonic acid gas. If the mixture
is passed through lime water, or shaken with it in a
bottle, the carbonic acid gas is absorbed, and the other
gas left pure. Or it may be passed, first through a
solution of caustic potash, and then through a V-tube
filled with lumps of pumice stone moistened with potash
ley. The gas can be collected over water.
2. Mix in a retort or gas bottle, 1 oz. of oxalate of
ammonia in fine powder with 3 oz. of concentrated
sulphuric acid; distil with a gentle heat, and collect the
gas over a solution of potash or milk of lime. What
is produced is a mixture of equal volumes of carbonic
oxide gas and carbonic acid gas. The latter dissolves in
the alcaline solution, and leaves the former pure.—Bin
oxalate of potash may also be used in the same manner
for preparing carbonic oxide gas. In these experiments
the sulphuric acid combines with the base, and liberates
the oxalic acid, which falls into carbonic acid and car
bonic oxide:—C203 = CO + CO2 ; and as CO and
CO2 have the same atomic volume, the two gases are
produced in equal quantities. -

3. Into a gas bottle of the capacity of a decigallon,

and the form of those figured in page 228 or page 345,
put , oz. of yellow prussiate of potash, finely powdered,
and 4 or 5 ounces by weight of concentrated sulphuric
acid. Close the flask by a cork and gas-leading tube.
Apply a gentle heat. A white pasty mass is produced
by the first action of the acid upon the salt, but this
gradually dissolves and disappears. The above Quan
 CARBONIC ACID GAS. 379

tity of materials gives 300 cubic inches of carbonic

oxide gas perfectly pure, except quite at the end of the
operation, when a little sulphurous acid may be noticed.
—Fownes.
New Mirture for the Gas Blowpipe.—When a mixture of two
volumes of carbonic oxide gas and one volume of oxygen gas is
allowed to stream from a narrow opening, and is set on fire, the
flame does not press backward into the reservoir, but becomes
extinguished when the pressure of the gas is feeble. Hence the
use of this mixture is free from the danger of explosion; and
since it gives as much heat on combustion as an equal volume of
the explosive mixture of oxygen with hydrogen, it can be advan
tººls
42
employed for the gas blowpipe. [See pages 225 and
When the blowpipe is to be used, a small spirit lamp is to be
brought close to the opening whence the gas issues. The gas
should not be burnt immediately at the mouth of the stopcock
of the gasometer, but at the end of a glass tube having a fine jet
and fixed upon the stopcock. In this case, if the flame goes
back, the gas burns quietly in the tube, but the flame does not
pass the stopcock. I do not think that the flame could go back
even through a metal tube, provided it be long and narrow.
With the common pressure of a gasometer, I have melted 19
grains of platinum, supported on magnesite, into a mass. I have
also melted Quartz. The diameter of the orifice in the jet was
#5 inch.-F. Reich.
Experiments.-1. Mix two volumes of carbonic oxide gas with
one volume of oxygen gas, and set fire to the mixture, in the
manner described at page 239. A loud explosion takes place,
accompanied by a yellow flame, and the mixture is converted
into carbonic acid gas:--
CO + O = CO2.
Two volumes of carbonic oxide, and one volume of oxygen, in
all three volumes, produce two volumes of carbonic acid.
2. Metallic potassium, heated in carbonic oxide gas over mer
cury, absorbs the gas, becomes oxidised, and forms a deposit of
charcoal. K + CO = KO + C.
3. Carbonic oxide gas can be burnt at a jet in the same man
ner as hydrogen gas; but when the experiment is made by means
of the apparatus described at page 245, no water can be procured
from the product of combustion, which proves the absence of
hydrogen in this gas. See exp. 14, page 386.
CARBONIC ACID. Fired Air. CO2 = 276'438.
Carbonic acid is a gas which is colourless, slightly
odorous, has a sharp acid taste, is incombustible, does
380 CARBON.

not support the combustion of burning bodies; precipi

tates lime water, and reddens wet litmus paper feebly,
but the redness disappears in the air; it occasions death
when breathed in a pure state. Its sp. gr. is +:### air,
or ###:#}} oxygen gas. Its atomic volume is #. See
page 175. It is slightly soluble in water. By cold
and the pressure of 40 atmospheres, it is reduced to the
state of a thin colourless liquid, and by intense cold, to
the solid state.
The condensation of the gas to the liquid state is
effected by means of a strong iron pump or syringe.
The apparatus is expensive, and its use dangerous.
Liquified Carbonic Acid has the remarkable property
of being four times as expansible as atmospheric air.
Its specific gravity at —4° F. is 0.90; at 32°F. it is
0.83; at 86° F. it is 0.60. A current of it produces an
intense degree of cold. When it flows from a small
opening, a white vapour appears, which can be collected
in the form of white snowy flocks by a flask. These
flocks are solid carbonic acid, which can be exposed for
sometime to cold air without changing to gas. The
solid carbonic acid can be exposed to the air of the
atmosphere, in which it soon volatilises. If the solid
acid is mixed with ether, it produces so intense a
degree of cold as to freeze mercury in large pieces.
Popular Remarks on Carbonic Acid Gas.--Carbonic acid gas is
extricated in most common cases of effervescence, as when vine
gar, or any other acid, is poured upon chalk, marble, or alcaline
carbonates. It is produced by fermentation, is formed during
many instances of combustion, and by the respiration of animals.
It is found in mines, mineral waters, and various other situa
tions; giving rise to many interesting phenomena.
This gas, being much heavier than common air, always keeps
its place over the surface of a fermenting liquor, till it rises as
high as the edge of the tub or vat which contains it, and then it
flows over and descends to the floor. To prove this, hold a
º candle a few inches above the top of the vat, nothing will
take place: next, hold the candle just over the liquor within,
and below the top of the vat, upon which the light will be
extinguished. . The heaviness of this gas is the reason, too, why,
when the yat is, emptied of the liquor, the gas for some time
occupies the bottom of it, so that it is unsafe for the workmen to
 IPREPARATION OF CARBONIC ACID. 381

go down to clean it. This is well known to labourers in brew

eries, who never descend into the vats before they have tried the
purity of the air in them by lowering a candle. If the candle is
not extinguished, they know that they may descend with safety;
for that is a certain sign that the carbonic acid gas has escaped.
After wine or beer is bottled, the fermentation still goes on,
though in a much slower degree, and in wine a deposition of
tartar takes place. The carbonic acid gas now extricated, being
unable to escape, is absorbed by the liquor, and gives to it that
briskness and pleasant sharpness which is so far preferable to
the flat insipid taste which all wines have when first made.
In bottling every kind of wine, cider, beer, or other fermented
liquors, great care should be paid to the corking. The gas, as
it is formed, exerts great force to escape, and if the cork does not
fit very accurately, will be sure to find its way out. The liquor
will then never acquire the briskness and sharpness that it ought
to do; for as the briskness of all such liquors depends upon the
presence of carbonic acid gas, they will always prove flat and
insipid when the gas is allowed to escape.—It is much better to
lay bottled liquor sidelong than upright, for then the gas must
not only pass through the liquor before it can escape, but the
cork is kept wet and swelled, and is much less liable to decay.
Carbonic acid gas is produced in abundance when charcoal is
burned; and it is owing to their not being aware of this produc
tion of life-destroying air, that many persons have been killed
by going to sleep in rooms where charcoal fires were alight,
What renders this practice more dangerous is, that charcoal fires
sometimes give off not only carbonic acid gas, but carbonic oxide
gas, which is still more poisonous than carbonic acid gas

Preparation of Carbonic Acid Gas.—1. Put a lump

of chalk into a test glass half full of water, and add a
little muriatic acid. A strong effervescence
will take place, in consequence of a rapid dis
engagement of carbonic acid gas. If you pour
muriatic acid over a considerable quantity of
pounded chalk, the resulting effervescence will
be very great. In trying this experiment, put
the glass containing the chalk in the middle of
a large dish. See page 48.
Theory:—CaO, CO2 + H2Cl2= CaCl2 + H2O + CO2.
2. Carbonic acid gas is most conveniently prepared
from chalk or marble mixed with diluted muriatic acid.
No heat is required. If a rapid current of gas is desired,
382 CARISON.

the chalk may be powdered, and the acid be of the

strength of 300°. If a slow current of gas is wanted,
the limestone should be of a hard kind and in lumps,
and the muriatic acid should not exceed 200°. White
marble gives pure gas. When a small quantity of gas
is required, the bottle depicted in
the margin, may be used. For —ºr

larger quantities, it is best to use & c

the bottle shown at page 106, in

which case the acid is to be added 15
gradually. The gas bottles de-
scribed at pages 228, 229, and
J
345, also serve the purpose, but B
are not quite so handy.—The gas
may be passed through water to
purify it. It may be collected
over water; for though a quantity
dissolves, yet the gas is so cheap
and easy to prepare, that a little loss is of no moment.
It may be dried by chloride of calcium or oil of vitriol.
See page 234. It can also be collected over mercury,
or, like sulphurous acid, by the method of displacement.
See page 313.
3. Carbonic acid is produced whenever charcoal is
burnt in oxygen gas, or whenever there is an excess of
oxygen produced by any decomposition that occurs at
the same time as the combustion of the charcoal. See
pages 51,219, 280, 283, and 371.
Solution of Carbonic Acid in Water—1. Pass a cur
rent of gas slowly through distilled water until it ceases
to be absorbed. See the methods of doing this described
at pages 302 and 348. One volume of water absorbs
one measure of carbonic acid gas at common tempera
ture and pressure. By means of a force pump, it can
be made to absorb 2 or 3 measures of gas, in which
condition, either with or without a little bicarbonate of
soda in solution, it passes under the name of Soda
Water.—2. Fill a quart bottle with carbonic acid gas,
pour into it half a pint of cold distilled water, cork the
bottle and shake it. Invert the bottle and let it rest in
 EXPERIMENTS WITH CARBONIC ACID. 383

a cold place. Shake it occasionally, and after some

time the water will be strongly acidified. The solution
of carbonic acid gives a white precipitate with lime
water, and readily gives off carbonic acid gas when
greatly heated.
ExPERIMENTS witH CARBONic Acid GAs.
1. To show that Carbonic Acid Gas eatinguishes Flame, and
destroys Animal Life.—Fill a small glass cylinder, or a bottle,
with carbonic acid gas, and plunge a lighted
candle into it; the flame will be extinguished. A
person who is quite a stranger to the properties
of this kind of gas, will be agreeably amused by
extinguishing lighted candles, or blazing chips of
wood, on its surface. As the smoke readily mixes
with the gas, and little or none of it escapes into
the atmosphere, the smoke floats, in a very curious
manner, on the surface of the gas, forming a
smooth well-defined plain, which, if the vessel
be agitated, is thrown into the form of waves.
Insects, which it is desirable to preserve in their
true form and brilliancy of colours, for cabinets, v_T^
may be killed by immersion in carbonic acid gas. `
2. If inflamed sulphur is immersed in a jar of carbonic acid
gas, it is extinguished.
3. Illustration of the characteristic Powers of Orygen Gas, Car
bonic Acid Gas, and Atmospherical Air, with respect to Combustion.
—Set three jars of equal size, mouths upwards, on a table.
The first must contain common air; the second, carbonic
acid gas; and the third, oxygen gas. Take a lighted
candle with a pretty large wick, and lower it, by means
of a wire, into the first jar—the flame will have its usual
brightness. Lower it next into the second jar—the flame
will be extinguished. Lower it now, while the wick con
tinues red, into the third jar—it will be relighted, and will
burn for some time with a dazzling splendour. To ordi
nary spectators, this experiment will be the subject of
much wonder. The whole of the jars will, by them, be
deemed empty, and the different effects resulting from
plunging the same candle into seemingly similar vessels,
will be quite incomprehensible.
4. Hold a slip of moistened blue litmus paper in a jar
of carbonic acid gas, or dip it into the aqueous solution
of the gas. It will turn claret red; but if the paper
is afterwards heated or exposed to the air, the acid vola
tilises, and the blue colour is restored.
384 CARBON.

5. Pleasinga mode
Gas-Place of candle
lighted showinginthethe
great Weightof of
bottom Carbonic
a jar Acid
which has
its open part uppermost, the
jar being filled with atmos
pheric air; take then a jar
filled with carbonic acid gas;
and invert it over the |. in
which the candle is placed: Q
the effect is very striking; the
invisible fluid descends like
water, and extinguishes the
flame. To spectators who have
no idea of substance without
sensible matter, this experi
ment has the appearance of
magic.
6. A burning candle may be
lowered into a basin containing
carbonic acid gas, until the
top of the wick is about half
an inch under the surface of the
gas, in which position the flame
will remain visible for a few
seconds, though altogether de
tached from the candle. . The exposition of this phenomena is,
that the wick remains hot enough to cause the tallow still to
evaporate; and the vapour kindles at the surface of the carbonic
acid gas.
7. It affords an amusing spectacle to let a large soap bubble,
filled with common air, fall into a wide glass containing carbonie
acid gas. The bubble rebounds from it like a foot-ball, and
appears to rest on nothing.
8. Suspend a large glass globe to one end
of a balance, and counterpoise it. Then decant
a large jarful of carbonic acid gas into it, upon
which it will become so heavy as to over
balance the counterpoise.—The method of
determining the wº of a gas with accuracy
is described at page 165.
9. To show that the Atmosphere contains Car
bonic Acid.—Expose to the open air, in an open
vessel, a quantity of transparent lime water;
a white crust will soon form on its surface
which, on being broken, falls to the bottom of
the vessel, and is succeeded by another—this
H.P. upon being examined, proves to be carbonate of
mº-therefore, carbonic acid is attracted from the atmosphere
by the lime in solution.
 WHAT FUEL PRODUCES WHEN BURNT. 385

10. The apparatus depicted in page 315 is to be set up, but

without the parts marked a b c. A little lime water is to be put
into the v-tube, and atmospheric air is to be drawn through it
by allowing water to run from the stopcock g. At the end of
an hour, a quantity of carbonate of lime will be formed, and will
render the inside of the V-tube obscure. It may be washed off
by a little diluted muriatic acid.
11. Proof that Carbonic Acid gas is given off from a charcoal fire,
the flame of a candle, or the flame of a spirit lamp.–Set up the
apparatus described in page 315. Put lime water into the tube
d. Instead of the stand b, put the flame of a spirit lamp or of a
candle into the funnel a, or place a small lighted charcoal
furnace below the funnel. Then let water run from the stopcock
g. The lime water in the V-tube will immediately begin to give
a white precipitate of carbonate of lime. Another proof of the
existence of charcoal in alcohol is given in the article on the pre
paration of olefiant gas. In that experiment, the charcoal is
separated in the form of a black powder.
12. The products of the combustion of common fuel-By an
apparatus similar to that described at page 245, with a funnel
joined to the bent tube c, and a spirit lamp flame put below it,
we can collect the water that is produced by the combustion of
the hydrogen contained in the alcohol. Hence, by these two
simple experiments, we can collect the two chief products that
result from the combustion of the fuel that is commonly used
for the purpose of heating and illumination, namely, the carbonic
acid afforded by the combustion of carbon, and the water pro
duced by the combustion of hydrogen.
The composition of alcohol is represented by the formula
C4H120°. This requires 12 atoms of oxygen to burn it, and the
roducts are 4 atoms of carbonic acid and 6 atoms of water:
4H12O2+O12=4CO2+6H2O.
The composition of charcoal being C, it requires O2 to burn it,
and produces CO2.
The two principal ingredients of coal gas have the composition
shown by these formulae H4C and H2C. The products of their
combination are as follow:—
H4C+O4 =2H2O + CO2.
H2C+O3 = H2O+ CO2.
Tallow, oils, and pit coal, all consist of carbon and hydrogen
with a little oxygen, and their combustion, consequently, pro
duces carbonic acid gas and water.
When we consider that air contains only a fifth part of its
bulk of oxygen, it is easy to perceive that the combustion of fires
and lights of all kinds deteriorates a vast quantity of air, and
renders it unfit to support life. Hence arises the necessity of
good ventilation in rooms where combustion is effected, either to
produce heat or light.
2 K
386 CARBON.

13. To show that Carbonic Acid is contained in Air respired from

the Lungs.-l. Put into a test glass a little water tinged blue by
tincture of cabbage; then blow into this water, through a glass
tube, air from the lungs—the blue colour will soon be changed
to red. This proves that the air blown from the lungs contains
an acid—now, query, what acid is it? Let us see.—2. Warm the
product of process I, the blue colour will be restored—hence the
acid is volatile, and must be either carbonic acid or sulphuretted
hydrogen. That it is not the latter, may be known by its want
; smell; that it is the former, may be proved thus, 3. Blow
air, in the manner described above, into lime water. The trans
parent solution will be shortly rendered opaque, by the forma
tion of carbonate of lime.—4. A little muriatic acid added to the
muddy liquor will render it again transparent, by dissolving the
carbonate of lime with effervescence.
14. Conversion of Carbonic Oride into Carbonic Acid.—Set up
the apparatus depicted in page 315, but instead of the parts
marked a b c, substitute the parts marked a b c in the figure in
page 245. Put lime water into the bend of the V-tube; set the
water running at the stopcock g, and inflame a jet of carbonic
oxide gas at the point of the tube b. A precipitate of carbonate
of lime will soon be formed in the V-tube. This experiment
proves that carbonic oxide gas produces carbonic acid gas when
burnt in the air.
15. Presence of Carbonic Acid in fermented liquors.-Put a small
quantity of fresh porter or strong ale into a gas bottle, connect
the gas delivery tube with a V-tube containing lime water, and
apply a gentle heat to the beer. Carbonic acid gas will imme
diately pass off and form a precipitate in the lime water.
16. Production of Carbonates.—Fill a long tube with carbonic
acid gas, and set the open end in a capsule containing a solution
of caustic potash or of
ammonia. The liquor | D)
will absorb the gas
rapidly and rise in the - -

tube. After permitting a little of the liquor to rise, you may

close the tube with a finger, shake it to mix the solution with the
gas, and again open the tube in the alcaline solution, which will
then rush into it violently.
17. Vacuum produced by Chemical means.—The last experiment
may be performed in a striking manner as follows:—Take a glass
tube 6 feet long and # inch in diameter, closed at one end, and
pretty strong in the glass. When so long a tube cannot be
procured, two shorter tubes may be joined by a brass or tinplate
collar fastened by strong cement. Fill the tube with water that
has been boiled and then cooled in a corked bottle, to free it
from air. Inyert the tube over a pneumatic trough, fix it in a
vertical position and fill it, to within an inch of the end, with
 CARBONATES. 387

pure carbonic acid gas, free from air. Have ready a sound cork
exactly fitted to the tube and a stick of caustic potash about an
inch long. Put the potash into the tube, instantly cork the tube,
take it from the trough and invert it repeatedly, that the stick
of potash may pass up and down, and not lie for any time on one
part of the tube, which would be broken by the heat produced
by the absorption of the carbonic acid. At the end of a few
minutes the carbonic acid gas will be entirely absorbed. Now
put the mouth of the tube into a basin of coloured water, and
take out the cork, which should be provided with a turned
milled wooden top or handle, like the cork of the gas bottle, b,
page 325. The instant the tube is opened, the water will
violently rush up to the very top of it.

CARBONATES.–Combinations of carbonic acid with

metallic oxides. Thus, carbonate of potash is KO,
CO2. There is no hydrate of carbonic acid, correspond
ing with the hydrate of sulphuric acid, nitric acid, &c.
The carbonates of the alcalies are soluble in water, and
are alcaline in their action on test paper. The other
carbonates are insoluble, but the bicarbonates of the
alcaline earths are soluble. The insoluble carbonates
are all decomposed at a red heat. The soluble alcaline
carbonates do not lose their acid when ignited. The
alcalies form crystalline bicarbonates, which are less
soluble than the neutral carbonates, and not quite so
alcaline in their taste or in their action on litmus. All
the carbonates give off gaseous carbonic acid with
effervescence when mixed with a strong acid.
Detection of Carbonates.—See page 130.
Proof of the eaistence of Charcoal in Carbonates.—The
experiment given at page 51 shows the direct introduc
tion of charcoal into a carbonate. The following ex
periment shows the direct extraction of charcoal from
a carbonate.
Two parts of chalk in very fine dry powder and one
part of metallic sodium cut into small pieces, are put
into an infusible glass test tube, in such a manner that
the sodium is quite enveloped by the chalk. The
mixture is heated over a spirit lamp. An explosion is
produced with disengagement of light, but no danger
attends the experiment. The mass after this appears
388 CARBON.

quite black, in consequence of the separation of charcoal.

If water is added, the mixture becomes hot, and dis
engages a little hydrogen gas. If diluted muriatic acid
is next added, it dissolves the lime and leaves a quantity
of charcoal in very fine powder.—Döbereiner.
Testing of Carbonates.—The carbonates of potash,
soda, lime, and some other bases, occur as natural or
manufactured products, in a state of mixture with other
bodies destitute of value; and being substances of great
importance in the arts, the mixtures have frequently to
be subjected to a partial analysis, which consists in
determining how much per cent. of the pure carbonate
is contained in each mixture. I shall briefly describe
several methods of executing analyses of that descrip
tion.
1. Rose's Method.—a is a very light glass bottle; b a
test tube of thin glass; d a tube containing lumps of
dry chloride of , calcium.
Put a given weight of the
dry carbonate into the
bottle, a. Put into b rather
more acid than will decom
pose the carbonate. Adjust
d, and weigh the whole.
Incline the bottle, and
allow the acid to mix slowly
with the carbonate. Car
bonic acid will escape by the tube d, while the water
that rises with the gas will be retained, partly in the
bulb tube and partly in the tube d. The action being
at an end, the cork is loosened to allow air to have access
to the bottle, that the carbonic acid may escape. Next
day the apparatus is weighed, and the loss of weight
shows the quantity of the carbonic acid, from which the
quantity of the carbonate can be calculated thus:–
10000 parts of carbonic acid is equal to,
22879 parts of carbonate of lime.
3.1340 parts of carbonate of potash.
2.4140 parts of carbonate of soda, dry.
6'4830 parts of carbonate of soda, crystallised.
 TESTING OF CARBONATES. 389

2. Fritsche's Method.—The figure shows the apparatus,

which is formed of thin glass tube. The carbonate is
put into one bulb and the acid,
by means of a funnel, into the as
other bulb. The tubes are
then filled with lumps of
chloride of calcium, with a
little loose cotton put at the
bottom of each, and are closed
by corks traversed by narrow tubes. The apparatus is
first weighed empty, then with the carbonate in it,
thirdly, when completely fitted up. It is suspended to
the balance by the wire. After being weighed, it is
slowly inclined, that the acid may run upon the carbon
ate and decompose it. The gas escapes by the tubes,
but the water is absorbed by the chloride of calcium.
When the action is at an end, the mouth is applied to
one end of the tube, and air is sucked through the
apparatus to force out the residue of carbonic acid.
The apparatus is weighed for the fourth time, and the
loss of weight shows the quantity of carbonic acid
expelled.
3. Fresenius and Will's Method.—The carbonate is
weighed and put into the flask A. A quantity of sul
phuric acid is put into the
flask B. The tubes are
then affixed as shown in
the figure, where all parts
are represented in relative
proportions. The point,
b, is closed by a ball of
wax. The whole is then
weighed. A small chloride
of calcium tube is to be
fixed upon the tube d, and
a little air is to be sucked
from the flask B by the
mouth. This causes air
to pass by the tube c from
A into B. When the
2R2
390 CARBON.

mouth is removed, the pressure of the atmosphere at d

forces a portion of sulphuric acid from B into A by the
tube c. This acid decomposes part of the carbonate,
and the carbonic acid set free passes through the tube
c into the flask B and thence into the air. As the gas
passes through the sulphuric acid into which the tube
c dips, the carbonic acid is deprived of moisture, and
escapes in a dry state. By repeating the suction at d,
other portions of acid are driven into the flask A, until
enough is present to decompose the carbonate entirely.
When the evolution of gas ceases, the wax is removed
from the point b, suction is again applied at d, and
atmospheric air drawn through till it is thought the
carbonic acid gas is all expelled from the apparatus.
The vessels are then allowed to cool, wiped dry, and
weighed. The loss shows the quantity of carbonic acid
expelled during the process.
4. Kerr's Method.—The glass apparatus is formed
in the manner represented by the figure. The end, a,
is closed and depressed, muriatic acid is poured in till
the vessel is filled above the bend, c, and the apparatus

is then placed in the position shown in the figure. The

solid and weighed carbonate is now dropped in at b, and
falls to c. The disengaged carbonic acid rises in the
branch, c, a, and drives over the muriatic acid to the
branch, c, b. When the action is at an end, the bulk of
the disengaged carbonic gas may be read off on the scale.
The stoppered outlet at a is used in cases of analysis,
where the kind of disengaged gas is unknown, and
where, in consequence, small portions of it require to be
transferred under water to other vessels, for examina
 OXALIC ACID, 391

tion. When Kerr's tube is devoted to the examination

of carbonates, for example, limestone, the branch, a, c,
may be closed at the top, and be graduated into 100
parts. The greater the capacity of the tube, the better
for use. The same bulk of muriatic acid, and of the
same strength, should be used for every charge, and it
should be determined by trial, how much pure car
bonate of lime will disengage a quantity of carbonic
acid gas equal to the 100 measures engraved on the
tube. This trial is effected easily by determining how
many measures of gas are disengaged by pieces of car
bonate of lime, weighing respectively 5, 7, and 10
grains. Suppose that 10 grains of pure carbonate of
lime, with the fixed dose of muriatic acid, produce
exactly the 100 measures of carbonic acid gas, then 10
grains of impure carbonate of lime, with the same dose
of muriatic acid, will, in a comparative experiment,
produce as many measures of carbonic acid gas as is
equal to its per centage of pure carbonate of lime.
Thus, 10 graius of a marl containing equal parts of
carbonate of lime and clay, will disengage 50 measures
of carbonic acid gas. -

For farther details on this subject consult the articles

on the carbonates of potash, soda, and lime.
Anhydrows, C2O3.
OxALIC ACID.< Effloresced, H2O, C2 08.
Crystallised, H2O, C2O3 + 2H2O.
Equivalents of Owalic Acid in its different states:—
C2 O 3. 452.876 |1:0000|-80105|-57303
H2O, C2O8. 565-356 |1'2484 || 1:0000|7|1535
H2O, C2O3 +2H2O. 790.316 |17451|1.3979|1:0000

Occurrence.—In the juice of wood-sorrell and in

many other plants in combination with potash or lime.
Preparation.—Pour 6 parts of nitric acid of 400° upon
one part of refined sugar or starch, and boil the mixture
in a retort. Carbonic acid gas and nitrous acid gas
 392 CARBON.

will be disengaged in large quantities. Distil over the

greater part of the acid, and then allow the liquor in
the retort to cool, whereupon the oxalic acid will be
- deposited in crystals. The operation can also be per
formed in a porcelain basin, when the gases and acid
are not to be collected. Drain these crystals from the
acid liquor, dissolve them in water, evaporate and
recrystallise. This may be repeated till the acid is
pure. 4 parts of sugar yield 1 part of oxalic acid. The
crystals should be perfectly white, and when ignited in
platinum capsule should leave no residue. It is, how
ever very difficult to free oxalic acid from a trace of
potash, which is derived from the sugar or starch from
which it is made. The crystals that are first deposited
in a crystallising solution of oxalic acid contain more
potash than the main crop of crystals. The following
figures represent porcelain drainers
adapted
their to separate
mother liquor. crystals
y from “s.”
Properties.—Clear colourless cry- º

stals, very acid, but not unpleasant in

taste. Dissolves in water; a saturated
solution at 62°F. is something less
than 100° strong; 1 part of oxalic
acid in 200,000 parts of water reddens
blue litmus. The crystals effloresce
in the air, H2O, C2O3 + H2O, be
coming H2O, C*08. The anhy
drous acid C2 0° is hypothetical. In a moderate
heat, the effloresced acid can be sublimed in glass
vessels for the most part undecomposed. Heated to
212° F. the crystals give off water and melt, and at
311° F. the acid boils and is decomposed, producing
carbonic acid and carbonic oxide as gas, and a solution
of formic acid in water. It is also decomposed by hot
oil of vitriol. See page 378.
A weak solution of oxalic acid has an agreeable acid
taste, and may be drank with perfect safety; but in the
state of a concentrated solution it is a deadly poison.
In the crystallised state it has much the appearance of
 OXALATES. 393

Epsom salts—instead of which it has sometimes been

taken accidentally, and proved fatal. The mode of
distinguishing oxalic acid from Epsom salt, is as follows:
—1. Taste the solution; Epsom salt is bitter; oxalic
acid extremely sour.—2. Pour a little tincture of litmus
into the solution: if Epsom salt be present, the blue
colour will remain unchanged; if oxalic acid be present,
the blue will be turned to red.—3. Tincture of cabbage,
or any other coloured vegetable infusion, or a slip of
litmus test-paper, are all acted upon by the acid, (which
changes their colours) but not by the salt.—4. Oxalic
acid, when dropped into water, makes a crackling noise,
which Epsom salts does not. The best antidote to a
dose of it is an emetic, aided by copious draughts of
warm water, containing chalk, or common carbonate of
magnesia.
OxALATES.—Oxalic acid combines with bases to pro
duce oxalates that have 1, 2, or 4 atoms of acid to one
atom of base. The neutral oxalates are sometimes
anhydrous. The binoxalates and quadroxalates all
contain water, partly acting as base to the acid, and
partly as water of crystallisation. The alcaline oxalates
are soluble. The oxalates of the earths and most of
the metals are insoluble; that of lime = CaO, C2 08
+ 2H2O, being the most insoluble of all the salts of
lime and of all the oxalates. The oxalate of soda
= NaO, C*08, is the least soluble of the salts of soda.
Most of the oxalates that are insoluble in water can be
dissolved by strong acids. Hence a solution that is to
be precipitated by oxalic acid should contain no free
acid of another kind. On the contrary, it should con
tain an excess of ammonia,
Detection of Owalates. See page 130.
Decomposition.—The oxalates are all decomposed
when heated with strong sulphuric acid, giving off
carbonic acid and carbonic oxide as gas in equal
quantities. See page 378. They are also decomposed
when heated alone, the products of the decomposition
being then different, according to the nature of the
bases; thus:—
394 CARBON.

Decomposition of Oxalates by Heat:

Fe0, C2O3 produces Fe and 2CO2.
MgO, C2 09 produces MgO and CO2 + CO.
CaO, C203 produces CaO, CO2, and CO. “
CaO, C2 08 produces CaO and CO2 + CO.”
PbO, C203 produces Pb and 2CO2.
“When gently, "when strongly, heated.
LIGHT CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. H4C = 101.397.
Syn. Gas of Marshes. Fire Damp of Coal Mines.
Properties.—A gas, specific gravity #:#; air, or
º:#### oxygen gas. Atomic volume #. See page
175. olourless, tasteless, inodorous. Unable to sup
port combustion or respiration, yet not poisonous. In
soluble in water. It burns readily in the air when
lighted at a jet, and gives a bright yellow flame.
Mixed with oxygen gas and inflamed, it produces a
violent explosion. It also explodes when mixed with
atmospheric air and inflamed. The products of the
combustion are water and carbonic acid. H4C + 0 +
= 2.H2O + CO2. Hence 2 volumes of this gas take 4
volumes of oxygen gas or 20 volumes of atmospheric air
to burn it.
Preparation.—Mix 4 parts of crystallised acetate of
soda, 4 parts of solid hydrate of potash, and 6 parts of
quicklime in powder. Put the mixture into a gas
bottle of infusible glass, and apply a strong heat. Pure
carburetted hydrogen gas is given off in abundance,
and can be collected over water. The gas is derived
from the decomposition of the acetic acid: C4H90° --
H2O = 2CO2 + 2H4C. The CO2 combines with the
potash and soda.
The gas of marshes is produced by the decomposition
of organic substances in stagnant waters. It can be
collected as follows:—Fill a flask with the marsh water,
and, after inverting it in the water, put a wide funnel
into its mouth and stir up the mud at the bottom of the
water with a stick, holding the flask and funnel over
the place that you agitate. The gas will then rise in
bubbles into the flask and displace the water. The gas
 DAVY's SAFETY LAMP. 395

of marshes thus collected is accompanied by carbonic

acid gas, which can be separated by putting lime-water
into the flask, and shaking the mixture.
This gas is also produced in coal mines, and is the
much-dreaded fire damp, which, when mixed with
atmospheric air and exposed to fire, explodes with
| extraordinary violence. Many persons have been killed
by such explosions, occasioned by the introduction of
lighted lamps into the fire-damp. Accidents of this
description are prevented by the use of the Safety
Lamp, invented by SIR HUMPHRY DAVY.
The Davy Lamp is a common oil lamp, having the flame sur
rounded by a cage of wire gauze, b, in the figure, is the oil
reservoir; a is the mouth by
which it is filled, and which
is closed by a screw; e is a
wire moveable in an air-tight
stuffing box, by which the
wick can be trimmed without

# L
opening
ciple of the
thislamp.
lamp The
is asprin
fol
# ÉÉ lows:—Davy discovered that
H HH H flame cannot pass through
wire gauze having more than
400 apertures to the square
inch. This fact can be easily
shown by means of a flat
piece of fine iron-wire gauze
of 5 inches square. If this
is brought down over a gas
jet, and the gas lighted above
it, the flame does not descend
so as to inflame the gas be
tween the jet and the gauze.
If the gas is first lighted and
the gauze brought down
into the flame, the flame
spreads below the gauze, but
does not rise through it. At
the same time the cooling
action of the gauze upon the
flame causes a quantity of gas to pass through the gauze uncon
sumed. Consequently, if a light is held above the gauze the gas
inflames and then burns both below the gauze and above it.
Upon this fact Davy reasoned, that if the lighted lamp came into
an explosive mixture of fire damp with air, only that quantity of
396 CARBON.

the gas would burn which entered into the lamp, because the
flame could not pass through the cage to inflame the large mass
of surrounding gas; and so it proved in practice. Since this
beautiful invention was adopted explosions in coal mines have
greatly diminished in frequency, and it is probable that the ex
plosions which now occasionally occur are owing to a misuse of
the lamp. The miners, for example, open the cage in order to
et a stronger light. It might be an improvement upon the
amp to give it a window consisting of a number of thin, round
plates of transparent mica about 2 inches diameter, closely
screwed in a double round brass rim, soldered to the lamp in
front of the flame. This lamp would give much more light than
the common form, and the mica would suffer little damage either
from heat or wet.

HEAVY CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. H2 C = 88-918.

Syn. Olefiant Gas. Etherine.
Properties.—A gas. Specific gravity #### air, or
§ oxygen gas. Atomic volume #. See page 175.
olourless and transparent. Commonly possessing an
unpleasant empyreumatic odour, due to impurities.
Insoluble in water. Unfit to support respiration or
combustion. Burnt at a jet in the air, it gives a brilliant
white flame of great illuminating-power. Mixed with
oxygen or air, and fired, it explodes with extreme
violence. It also explodes when mixed with chlorine
and fired. The products of the combination with
oxygen are carbonic acid and water. Hence 1 volume
of the gas = H*C, takes 3 volumes of oxygen gas to
burn it. H2C + O.8 = H2O + CO2. It follows, that
1 volume of this gas requires the oxygen of 15 volumes
of atmospheric air for its combustion, and leaves in the
atmosphere 2 volumes of carbonic acid gas, 12 volumes
of nitrogen gas, and 2 volumes of vapour of water, in
all 16 volumes of gases unfit for respiration. See page
385. Exp. 12.
Preparation.—This gas is prepared as follows:—Take
one ounce of strong alcohol and four ounces of concen
trated sulphuric acid. Employ a gas bottle of the
capacity of ten ounces. Add the acid to the alcohol, a
little at a time, and shake the bottle after each addition,
to mix the liquids properly, and to prevent heating.
 HEAVY CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. 397

The mixture becomes brown, and, on being cautiously

and very gradually heated, disengages olefiant gas.

This operation requires a good deal of care, for, unless

the heat be well regulated, the mixture is very apt to
boil over. If the heat is raised too rapidly, part of the
alcohol is driven off undecomposed. The gas comes off
when the liquor boils. The brown liquor gradually
becomes black and thick, from precipitated charcoal.
The operation must then be stopped. The gas is
purified by washing with a weak solution of potash, or
being passed through oil of vitriol. See page 233. It
can be collected over water.
Theory:—The composition of alcohol is represented
by the formula C4H12O2, which is equal to 4 H2C +
2H2O. That is to say, one equivalent of alcohol con
tains 4 equivalents of olefiant gas and 2 equivalents of
water. When this is boiled with concentrated sulphuric
acid, the water is abstracted and the olefiant gas is set
at liberty. In practice, however, the decomposition is
not effected so simply, but part of both the reagents is
decomposed, under production of sulphurous acid gas,
free charcoal, and ether.
Olefiant gas is an important ingredient of coal gas.
It also sometimes occurs in the fire-damp of coal mines,
and a large quantity of it is produced when oily sub
stances are exposed to a red heat in close vessels.
2 L
398 CARBON.

Thus it is that oil-gas is produced, the brilliant illumin

ating power of which is owing to the large proportion of
olefiant gas it contains.
ExPERIMENTS witH OLEFIANT GAS.
1. This gas burns with great brilliancy when in
flamed at the mouth of a narrow tube, as may be ob
served in the combustion of the coal gas and oil
gas commonly used to illuminate shops, those gases
being mixtures of olefiant gas with some other gases.
2. Collect the gas prepared from alcohol in a jar
such as fig. a, page 275. To the stopcock g of that
jar, adapt a brass jet of the form figured in the
margin. Transfer the jar to a deep water trough,
such as a pail. Open the stopcock g, apply a light to
the jet, and gently press the jar down into the water.
The gas will burn with a brilliant white flame like
a common gas light.
3. If an inflamed taper is held to the mouth of a large jar, a,
filled with olefiant gas, the gas
takes fire, and produces a large
and brilliant flame. To expel
the gas from the jar, and make it
all burn at the mouth, water may
be poured in from another vessel,
of equal capacity, b.
4. Collect the olefiant gas in a
#. cylinder, open and ground
at at both ends. Close the upper
end of it with a ground glass plate
smeared with tallow. Transfer
the cylinder to a deep water bath.
Take off the glass cover, imme
diately apply a light, and press
down the cylinderinto the water.
A large and brilliant flame is
thus produced.
5. Mix 1 volume of olefiant gas with 3 volumes of oxygen gas,
put the mixture in a bottle, wrap the bottle in a § cloth,
and apply a º to the mouth; upon which the mixture will
explode. H2C+08 = H20+CQ". As thisexplosion is extremel
violent, only small º: of the mixed gases should be .#
at once. The mouth of the bottle must be turned away from
you. See page 239.
6. The same mixture may be exploded by the electric spark.
See pages 240 and 246. But it is difficult to perform the experi
ment in a glass eudiometer, without breaking it.
 HEAVY CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. 399

7. The mixture may be blown into soap bubbles in an iron

mortar, as described at page 239. These bubbles produce a very
loud explosion when fired.
8. These experiments may be made with a mixture
of 1 measure of olefiant gas and 15 measures of air, or
of 1 measure of common coal gas with 8 or 10 measures
of atmospheric air.
9. Burn a little of the gas in a plain jar, and pour
lime water into the jar; carbonate of lime will be
formed. The carbonic acid produced by the combus
tion of this gas may also be collected in the manner
described at page 385.
10. When l volume of olefiant gas is mixed with 2
volumes of chlorine gas, and immediately inflamed, the
olefiant gas is decomposed, muriatic acid is formed,
and charcoal is deposited in powder (smoke). H2C+Cl* =
H2Cl2+C.—Invert a tall and wide cylinder, filled with water,
over the water trough. Fill one-third of it with olefiant gas,
and the residue of it with chlorine gas. Cover
the mouth of the jar, which should be ground,
with a greased glass plate, and invert the jar
several times to mix the gases. This experi
ment must be made at night, because the mix
ture is liable to explode in sunshine. Set the
jar on its foot, remove the glass cover, and
apply a light; the gas will burn with a red
flame, which proceeds slowly downwards, and
deposits a thick coat of carbon upon the glass.
1. Prepare a similar mixture of chlorine gas
and olefiant gas, in the same glass cylinder.
Bend a stout copper wire at a right angle, so
that one branch of it shall be able to dip half
way into the cylinder. Cover the lower end of
this wire very loosely with a leaf of Dutch gold.
Remove the cover from the cylinder, and dip
the leaf gold into the mixed gases. Spontaneous inflammation
occurs, with a beautiful appearance, and the charcoal is deposited
over the whole vessel.
12. As combustible gases burn in an atmosphere of oxygen
gas, so, in like manner, will oxygen gas, or atmospheric air, burn
in an atmosphere of combustible gas. Take the cylinder and jet
described in experiment 2, Fill the cylinder § common air,
press it down in water, and open the jet. Bring over the jet
a small bottle of olefiant gas. Just when the mouth of the bottle
is in contact with the jet, apply a light. Immediately depress
the bottle so as to bring the jet into the middle of the bottle.
Blow out the flame at the mouth of the bottle. The atmos
pheric air will continue to burn at the jet amid the atmosphere
400 CARBON.

of olefiant gas, or, in other words, the olefiant gas will burn
where air comes into contact with it.
13. In the same manner may a jet of chlorine gas be made to
burn in an atmosphere of olefiant gas, or coal gas. A dull yel
low flame is produced, which soon becomes invisible, in conse
quence of the dense mass of charcoal deposited upon the jar.
14. HYDRocARBURET of ChloßINE. H2C+Cl.—Suspend a
glass bottle filled with olefiant ń. by means of the ring of a
retortstand, so that its mouth shall be under the water
contained in a basin, without resting on the basin.
Place below the mouth of the bottle, a flat porcelain
capsule. Bring into the mouth of the bottle, the end
of the bent gas-delivering tube of a bottle in which
chlorine gas is being prepared. Seepage 346. Chlo
rine gas comes thus into contact with olefiant gas and
moisture, and gradually combines with the olefiant
gas, producing an ethereal or oily liquid having the
composition H2C+Cl. The gas gradually disappears,
the water rises in the bottle, the oil floats at first
on the surface of the water, but having a sp. gr. of
1-22, it soon sinks down into the capsule placed to
receive it. At 152°F. this oil forms a gas whose specific gravity
is #3:3#3 oxygen gas, so that its atomic volume is only f

CoAL GAS.–A mixed gas, namely, the coal gas, which

is now so much employed in lighting our streets and
houses, and which contains the gas of marshes, with a
large proportion of olefiant gas, and small quantities of
sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, carbonic acid,
common air, ammonia, naphtha, &c., may be procured
as follows:–1. Fill the bowl of the largest tobacco
pipe that can be procured with pulverised coal of a
good quality, (cannel coal answers best), and close the
top of it by the application of pipe-clay, or, what is
better, a mixture of sand and beer. When the lute is
dry, place the bowl of the pipe in a clear fire; in a few
minutes, a dense smoke will issue from the stem, which,
on the application of a lighted paper, will inflame, and
will continue in a state of beautiful combustion as long
as any gas continues to be distilled from the coal. The
body which will be found remaining in the bowl of the
pipe is the substance called coke.—2. Coal can also be
distilled in a retort, or gas bottle of very hard German
 CYANOGEN. PRUSSIC ACID. 401

glass. The tar and other products of the distillation

may then be observed.
When a quantity of coal gas is required for experi
ment, it can be obtained by attaching a bladder, or
gasometer, to a common gas jet, and then opening the
stopcock of the pipe.
An account of the manufacture of coal gas is una
voidably omitted for want of space.
CYANoGEN. N2 C2 = Cy2 = 329.912.
Properties.—A gas. Specific gravity 4:#}}# air, or
#:}#} oxygen gas. Atomic volume #. See page 175.
olourless; of very peculiar and penetrating bitter
almond odour; soluble in water; reddens wet litmus
paper; burns in air with a purple flame; reducible by
cold and pressure to the liquid state. It is one of the
gases most easily liquified, 2 volumes of cyanogen gas
require 4 volumes of oxygen gas for combustion, and
the products are 4 volumes of carbonic acid gas and 2
volumes of nitrogen gas. N*C2 + 0.4 = N* + 2CO2.
Preparation of Cyanogen Gas.-1. Take cyanide of
mercury, dry it at a gentle heat, put it into a tube
retort, and heat it gently with a Q
spirit lamp. Cyanogen gas issues §
from the beak of the tube, and s
may be burned there, producing s
a purple flame. If you want to ~

collect it, you must use a mercury trough, as the gas

is readily soluble in water. But it is dangerous to
make experiments upon this gas, as it is poisonous.
2. A mixture of 6 parts of dried yellow prussiate of
potash, and 9 parts of perchloride of mercury, also gives
off cyanogen gas when heated.
PRUssic Acid. N2C2H2 = H2Cy2 = 342:392.
Syn.—Hydrocyanic Acid.
Properties. – A colourless liquid, of a strong and
peculiar taste and odour, resembling those of bitter
almonds. It mixes in all proportions with water. Its
specific gravity is 0.7. At 5° F. it forms a crystalline
2L2
402 CARBON.

mass. It is exceedingly volatile, and boils at 80° F.

The sp. gr. of its vapour is ſºo:#$$ oxygen gas. Its
atomic volume is #. Page 176.
Prussic acid is one of the most powerful poisons.
Large animals have been killed by a few drops placed
on the tongue. What is said above as to the taste of it
applies only to extremely dilute acid. Instant death
would follow the tasting of the strong acid. The pre
paration of this acid is accompanied by considerable
danger, in consequence of its ready volatility.
Preparation.— 1. Prussic acid may be obtained
readily by making a saturated solution of cyanide of
potassium, and dropping into it as much tartaric acid
as will precipitate the potassium in the state of cream
of tartar. When the precipitate has subsided, the fluid
may be decanted, and slowly distilled, with a moderate
heat, into a receiver kept cool with water or pounded
ice. 2. Prussic acid can also be procured by distilling
cyanide of mercury with muriatic acid.
CYANIDEs. Cyanurets, Hydrocyanates, Prussiates.
Prussic acid may be taken as the model of the simple
cyanides. With potash, it produces cyanide of potas
sium. H*Cy” + KO = H2O + KCy”. The change
is similar to that which occurs when metallic oxides
are treated with muriatic acid. The simple cyanides
combine with one another in a very peculiar manner,
producing double or triple salts, of which some are of
great importance in the arts, such as prussiate of pot
ash and prussian blue. The nature of these compounds
will be best shown by quoting a few examples:—
a. Prussic acid is H2 Cy3.
b. Cyanide of potassium is K Cy”.
c. Cyanide of iron is Fe Cy3.
d. Ferroprussic acid is 2 H2Cy?, FeCy?.
e. Ferroprussiate of potash is 2 K Cy?, FeCy3+Aq9.
Do do. red, is 3 K Cy?, Fe? Cy”.
Detection of Cyanides.—Most of the metallic cyan
ides are decomposed by muriatic acid, which produces
metallic chlorides and free hydrocyanic acid; but there
must be no excess of muriatic acid, otherwise the hydro
 SULPHOCY ANOGEN. 403

cyanic acid is decomposed. A solution containing free

hydrocyanic acid acts as follows:–1. It exhales the
bitter almond odour.—2. With nitrate of silver, it gives
a white precipitate, soluble in ammonia, but not in nitric
acid.—3. Protonitrate of mercury gives reduced mer
cury.—4. Add a solution of protosulphate mixed with
persulphate of iron, then render the mixture alcaline by
caustic potash, so as to cause a precipitate of oxide of
iron, and finally acidify the mixture by a few drops of
muriatic acid. A precipitate of prussian blue will then
appear.
Extraction of Prussic Acid from Bitter Almond.—
If a piece of a bitter almond is put with water into the
retort, a, page 289, and slowly distilled, the water col
lected at c in the receiver will contain prussic acid, as
can be proved by applying the above tests, particularly
the last.
Want of space forbids a more detailed account of
the compound cyanides. The most important of them
are those which correspond either with the yellow or
the red prussiate of potash.
SULPHOCYANOGEN. Cy2S2.
HYDRosULPhocyanic ACID. H2 + Cy^S2.
SULPHOCYANIDES. M+ Cy^S2.

Sulphocyanogen.—A yellow powder, little known.

Hydrosulphocyanic Acid.—Dissolve sulphocyanide of
potassium in a small quantity of water, add a concen
trated solution of phosphoric acid, and distil the mix
ture. The product is a concentrated solution of hydro
sulphocyanic acid in water. It is colourless, odorous,
strongly acid, of sp. gr. 1022; it boils at 217° F., and
freezes at 14° F. With metallic oxides, it forms—
Sulphocyanides.—These do not, like the cyanides,
combine with one another. They are nearly all soluble
in water, producing colourless solutions. Their most
striking character is, that with solutions containing
peroxide of iron, they produce an intense blood-red
colour. Hence, a solution of sulphocyanide of potas
404 CARBON.

sium is the most delicate test for the presence of iron.

A solution of nitrate of silver gives a white precipitate
of sulphocyanide of silver, which is insoluble both in
nitric acid and in ammonia.

SULPHURET OF CARBON, CS2 = 478-77.

Properties.—A colourless, verythin liquid, of peculiar
and disagreeable odour, resembling that of rotten cab
bage. Its sp. gr. is 1:272. It is insoluble, and sinks in
water. Extremely volatile; boils at 108° F. Its eva
poration produces a great degree of cold. The sp. gr.
of its gas is 239:384, oxygen gas = 100. Page 175. It
is readily combustible, and burns with a blue flame, pro
ducing carbonic acid and sulphurous acid. It acts as
an acid towards metallic sulphurets, producing double
salts having the formula MS, CS2. It is soluble in
alcohol, ether, and oils. It dissolves sulphur and phos
phorus, and the solutions, by spontaneous evaporation,
yield crystals of these elements. It also dissolves many
organic substances, as camphor, amber, mastic, caout
chouc, volatile oils, and resins, and may be useful in
the preparation and use of resinous varnishes, the
rapidity with which it evaporates being highly useful in
particular circumstances.
Preparation.—Sulphuret of carbon is produced when gaseous
sulphur is brought into contact with red-hot charcoal. The
following is the apparatus used for its preparation by Mitscher
lich. An iron tube, b, c, three feet long and two inches in dia
 SULPHURET OF CARBON. 405

meter, is placed through an oblong portable furnace, in which

it can be made thoroughly red-hot. This tube is filled with
pieces of charcoal, previously dried by ignition in a closed cru
cible. The end, b, is stopped by a cork. At a is a small hole,
which can also be effectually closed by a cork. The end, c, is
adapted, by means of a cork, to a very long glass tube, o. All
the corks must be previously boiled in glue, to make them fit
air-tight. The long tube passes, air-tight, through a hole or a
side neck, into the flask, f. The tube, m, fastened by a cork
into the flask, f, serves to carry off superfluous gases through a
window or into a good-drawing chimney. A little water is
placed in the flask. The tube, o, must be well cooled by a
stream of ice-cold water, e. [The cooling power represented in
the figure would not be sufficient. The cold water must affect
the whole length of the tube. See pages 256-8, and 287-8.] The
end of the tube, o, is not allowed to dip into the liquor in the
flask, f, in order that there may be no pressure produced to
retard the distillation. When the charcoal in the tube is con
sidered to be red-hot, small pieces of sulphur are from time to
time inserted at the hole, a, the stopper of which is always
instantly replaced. The sulphur melts, runs down to the hot
}. of the tube (which is, for that purpose, slightly inclined
rom b to f.) and is there vapourised. The red-hot charcoal
absorbs the gaseous sulphur, and produces sulphuret of carbon,
which, being volatile, is driven by the heat into the tube, o,
where it is condensed into a liquid, which flows into the flask,
f, and sinks below the water. If the cooling is not effective, the
sulphuret of carbon escapes in vapour by the tube, m. The
charcoal, notwithstanding its previous ignition, always retains a
little hydrogen, which combines with a portion of sulphur, and
produces sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which
escapes by the tube, m. The operation is
continued as long as sulphuret of carbon
continues to be produced. The product
always contains an excess of sulphur. It is
purified by distillation from a retort heated
by a water bath. The operation must pro
ceed very slowly. As sulphuret of carbon
boils at 108°F, the heat must be supplied
very cautiously. The receiver, b, must
be very effectively cooled by iced water,
the junctions between the adapter, a, and
the retort and receiver, must be securely
made with good corks. When ſº, of the
sulphuret of carbon has passed into the
receiver, the residue in the retort will
retain the excess of sulphur. If it is permitted to evaporate
spontaneously in a covered capsule, fine crystals of sulphur will
406 CARBON.

be obtained.—Sulphuret of carbon should be preserved in a well

stoppered glass bottle, with an inch or more of water above it,
to prevent evaporation.
xPERIMENTS with SULPHURET of CARBON.
1. Fill a glass cylinder, about 18 inches high, and 3 or 4 inches
in diameter, with nitric oxide gas (page 282). The mouth of
the cylinder should be ground, and covere
with a ground and greased glass plate. Place
the º mouth upwards, on the table.
Lift the glass plate, and quickly sprinkle in
the cylinder, by means of a pipette, 5 or 6 sep
tems of liquid sulphuret of carbon. Imme
diately replace the glass cover, and invert the
jar a few_times to diffuse the vapour of sul
phuret of carbon through the nitrous gas.
Replace the cylinder on the table in such a
manner that the mouth of it does not point to
any spectator. Lift the cover and immediately
inflame the gas. It burns without explosion,
or with only a slight noise, but it gives a splen
did blue flame, which rises high above the
cylinder, while the whole interior of the 5.
becomes coated with precipitated sulphur.
The gases produced by this combination are, gº-->
sulphurous acid, carbonic acid, and nitrogen. -

2. Take a cylinder of japanned tinplate, 12 inches long and

2 inches in diameter. # it with pure oxygen gas,
and mix with the gas 4 or 5 septems of liquid sul
phuret of carbon, in the manner described in expe
riment 1, and cover the mouth of the jar with the
palm of your left hand. Have ready an iron wire
of the thickness of a knitting needle and 18 inches
long, bent at a right angle in the middle, and heated
strongly at one end, but not made red-hot. Remove
your left hand from the mouth of the jar, seize the
jar outside and turn its mouth away from your
face. Immediately plungo the hot end of the wire
into the gas so far as to reach to about the middle
of the cylinder. . There occurs almost immediately
a very powerful detonation, which, however, is
without danger if the above precautions are ob
served. The gaseous products of this combustion
are sulphurous acid and carbonic acid.
3. Caoutchouc Cement, useful as a Lute and Varnish
for Chemical Apparatus.--Cut a caoutchouc bottle
into very small fragments. Fill a wide-mouthed
bottle with two-thirds of mineral naphtha and one-third of cut
caoutchouc. Close the bottle, and let it remain undisturbed eight
 BORON. 407

or ten days in a warm place. By that time the pieces of caout

chouc will be greatly swelled. Pour off the remaining mineral
naphtha, and add in its place a mixture of equal parts of sul
phuric ether and sulphuret of carbon. The mixture is to be fre
quently well shaken for some days, and finally left for some time
in repose. When the contents of the bottle form two distinct
liquors, the uppermost clear thick liquor is to be poured off for
use into another vessel, which must be securely stoppered. This
cement can be coloured by powdered gamboge, carmine, or other
pigments.
Cracks in glass tubes, retorts, and other vessels, can be rapidly
stopped by this cement, for the solvent is so volatile, that it
flies off immediately, and the caoutchouc forms a thin tough dry
skin. It serves in many cases to make air-tight junctions, or
to cover the corked mouth of a bottle in which a preparation is
to be secured from air.—Boettger.
4. Set fire to a little sulphuret of carbon contained in a porce
lain capsule. A brush of fine steel wire (page 224) will burn in
this flame, proving the intenseness of its heat.
5. Cover the ball of a thermometer with cotton wool moistened
with sulphuret of carbon, and wave the thermometer in the air.
The evaporation thus produced will cause the mercury to sink a
great number of degrees. See page 90.
6. One drop of sulphuret of carbon vaporised in 6 cubic inches
of air is exploded by an electric spark in the air pistol. Page 240.

12. BORON. B = 136.204.

Occurrence.—See page 21.
Properties.—Boron is a dark olive-coloured powder,
tasteless and inodorous. When heated in close vessels
it shrivels up, but does not fuse nor volatilise. When
heated in the air, it burns in a lively manner, and
acquires a coating of dry boracic acid. Aqua regia and
nitric acid convert it into ºboracic acid. Chlorine
changes it into gaseous chloride of boron. When
mixed' and heated with nitrate of potash it explodes.
The most important compounds of boron are boracic
acid and borax.
BoRACIC ACID, anhydrous. B0° = 436:20.
BoFACIC ACID, crystallised. B0°,+3H2O=773.64.
Preparation.—Dissolve 3 parts of borate of soda
(borax) in 12 parts of hot water, and filter the solution;
then add 1 part of sulphuric acid, by little and little,
till the liquor has a sensibly acid taste. Put it aside
 408 BORON.

to cool, and a great number of small laminated crystals

(scales) will be gradually formed. These are boracic
acid. They are to be purified by washing with cold
water, which carries off any extraneous soluble body,
but leaves the acid, which is very sparingly soluble,
almost untouched. When the crystals have been
washed, they are to be drained upon brown paper.
They may be purified by solution and recrystallisation.
The hydrated boracic acid acts on blue colours like
an acid, but on turmeric like an alcali. The crystals
give off water when heated, and, at a red heat, fuse to
a transparent colourless glass, which is used as a flux
in analysis, and as an ingredient of false gems. It is
the anhydrous acid. When heated to only 212° F. the
crystals lose but half their water, and leave 2BO3 +
3H2O. A substance well known by the name of borax
is composed of boracic acid and soda. Boracic acid is
obtained in the form of thin crystals or scales, of a
silvery-white colour, which have a greasy feel, no smell,
but a very strange taste—being first sourish, then
bitterish, cooling, and at last agreeably sweet. It is
soluble in water, but only in a slight degree. It is more
soluble in alcohol, and gives to the flame of that body,
when burning, a green colour.
Though sulphuric acid displaces boracic acid from
borate of soda when in solution, yet if boracic acid is
fused with sulphate of soda, sulphuric acid is expelled,
and borate of soda reproduced.
Fusibility of Boracic Acid.—Melt a small quantity on a hooked
platinum wire in the blowpipe flame, as represented at page 117.
Incombustible dresses for performers.-If muslin is ..". into
a strong solution of boracic acid and dried, it is rendered incom
bustible, that is to say, it will not burn with flame. A few
months ago, an eminent female dancer at London met with a
horrible death in consequence of her dress taking fire from the
foot-lights on the stage; such accidents could be prevented by"
passing the dresses, after being washed, through a strong solution
of any salt containing a fusible acid. The substances that
would answer best are boracic acid and phosphate of ammonia.
They could, perhaps, be conveniently applied in the starching of
the dresses. Fabricsso prepared, when dried, have no appearance
of particular preparation. When brought into contact with fire,
they are charred and destroyed, but do not burst into flame.
 SILICON. 409

Bor ATEs.—Compounds formed of boracic acid and

oxides. The alcaline borates are soluble in water. All
others are insoluble. They are readily fusible, and are
used as fluxes for other bodies; borax, in particular, is
much used in experiments made with the blowpipe.
Detection of Borates.—See page 130.
CHLORIDE OF BORON.—BC1". See page 174. A
pungent acid gas, which forms thick vapours in the air.
FLUORIDE OF BORON.—BF". Produced by heating
2 parts of fluorspar with 1 part of anhydrous boracic
acid and 15 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid. A
gas. See page 174. Forms very thick vapours when let
into moist air, in consequence of its powerful attraction
for water, which absorbs 700 times its volume of this gas.
White paper plunged into this gas instantly turns coal
black: the reason is, that the paper is decomposed, and
new compounds formed by the oxygen and hydrogen of
the paper and the elements of the fluoride of boron.
The charcoal of the paper is thus set at liberty.
13. SILICON. Si = 277-312.
Occurrence.—See page 15.
Properties.—Silicon is a dark-brown powder, without
metallic lustre. When heated in the air, it burns on
the surface to silicic acid (silica), which coats the
unburned silicon. The residue can be dissolved only
by a mixture of nitric acid and hydrofluoric acid. When
silicon is mixed and heated with carbonate of potash, it
is readily oxidised at a temperature lower than a red
heat. Chlorine gas passed over heated silicon pro
duces volatile chloride of silicon.
Silicon is a very important substance in the mineral
kingdom. With oxygen it forms silica; with oxygen
and hydrogen it forms hydrate of silicic acid; with
oxygen and metals it forms silicates. . It is extremely
abundant. One-third part of the weight of most of
the mountains in the world consists of silicon.
SILICIC ACID. Silica.—SO 9 = 577-312.
A white powder, insoluble in water, infusible, inodor
2 M
410 SILICON.

ous, tasteless, gritty, Native rock-crystal consists of

silica nearly in a state of purity. Common sand is
impure silica. Quartz, flint, and other siliceous
minerals, consist of silica in various states of impurity.
Siliceous stones are harder than window glass, but
softer than the diamond. It is insoluble in all acids
except the hydrofluoric acid, and it can only be brought
into solution by fusion with a fixed alcali.

Preparation of Silica.-Transparent specimens of rock-crystal

are ignited, thrown, while red-hot, into water, to render them
brittle, and then reduced to powder in an agate mortar. Silica
thus prepared is not quite pure. To obtain it pure, it must be
melted with 3 or 4 parts of dry and pure carbonate of soda in a
platinum crucible. This requires the heat of a furnace. After
the fusion, the mass is to be taken from the crucible, put into a
porcelain basin, and dissolved in pure muriatic acid. The silica
will then be perceived to have the consistency of jelly. The
mixture is to be slowly evaporated to dryness, all lumps formed
during the evaporation being broken down with a glass rod.
When the residue is in the state of a fine dry, nearly white,
powder, it is to be moistened with a little strong muriatic acid,
to be well mixed with a glass rod, and allowed to rest for 20
minutes. Water is then to be added in considerable quantity,
whereupon the chloride of sodium, with the chloride of iron, and
other impurities, will dissolve, and the silicic acid will remain
undissolved. It is to be brought upon a paper filter, placed on
a funnel, and to be
washed as follows:–
Let d represent, the
funnel which contains
the silica on a filter;
then water is to be
boiled in the flaska,
and the steam is to be
conveyed from it by *
means of a bent glass
tube, b, of 4-inch bore,
into the funnel d. Both
ends of this tube are
ground aslant, so that
no drops of water can
obstruct the passage.
The funnel is covered
by a very shallow glass
capsule, c, which has a
 SILICATES. 41 I

hole in the middle just large enough to admit the tube b, and the
end of this tube must barely pass through the cover, and not
touch any thing within the funnel. As the steam passes into the
funnel, it is condensed into boiling hot water, which passes
through the powder that is to be washed, and drops from the
neck of the funnel, carrying all soluble matters with it. The
pressure of the steam and the high temperature are both advan
tageous in facilitating the rapid washing of the precipitate. If
the steam comes off too fast, the excess blows out between the
funnel and the cover, and does no harm. But it is easy, when
the water is boiled by a gas flame, to provide against waste of
steam. The only accident to which this method of washing is
liable is that of water gathering so much in the funnel as to
cover the end of the tube, but a very little attention to the
ebullition of the water suffices to prevent this occurrence. We
are indebted for this very useful process to DR. John SHIER.
Tests of the purity of Silica.-The washing of the
silica is completed when the drops of water that pass
from the funnel give no precipitate with a solution of
nitrate of silver. The silica so prepared should be
perfectly white, and when fused with carbonate of soda
before the blowpipe, should give a colourless glass bead.
Another method of preparing pure silica is described
in the article on hydrofluosilicic acid.
SILICATES. — Silica combines with metallic oxides
to form compounds that are called Silicates, all of which
are insoluble in water, except the silicates of fixed
alcalies containing a great excess of base. Very many
rocks and siliceous minerals consist of silicates, and
especially of combinations of silica with alumina, lime,
magnesia, oxide of iron, potash, soda, and more rarely
oxide of manganese. Silicates of potash and soda,
when the silica is in excess, constitute glass. When
silicate of lead is added, the glass is the important
variety called flint glass. Silicate of alumina is the
principal component of all clays and earthenware.
Among the natural silicates, many, such as zeolites, are
soluble in heated muriatic acid; but others require to
be melted with a fixed alcali before they can be dis
solved. Most silicates are so constituted, that the
oxygen of the base is equal to $, $, or 3 of the oxygen
of the silicic acid with which it is in combination,
412 SILICON.

FLUORIDE OF SILICON. SiLT6.

HYDROFLUOSILICIC ACID. 3PI2F2 + 2SiR'8.
SILICOFLUORIDEs. 3MF2 + 2SiR0.

FLUORIDE OF SILICON.—Mix intimately equal parts

of fluorspar and pounded glass or ground flint. Put a
quantity of this mixture into a gas bottle with as much
strong oil of vitriol as will produce a thin paste. The
mixture must be stirred or well shaken. It swells con
siderably during the subsequent action, so that a
capacious flask is necessary. A partial disengagement
of gas takes place immediately, but after some time, a
gentle heat must be applied to promote the action.
The gas thus prepared is fluoride of silicon, Si F9. It
dissolves so eagerly in water that it must be collected
over mercury, and the vessels to contain it must all be
thoroughly dried. It is transparent and colourless, but
it gives thick white fumes in moist air. It is very dense,
its sp. gr. being 3-6. It is 3} times heavier than
oxygen gas. See page 177. Its chief use is in prepar
ing the following acid.
HYDROFLUosii.ICIC ACID.—When gaseous fluoride of
silicon is passed into water, one third of it is decomposed,
and the remaining two-thirds combine with part of the
products of the decomposition, as represented in the
following equation:—
3SiF6 + 3H2O = (3H2F2 + 2SiF6) + SiO3.
The compound 3H2F2 + 2SiF6 is the hydrofluosilicic
acid, which dissolves in the water. The compound
SiO4 is pure silicic acid, which separates in a gelatin
ous form, and can be separated from the solution. This
process may be followed either to procure the hydro
fluosilicic acid to use as a test, or as a method of pre
paring silica. I shall describe several forms of appara
tus which may be used, according to the quantity of
materials operated upon at one time.
1. A small quantity of the acid may be prepared by means of
the tube apparatus figured in page 289. #. materials to pro
duce the fluoride of silicon are to be put into the retort a, the
 HYDROFLUOSILICIC ACID, 413

joint at d is to be made tight, and as much mercury is to be put

into the receiver at c as barely closes the passage. As the gas
passes into the branch b, it may be examined, that is to say, its
fuming properties may be seen and its action on litmus paper
may be tested. The branch b is then to be nearly filled with
water, upon which the gas, as it rises through the mercury, will
be converted into the hydrofluosilicic acid, under a visible deposi
tion of gelatinous silica.
2. The apparatus figured in the margin serves for the prepara
tion of a quantity of this acid. It is a combination of instru
ments very useful in many
cases where a gas is to be
passed into a liquor. d is
the gas bottle in which
the gas is prepared; e the
as delivery tube passing
into the liquor. In the
present case, however,
the tube passes into a
stratum ofmercury placed
below the liquor, in order
to prevent the stoppage
of the tube by deposited
silica, which is almost
sure to occur if the tube
dips into the water. b is
a tripod support for the
bottle, having a shelf to
support the spirit lamp; c is a screen of zinc which can be
shifted round the apparatus to cut off drafts of air from the lamp;
a a are a series of blocks of wood, by which the jar f can be
*
tube e.
to any level rendered necessary by the length of the
3. The apparatus represented by the cut on page 415 is
adapted for use when a large quantity of silica or of hydrofluosi
licic acid is required. It is the same in principle as the apparatus
last described. The only addition is the safety tube b. This is
added to prevent an explosion in the event of the possible obstruct
tion of the gas delivery tube. This might happen by the gradual
accumulation of moisture in the tube and the deposition of silica
arising from that accident. In such a case, the acid in the safety
tube would blow out and allow the gas to escape by the funnel.

The silica deposited in this operation has a very

curious appearance. It often forms worm-like tubes of
silica, rising up through the water. These must be
broken down by a glass rod, otherwise part of the gas
2M2 -
414 SILICON.

will escape through them into the air. When the

operation is ended the liquor may be filtered through a
clean linen cloth, and be squeezed from the silica. The
latter cannot be washed, because in this condition silica
is easily soluble in water. The silica can be afterwards
purified by ignition and subsequent washing.
The hydrofluosilicic acid cannot be separated from
water. Evaporation does not concentrate but decom
poses it. The aqueous solution has a strong acid taste
and reddens blue litmus. It does not corrode glass like
hydrofluoric acid, and may, therefore, be preserved in
closed glass bottles. It gradually evaporates at about
104° F., leaving no residue ; but if the evaporation
takes place in a glass capsule, the glass becomes cor
roded. The reason of this is, that, when exposed to
the air, hydrofluosilicic acid suffers decomposition ;
fluoride of silicon volatilises, and the residue becomes
so much richer in hydrofluoric acid, that it acquires
power to act on the glass. The acid cannot even be
concentrated over oil of vitriol in the receiver of an air
pump. It forms salts called silicofluorides, constituted
according to the formula given above.
SILICoELUoRIDEs. 3MF* + 2SiF6.—If, to a quantity
of hydrofluosilicic acid, you add an excess of a base,
such as soda, you decompose the acid, producing a
metallic fluoride and separated silica. But if you add only
as much of the base as saturates the hydrofluoric acid,
you produce a silicofluoride, having the composition
stated above, in which the fluorine of the silicon is twice
as much as the fluorine of the metal. Most of these
compounds are soluble in water, though some of them
less readily than others. Thus silicofluoride of potassium
and silicofluoride of sodium form transparent gelatinous
precipitates, and silicofluoride of barium forms a white
crystalline precipitate. In consequence of this property,
this acid is used to precipitate potash from such salts as
the chlorate and chromate, in order to isolate the chloric
and chromic acids. The silicofluorides are all decom
posable by heat: the fluoride of silicon volatilises, and
metallic fluorides remain. Their solutions redden
 SILICOFLUORIDES. 415

litmus, and generally possess a bitter acid taste. The

silicofluorides effervesce with oil of vitriol, and disen
gage fluoride of silicon. Those containing calcium and
barium, if heated with oil of vitriol at above 212° F.,
disengage hydrofluoric acid. When silicofluorides are
ignited with metallic potassium, many of them produce
free silicon and fluoride of potassium ; while the
metallic fluoride that formed part of the decomposed
silicofluoride, in some cases remains undecomposed,
and in others gives up its fluorine to another portion of
potassium.
 METALLIC, ELEMENTS.

ENUMERATION AND CLASSIFICATION.

Metals of the Alcalies:—

14. Potassium. 16. Lithium. 17. Ammonium.
15. Sodium. [A Compound Metal.]

Metals of the Alcaline Earths:–

18. Barium. 20. Calcium. 22. Lantanum.
19. Strontium. 21. Magnesium.
Metals of the Non-Alcaline Earths:—
23. Aluminum. 25. Yttrium. 27. Thorium.
24. Glucinum. 26. Zirconium.
Metals whose Protovides are Saline Bases:—
28. Iron. 34. Uranium. 40. Mercury.
29. Manganese. 35. Bismuth. 41. Silver.
30. Cerium. 36. Lead. 42. Platinum.
31. Nickel. 37. Tin. 43. Palladium.
32. Cobalt. 38. Zinc. 44. Iridium.
33. Copper. 39. Cadmium, 45. Rhodium.
Metals whose Perovides are Acids:—
46. Osmium. 50. Tungstenum. 54. Antimony.
47. Gold. 51. Molybdenum. 55. Tellurium.
48. Titanium. 52...Vanadium. 56. Arsenic.
49. Tantalum. 53. Chromium.
Four metals recently discovered, and of which not
much is yet known, are omitted from this list. They
are called Didymium, Erbium, Terbium, and Pelopium.
If these discoveries are substantiated, the number of
recognised ELEMENTs will be FIFTY-NINE,
 METHODS OF PREPARING SALTS. 417

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE METALs.

They all possess a peculiar shining appearance, called

the metallic lustre, which is well developed by polished
iron, silver, or mercury. They are all conductors of
heat and of electricity. In masses they are all opaque,
but some of them can be rolled into thin leaves, through
which a little light passes. In other physical properties
they differ considerably. In specific gravity they vary
from ºn of that of water to 21 times that of water. In
hardness and tenacity, in fusibility and volatility they
also present great differences, as will be shown in the
special description of each metal.
Metals combine with one another and produce alloys.
The alloys formed with mercury are called Amalgams.
Metals combine directly with most of the metalloids, as
with oxygen, sulphur, and chlorine; and the compounds
produced by metals with metalloids combine with other
compounds formed by the metalloids one with another.
Thus, oxides of metals combine with oxides of carbon,
sulphur, and chlorine, producing the compounds called
salts.
METHODS OF PREPARING THE SALTS OF DIFFERENT
METALs.—1. By dissolving metals in acids, either cold,
page 227, or hot, page 313.−2. By dissolving oxides or
hydrates of oxides in acids, page 294.—3. By dissolving
carbonates in acids, pages 294 and 387.—4. By dissolv
ing sulphurets in acids, page 325-5. By dissolving, or
if imsoluble, by heating, a salt with any acid that is
either less volatile or, less precipitable than the acid
already in combination with the base. Thus, chlorides
when heated with sulphuric acid, give off muriatic acid
gas, and leave sulphates in solution, page 353; borates,
heated with dilute sulphuric acid, precipitate boracic
acid, and leave sulphates, page 407. Salts thus pro
cured in solution, are to be filtered, evaporated in a
porcelain basin till a skin begins to form on the surface,
and then set aside in a quiet place, covered with paper,
to crystallise.
Since metals dissolve most readily and most economi
418 METALLIC ELEMENTS.

cally, page 294, in acids when they are in the state of

oxides, hydrates, or carbonates, many are commonly
converted into such compounds by cheap and convenient
processes, and are kept in those states for ordinary use;
others are only furnished to us by nature in the form
of oxides and carbonates, and cannot be conveniently
reduced to the metallic state. When a metal is to be
converted into an oxide, it is dissolved in the cheapest
acid that is appropriate, the solution is filtered, and is
then over-saturated with a solution of caustic potash,
caustic soda, or ammonia, if an oxide is required; or
with a solution of the carbonate of one of these alcalies
when a carbonate is required. Sometimes the precipi
tation is made in a cold liquor, but generally it is best
to make it in a hot liquor, as the precipitate is more
granular and more easily separated from the mother
liquor. Time is allowed for the precipitate to settle.
It is then to be brought on a filter, and washed with
hot water, by the method that I have described at page
410. Thus prepared, the substance is usually easily
soluble in acids; but if it be dried and subjected to a
red heat, so as to become anhydrous, it is often rendered
very difficult of solution in acids.
PRESERVATION of SALTs.—Salts that have been prepared with
care should be preserved from the atmosphere in glass bottles,
and if corrosive, the bottles should have ground glass stoppers.
Crystals, and powders are most conveniently kept in wide
mouthed stoppered bottles, such as are here figured. A and B

º--
have ground glass stoppers, C and D have cork stoppers, covered
 TEST SOLUTIONS. 419

with wooden tops. Such substances as are deliquescent, or

liable to oxidation in the air, must be put into bottles whose
stoppers fit particularly close, and the bottle should not be too
large. When small quantities of rare or valuable substances are
obtained in the course
of experimenting, they
should be preserved in E
little bottles made of
glass tube, similar to -

figure E. Šuch bottles -

may be stopped either with corks or glass. . - -

Amateurs, whose chemical experiments are made in dwelling

houses, find it convenient to keep their preparations under the
security of lock and key, partly to preserve them in purity and
safety, and partly because it is imprudent to allow all the mem
bers of a household free access to articles, most of which are
poisonous, and many highly dangerous for inexperienced hands
to meddle with. In such circumstances, an assortment of pre
parations can be kept in a square chest, divided into spaces,
each adapted for 4 bottles, the size and number of which can be

regulated according to the wishes of the individual. A series of

60 bottles, with a separate stock of a few bulky articles, is suffi
cient for general purposes. *. -, -

TEST Solutions.—Solutions of salts for tests are made by

dissolving the substances in distilled water. If any turbidness
appears, the solutions must be filtered through paper, unless the
substance is one that is affected by paper, such as nitrate of
silver, in which case the solution must be allowed to settle, and
the clear part decanted. At page 264, and in the account of
many articles, I have described a method of making test solutions
420 METALLIC ELEMENTS.

of fixed strengths. Such liquors will be found equally convenient

in teaching the principles of chemistry, and in the practice of
chemical analysis. A lecturer who prepares his precipitants in
this way, can always count securely upon their action, and will
never need to apologize to his audience: –“This liquor should
give no precipitate, but it does give one, because it is not pro
perly made.” The test solutions, when prepared, are kept for
use in bottles with glass stoppers. Corks are quite inadmissible
in this case. The F G H
bottle marked F is
a convenient form.
When the stopper
is withdrawn, it
can be placed on
the table upon its
head, and so takes
up no dirt; and
when in the bottle,
itshelters the neck
from falling dust.
For liquors that
are volatile, or liable to be affected by the air,
the bottle with ground cap, fig. G, offers double
security. It is useful for such liquors as caustic alcalies, acids,
ether, alcohol, &c. Fig. H is a plain glass test bottle of the
common form. The names on such bottles are most durable and
cleanly when painted with enamel colours and burnt in. The
next best kind of labels are those that are printed on paper.
Common writing ink is so easily bleached by the gases which
usually pervade a chemical laboratory, that labels written with it
are to be avoided on all possible occasions. I
An excellent form of bottle for containing liquors
to be used in testing (qualitative analysis) is shown
by figure I. It has a wide mouth, and, instead of
a stopper, is furnished with a glass cap, ground
to fit the outside of the neck. It is also provided
with a pipette, the orifice of which is so small that
it cannot deliver above one drop of liquor at a
time, though, at the pleasure of the #. it
can give many drops in succession. The pipette
always remains in the bottle. Of course, it is
always ready for use, requires no cleaning, prevents
the waste of the reagent, and is an effectual check (g
on the overdosing of any liquor that is to be tested.
A convenient system of test bottles for amateurs, and for
travelling chemists is represented in page 421. It is a stron
mahogany box, divided into numerous compartments, eac
adapted to hold 1 square glass stoppered bottle, which is of such
 POTASSIUM. 421

height as just to fill the space when the lid of the box is shut
down. For travelling, the stoppers are tied down to the bottles

with pieces of leather, and the box may then be safely inverted
without damage. One such box with 60 bottles of about 3 ounces
contents, and another box of the same size, with about half as
many wider bottles for acids and stock liquors, contain a suffi
cient supply of materials for an extended course of experiments.
The box for solid tests, described in page 419, is subsiduary to
the box for liquid tests.
The best arrangement of tests for chemists residing in hot
countries, (India, the West Indies, &c.) is a box of oak or maho
gany like that last figured, but with bottles like figure F. The
names on these bottles cannot be eaten off by cockroaches and
other insects that are in the habit of committing depredations
on paper labels.

14. POTASSIUM. KALIUM. K = 489-916.

Occurrence.—See page 17.

Properties.—The properties of potassium are very
extraordinary. It is lighter not only than all other
metals, but even than water, its sp. gr. being only 0-865.
It is solid, soft, and of the colour and metallic lustre of
silver. But its metallic nature is not retained a single
minute when it is exposed to the air; it instantly at
tracts oxygen, and becomes covered with a crust of
potash, which absorbs water, and in a short time the
whole becomes a saturated solution of caustic or hy
2 N
422 POTASSIUM.

drated potash. Potassium is exceedingly inflammable.

It is hard and brittle at 32° F., it fuses at 136°, and rises
in vapour at a heat below redness, producing a green gas.
When heated in oxygen gas to the temperature at
which it begins to evaporate, it burns with a brilliant
light and an intense heat. When thrown upon the
surface of water, it acts with great
violence. [In performing the ex- <TD
periment, the water may be put
in a flat earthenware pan.] The
-
liquid is rapidly decomposed; its hydrogen is evolved,
and spontaneously inflames in the air; it then commu
nicates the combustion to the potassium, and the whole
burns, while swimming about on the water, with a
beautiful light of a violet-red colour; meantime, the
oxygen unites with the potassium, and produces an
oxide, which dissolves in the water, and produces a
solution of potash. When potassium is put into water
protected from air, it decomposes the water, liberates
hydrogen gas, and forms a solution of potash. See pages
232 and 251. Potassium likewise burns with a kind of
explosion, when placed, in a perfectly cold state, upon
a piéce of ice, dissolving the ice, and forming a little
hole, in which it burns till entirely consumed, forming,
as before, a solution of potash. It spontaneously inflames
when put intochlorine gas, burning with great brilliancy,
and producing chloride of potassium. Upon all fluids
containing water, or much oxygen or chlorine, potassium
acts with great rapidity; and, in its general powers of
chemical combination, it may be compared to the
alcahest, or wmiversal-solvent, so much talked of and
longed for by the alchemists. Potassium has, of all
known substances, the strongest tendency to combine
with oxygen; and it can, only be preserved in the
metallic state, by being kept in mineral naphtha, a
liquid of which oxygen is not a constituent.
Compounds of Potassium. See pages 152 and 162.
PREPARATION of PotASSIUM.–The preparation of this metal
depends upon the decomposition of potash by charcoal at a high
temperature. In all decompositions by charcoal, especially when
 PREPARATION OF POTASSIUM. 423

such oxides are acted upon as are difficult of reduction, it is

necessary that the mixture of the oxide and the charcoal be ex
tremely intimate. This is particularly requisite in the present
case, because carbonate of potash fuses at a red heat, and in the
event of an imperfect mixture, sinks below the charcoal, which,
left swimming above, can exert its reducing power in but a very
slight degree. No separation of this kind occurs when the ma
terials are well mixed; for in that case the ignited charcoal sucks
into it the melting potash,just as it would absorb water if wetted.
This perfect mixture is best effected by the employment of a
salt, which on being subjected to distillation, leaves a consider
able quantity of bulky charcoal. . The cheapest of the potash
salts that behave in this manner is crude tartar. The crucible
in which it is ignited is closed with a cover, and is luted at its
junction, with clay, in such a manner that the gases produced
.# the ignition can escape, but no atmospheric air can press
into the vessel; when combustible gases cease to be disengaged,
the operation is ended. The crucible is now rapidly cooled.
The black mass is mixed, while still warm, with a quantity of
charcoal, equal to the tenth part of the weight of the tartar, and
the mixture is put into an iron bottle, such as are employed in
commerce for the conveyance of mercury. This bottle must be
heated red hot in a furnace before use, to drive off any mercury
424 POTASSIUM.

it may contain. The screw at its mouth should be filed out, and
an iron tube be fitted by grinding in its place. This tube should
be only so long as is necessary to project beyond the wall of the
furnace when the bottle is put into its proper position, and to
meet and be grasped by the mouth of the receiver h, placed close
to the wall for that purpose. The furnace best adapted to this
operation, is that which is commonly called a wind furnace.
#. bottle a, is placed upon two iron bars, oo, and is bound
fast to them by strong wires. The receiver consists of a copper
vessel in the form of an oval box. The cover of it, n, passes
within it, so as nearly to touch the bottom when pushed down.
It is surrounded by a ledge, g, and covered
by a cage of copper wire, which is, how
ever, merely put loose on. One end of
the cover is provided with a nozzle b, the
outer end of which consists of thin copper
plate. The pipe i, of the bottle is ground
to fit this nozzle. The thin copper plate
is bent a little inwards, so as to secure the
pipe by its elasticity. Exactly opposite to
this nozzle, there is at d a second nozzle,
which is closed by a cork, and at a there is a third nozzle, into
which a glass tube is fastened by means of a cork. The vessel
and its appendages are placed upon a support, which has a hole
at l, and which can be so adjusted by screws that the vessel shall
stand firm, and in its proper situation. The cover is farther
provided with the partition i, the use of which is to hasten the
cooling of the substances that enter during the operation. The
vessel is about one-third filled with distilled mineral naphtha.
The length of the iron bottle is 11 inches, and the breadth of it
4 inches. The other parts of the apparatus in the above draw
ins; are on the same scale.
When carbonate of potash is ignited with charcoal, the prin
cipal result is unquestionably the formation of carbonic oxide
gas and metallic potassium. But independently of these two
substances, the receiver always presents a variety of others; we
find, for example, a black mass, which contains a considerable
quantity of potassium, croconate of potash, oxalate of potash,
uncombined potash, and finely divided charcoal, the latter evi
dently driven over mechanically. Whether these substances are
formed at the moment of the decomposition of the carbonate of
potash, or whether they arise from subsequent reactions among
the potassium, carbonic oxide, and naphtha, has not yet been
determined. It is, however, certain, that the impurities of all
kinds are least abundant, and that the preparation of potassium
proceeds best when the pipe i, which forms the neck of the
bottle, is kept red hot till it enters the nozzle, and the receiver is,
at the same time, kept extremely cold. In that case, the potas:
 PREPARATION OF POTASSIUM. 425

sium drops at once from the pipe to the bottom of the receiver,
and remains but a very short time in contact with the carbonic
oxide gas. The cooling of the receiver is best effected by putting
ice into the cage round its cover, and placing it also round its
lower part. The water produced by the melting of the ice, flows
over the ledge g into the hollowed table that supports the re
ceiver, and immediately escapes thence by the pipel. No water,
therefore, remains about the receiver, or can enter into it should
*...* be formed. - *

hen the operation commences, a little water and mercury

are first expelled' from the bottle. Shortly afterwards, upon
looking into the bottle by the pipe i, green vapours of metallic
potassium can be seen. . Soon afterwards the potassium issues
from the mouth of the pipe and takes fire. The receiver is then
fixed in its place as shown in the drawing. If the pipe i does
not fit air tight, the potassium escapes and burns at the opening;
but the latter is soon closed by the potash which is thus pro
duced. When the pipe i is kept in a proper state of ignition,
and the receiver is kept sufficiently cool, the production of the
potassium goes on successfully and without interruption. Very
frequently, however, the pipe becomes stopped up. This is
indicated by the action of the pipe w, which gives out vapours,
only so long as the operation is proceeding properly. As soon
as the stoppage is discovered, the º i must be cleared by,
means of a strong iron rod, the point of which is hammered flat
and bent aside, so as to form a small scraper. The cork is re

=tº 2 - i

moved from the nozzle d, and the scraper pushed in through the
nozzles d and b into the pipe i. The matter which rests in the
latter can then be removed. A mark is filed on the iron rod at
l, to show how far the rod must be pushed in at the nozzle d, to
reach the body of the bottle.
The best fuel for feeding the wind furnace during this opera
tion, is three parts of charcoal, and one part of coke, . The dis
engagement of vapours by the pipe a, serves as a guide for the
management of the fire. The draught of air is regulated by a
damper in the chimney, and, by careful raking, the fire is kept
in full force close to the bottle. When it appears desirable to
stop the operation, the bar p, which supports the grate, is with
drawn, and the coals all fall into the ash pit. -

The more carefully the operation is conducted, the greater is

the mass of melted balls of potassium in the receiver; and the
more improperly it is managed, the greater is the quantity of
the black matter. The potassium so obtained is, however, not
2N2
426 POTASSIUM.

pure, but chemically combined with carbon, from which it is

freed by distillation. To this end, the
metal with the black mass, and a
quantity of naphtha, is put into a
vessel of malleable iron, a, which is
closed by a bent gun barrel, b, ground
into its mouth, so as to fit it air tight.
The vessel is slowly warmed in a small
portable wind furnace. The naphtha
first goes over and is received in a wide bottle. This is then so
placed that the end of the gun barrel dips only a little way into
the naphtha. When the bottle is raised to a red heat, the gun
barrel b, is from time to time to be gently knocked, whereupon
beads of half-melted potassium run down into the naphtha.
Should the pipe appear to become stopped, it can be cleared by
a thin bent wire.—Mitscherlich.
PROToxide of PotAssIUM. Anhydrous Potash. KO.
This is the hypothetical base of the potash salts. It
is formed by the combustion of potassium in perfectly
dry oxygen gas. A grey, fusible, hard mass. It com
bines eagerly with water, producing hydrate of potash.
The potash, specified in the following table of solutions
of anhydrous potash, exists in the state of hydrate, but
the quantities given signify anhydrous potash, just as,
in the tables of acids, the quantities all refer to anhy
drous acids.
SOLUTIONS OF ANHYDROUS POTASH.
KO. Test Atom, 589-916 grains. Temp. 62°F.

Specific Ratio of Grains of Atoms of Septems

Gravity KO KO KO containing
of the in in 1000 in 1000 1 atom of
Solution. 1.00000. Septems. Septems. KO.

1-5607 •43737 4778-3 8-10 123:46

1.5594 •43233 4719.3 800 125:00
1-3161 •25612 23597 4.00 250-00
1:176 •14332 1179-8 2:00 500-00
1-0929 -07711 589 92 1:00 1000-0
1.01.16 •00833 58-992 0.10 10000
1.0015 •00084 5.8992 0-01 100000
 CAUSTIC POTASH. 427

Determination of the chemical Strength or Degree of a

solution of Potash.-The process to be followed is similar
to that described at page 320. Put 10 septems of the
solution of potash into the mixing jar, fig, B, page 320.
Add 100 septems of water, and 12 drops of solution of
litmus. Fill the centigrade test tube, fig. A, page 265,
with sulphuric acid of 100°, and with it neutralise the
potash contained in the jar B, observing all the pre
cautions indicated in pages 320, 321. Result:—the
number of Septems of acid required to neutralise the
potash, when multiplied by 10, gives the strength of
the solution of potash expressed in degrees. Thus, if
the 10 septems of potash take 40 septems of acid of
100°, then 40 × 10 = 400 is the strength of the solution
of potash in degrees. Such a solution, as shown by the
table, contains 4 test atoms of potash per decigallon.
Preparation of a solution of Potash of a required
strength.—First prepare a solution of hydrate of potash
stronger than that required. Determine its degree by
the above process. Then dilute it in the test mixer,
figure B, page 265, to the required degree. Page 292.
Detection of Potash in Salts.-See page 117.
All the salts of potash are soluble in water; but a
few of them are less soluble than the residue. Hence
concentrated solutions of potash salts give precipitates
with concentrated solutions of the following tests:–
Perchloric Acid. Sulphate of Alumina.
Tartaric Acid. Chloride of Platinum.
Carbazotic Acid. Hydrofluosilicic Acid.
The precipitates afforded by potash salts in solutions
of other bases are not to be confounded with precipitated
salts of potash.
CAUSTIC PotAsh. Hydrate of Potash.-KO-H-Aq.
Properties.—It contains 1 atom of anhydrous potash,
combined with 1 atom of water. The following num
bers show proportional quantities of these two com
pounds:—
Potash, anhydrous. 589-916. 1.0000. 83986,
Potash, hydrated. 702:396, 1:1907. 1:0000.
428 POTASSIUM.

Hydrate of potash, or caustic potash, is white, hard,

and brittle; it deliquesces very rapidly in the air; dis
solves in water with much heat ; is soluble in alcohol;
its taste is excessively corrosive ; it acts on vegetable
and animal bodies so as to alter them greatly or destroy
them. Its solution attacks glass. It corrodes earthen
vessels when melted in them. From atmospheric air,
it attracts both carbonic acid and water with great
eagerness. It melts below a red heat, and runs like
oil; in a very strong heat it volatilises, but it loses no
water, and cannot be rendered anhydrous by ignition.
It decomposes the salts of all other metals.
Preparation of Caustic Potash.--Take 3 parts of carbonate of
potash, 2 parts of quick lime, and 42 parts of water. Warm 6
parts of the water, and pour it at once over the 2 parts of un
slaked lime, so as to produce a milk of lime. Boil the 3 parts
of carbonate of potash with the 36 parts of water, and add the
lime milk gradually to the boiling solution. A clean untinned
cast iron pot, provided with a close fitting cover, may be used
for boiling the mixture. When the milk of lime is nearly all
added, º, out a little of the mixture, allow it to settle, pour off
the clear part and test it by adding muriatic acid. If effer
vescence occurs, more milk of lime is to be added to the mixture,
and the boiling continued. When the carbonic acid is found
to be all separated from the potash, the vessel is to be closely
covered, the liquor boiled for a quarter of an hour, and then
allowed to settle. A quick boil after each addition of lime,
makes the carbonate of lime settle more easily. -

If the potash is to be preserved in solution, you may proceed

as follows:–Pour a little of the hot liquid into the bottle that
is to hold the solution, and shake it about to warm the bottle.
Then insert a funnel and pour in the mixture from the kettle.
The use of the funnel is important, because the liquor must not
touch the neck of the bottle. This solution of potash scarcely
acts upon smooth glass, unless it be flint glass, but it easily cor
rodes glass where it is ground, as it is at the neck, to suit the
stopper. Set the bottle on a board, not on a stone, otherwise it
will crack from the rapid cooling that will take place. Insert
the stopper and let the mixture rest till next day. It will then
be clear, for the carbonate of lime and excess of lime will be
deposited at the bottom, but as much lime will remain in solution
as the bulk of water is able to dissolve. This takes carbonic acid
from the air whenever the bottle is opened, and gradually pre
cipitates, or it may be at once precipitated by a few drops of a
solution of carbonate of potash. It is of no use to remove the
 PREPARATION OF CAUSTIC POTASH. 429

deposit from the bottom of the solution as it does no harm, and

is troublesome to separate ; the solution of
potash acting so powerfully upon animal
and vegetable substances that it cannot be
filtered through paper. The filtration can,
however, be effected by means of the appar
atus contrived by Mr. 5. and figured
in the margin. The vessels are both of glass,
and the tube is fitted on with sound corks.
A few pieces of glass are put into the neck
of the funnel, and then a layer of pounded
glass, quartz, or clean sand. The solution
of potash is poured into the upper vessel
through an extra funnel, the stopper is in
serted and the apparatus placed at rest. As
the liquor descends into the flask, the air
escapes from it by the tube into the upper
vessel. Consequently there is no accession
of carbonic acid from the atmosphere.
When you have occasion to use the solution, take out as much
as you require by means of a pipette, either such a one as I
have described at page 103, or such as is
here figured in the margin. Never pour
the solution from the mouth of the bottle,
otherwise what remains on the neck will
fasten in the stopper so that you will never
be able to get it out again without breaking
the neck of the bottle. Besides the pre
caution of using the dropping tube, you must
grease the stopper with tallow, which makes
it shut air tight, but prevents its adhesion
to the bottle.
If you wish to obtain the hydrate of pot
ash in the solid state, you pour the mixture
from the iron kettle into a wide cylindrical
glass, with the same precautions that you
observe in pouring it into a bottle. You
close the cylinder with a cover that fits it
air-tight. When the sediment is fully de- -

posited, you cautiously sink a syphon into the liquor till it

nearly touches the deposit d, and under the outer end of the
syphong, you place a silver basin. This opening you close with
the finger, and then applying the mouth to the opening o, you
very slowly suck the air from the syphon. When the liquid
º the opening g, you remove your finger and allow
the liquid to run into the silver basin. By a proper management
of the syphon, it is easy to avoid the agitation of the deposit d,
particularly if the short leg of the syphon is turned upwards,
430 POtASSIUM.

as shown at c. A fresh quantity of water can be afterwards

a stirred up with the deposit, to be used
as a diluted solution of potash.
The solution in the silver basin is to
be boiled down rapidly, in which case
the continuous disengagement of aque
ous vapour prevents the accession of
carbonic acid. It is better when the
bason has a cover with a hole in it.
The solution is evaporated to dryness
and the mass heated nearly to redness,
at which point it melts into an oily
fluid. If any carbonate of potash has
formed during the evaporation of the
solution, it swims in the solid state on
the fused hydrate, and can be skimmed
off with a silver spoon. Upon cooling,
the hydrate forms a crystalline mass,
which you break up and preserve in a
a bottle that can be closed perfectly air-tight.
The strength of a solution of caustic potash is tested by the
process given in page 427. . It ought not to effervesce with mu
riatic acid, nor give a precipitate with lime water.
Precipitates produced in Saline solutions by a solution
of Caustic Potash.--The strength of the solution of
potash may be 100°, 200°, or 400°. That of 100° is
strong enough, when the solutions of salts are concen
trated. See page 103.
WHITE PRECIPITATE:—Barytes. Strontian. Lime.
Magnesia. Alumina, soluble in excess. Manganese,
protosalts, changing to brown. Iron, protosalts, chang
ing to brown. Zinc, soluble in excess. Cadmium.
Lead, soluble in excess. Tin, soluble in excess. Bis
muth. Antimony, protosalts.
YELLow PRECIPITATE:—Mercury, persalts. Copper,
protosalts. Platinum. Uranium. Gold (reddish).
GREEN PRECIPITATE:—Chromium, soluble in excess.
Nickel, apple-green.
BLUE PRECIPITATE:-Copper, deutoxide; black if
boiled. Cobalt, changes to green.
DARK-BRowN PRECIPITATE :—Manganese, deutoxide.
BROWN PRECIPITATE –Iron, persalts. Silver.
Phagſ. PRECIPITATE:-Mercury, protosalts.
No PRECIPITATE :-Potash. Soda. Ammonia.
 WASHING OF PRECIPITATES. 431

The substances thus precipitated, are, generally

speaking, oxides, or hydratesof oxides, in a state of purity,
or mixed only with the mother liquor or potash salt in
which they are produced. Most of them can be ob
tained quite pure by being brought on a filter, and
washed by the process detailed at page 410.
Washing of Precipitates with Cold Water:—
Some precipitates require to be washed by cold water, in which
case the washing bottle is used.
This consists of an ordinary
flask, to which a glass jet is
adapted, by means of a cork.
The bottle should be three
fº. filled with pure water.
f you hold the bottle with the
cork downwards, and put the
point of the jet into your mouth
and blow air forcibly into the
bottle, the water will be ex
pelled from the bottle in a fine
stream, which can be directed
upon the precipitate in the
filter, so as to stir it up and Ž
wash it thoroughly. Towards 4%
the end of the washing, the jet 2%
of water should be directed upon the edge of the filter, and not
upon the precipitate itself, by which means the precipitate is
washed down to
WH- – the ºn º:
--- the filter, an
Tº brought into a
1– compact mass.
The , washing
should be continued until pure water passes out at the neck of
the funnel. If the precipitate was produced in a solution of a
chloride, then the washings are to be tested by a solution of
nitrate of silver; or if from a sulphate, then a solution of chloride
of barium is to be used as a test. When no precipitable sub
stance is present, then a drop of the wash water may be evapo
rated to f ess on a clean slip of glass or platinum. It should
leave no solid residue.

Method of distinguishing Cotton Thread from Linen Thread.—A

solution of potash of 700°, or containing equal weights of caustic
otash and water, is made boiling hot, and the cloth to be tried
s boiled for two minutes in the solution. It is then to be taken
ºr *
432 POTASSIUM.

out by a glass rod, and pressed between filtering paper, without

being washed. The threads are now fit for examination. Those
of cotton will still be white, or have only a pale yellow colour.
Those of linen will have a dark yellow colour.—Boettger.
NITRATE OF POTASH. Saltpetre. Nitre.—KO,N2O5.
—Six-sided, columnar, striped, frequently hollow crys
tals, which contain no water of crystallisation. It is
fixed in the air; taste, cool, sharp, and saline. One
hundred parts of water at 320 dissolve 13 parts of nitre;
the same quantity at the boiling point dissolves about
240 parts. The crystals melt at a dull red heat, and
start, on cooling, into an opaque crystalline mass, un
altered in composition. At a bright red heat it suffers
decomposition, disengaging oxygen gas, which at first
is tolerably pure, but gradually becomes more and
more contaminated with nitrogen gas. By this decom
position, the salt is first reduced to hyponitrite of potash,
and finally to oxide of potassium. See page 206, g.
When the crystals are suddenly exposed to a red heat,
in mixture with charcoal, sulphur, phosphorus, iron,
or zinc, a smart deflagration is produced. Nitre is the
principal ingredient in the composition of gunpowder.
It also enters into the composition of fluxes, and is ex
tensively employed in metallurgy. It serves to promote
the combustion of sulphur in fabricating sulphuric acid;
it is used in the art of dyeing; it is added to common
salt for preserving meat, to which it gives a red hue;
it is an ingredient in some frigorific mixtures; and it is
frequently prescribed in medicine. It is also from this
body (or else from nitrate of soda,) that the nitric acid
of commerce is generally obtained. See page 286.
Preparation.—Nitrate of potash is obtained by adding
nitric acid to a solution of carbonate of potash as long
as effervescence continues. 100 septems of nitric acid
of 100°, and 100 septems of solution of caustic potash,
or carbonate of potash, of 100°, mixed together, produce
a solution of neutral nitrate of potash. The solution is
filtered and crystallised. To obtain nitrate of potash
in a state of purity, cheaply, for purposes of experiment,
dissolve common saltpetre in boiling water, nearly to
º
 TESTING THE PURITY OF NITRE, 433

the point of saturation; filter the solution while hot;

and add a few drops of a solution of caustic potash. If
precipitation ensues, continue to add the potash till it
ceases. If no precipitation takes place, or when it is
at an end, filter the solution, and crystallise by slow
evaporation.
Testing the Purity of Nitre.—If it becomes moist
in the air, it may contain nitrate of soda, which renders
it unfit for making gunpowder. If its solution gives a
precipitate with a solution of nitrate of barytes, it con
tains a sulphate; if with nitrate of silver, it contains
a chloride; if with sulphuretted hydrogen, it contains a
heavy metal. The per centage of sulphates and chlor
ides contained in any sample of nitre, can be most
readily determined by centigrade testing, by means of
solutions of the nitrates of silver and barytes of 10°.
See page 357. -

ExPERIMENTS witH NITRE.-The Student is reminded that all

mixtures of nitre with dry combustible substances, burn with eaplosive
violence; so that caution is necessary in performing these eageriments.
1. The deflagration of nitre with charcoal, sulphur, and phos
phorus in3. vessels, has been already fully described. See
pages 53 , and 223. *

§ To make Gunpowder.—Pulverise separately 76 parts of

nitrate of potash, 11 of sulphur, and 13 of newly burnt charcoal.
Mix them together, with a little water, in a mortar, so as to
make the compound into a dough, which must be rolled out
into round pieces, the thickness of a pin, between two boards.
Lay a few of these pieces together, and cut them with a knife
into small grains, which are to be placed on a sheet of paper, in
a warm place, to dry. . During granulation, the dough must be
prevented sticking to the board, by rubbing on it a little of the
dry compound powder. The effects produced by the explosion
of gunpowder, are so well known, that it would be useless to
describe them. It may be observed, however, that the explosion
takes places in consequence of the generation of a large quantity
of various gases. The decomposition of gunpowder may be
represented thus:— •
KO, N2O3 + 3 C + S = KS + 3 CO2 + 2 N.
All the products are gaseous, except the sulphuret of potassium.
3. Fulminating Powder.—Take F. of nitrate of potash, 2
parts of carbonate of potash, and 1 part of sulphur. Powder
them separately, and dry them, by placing them on a tile before
the fire. Then mix them intºy, by rubbing
all together in
O
434 POTASSIUM.

a warm mortar; and preserve the compound in a corked phial.

Let 50 grains of this powder be spread on the bottom of a small
iron ladle, and h."over a fire. It gradually blackens, and at
last melts, at which instant it explodes with a violent stunning
report: it is not, however, attended by any danger.
A. To Melt a piece of Metal in a Nutshell.—Take 3 parts of
nitre, (freed from water of crystallisation by exposure to heat,) 1
part of sulphur, and 1 of very fine dry sawdust; mingle the whole
intimately together. This is called the powder of fusion, and is
a kind of chemical flux. Let a quantity of this be well pressed
into a wallnut shell, with a thin piece of copper coiled up in the
midst of it, and then set on fire; it will burn rapidly, and the
metal will be fused into a round globule, while the shell is only
blackened.
5. Port Fire.—The port fire used for firing artillery is made
of 3 parts of nitre, 2 of sulphur, and 1 of gunpowder, well mixed,
and rammed in cases; a small quantity of materials will be suf
ficient to show the appearance which it presents on burning.
6. Signal Lights.-Signal lights are, in general, composed of
nitre and sulphur, with a small quantity of some metallic sul
phuret, as that of arsenic and antimony. Mix 600 grains of nitre
with 200 of sulphur, and 100 of the yellow sulphuret of arsenic;
put the mixture into a cone of paper, and touch it, out of doors
or under a chimney, with a red-hot iron; it deflagrates rapidly
with a brilliant white light.
7. Mix 100 or 200 grains of the sulphuret of antimony, with
the same proportions of nitre and sulphur, and inflame it in the
same manner. It deflagrates immediately, with a vivid light,
which has a bluish tinge.
8. Indian White Fire for Signals.--Take of dry saltpetre 24
arts, of dry sulphur 7 parts, and of fine dry charcoal l part.
fºil. to some prescriptions, 2 parts of red sulphuret of
arsenic instead of 1 part of charcoal.] Mix the whole intimately,
and dry the mixture cautiously near the fire, or over a lamp in
an iron vessel. The mass is then rammed into hollow cylinders
of thick paper, 3 inches long by }. wide. The mouth is
closed by thick paper pasted on. The cylinders are dried after
being thus finished, and are preserved in a dry place. When
they are to be discharged, they are placed on one end, and a
red-hot piece of charcoal is placed on the other end. The fire
soon burns through the paper at the end of the cylinder, and
inflames the composition.
9. Inertinguishable Match.--Take of saltpetre 4 parts, of gun
powder 2 parts, of charcoal 2 parts, and of sulphur 1 part, all in
a state of dryness. , Mix them intimately, ...? put the mixture
into º: cases, 9 inches long and as thick as a quill, prepared
by rolling thick and hard paper, pasted on one side, round a
glass or iron rod of the proper size. The mixture must be
 SULPHATE OF POTASH. 435

rammed well into the case. When this composition is inflamed,

neither rain nor wind will extinguish it. The burning end of
the match must be cut off, to stay the fire.
10. Combustion under Water.—The burning end of the match
described in the last experiment may be dipped into the water
of a pneumatic trough, and the gaseous products of the combus
tion, which still goes on, may be collected in a glass jar placed
over the fire. The gases afforded are principally nitrogen and
carbonic acid.

SULPHURET of PotAssium.—KS. Mix a bit of pot

assium with a little sublimed sulphur in a tube, and
heat it over a spirit-lamp. The combination takes
place with combustion, and sulphuret of potassium is
produced. Other varieties of sulphuret of potassium
are obtained:—(a) by igniting sulphate of potash with
charcoal, or in hydrogen gas (the 1st sulphuret, a dark
red soluble and fusible substance); (b) by melting toge
ther equal parts of carbonate of potash and sulphur at
a moderate heat. This produces the 5th sulphuret,
KS", a brown, brittle mass, formerly called liver of
sulphur. It tastes and smells strongly of sulphuretted
hydrogen and gives a yellow solution with water.
HYDRosULPHURET OF POTAssIUM.–KS + H2S. It
exists in the state of large colourless crystals, which
have a sharp alcaline taste, and which deliquesce in
the air. They are produced by saturating caustic
potash with sulphuretted hydrogen gas. The same
compound is formed by igniting metallic potassium in
dry sulphuretted hydrogen gas, in the manner explained
at page 225. In the latter case, hydrogen gas is set
free. K+ 2H2S =(KS + H2S) + 2 H.
This compound is the type of a large class of com
pounds, constituted in a similar way.
SULPHATE of PotAsh —KO, SO3. Hard, sparingly
soluble, bitter crystals. Obtained as a residue in the
preparation of nitric acid. Used in the manufacture of
mitre and alum.
BisulphaTE of PotASH.—KO, SO3 + H2O, SO3.
Acid, easily soluble, easily fusible crystals; its compo
sition is equivalent to 1 atom of sulphate of potash, and
1 atom of oil of vitriol combined together. All the
436 POTASSIUM.

bisulphates are constituted in the same way. Bisul

phate of potash is reduced to sulphate by a long con
tinued red heat. It crystallises from a hot mixed
solution of sulphate of potash and sulphuric acid. It is
a very useful reagent. See page 127, Exp. 50, and
page 128, Exp. 59.
CHLORATE of PotASH –KO, C12O3. Its crystals
have the appearance of pearly spangles, like the crystals
of boracic acid. It has the taste of nitre, is sparingly
soluble in cold water, more readily in hot water ; it
fuses at a low heat undecomposed, but at a bright red
heat it gives off very pure oxygen gas, and yields a
mixture of chloride of potassium and perchlorate of
potash, which, by a continued heat, is wholly converted
into chloride of potassium. See page 201. When
mixed with inflammable bodies, such as sulphur, phos
phorus, &c., it is exploded, with a loud noise and pro
duction of fire, either by striking, rubbing, heating, or
the application of an acid.

Preparation.—Pass a current of chlorine gas through a solu

tion of caustic potash or carbonate of potash, of about 400°;
using the apparatus figured at page 413. The conducting tube
that goes into the solution must be half an inch wide, because
if narrower it is apt to be choked up by crystals of chlorate of
potash that form during the process, which might oceasion an
explosion. The chlorine gas is rapidly absorbed by the liquid
alcali, and carbonic acid escapes with effervescence. The liquor
is generally of a pinkish hue, from the presence of manganese.
This process produces a mixed solution of chloride of potassium
and chlorate of potash, which may be separated by crystallisa
tion, the former being much more soluble than the latter.
Theory:–6KO + 6CI2 = 5KCl2 + KO, C1205. When the solu
tion is saturated, it may be set aside, in a cool dark place, for 24
hours, at the end of which it will be found to have deposited a
considerable portion of crystallised chlorate of potash. This
may be taken out, drained, and purified by solution in boil
ing water, which, upon cooling, deposits the salt in brilliant
crystalline scales. Or the solution, when saturated with the gas,
may be gently evaporated, and the first product of crystals only
be reserved for use, as the subsequent products consist merely of
chloride of potassium. A solution of pure chlorate of potash
gives no precipitate with a solution ºr. of silver. The
crystals contain no water. Another method of preparing chlor
 CHLORATE OF POTASH. 437

ate of potash is, to dissolve chloride of potassium in a boiling

solution of chloride of lime; and then to evaporate and crystallise.
Exhibition of The Powerful DETONATING PRoPERTIES OF
ALL MIxTUREs of INFLAMMABLE BoDIES WITH CHLoRATE of
PotASH.
In the performance of eaperiments with chlorate ofpotash, proceed
very cautiously. Never use more than the prescribed quantities. Let
the hands be covered with stout gloves, and keep the mixtures, and
vessels containing them, as far as possible from the face. Chlorate
%potash must never be kept ready mired with inflammable bodies;
or such mixtures sometimes earplode spontaneously.
1. Rub two grains of chlorate of potash, into a fine powder in
a mortar, and add one grain of flowers of sulphur. ix them
very accurately, by well triturating them in the gentlest possible
manner; and then, having collected the mixture to one part of
the mortar, press the pestle down upon it suddenly and forcibly
—a loud detonation, accompanied by a flash of light, will in
stantly ensue.
2. Let the mixture of the salt and sulphur, just described, be
wrapped in some strong paper or tin-foil, and then struck with
a hammer—a still louder report will be produced.
3. Let half the quantity of a similar mixture be forcibly tritu
rated in a dry mortar—several explosions, like the cracking of a
whip, accompanied by flashes of purple light, take place.
4. Four grains of the salt are to be reduced to a fine powder,
and then mixed with two grains of finely pulverised charcoal.
To this mixture, rather more than one grain of sulphur is to be
added; and the whole must be intimately incorporated by mix
ture, with the least possible
friction, on a piece of paper.
If this mixture be tritu
rated, it will burst into
flame, but not with much
noise.
5. Mix gently but inti
mately, three grains of the
salt, with three grains of
loaf-sugar, both previously
reduced to fine powder.
Place the mixture on a
plate, and touch it with a . . - -

thread or with a glass rod which has just been dipped in strong
sulphuric acid—a sudden and vehement inflammation will be
immediately produced. - -

6. Take one grain of the powdered salt, with half a grain of

phosphorus; wrap the misus g O
paper, lay it on a stone or
 a

º
438 POTASSIUM.

º
iron, and then strike it with a hammer—a violent detonation
takes place instantly.
7. Put into a glass about three grains of phosphorus, and six
grains of the salt; nearly fill the glass with water; and then
convey to the bottom of it, by means of a tube-funnel, three or
four parts of sulphuric acid.—A violent action ensues, and the
phosphorus burns vividly, with a curious light, under the water.
8. If a slip of cotton cloth be dipped in a strong solution of
the salt, and afterwards well dried, upon being rubbed in a mor
tar, it will emit flashes of fire, with explosions similar to the
cracking of whips. If the cloth and the mortar be very dry and
warm, the trituration causes the cloth to take fire.—Inflamma
tion is also produced by pouring sulphuric acid upon a similar
piece of cloth.
9. If a little of the mixture described in experiment 1, be
taken on the point of a knife, and dropped into a wine glass con
taining sulphuric acid, a beautiful column of flame will be pro
duced.
10. Mix a little chlorate of potash with alcohol in a small
evaporating dish, and pour a little sulphuric acid over it. It
will burst into flame. ... Do not make this experiment with a large
quantity of the ingredients.
11. Instantaneous Light Boares, sold by Chemists, contain a
little bottle, and a number of small matches: you take a match
and dip it into the bottle, and quickly withdraw it, upon which
it takes fire.—The bottle contains asbestus moistened with con
centrated oil of vitriol. It should never be opened except when
it is to be used; for the acid, when exposed to the air, imbibes
moisture very rapidly, and is soon spoiled. The matches are
prepared as follows: the ends of some small slips of light wood
are dipped into melted sulphur, then into a strong solution of
gum, and afterwards into the mixture of chlorate of potash and
sugar, prepared as described in eag. 5; the powder is fastened
to the wood by the gum, and the matches when dry are fit for
tise.

12. Lucifers.-Mix equal parts of chlorate of potash and sul

phuret of antimony, with gum-water into a paste. Let a little
of this paste be applied to each side of one extremity of a thin
slip of #. already tipped with brimstone. When the paste is
dry, the match may be inflamed by drawing the coated end
through a folded slip of sand paper.
13. Small º of the above paste explode when struck with
a hammer. It is the percussion powder used to discharge guns.
PERCHLoRATE of PotAsh.-KO, Cl” O’.—Heat chlorate of
potash in a glass tube or a porcelain crucible. It fuses, boils,
and disengages oxygen gas. Keep the heat moderate. At a
certain point of the operation the disengagement of oxygen gas
 IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. 439

ceases, and can only be reproduced by an elevation of tempera

ture. It is at that point that the perchlorate of potash is formed.
You dissolve the substance in water, filter the solution while
hot, letting it be moderately dilute, and allow the filtered liquor
to cool. , You will obtain nearly half the weight of the chlorate
of potash in small brilliant crystals of perchlorate of potash.
The crystals are rhombic prisms, anhydrous, decomposable by
heat, soluble in 65 times their weight of cold water.
CHLoRIDE OF PotAssIUM.–K C19.-Crystallises in
colourless, transparent cubes, tastes like chloride of
sodium, readily soluble in water, fusible at a red heat.
Produced by the spontaneous combustion of potassium
in chlorine gas, by the ignition of carbonate of potash
in chlorine gas, by the solution of carbonate of potash
in muriatic acid, or incidentally in the preparation of
chlorate of potash. It is a by-product in soap making
and other arts, and is employed in alum making.
IoDIDE OF POTASSIUM.–KI”.— Prepara
tion. 1. Set up the apparatus represented
in page 221, or instead of the narrow tube,
use a wide flask, c, shown in the margin.
Volatilise in this a small quantity of iodine,
and when the vessel is full of the violet
vapour of iodine, dip into it a small bit of
potassium fixed on the point of a bent iron
wire. A beautiful combustion is produced, and iodide
of potassium is formed.—2. Digest two parts of iodine
with one part of clean iron filings, and ten parts of
water, until the liquor becomes colourless. . The iodine
is to be added gradually. Filter the solution, and heat it
till it boils. Then add a quantity of caustic potash or
carbonate of potash in solution, equivalent to the quan
tity of iron contained in the liquor. Filter to separate
the carbonate or hydrate of iron, and wash the precipi
tate by Shier's process, page 410. The filtered liquor
is to be evaporated and crystallised. The product
is iodide of potassium. Properties.—White cubical
crystals, sp. gr. 3. Fusible and volatile. , Soluble in
about $ its weight of water. The solution has a feeble
alcaline action on litmus test paper. Soluble in alcohol.
See page 127.
440 POTASSIUM.

Iodide of Potassium as a Test—The colours of its

precipitates, and the metals indicated thereby, are as
follow:—
White,.............. .. Copper.
Yellowish White,...Silver, and protosalts of Tin.
Bright Yellow,...... Lead.
Greenish Yellow, ...Mercury, protosalts.
Brownish Green, ...Gold.
Red Mercury, persalts, and
Tin, protosalts, (sometimes).
3 **** * * *** * * * ** **

Brown,'............ ...Bismuth.
IoDATE of PotASH.—KO, I2O. Small white crystals, possess
ing many of the properties of chlorate of potash. It is soluble
in water, but not in alcohol. Hence spirits of wine, of sp. gr.
0-81 serves to separate iodide of potassium from iodate of potash,
dissolving the former but not the latter. Preparation.—Add
iodine to a solution of caustic potash, free from carbonate, till
the liquor begins to have a permanent brown tinge. Evaporate
to dryness, and dissolve out KI2 by alcohol of sp. gr. 81. The
residue is KO, I2O5. If carbonate of potash is present, decom
pose it by acetic acid; evaporate to dryness, and extract the
acetate of potash by alcohol. The iodate is then pure.
BROMIDE and FLUoRIDE of PotASSIUM crystallise in cubes,
with properties very similar to those of chloride of potassium.
CARBONATE OF POTASH. KO, CO2.-The neutral
carbonate of potash, or the sub-carbonate of the apothe
caries, is a white, uncrystallisable, deliquescent mass,
the taste and reactions of which are strongly alcaline.
It fuses at a red heat, but is not decomposed. It runs
to liquid in moist air, and dissolves in less than its
own weight of water. When an acid is added, it dis
engages carbonic acid gas with effervescence. The
potash of commerce, American potash, or Montreal
potash, a green, blue, and red party-coloured caustic
mass, is an impure variety of carbonate of potash, con
taining much caustic potash. Pearlash is the same
thing, freed from a portion of its impurities, and wholly
converted into carbonate. The contaminating sub
stances are sulphate of potash, chloride of potassium,
sulphuret of potassium, besides vegetable, earthy, and
metallic substances, from a portion of which it can be
 CARBONATE OF POTASH. 441

separated by solution in water, decantation, and eva

poration to dryness. A purer sort of carbonate of
potash is prepared by igniting tartrate of potash, and
dissolving and filtering the residue. This forms the
Sal tartari of the apothecaries. Carbonate of potash is
much used as a flux, and in the manufacture of glass,
of soap, and of other salts of potash.
Direct Formation of Carbonate of Potash.—Process 1. See
page 386.-Process 2. Pass a current of carbonic acid gas into
a solution of caustic potash, till the alcali is saturated. For a
small quantity of solution, use the U-tube, described at page 302.
Preparation of pure Carbonate of Potash.-The interior of a
Hessian crucible is covered with a paste made by adding a little
cold water to finely pounded starch. It is then dried and filled
to two-thirds or three-fourths with crystallised cream of tartar,
which has been previously washed several times with cold water,
and drained from a cloth suspended
on a square wooden frame, by iron
ins. The crucible is covered and
eated moderately red, until the cream
of tartar is fully decomposed. When
the crucible is cold, you invert it, and
let the charred porous product of the
decomposition fall into a porcelain
capsule, in which you mix it with
four times its weight of pure water,
and expose the mixture for half-an
hour to a moderate digesting heat. It is then to be filtered, and
the filtered liquid to be allowed to repose several days, after
which it is to be decanted from any sediment that may be formed,
and to be evaporated to dryness in a porcelain capsule. The
dry mass is to be dissolved in three times its weight of cold
water, allowed to repose for some days, and again decanted from
the sediment and evaporated to dryness.—Wackeuroder.
Tests of the Purity of Carbonate of Potash.-It must be white
and dissolve in water without residue; the solution, Saturated
with nitric acid, must give no smell of H2S, and no precipitate
with nitrate of barytes and nitrate of silver. When the acidified
solution is evaporated to dryness, the residue must be entirely
soluble in water.
442 POTASSIUM.

SOLUTIONS OF CARBONATE OF POTASH.

KO, CO2. Test Atom 866:354 Grains. Temp. 62°F.

Specific Ratio of Grains of Atoms of Septems

Gravity | KO, CO2 || KO, CO2 || KO, CO2 containing
of the in in 1000 in 1000 l l Atom of
Solution. 1.00000. Septems. Septems. KO, CO2.

1:5739 •52295 5761-3 6-65 150-48

1:5248 '487 5198:1 6:00 166-67
1-3681 •36.185 3465.4 4:00 250-00
1-2011 •20608 1732.7 2:00 500.00
1.1047 •11203 866-35 1.00 1000-0
1.01.27 •013 86-635 O'10 10000
1.0015 •0012 8-6695 0-01 100000

Preparation of a Solution of Carbonate of Potash of

100°.-Expose about 2 ounces of pure carbonate of
potash, in a porcelain crucible to a red heat, to expel
water from it. After 10 minutes ignition remove the
crucible from the spirit lamp, and let it cool, closely
covered. In the meantime, counterpoise a large thin
dry and warm porcelain crucible, containing 866'4 grains
in weights. When the ignited carbonate of potash is
cool enough to be weighed, remove the weights, and in
their place put as much of the ignited salt as restores
the equilibrium of the counterpoise. Transfer the
weighed salt from the crucible into the decigallon mea
sure, page 264. Add about 10 ounces of pure water,
shake the vessel to diffuse the heat, and add more
water till the vessel is nearly filled up to the marka, b.
It must then rest till the temperature of the solution
sinks to exactly 62°F., which must be tried by a ther
mometer. When the liquor is come to that tempera
ture, water is to be added by means of a dropping tube,
till the measure is completed. This is the case when
the line a, b, coincides with the lower part of the curve
formed by the surface of the liquor in the bottle. Cover
the mouth of the bottle with a piece of thin writing
 TESTING OF POTASH. 443

paper, close it tight with the palm of your hand, and

shake the bottle to mix the solution thoroughly. It
may then be decanted into a stoppered bottle. It will
have the strength of 100° or be of sp. gr. 1'1047. This
solution may be used in preparing Test acids of 100°.
See pages 320 and 357. It is, however, not better than
solution of carbonate of soda, and is more expensive.
Testing of Pearlash, or crude American Potash.-The
sole object of this testing is supposed to be, to deter
mine how much per cent. it contains of
potash, in the state of caustic potash
and carbonate of potash. Weigh out
590 grains of the crude potash, and
put it into a flat bottomed cylindrical
jar, made of strong glass, add 8 or 10
ounces of water, and break down the
potash by means of a strong glass rod
with a flat knob at one end. While
the potash is dissolving, put a paper
filter into a glass funnel of 2 inches in
diameter, and put the funnel into the
mouth of the decigallon bottle, page 264. Transfer
the solution of potash by means of a pipette into the
funnel, and let it filter into the *T
bottle. Wash out the cylinder Q | -

with repeated small quantities of sºlº

water, and finally wash the filter | //
by means of a spirting bottle, page
431, or by the pipette, until the
washings cease to turn red litmus
paper blue. Finally, dilute the
liquor in the decigallon bottle, till
it reaches the mark a, b. The
solution of crude potash thus pre
pared, is to be tested by the pro
cess described at page 320. Put 100 septems of the
solution, measured by the pipette C, page 265, or A,
page 320, into the mixing jar B, page 320. Add 12
drops of solution of litmus. Fill your alcalimeter fig. A,
page 265, with sulphuric acid of 100°, and with it
444 POTASSIUM.

neutralize the 100 septems of alcaline solution, observ

ing the precautions pointed out at pages 320 and 321.
Result :—The number of septems of Test Acid required
to neutralise the specified quantity of potash, shows the
strength of the crude potash in degrees. Thus, if 59
septems of sulphuric acid are required to neutralise 100
septems of the solution of potash prepared as above de
scribed, the degree of that sample of potash is 59, or it
contains 59 per cent. of anhydrous potash. The maxi
mum quantity of anhydrous potash contained in car
bonate of potash, is 68 per cent.
Equivalents of Potash and Carbonate of Potash:—
Anhydrous Potash, B89-916 1:0000 -68092
Carbonate of Potash, 866°354 1'4686 1:0000

Precipitates produced in Solutions of Salts by a Solution

of Carbonate of Potash :—
WHITE PRECIPITATES:-Barytes. Strontian. Lime. Mag
nesia. Alumina. Iron, protoxide; the colour of the precipi
tate changes to green, and subsequently to reddish-brown at the
surface. Manganese, protosalts. Zinc. Cadmium. Lead.
Bismuth. Silver. Tin. Antimony.
GREEN PRECIPITATES:--Nickel, apple green. Iron, prot
oxide; the colour is first white, then green, finally reddish
brown. Chromium, the precipitate turns blue.
BLUE PRECIPITATES:-Copper, deutoxide; black if boiled.
YELLow PRECIPITATEs:–Mercury, protosalts; black if boiled.
Copper, protoxide. Platinum, chloride. Uranium. Gold.
ED PRECIPITATEs:—Cobalt.
BRowN PRECIPITATES:—Iron, protoxide; the colour is first
white, then green, finally reddish-brown. Manganese, deut
oxide. Mercury, persalts. Platinum, protoxide.
No PRECIPITATES:—Potash. Soda. Ammonia.
A few of these precipitates are oxides, but the greater
number are carbonates, and they may be obtained in a
state of purity by being brought on a filter and washed
with water, as described at pages 410 and 431.
BICARBONATE of PotAsh. KO, CO2 + H2O, CO2.
The carbonate of potash of the apothecaries. Obtained
by saturating the moistened carbonate of potash with
carbonic acid gas. Water is essential in the prepara
 CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM. 445

tion of this salt; as, in fact, it is constituted of a

carbonate of the metal with a carbonate of water.
Bicarbonate of potash forms transparent crystals, non
deliquescent, which heat converts into carbonate of
potash, under disengagement of water and carbonic
acid gas; even boiling in water effects a partial decom
position. The bicarbonate is much milder in its taste
and reactions than the carbonate.
Preparation of Bicarbonate of Potash.-Add to a concentrated
solution of carbonate of potash, a mixture of acetic acid and
alcohol, till effervescence takes place. A precipitate of bicar
bonate of potash is produced. It comprises one-half of the
potash employed, the other half of which is converted into
acetate of potash. The crystals should be washed with a little
cold water, and dried on a drainer. Page 392.
OxALATE of PotAsh. KO, C2 08.—The binoxalate,
sometimes called essential salt of lemons, is obtained
from the leaves of wood-sorrel. The neutral oxalate
may be obtained by adding carbonate of potash to the
binoxalate. Both may be formed by the direct union
of potash with oxalic acid, certain precautions being
observed. Oxalate of potash is a crystallisable salt;
but it does not readily crystallise unless one of the
ingredients be in excess. The crystals are sparingly
soluble in cold water. The taste of this salt is sharp,
acrid, and bitter. It is used for removing ink stains
from linen, and for various purposes in the arts.
A Solution of Neutral Ocalate of Potash :—
Precipitates Salts of:— P# :
Barytes. | Manganese. Tin. Potassium.
Strontian. Iron, protox. Lead. Sodium.
Lime. Cobalt. Bismuth. || Ammonium.
Magnesia. | Nickel. Mercury. || Aluminum.
Zinc. Copper. Antimony. || Iron, persalts.
Cadmium. | Silver. | Chromium.
CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM. KCy?.—Produced when
potassium is burned in cyanogen gas. Colourless;
crystallises in cubes; fusible; reaction alcaline; taste
2 P
446 POTASSIUM.

and smell like prussic acid; extremely poisonous ;

readily soluble in water, forming a solution which is
decomposed by boiling, into ammonia and formate of
potash, Soluble in alcohol of sp. gr. 0.90.
Preparation of Cyanide of Potassium.—l.) Intimately mix 17
parts of calcined carbonate of potash with a little sugar, and
ignite the mixture in a covered crucible till the sugar is º
carbonised. Quickly pulverise the product. Mix it with 2
parts of anhydrous yellow prussiate of potash, and calcine the
mixture for 20 minutes at a red heat in a porcelain crucible
closely covered. Pulverise the product and boil it in spirit of
wine, which dissolves the cyanide of potassium.—2.) Saturate a
solution of caustic potash in alcohol with prussic acid.—3.) By
the following process it is easily obtained free from all impurities,
except cyanate of potash, which interferes very little with its
usual applications.—Dry thoroughly 8 parts of yellow prussiate
of potash by roasting on a hot iron plate. Finely powder and
mix it well with 3 parts of dried carbonate of potash. Heat a
Hessian crucible to redness, throw the mixed salts into it, and
keep up the red heat. The salts melt to a brown magma, and
give off much gas. After a few minutes, the dark colour of the
red-hot mass becomes brighter, and as the fusion proceeds, it
acquires a yellow colour, while certain brown flocks, concrete
into a grey spongy mass. If a hot glass rod be dipped into the
fused salts from time to time, the adhering mass is at first brown,
afterwards yellow, and at last, colourless and clear as water,
congealing on the rod to a white crystalline mass. When this
is observed, remove the crucible from the fire, and allow it to
cool a little. Stir the fused mass once or twice with the glass
rod. This will cause the grey powder to sink to the bottom.
The clear melted salt may then be poured into a warm porcelain
capsule, without a #. of the sediment accompanying it.
The latter consists chiefly of iron. The white salt has the com
position 5 K Cy2 + KO, Cy20.-It is often of importance as
respects the use of this product in the arts, that it be made from
prussiate of potash, quite free from sulphate of potash.
Use of Cyanide of Potassium.—1. In electrotype, to form solu
tions of copper, silver, and gold.—2. Its solution is extremel
useful for cleansing articles of silver and gold, as it dissolves wit
great facility the oxides, sulphurets, &c. which form on the sur
face of these metals. The articles merely require to be washed
with the solution.—3. Cyanide of potassium removes from white
linen and cotton cloth the writing effected by the “Indelible
Ink” prepared from nitrate of silver. The cloth requires to be
wetted with a strong solution of the salt, and gently rubbed. If
the indelible ink had been mixed with common writing ink, an
iron mould remains visible; but that can also be removed by
 SULPHOCYANIDE OF POTASSIUM. 447

applying to the cloth a hot and strong solution of oxalic acid or

superoxalate of potash.-4. Stains on the skin, made by solutions
of silver and gold, can be removed by a strong solution of cyanide
of potassium; but care must be taken not to apply it to any
wounded part, as it is highly poisonous.
5. Cyanide of Potassium as a Reducing Agent.—The process
(No. 3) for the preparation of cyanide of potassium, and that for
the preparation of cyanate of potash, show the great power pos
sessed by cyanide of potassium as a reducer of metals. When
oxide of copper is sprinkled on fused cyanide of potassium, it is
immediately reduced with evolution of light and heat. The
oxides of tin and of antimony are all beautifully reduced at a low
red heat, scarce visible in day light. The sulphurets of tin and
of antimony are also easily reduced by gently heating them with
this reagent, either before the blowpipe, or in a porcelain cru
cible. In this case, the slag contains sulphocyanide of potas
sium. The cyanide of potassium is therefore useful as a power
ful blowpipe flux; but it must be remembered, that when heated
with fusible acids, such as boracic and phosphoric acids, it can
give off poisonous fumes of prussic acid.
CYANATE of PotAsh. KO, Cy20.-Fuse cyanide of potassium
in a Hessian crucible, and throw into it, in small portions at
a time, litharge that has p. been slightly heated. The
oxide of lead is instantly reduced; the metallic lead is first
diffused in powder, but gradually forms a bead. The fluid mass
is poured out, and when cold, the salt is pounded and boiled in
alcohol of sp. gr. 0-86, which extracts cyanate of potash, and
from which that salt is obtained in crystals by evaporation and
cooling. The crystals are colourless scales, fusible and easil
soluble in water and in dilute alcohol, but not in pure alcohol.
The aqueous solution decomposes spontaneously into ammonia
and bicarbonate of potash.

SULPhocyanIDE of PotAssIUM. KCy*S*.—Colour

less; crystallisable; gives sulphocyanic acid when dis
tilled with a concentrated solution of phosphoric acid.
Preparation.—l. Mix equal parts of sublimed sulphur and
yellow prussiate of potash. Heat the mixture in a glass vessel
over a spirit lamp, nearly to the boiling point of the sulphur.
Dissolve the mass in water, which will contain a mixture of sul
phocyanide of potassium and sulphocyanide of iron. The addi
tion of caustic potash causes the precipitation of hydrate of iron,
and leaves pure sulphocyanide of potassium in solution.
2. Mix cyanide of potassium with as much pure sublimed sul
phur as is sufficient to convert its cyanogen into sulphuret of
cyanogen, and dissolve the mixture in water with heat. A clear
colourless solution is obtained, which yields pure sulphocyanide
448 SODIUM.

of potassium on evaporation. Too much sulphur decomposes

this compound, and produces sulphuret of potassium, in which
case the solution is yellowish.
The sulphocyanides of other metals can be made by double
decomposition with this solution.
SILICATE of PotASH.-A constituent of a great variety of
minerals—as Felspar, &c. It can be formed by igniting pul
verised quartz with carbonate of potash; the mixture fuses, and
carbonic acid gas is set free. Liquor of Flints, or Soluble Glass.
Fuse together 10 parts of carbonate of potash, 15 parts of fine
quartz powder, and 1 of charcoal powder. When effervescence
ceases, pour out the liquid on an iron plate. This compound
has the appearance of glass, but it deliquesces in the air, and
dissolves when boiled in water. Its solution can be employed to
give a coating of glass to wood, carpets, &c., and thereby render
them incombustible, or to metal to prevent rusting. It is also
adapted to form an excellent manure for corn, sugar canes,
trees, and grass; and whenever any cheap method shall be dis
covered of decomposing felspar rock and extracting the potash
from it, there is no doubt that silicate of potash will come into
great request. Silicate of potash with a larger proportion of
silica, constitutes glass.

15. SODIUM. NATRIUM. N = 290-897.

Occurrence.—See page 16.
Properties.—SoDIUM has a silver white colour, and a
strong metallic lustre. At a temperature below the
freezing point of water, it is brittle; as the temperature
rises, it becomes malleable, then wax-like, soon after
wards fluid, and at a red heat gaseous. It is lighter
than water. Its sp. gr. is '972. It becomes slowly
oxidised on exposure to dry air. It inflames when
heated in the air. It decomposes water when thrown
upon its surface; the metal whirls about, hissing, and
disengaging hydrogen gas ; occasionally it exhibits a
yellow flame, especially when it first touches the water,
and when it strikes against the sides of the vessel in
which the water is held ; and it finally disappears, and
yields a solution of soda. It burns on hot water with
a bright yellow flame. If thrown upon mercury it
causes an explosion.
Preparation.—The same as potassium. Page 423.
Compounds of Sodium. See pages 153 and 163.
 ANHYDROUS SODA. 449

PROTOxIDE OF SODIUM, ANHYDROUs SoDA.—NaO =

390-9. Obtained by burning metallic sodium in dry
oxygen gas. Scarcely known.
HYDRATE OF SODA.—Caustic Soda. NaO, H2O.—
Prepared by adding slaked lime to a solution of car
bonate of soda kept boiling in an iron kettle. The
process is exactly similar to that for preparing caustic
potash, page 428. Its properties resemble those of
hydrate of potash. The equivalents of caustic and
anhydrous soda are as follows:–
Soda, anhydrous, 390-897 1-0000 •77655
Soda, hydrated, 503:377 1.2878 1.0000.

SOLUTIONS OF ANHYDROUS SODA.

NaO. Test Atom 390.897 Grains. Temp. 62° F.
Specific Ratio of Grains of Atoms of Septems
Gravity NaO NaO NaO containin
of the in in 1000 in J000 || 1 Atom .#
Solution. 1:00000. Septems. Septems. NaO.

1-4 •27921 2736-3 7:00 142-86

1.2655 •1765 1563-6 4-00 250.00
1°1443 •0976 781-79 2:00 500-00
1.0727 •05206 390-90 1.00 1000-0
1-009 •00552 39.090 0.10 10000.
1-001 •00056 3-9090 0-01 100000

Determination of the chemical Strength, or Degree, of a

solution of Soda.-The process is exactly the same as
that for the testing of solutions of potash. See page 427.
Preparation of a solution of Soda of a required
Strength. See the process for preparing a solution of
potash, page 427.
Detection of Soda in Salts. See page 117. All the
salts of soda are very soluble in water, except the
oxalate and the antimoniate. Many of them contain
much water of crystallisation, and effloresce when
exposed to the air.
2P2
450 SODIUM.

Precipitates produced in saline solutions by a solution

of caustic Soda.-They are almost exactly the same as
those produced by caustic potash. See page 430.
Caustic soda is generally preferred for use, being
cheaper than caustic potash, and more easily obtained
free from silica.
NITRATE OF SODA.—Cubic Nitre. NaO, N2O".
Forms rhomboidal crystals. Behaves much like nitrate
of potash, but is deliquescent. Gives a yellow colour
to the flame of fireworks. Being very cheap, it is used
as a manure, and gives a brilliant deep green colour to
grass. Employed in the manufacture of nitric acid.
Its deliquescence renders it wholly unfit to be used in
the manufacture of gunpowder. Genuine nitrate of
soda from Peru contains 94 per cent. of the pure salt ;
but this article is sometimes adulterated for the agri
cultural market with 50 per cent. of common sea salt.
This fraud can be easily detected by a solution of
nitrate of silver, and the analytical process described
at page 357, § 3, points out the per centage of impurity
with precision.
SULPHURET OF SODIUM.–NaS. Sodium and sulphur,
when heated together in a glass tube, combine, under
disengagement of much heat and light, and produce
sulphuret of sodium. By strongly igniting a mixture
of charcoal and sulphate of soda, we obtain an impure
sulphuret of sodium, contaminated by soda. It is a
flesh-red, semitransparent, volatile, and soluble mass.
A solution of sulphuret of sodium mixed with hyposul
phite of soda, is obtained by boiling sulphur in a solution
of caustic soda. It is a greenish-yellow liquid. There
is a series of sulphurets of sodium, from NaS to NaS*.
The last is prepared by melting together equal parts of
sulphur and dry carbonate of soda. A solution of pure
sulphuret of sodium, NaS, is obtained by passing sul
phuretted hydrogen gas into a solution of caustic soda.
It gives, by evaporation and cooling in close vessels,
large transparent colourless crystals, NaS + 9 Aq.
SULPHATE OF SODA.—Glauber’s Salt. NaO, SO3 +
Aq'".—This salt is formed by adding sulphuric acid to
 HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA. 451

a solution of carbonate of soda, till effervescence ceases,

or by heating sea salt with oil of vitriol. Na Cl2 +
H2O, SO3 = NaO, SO3 + H2Cl2. See page 353.
The solution must be filtered and evaporated and then
set by to cool, when crystals will be deposited. The
remaining solution must be again evaporated, and again
cooled, and this must be repeated till all the water is
driven off. Note.—If you put a ready-formed crystal
of the salt into the solution which you set by to cool,
crystallisation will take place very speedily. The
crystals are commonly known by the name of Glauber's
Salt. They contain 55 per cent. of water of crytallisa
tion. See page 163. It is found native in various saline
springs, and sometimes efflorescent on the walls of old
houses. The taste of this salt is cooling and bitter.
Its crystals, when in contact with the atmosphere, lose
their water of crystallisation, and become pulverulent.
It is soluble in three parts of cold water, and less than
its own weight of boiling water; a saturated hot solu
tion, when cooled, readily shoots into beautiful crystals.
See page 91. The crystals, on exposure to fire, liquify
in a short time, and boil in their water of crystallisa
tion; and when an intense heat is applied to the dried
salt, it undergoes the igneous fusion. It is used in
medicine as a purgative. It is also employed in the
manufacture of carbonate of soda and of glass.
SULPHITE OF SODA and Bisulphite of Soda-Pass
sulphurous acid through a solution of carbonate of soda
till carbonic acid gas ceases to be disengaged. See
the method of doing this described at page 314. The
solution, when evaporated, gives crystals of bisulphite
of soda. The neutral sulphite may be prepared by
adding carbonate of soda to the bisulphite.
HYPosulPHITE of SoDA.—NaO, S.” O’ + 5 Aq.
Preparation.—Saturate crystallised sulphite or bisul
phite of soda almost completely by carbonate of soda.
Then add, drop by drop, a solution of NaS" prepared
by saturating a boiling solution of caustic soda with
sulphur. Agitate the mixture. The yellow colour of the
sulphuret of sodium instantly disappears, and as long as
452 SOD1UM.

it does so, you are to continue to add it in drops. When

the yellow colour ceases to disappear on agitation, the
liquor is to be filtered and evaporated for crystallisation.
In general, large crystals are obtained, which require
to be purified by a second crystallisation. Proper
ties.—Crystallises in large colourless oblique rhombic
prisms. Taste, bitter and sulphurous. Easily melts
with loss of water. Decomposed by a strong heat.
Dissolves readily in water, and the solution absorbs
oxygen, and yields sulphate of soda. Its solution
readily dissolves iodine, iodide of silver, bromide of
silver, chloride of silver, oxide of gold, &c., on which
account it is greatly employed in Photography, and
Electroplating and gilding.
Remarkable Disengagement of Heat during the Crystallisation of
Hyposulphite of Soda-Fill a wide mouthed glass flask, of the
capacity of 6 or 8 ounces of water, with
pounded crystals of hyposulphite of
soda, and heat it over a spirit lamp, at
the temperature of about 134° F., till
the salt boils in its water of crystallisa
tion. The bottle must be quite full.
As soon as the liquor is boiling hot,
suddenly close the bottle with a sound
cork, and place it aside where it will
cool quietly and gradually; for example,
on a paper box. In a couple of hours
the melted salt will be cooled to the
temperature of the atmosphere, but will be still in the liquid
state. The bottle must now be handled very gently, as agitation
causes the salt to crystallise. Cautiously remove the cork, and
dip the bulb of a thermometer into the liquid. The whole
capacity of the flask will immediately exhibit a multitude of
perfectly regular crystals of hyposulphite of soda, the sudden
production of which in the solution often causes the temperature
of it to rise from 68° F. to 113° F., being a rise of 45° F. which
greatly exceeds the amount of heat disengaged during the crys
tallisation of sulphate of soda (page 92), or any other known
salt. The experiment may be repeated any number of times
with the same quantity of salt.

PhosphaTE of SoDA—Tribasic Phosphate of Soda.

2 NaO, H2O, P*0% + 24 Aq. Forms large trans
parent crystals. Its taste is very similar to that of
 CHLORATE OF SODA. 453

common salt. Its crystals are soluble in two parts of

boiling water, or four of cold water ; they effloresce
superficially in the air, and when heated, undergo the
watery fusion. At a red heat they melt into a white
enamel, and before the blowpipe into a transparent
globule, which, on cooling, becomes opaque.
Bibasic Phosphate of Soda, Pyrophosphate of Soda.
—2 NaO, P*O". Ignition gives new properties to the
phosphate of soda, a fact first noticed by Dr. Clark.
The ignited salt, pyrophosphate of soda, redissolved in
water, crystallises in a different shape from that of the
common phosphate. Its solution, also, on being added
to solutions of silver, produces a white precipitate of
bibasic phosphate of silver, whereas the common phos
sphate of soda produces a yellow precipitate of tribasic
phosphate of silver. See page 341.
There are 5 or 6 other varieties of phosphate of soda,
which cannot be particularised here for want of space.
CHLoRATE of SoDA.—NaO, C12O5. Dissolve 7
parts of crystallised carbonate of soda, and 7% parts of
tartaric acid, in 24 parts of boiling water.
Dissolve also 6 parts of chlorate of potash
in 16 parts of boiling water. Mix the
two solutions together while boiling hot,
and stir the mixture. Use a cylinder of
thin hard glass. Then take the vessel
from the fire and allow it to become quite
cold, when tartrate of potash will precipi
tate. The liquor filtered through a double
filter, will contain the chlorate of soda.
To procure Chloric Acid, add to this solution of
chlorate of soda, a solution containing 6 parts of oxalic
acid and 18 parts of water, prepared at a temperature
not above 134° F. Mix the two liquors thoroughly
together, and place the vessel containing them in a
freezing mixture, consisting of crystallised Glauber's
salt and common muriatic acid. Oxalate of soda will
then precipitate, and chloric acid remain in solution.
Filter. The acid so prepared is not quite pure, but still
fit to make chlorate of barytes for fireworks, &c.
454 SODIUM.

CHLoRIDE OF SODIUM. KITCHEN SALT, SEA SALT.

MURIATE OF SODA.—NaCl2 = 733'55. This abounds
in the waters of the ocean, and chiefly occasions their
peculiar taste. It is likewise found, in great abun
dance, in various parts of the globe, in a dry state. At
Northwich, in England, is a salt mine, which yields 4000
tons of rock salt a-year; and, in Spain, there is a re
markable solid mountain of salt, 500 feet high, and a
league in circuit; its depth below the surface of the
earth is unknown. This mountain is composed of salt,
in a state of perfect purity. In short, salt is one of the
most abundant bodies in nature, and one of the most
useful. Of 15 parts of salt, 9 parts are chlorine, and 6
parts are sodium. Hence, sodium is one of the most
abundant of metals. The crystals of salt are regular
cubes, which commonly hang together in a pyramidal
form. Its pure saline taste is well known. It dissolves
in about 2% parts of water, either cold or hot. It is not
affected by exposure to the atmosphere. When heated,
it breaks with a loud crackling noise, which phenome
non is termed decrepitation. This may
be observed by igniting a small quantity
of dry salt in a porcelain crucible over a
a spirit lamp. By a greater heat salt
may be fused, and by a still greater
heat volatilised ; but it is not decom
posed by heat.
Chloride of sodium may be formed by adding muriatic
acid to a saturated solution of carbonate of soda, as
long as effervescence takes place. The solution is then
to be filtered, and the salt crystallised by evaporation.
100 septems of muriatic acid of 100° added to 100
septems of carbonate of soda of 100°, produce a solu
tion of neutral chloride of sodium. If the solutions are
pure, filtration is unnecessary.
To purify common chloride of sodium.—Dissolve the
salt in lime water, which separates magnesia and iron.
Precipitate sulphuric acid by a solution of chloride of
barium. Precipitate the lime and excess of barytes by
 CARBONATE OF SODA. 455

a solution of carbonate of soda. Filter. Neutralise

with muriatic acid. Evaporate and crystallise.
Testing of Salt Springs.-The strength of brine may
be readily tested in the same manner as muriatic acid,
by a solution of nitrate of silver. See page 357. A test
atom of nitrate of silver indicates in the same way, a
test atom of muriatic acid=455:13 grains; or a test
atom of common salt = 733:55 grains. Consequently,
if a brine spring is found to have the strength of 100°,
it will contain 733'55 grains of salt per decigallon, or
7335-5 grains (rather above 1 lb.) of salt per gallon.
HYPochLORITE of SoDA, or Chloride of soda, is pre
pared by passing chlorine gas into a solution of carbon
ate of soda, till most of the carbonic acid is expelled.
A bleaching and disinfecting liquor, similar to the
solution of bleaching powder.
BROMIDE, IoDIDE, and FLUORIDE OF SODIUM, all
crystallise in cubes, and much resemble the chloride.
CARBONATE OF SODA.—NaO, CO2 = 667-335.-This
compound was formerly known in commerce by the
names of kelp, barilla, and soda. It is obtained either
from the decomposition of common salt, or from the
combustion of marine plants. It exists in three states:
1. The carbonate ; 2. the bicarbonate; and 3. the sesqui
carbonate.
CARBONATE OF SODA. — NaO, CO2.-Its taste is
alcaline and slightly acrid, without being caustic. It
changes blue vegetable colours to green. It is soluble
in twice its weight of cold, and less than its weight
of biling water: hence a saturated hot solution crys
tallises on cooling ; the crystals are, however, more
beautiful when the evaporation is carried on slowly.
Its crystals sometimes contain 63 per cent. of water.
Their formula is NaO, CO2 +10 Aq. It is one of the
most efflorescent salts known, falling completely to
powder in a very little time after its exposure to the
atmosphere. On the application of heat, it is soon
rendered fluid, is dried by the continuance of the heat,
and then melted. As it is more fusible than the car
456 SODIUM.

bonate of potash, it is preferred to that salt in the

manufacture of glass, because it promotes the fusion of
the earth in a greater degree, and produces a glass of
better quality.
The Carbonate of Soda occurs in commerce in several different
states: a, absolutely pure in the state of crystals; b, absolutely
pure in anhydrous powder; c, very nearly pure in the state of
crystals; d, in the impure condition termed soda ash, in which
it contains about 75 per cent. of carbonate of soda; e, in a still
more impure state, containing not above half its weight of pure
carbonate. The preparations, a, b, are only used as chemical
tests; c is used in pharmacy, domestic economy, and many arts;
d is employed by bleachers and dyers, and e by glass makers and
soap boilers.

SOLUTIONS OF CARBONATE OF SOIDA.

NaO, CO2. Test Atom 667335 Grains. Temp. 62°F.

Specific Ratio of Grains of Atoms of Septems

Gravity NaO, CO2 | NaO, CO2 NaO, CO2 containing
of the in in 1000 in 1000 1 atom of
Solution. 1.00000. Septems. Septems NaO, CO2.

1-166 | 15126 | 1234.6 | 1.85 . 540-54

1-1357 12591 1001-0 || 1:50 666-67
1094 || 03714 | 667:33 || 1:00 1000-0
1-0493 || 04540 || 333-67 || 0:50 2000-0
1.0117 | |00942 | 66-733 || 0:10 10000:
1:0016 || 00005 | 66733 0.01 100000.
Preparation of a Solution of Carbonate of Soda of
100°. Normal Solution of Soda.—As pure anhydrous
carbonate of soda is easily obtainable, and is a very
manageable substance, it is perhaps the best thing to
fix upon as a standard by which to estimate the strength
of diluted acids. A normal solution of this salt is
prepared precisely in the same manner as the normal
solution of carbonate of potash, page 442. Expose
about 700 grains of the pure anhydrous salt, in a por
celain crucible, to a red heat for ten minutes. As soon
 NORMAL SOLUTION OF SODA. 457

as it is cool, weigh out 667% grains. Dissolve this in

distilled water in the decigallon bottle, page 264, dilute
the solution nearly to the mark a, b, bring the temper
ature of it to 62° F., and then adjust the measure
exactly to the mark. See pages 292 and 442.
It is of the utmost consequence to prepare this solu
tion with every attention to accuracy, because it is to
form the standard for the strength of your acids, pages
320 and 357, and indirectly of your alcalies, pages 306
and 443; and if your normal solution of soda is inaccu
rate, all your subsequent analysis of acids and alcalies
will be inaccurate in the same degree.
When you have prepared a solution of soda of 100°,
you can by means of it prepare solutions of nitric acid,
sulphuric acid, and muriatic acid of 100°. For greater
security, you can check the strength of your muriatic
acid by means of a normal solution of nitrate of silver,
page 357. Then by means of muriatic acid of 100°,
you can prepare a solution of ammonia of 100°, page
306. With these liquors you can test a variety of pre
parations; namely, with ammonia you can test the
strength of nitric acid, muriatic acid, sulphuric acid, and
acetic acid; and with sulphuric acid or muriatic acid
you can test the strength of ammonia, solutions of
potash and soda, limestones, &c. You will bear in
mind, that in all cases when you have brought any
liquor to the strength of 100°, it contains of the anhy
drous reagent 1 test atom in a decigallon of solution, no
matter what may be the weight of the test atom. See
page 264. -

EQUIVALENTS OF CARBONATE OF SODA.

Anhydrous Soda, 390-897 1:0000 -58576 .21812.
Carbonate of Soda, dry, 667-335 17072 10000 .37237.
Ditto, crystallised, 1792-135 4:5847 2.6855 10000.
This table shows clearly the relations of soda in its
different states. A decigallon of normal solution of
soda, 100°, is equal in strength to 1792 grains of crys
tallised carbonate of soda, and to 391 grains of anhydrous
2
458 SODIUM.

soda. The crystallised salt contains only 22 per cent.

of soda, and the anhydrous carbonate only 58% per cent
of soda.

TESTING OF SODA Ash.—Soda ash is a very mixed

substance, but I propose to show only the method of
determining how much per cent. it contains of soda in
the state of caustic soda or carbonate of soda. The
soda may be estimated either as anhydrous soda or
carbonate of soda.

a). Required, the Per centage of Carbonate of Soda.—

Weigh out 6674 grains of the soda ash, fairly selected
from the cask; dissolve it in the decigallon bottle, page
264, in clear filtered water (distilled water is not neces
sary), and dilute the solution to the bulk of a decigallon.
If the soda ash makes a very muddy solution, it is
better to filter it, as described in the article on potash,
page 443; but if the impurities are not very bulky, and
sink readily to the bottom, it is not necessary to filter
the solution. The testing is now effected in the manner
described at pages 320 and 321, except that the alcali
meter is to be filled with sulphuric acid of 100°. The
number of septems of that acid required to neutralise
100 septems of the solution of soda ash, shows the per
centage of carbonate of soda contained in the soda ash.
Thus, if 60 septems of acid are required, the soda ash
contains 60 per cent. of carbonate of soda, or as much
carbonate of soda and caustic soda as are together
equal to 60 per cent. of carbonate of soda.
As the decigallon of solution contains 10 times 100
Septems, you can repeat the testing process without any
fresh weighing.
b). Required, the Per centage of Anhydrous Soda.—
Weigh out for analysis, 391 grains of the soda ash, and
proceed as before. The number of septems of acid of
100° required to saturate 100 septems of the alcaline
solution, will now indicate the per centage of anhy
drous soda contained in the soda ash. -
 CENTIGRADE ALCALIMETERS. 459
Different Forms of the Alcalimeter.—I have given at page 265,
figure A, a representation of a con
venient form of centigrade test
tube or alcalimeter; but I may add
here an account of one or two other
varieties of that instrument. Fig.d
in the margin represents the Pouret
or Burette invented by M. Gay
Lussac. This is a very convenient
and delicate instrument, but rather
fragile. It is, in consequence, less
suited for common workmen, than
the instrument represented at page
265, but it gives more precise results.
I have added two or three little
conveniences to the pouret, which
I shall describe. , b is a cylindrical
block of wood, the ends of which
are cut at right angles with the
sides. In the front is a vertical :
groove. When the block is placed
on a horizontal table, a, and the tube
is pressed against the groove, the
tube is placed at once in a per
fectly vertical position, necessary for the
accurate observations of the height of the
liquor contained within it. c is a circular
japanned tin plate, with a horizontal open
ing covered with white tissue paper. When
the surface of the liquor in the pouret is
placed against this narrow screen, the
height of the liquor can be observed with
exactness. The lower part of the curve
formed by the surface of the liquor is taken
in all cases as the true level, and this is well defined, when looked
at before the screen.

As the pouret is round at the bottom,

it requires a separate foot to support it
when filled with test liquor. This foot is
shown in the margin. c is the pouret ;
a is a wooden pillar perforated by an b cº

oval hole that supports the pouret in

an upright position. When the pouret
has been washed, it can be inverted on
the peg b to drain. |
460 SODIUM.

The centigrade tube figured in the margin is equally simple

and delicate. I do not know whose invention it is. I have some
times made it with a ground joint at the top, and sometimes I have
added the top part to the tube, figure A, page 265, instead of the
grooved stopper represented with that form
of alcalimeter. The simplest form, as shown
in this figure, is perhaps the best. In using a
it, a certain quantity of the test acid may be
poured out by the wide opening, and the
remainder applied in drops from the narrow
opening. The tube can be fixed in a vertical
position by the levelling block described
above, and be supported by a wooden foot of
the candlestick form.
Schuster's Alcalimeter.—Wery good analyses
may be made
by means of
Schuster's alca
limeter, figured
in the margin.
The method is
as follows: A
test acid is pre
pared of such
a strength, that
10 grains of it
neutralise one
grain of i.
drous potash,
or one grain of anhydrous soda, according as potash or soda is
to be the subject of trial,—a). 20 grains of the impure alcali
are to be dissolved in water, or the fifth part of the solution
of 100 grains is to be taken for trial.—b). A quantity of the test
acid is to be put into the alcalimeter, and to be weighed with
the instrument.—c). The neutralisation of the alcali is to be
effected.—d). The bottle, with its contents, is to be again
weighed.—e). Every grain of acid used, indicates 1 tenth of a
grain of anhydrous alcali present in the sample subjected to
analysis.--f). Multiplying this result by 5, you have the per
centage or degree of the impure alcali. This method of testing
Fºl was originally published in London, by Lewis, in the year
767. The invention of the art of alcalimetry is commonly, but
erroneously, ascribed to Descroizilles.
Manufacture of Carbonate of Soda.-This manufacture is one
of such vast importance, that I shall give a short sketch of it.—
1). Common salt, NaCl2, is put into a reverberatory furnace, pre
viously heated, and sulphuric acid of 1300° is added to it gradu
 MANUE ACTURE OF SODA ASH. 461

ally. The following figure represents a reverberatory, furnace,

and illustrates the principle of this process, although the figure
:
%

a
—sº
-= -T

Tº
does not show the exact sort of furnace that is presently em
ployed. The flame plays upon the surface of the mixture, and
then passes into the flue. The sulphuric acid decomposes the
salt, and produces sulphate of soda and muriatic acid :
NaCl2 + H2O, SO3= NaO, SO3 + H2Cl2.
The muriatic acid gas passes into the flue with the smoke, and
if permitted to escape into the air from low chimneys, destroys
every tree in the neighbourhood. This can be prevented 5
passing the fumes into the lower part of square towers filled
with. coke, kept constantly moist by a current of water run in
continuously at the top. The gas combines with the water, and
462 SODIUM.

liquid muriatic acid flows from the bottom of the towers.-2).

The sulphate of soda is mixed with chalk and coal, all previously
ground and sifted. This mixture is put into a very hot rever
beratory furnace of the form of fig. F. At first, the mass is put
on the upper floor of the furnace farthest from the fire, through
the door seen at the back of the figure on the left hand. While
heating, it is well stirred
and turned ºver by a = −2.
scraper of this form.
After being heated a -

certain time, and until the lower part of the furnace is cleared
from a previous charge, the mass is removed to, the lower floor
or hottest part of the furnace, where it is farther heated and
stirred, and from which it is finally drawn out into cast-iron
troughs, by means of a
rake or scraper of this
form, through a door ©
seen at the back of the
R
figure in the centre. The balance pole shown at the top of the
figure is used to lift the fire-door which is placed at the right
hand end of the furnace. The product thus obtained is ball
soda-3). This cake is broken up and soaked in water, and the
solution obtained is boiled down to dryness, in a reverberatory
furnace. By this process the chief impurities are separated, as
is shown in the following equation :
NaO, SO3 + 4 C + 2 CaO= NaO + 4 CO + Ca2SO,
That is to say, the sulphate of soda, charcoal, and lime, produce
caustic soda, carbonic oxide (which flies away as gas), and an
oxysulphuret of calcium, an insoluble worthless product, which
it is the object of this process to separate. The caustic soda is,
however, contaminated with sulphur, and is for the most part
combined with carbonic acid produced during the furnace pro
cess.-4). The dry result of process 3 is mixed with sawdust
and again fused. By this it is deprived of sulphur, and convert
ed almost entirely into carbonate. It is now in the state of soda
ash.-5). The soda ash is dissolved in water, evaporated, and
set in iron tanks to cool, where in a few days it deposits crystal
lised carbonate of soda, in the state in which it is sent to market.
—6). The mother liquid drawn from these crystals is boiled to
dryness, and produces the impure soda ash which is used by
soap boilers and glass makers.
urification º Commercial Carbonate of Soda for Chemical
Purposes.—Pound and wash the crystals with a little cold water.
Dissolve the washed salt in a quantity of hot water, insufficient
to dissolve the whole mass. This leaves some of the least solu
ble salts behind. Cool the hot solution rapidly, b plunging the
vessel into cold water, stirring the solution ºft the time. Put
 CARBONATE OF SODA AS A TEST. 463

the crystals on a filter; allow the mother liquor to drain off;

and then wash with cold water, until the droppings, after satu
ration with nitric acid, do not give a precipitate, when a solution
of nitrate of silver is added. Dissolve and recrystallise.

Precipitates produced in solutions of Salts of the Earths

and Metals by a solution of Carbonate of Soda.-The
solution of carbonate of soda used for this purpose may
have the strength of 100°. Carbonate of soda is almost
identical in its action as a precipitant with carbonate of
potash. Page 444.
WHITE PRECIPITATE.—Iron, protosalts. The colour of
the precipitate changes to green, and finally becomes reddish
brown at the surface. Barytes. Cadmium. Strontian.
Lead. Lime. Tin. Magnesia. Bismuth. Alumina.
Silver. Manganese, protosalts. Zinc. Antimony.
GREEN PRECIPITATE.-Nickel, apple-green. Iron, prot
oxide; the colour is first white, then green, and finally
reddish-brown. Chromium, protosalts. Copper, deutoxide,
greenish-blue; black if boiled.
YELLow PRECIPITATE–Copper, protosalts. Mercury,
protosalts; with excess, black.
RED PRECIPITATE.-Cobalt, rose-red. Gold, red-yellow.
BRowN PRECIPITATE.—Iron, protosalts, first white, then
changes to green and brown. Manganese, deutoxide. Mer
cury, persalts.
No PRECIPITATE.-Potash. Soda. Ammonia.

Carbonate of Soda as a flua, for Blowpipe operations.

—See page 377. The quantity of metal produced by
a blowpipe operation is often so small that it cannot be
distinctly seen until freed from the charcoal and slag.
To this end, the fused mass is put into a small agate
mortar, ground to fine powder, with water, and the
whole washed by a jet of water from the spirting bottle,
page 431. The charcoal and soluble salts are thus
washed away, and the particles of reduced metal left
free in the mortar.

Equivalents of the Carbonates of Potash and Soda :—

Carbonate of Potash, 866°354 1-0000 12982
Carbonate of Soda, dry, 667-335 -77.028 1.0000
464 SODIUM.

BICARBONATE OF SODA.—NaO, CO2 + H2O, CO2.

Small, sparingly soluble crystals of a mild alcaline
taste. Employed in preparing effervescing drinks, such
as soda water, ginger beer, &c.
Preparation of Bicarbonate of Soda.—Take equal parts of
calcined and crystallised carbonate of soda. Pulverise and
mix them intimately. Put the mixture into a large glass
tube, and connect one end of the tube with an apparatus
from which carbonic acid gas is being expelled. The salt
in the tube soon becomes hot at the end where the carbonic
acid gas enters, and the heat slowly but continually proceeds
towards the other end of the tube, which it finally reaches.
Cold water is to be applied to the outside of the tube by wet
cloths, to prevent the temperature rising too high. No car
bonic acid gas escapes from the far end of the tube until the
heat arrives there, all the gas being absorbed by the salt
within the tube, which finally becomes fully saturated. A
pound of carbonate of soda, contained in a tube 1% inch wide,
and 2 feet long, can be thus converted into bicarbonate of
soda in two hours. The process is easy, quick, and economi
cal.—Mohr.
Soda WATER PowDERs.-In a blue paper put 30 grains
of finely pulverised bicarbonate of soda, and in a white
paper put 25 grains of finely pulverised tartaric acid. This
quantity is sufficient for about half a pint of water. A
flavour may be communicated by previously adding to the
water a small quantity of simple syrup, or of tincture of
orange peel, or a drop or two of essence of lemons.
GINGER BEER Powders.-These are made exactly as the
soda water powders, but with the addition of 5 grains of
ground ginger, and 60 grains of white sugar, which may be
mixed with the bicarbonate of soda.
SEIDLITZ PowDERs.-These consist of 120 grains of tar
tarized soda, (tartrate of potash and soda, or Rochelle salt,)
and 40 grains of bicarbonate of soda, finely ground, mixed
and put into a blue paper, and 30 grains of powdered tartaric
acid put in a white paper. This proportion serves for half
a pint of water.
In mixing these effervescing draughts, it is best to dissolve
the acid in a small quantity of water, and the alcaline salt
(frºm the blue paper) in the principal portion of the water,
* º . the latter into the former when the draught is
O be taken.
 BORAX. 465

SESQUICARBONATE OF SODA. – 2 NaO, 3 CO2 +

4 H2O.-Found native in Hungary and Egypt, called
in commerce Trona. Produced occasionally by boiling
a solution of the bicarbonate. Crystallises. It is more
readily soluble than the bicarbonate. A mere curiosity.
OXALATE OF SODA.—A white, sparingly-soluble, crys
talline salt. It precipitates when strong solutions of
carbonate of soda and oxalic acid are mixed together.
BoFATE OF SODA.—BORAX. —NaO, 2 BO3 + 10 Aq.
Borate of soda, or common borax, is a body that is
well known, and very useful. It is brought from the
East Indies in an impure state, and called tincal. It
is also prepared from native boracic acid from Italy.
It is white, transparent, has a greasy feel, and a styptic
alcaline taste; it converts vegetable blues to green; it
is soluble in 6 parts of boiling water, and 18 of cold
water. Its crystals are transparent and hard. When
exposed to heat, it swells, boils, loses its water of crys
tallisation, and becomes converted into a porous, white,
opaque mass, termed calcined borax. With a stronger
heat it melts into a transparent glass, which possesses
great tenacity and can be pulled into long strings.
After fusion, it remains soluble in water. It is much
used as a flux for metals, and is therefore of great im
portance in analysis by the blowpipe. See pages 123
and 377.
COLOURS OF BEADS OF BORAX PRODUCED BEFORE THE
BLowPIPE.—A bent platinum wire is the proper sup
port for borax beads in the blowpipe flame. See pages
117, 123, and 124.
C
In the In the
Oxidating Flame. Reducing Flame.
Chromium,............... Green, ........... Green.
Copper,.................... Green,............ Red-brown.
Cobalt,.... .........Blue,...............Blue.
Iron,............ ........Red,........ ...... Green.
Manganese, ........ ...Violet, ............ Colourless.
Nickel, ...... .............Red,............... Grey.
Uranium,.................Yellow, ............Green.
466 SODIUM.

SILICATE of SoDA.—Like silicate of potash. The

important article GLASS is mainly composed of silicate
of potash and silicate of soda; but mixed with silicate
of lime and silicate of lead, and with borates of the
same bases. Of these ingredients, mixed in various
proportions, are all kinds of colourless glass composed,
both hard and soft, dull and brilliant. The colours
displayed by particular kinds of glass are due to the
presence of small quantities of metals. Thus reds are
produced by gold and by copper, blue by cobalt, green
by copper, white by tin, yellow by antimony. Milk
º contains bone earth. Pastes or false gems con
sist of easily fusible lead glass coloured by various
metals. Enamel is lead or flint glass rendered white
and opaque by oxide of tin.
The common materials used in the manufacture of
glass are, a, sand or quartz; b, potash; c, soda, often
in the state of sulphate of soda ; d, lime; and e, red
lead. The latter is only used for the heavy, easily
fusible, soft, and brilliant glass, termed flint glass or
crystal. This is an excellent kind of glass for orna
mental purposes, but is not at all adapted for chemical
apparatus. It is readily decomposed by alcaline liquors,
by sulphuretted hydrogen, and is even acted upon by
pure boiling water. The infusible glass that is best
adapted for chemical apparatus, consists of silicate of
potash combined with silicate of lime. When the pot
ash is replaced by soda, the glass is much softer, even
when no lead is present. Common green bottles are
coloured by iron. As most kinds of sand contain iron,
it is usual to add to the glass a little manganese (glass
makers’ soap) which removes the green tinge produced
by iron. Manganese alone gives a violet
colour to glass. It may often be seen in Lon
don in window glass. All glass vessels require
to be annealed, which is performed by cooling
the vessels very slowly. If this is neglected,
they readily fly in pieces when handled or D
subjected to change of temperature. There \
is a small strong flask of unannealed glass >
 LITHIUM. AMMONIUM. 467

called the Bolognian flask, made to illustrate this fact.

The smallest angular fragment of glass let fall into it
breaks it to pieces, though it be half-an-inch thick.

16. LITHIUM. L = 80.375.

LITHIUM is said to be very similar to sodium. Hy
drate of lithia is very similar to caustic potash, but not
deliquescent, and sparingly soluble in water. It cor
rodes platinum at a red heat. The salts of lithium
are unimportant. The chief sources of lithia are the
minerals called Petalite and Spodumene.

17. AMMONIUM. N2H8 = Am = 226-95 Berzelius.

= 225'00 Thomson.

AMMONIUM is not a simple substance, but a compound

metal composed of eight volumes of hydrogen gas in
combination with two volumes of nitrogen gas. Its
existence is suppositional, for it has never been pro
duced in a separate state. But there exists a series of
compounds, called salts of ammonia, which bear a strik
ing resemblance to another series of compounds, called
salts of potash. And if you examine the salts of potash
and of ammonia, pair by pair, you will find them to
agree precisely in composition, excepting that, where
in the potash salt you have an atom or 489-916 parts
by weight of metallic potassium, you have in the
ammonia salt an atom or 225.00 parts by weight of a
compound of hydrogen and nitrogen, combined invari
ably in the proportion of 50 in weight (4 in bulk) of
hydrogen, and 175 in weight (1 in bulk) of nitrogen.
Hence, in all these compounds, the metal potassium is
replaced by what we may term the imaginary metal
ammonium. The reason why this compound is con
sidered to be metallic, is not only that it replaces other
metals, and seems to be so exactly equivalent to potas
sium and sodium, but because it forms, with mercury,
a compound that exhibits the most striking properties
of an ordinary metallic amalgam.
468 AMMONIUM.

Eramples of the Equivalence of Potassium and Ammonium:

KO, H2O = Caustic Potash, page 427.
AmO, H2O = Ammonia in water, page 305.
R S = Sulphuret of Potassium, page 435.
AmS = Sulphuret of Ammonium, page 328.
KO, SO3 = Sulphate of Potash, page 435.
AmO, SO = Sulphate of Ammonia, page 471.
K Cl2 = Chloride of Potassium, page 439.
AmCl2 = Sal ammoniac, page 473.
And thus it is with all the compounds which contain pot
assium and ammonium. They agree not only in constitution
but in many properties, and the same thing holds even with
the double salts. Thus, the double chloride of platinum and
potassium is matched precisely by the double chloride of
platinum and ammonium; these two salts are alike in most
of their properties; they possess the same colour, are formed
in the same manner, dissolve in the same liquids, crystallise
in the same form, and contain the same quantity of platinum
and the same quantity of chlorine; they differ in one cir
cumstance only, which is, that where the one salt contains
489-916 parts of potassium, the other contains 225 parts of
ammonium.
Farther, potassium forms an amalgam with mercury, and
so also does ammonium; but though potassium can be
separated from the amalgam of potassium, ammonium can
not be separated from the other amalgam. We know
nothing more of ammonium than that it acts the part of a
metal in compound bodies, and that its constituents are
nitrogen and hydrogen.
Preparation of Amalgam of Ammonium.–1. The first stage
of this process is the preparation of an amalgam of sodium.
An amalgam of potassium serves in
stead, but is not so good. Put 100
parts of pure metallic mercury into a
flat, clean, perfectly dry, but cold
porcelain mortar. Add 1 part by
weight of metallic sodium, quickly
and carefully dried by filtering paper
from naphtha. Close the mortar
with a wooden or pasteboard cover having a hole in the
 AMALG AM OF AMMONIUM. 469

centre. Put the dry pestle through the cover, and mix the
sodium with the mercury by a rapid and forcible kneading.
The metals soon combine with a hissing sound, and a dis
engagement of heat and light. Transfer
the amalgam rapidly into a small glass
flask containing pure mineral naphtha,
and apply a gentle heat to the flask by
means of a spirit lamp. The amalgam
then melts to a uniform mass. This pro
duct serves to prepare the amalgams of
ammonium, barium, and strontium. [This
amalgam can also be prepared by gently
heating the mixed sodium and mercury
in a dry glass tube over a spirit lamp.]
The sodium amalgam answers best for the production of
ammonium amalgam when it is crystallised, thus:—Put the
sodium amalgam, with pure naphtha, into a glass capsule,
and allow it to repose at mean temperature until the amal
gam resolves itself partly into a fluid amalgam and partly
into a solid amalgam in sharp needle-formed crystals. Pour
off the fluid amalgam, and employ the crystallised amalgam
in the preparation of the amalgam of ammonium.
2. Prepare a solution of pure muriate of ammonia, fully
saturated at 100°F. and then allowed to cool to the tem
perature of the air. Put into a deep glass
capsule, a piece of sodium amalgam, of
half-an-inch in diameter, or a mass of that
size of the crystallised amalgam just de
NCZ
scribed. Instantly cover the amalgam with the saturated
solution of muriate of ammonia, and observe what occurs:
In less than a minute, the sodium amalgam will magnify its
bulk from 20 to 50 times, nay, Doebereiner says 100 times,
assuming the appearance of a soft metallic butter, which has
the colour of mercury, and is lighter than water. This is
the amalgam of ammonium, containing N*H* with a variable
proportion of mercury, and a little sodium ; while the solu
tion about it contains chloride of sodium. The sudden pro
duction of this enigmatical substance is an astonishing phe
nomenon. The amalgam soon resolves itself into mercury,
ammonia gas, and hydrogen gas.-Boettger.

COMPOUNDS OF AMMONIUM AND AMMONIA. See pages

147 and 158.
2 R.
470 AMMONIUM.

OxIDE OF AMMONIUM = N*H8O = Am O.

HYDRATE of OxIDE of AMMONIUM = N*H8O, H2O
= AmO, H2O.-See page 305.

SALTs of AMMONIA.—Detection. See page 117.

The salts of ammonia all contain 1 equivalent of
water, in company with 1 equivalent of ammonia, or
in other words, they contain oxide of ammonium,
N2H8O, when combined with oxygen acids, and
ammonium, N*H*, when combined with chlorine,
sulphur, &c. All the salts of ammonia are soluble in
water. Their concentrated solutions give precipitates
with concentrated solutions of:—
Sulphate of Alumina. Tartaric Acid.
Chloride of Platinum. (But this very slowly.)
The fixed alcalies and alcaline earths expel ammonia
gas from them, page 117. They are mostly decom
posed by heat, though the carbonate and muriate sub
lime unaltered.

NITRATE of AMMONIA—Inflammable Nitre.—Am0,

N2O5. It is obtained in six-sided prismatic crystals.
The taste is extremely cold and acrid. It dissolves in
half its weight of water. It deliquesces. The most
remarkable property of this salt is, that, when thrown
on a red hot iron, it explodes with a loud noise, accom
panied by a white flame. The chief use of nitrate of
ammonia, is in preparing nitrous oxide gas. Page 280.
Preparation.—Saturate nitric acid diluted with five
parts of water, with carbonate of ammonia. Filter the
solution. Then evaporate by a gentle heat, and, to
supply the waste of the alcali, which is volatilised by
the heat, add occasionally, a little more of the carbon
ate of ammonia. When the evaporation has proceeded
to a certain extent, the solution is set aside, and the
salt crystallises.
SULPHURET OF AMMONIUM. N2H8S or AmS.
HYDROSULPHURET of AMMONIA. N2H6 -- H2S.
See page 328.
 SALTS OF AMMONIA. 471

SULPHATE OF AMMONIA—Am O, SO3 + Aq. Take

dilute sulphuric acid in a glass; throw a lump of car
bonate of ammonia into it. The solid swims up and
down in the liquid, disengaging many bubbles of gas.
The gas thus produced is carbonic acid. The resulting
solution holds sulphate of ammonia. If strong sul
phuric acid is poured upon strong liquid ammonia, a
violent action is produced. A great heat is excited,
and dense fumes thrown off. Sulphate of ammonia
forms colourless crystals, easily soluble in water, and
not alterable by air. Decomposed and sublimed by
heat, chiefly producing sulphite of ammonia.
PHOSPHATE OF AMMONLA.—2 AmO, H2O, P205.
Large transparent colourless crystals, obtained by satur
ating acid phosphate of lime with carbonate of am
monia, filtering and crystallising. Taste, cool and
saline. Action, alcaline. Decomposed by heat into
ammonia gas and hydrate of phosphoric acid. Serves
to render paper, muslin, and other fabrics incombustible.
See page 408.
PHOSPHATE OF SODA AND AMMONIA.— Microcosmic
Salt. Am O, NaO, H2O, P20' + 8 Aq.—Mix solu
tions of 5 parts of crystallised phosphate of soda and
2 parts of crystallised phosphate of ammonia, both pre
pared with small quantities of hot water. When the
mixture cools, the microcosmic salt is deposited in crys
tals; transparent, colourless, oblique rhombic prisms,
of saline taste, easily soluble in water, and fusible by a
gentle heat, into a colourless liquid, which, rapidly
losing water and ammonia, melts finally into a colour
less bead of metaphosphate of soda = NaO, P*O", a
flux of great utility in blowpipe experiments.
The commercial microcosmic salt frequently contains
chloride of sodium. In that state it is unfit for a blow
pipe flux. The presence of chlorine is easily detected
by fusing a little of the microcosmic salt on the bent
end of a brass wire, and exposing the bead to the blow
pipe flame. If it produces a blue flame, chlorine is
present. See page 126.
472 AMMONIUM.

Colours of glass beads produced before the Blowpipe by

Microcosmic Salt and various metals.
The process is that described at page 376.
Metals
Indicated.
Colour
Hot.
in the oxidating Flame. || Colour
Cold.
in the Reducing
Hot.
Flame.
Cold.
Cobalt, .......Blue, Blue. Blue, Blue.
Nickel,.......Red, Pale Red. ||Red, Pale Red.
Iron, .........Red, Pale Red. || Green, P. Green.
Manganese, Violet, Violet. Colourless, Colourless.
Copper,...... Green, Blue. Brown, Brown.
Chromium,...Red, Green. Green, Green.
Uranium,....Yellow, Green. Green, Green.
Silver, ........ Yellow, Yellow. Grey, Grey.
Bismuth,.....Yellow, Colourless. |Colourless, Grey.
Lead,.........Colourless, White. Colourless, Grey.
CHLORIDE OF AMMONIUM = Am Cl* = 667-63.
MURIATE OF AMMONIA = N2H6 -- H2Cl2.
Sal ammoniac. Hydrochlorate of Ammonia.-This is
the most important of the salts of ammonium. It is
obtained by combining two volumes of ammonia gas
with one volume of chlorine gas (page 353); by saturat
ing liquid ammonia by muriatic acid; or by dissolving
carbonate of ammonia in muriatic acid. In the large
way it is prepared from one of the secondary products
of the manufacture of coal gas, and by the dry distilla
tion of animal matter, such as horn, hoofs, bones, &c.,
which produces a solution containing carbonate of am
monia. This is either saturated direct with muriatic
acid, or first with sulphuric acid, and the resulting
sulphate of ammonia is afterwards distilled with chloride
of sodium, upon which chloride of ammonium sublimes.
This commercial sal ammoniac appears in the form of
round semi-transparent tough cakes of fibrous crystal
line texture. It is difficult to pulverise. It has a sharp
saline cooling taste, is easily soluble in water, and
crystallises thence in octahedrons and cubes. When
heated, it sublimes without undergoing decomposition.
The white smoke in which it sublimes has a very pecu
liar smell. Great cold is produced, both by its solution
in water, and its mixture with pounded ice; hence, it
 SALTS OF AMMONIA. 473

is useful for frigorific mixtures, and, in warm countries,

for cooling wines. Few salts are of more extensive use
than this in chemistry, medicine, metallurgy, dyeing,
and other arts.
It is purified by solution in water and crystallisation.
SOLUTIONS OF SAL AMMONIAC.

AmCl2. Test atom 667-63 grains. Temp. 62°F.

Specific Grains of Atoms of Septems
Gravity Am Cl2 Am Cl2 containing
of the in 1000 in 1000 l atom of
Solution. Septems. Septems. Am Cl2.

1.077.333 2042.9 3.06 326-80

1.075829 2002.9 3:00 333-33
1.054114 1335-3 2:00 500.00
1*028658 667.63 1:00 1000-0
1.0034.86 66.763 0.10 10000"
1.000457 6-6763 0-01 100000.

Sal ammoniac has the remarkable property of ea:

panding when dissolved in a small quantity of water.
That is to say, the sal ammoniac and water contained
in a solution of 306°, are together of smaller bulk than
the solution which results from their combination.
When more water is added, condensation takes place.
CARBONATE OF AMMONIA. Sesquicarbonate of Am
monia = 2 Am O, 3 CO2 = 1483.22.—It is obtained by
subliming a mixture of 1 part of Sal ammoniac and 2
parts of chalk. White, very volatile, having the smell
of ammonia; crystallisable. It is soluble in four times
its weight of cold water; and in its own weight of hot
water; but a boiling heat volatilizes it. It is not de
composed by heat, though so readily sublimed. It is
volatile in the atmosphere; if left in a state of exposure,
it diffuses its smell, and diminishes in weight, giving
off the neutral carbonate, and leaving the bicarbonate.
AmO, 2 CO2 + 2 H2O.
Carbonate of ammonia is cmployed as a chemical
2 R 2
474. BARIUM.

test. Dissolve it in distilled water and filter the solu

tion. The bottle must have a stopper that fits well,
and should be kept in a cool place. It is a test for
many earths and metals. If pure, it sublimes without
residue, and its solution in nitric acid, gives no precipi
tate with solutions of silver and barytes.
Precipitates produced by Carbonate of Ammonia.
WHITE PRECIPITATE.-Barytes. Strontian. Lime. Alu
mina. Manganese, protosalts. Iron, protosalts. Zinc.
Cadmium. Lead. Tin. Bismuth. Mercury, persalts.
Silver. Antimony, protosalts.
YELLow PRECIPITATE.—Copper, protosalts. Mercury,
protosalts. Platinum. Gold, reddish colour. -

GREEN PRECIPITATE.-Iron, if the solution contains both

protosalts and persalts. Nickel, apple-green. Chromium.
Copper, deutoxide. -

RoSE-RED PRECIPITATE.-Cobalt.
BRowN PRECIP.-Manganese, deutoxide. Iron, persalts.
No PRECIPITATE.-Potash. Soda. Ammonia. Magnesia.
PRESTON SALTs. Smelling Salts.-Consist of carbonate of
ammonia scented with oil of cloves, cinnamon, lemon, &c.
OXALATE OF AMMONIA. Am O, C*03.-Colourless,
transparent crystals, difficultly soluble in water. Em
ployed in chemical analysis to precipitate lime, from
solutions of which it throws down oxalate of lime, the
most insoluble of all the salts of lime. Oxalate of am
monia is prepared by adding carbonate of ammonia to
a solution of oxalic acid till it is neutralised. The
solution is filtered, evaporated, and set aside to crys
tallise,

18. BARIUM. Ba = 856-88.

BARIUM resembles silver: it is easily fusible, and

heavier than concentrated sulphuric acid. It becomes
oxidised in the air, and burns with a red light when
heated. It decomposes water, and produces a solution
of barytes.
 BARYTES. 475

Preparation of Amalgam of Barium.–1. Prepare an amal

gam of sodium by the process described at page 468.
2. Prepare the amalgam of barium by the process de
scribed at page 469; that is to say, add to a small mass of
sodium amalgam, placed in a glass capsule, as much of a per
fectly saturated solution of chloride of barium, as suffices to
cover the amalgam of sodium. The amalgam of barium im
mediately begins to form, a slight disengagement of gas takes
place, and when that ceases, the amalgam of barium is at its
state of greatest development. It is about one half larger
than the amalgam of sodium, has a rough uneven surface,
and a sandy feel. It must, immediately, that is, not later
than 6 or 8 minutes from the commencement of the experi
ment, be taken from the solution, be well dried with filtering
paper, and put into a bottle containing pure mineral naphtha.
3. Put a portion of amalgam of barium with a little naph
tha into a small tube retort of hard glass. Distil off the
naphtha, and then the mercury. The residue in the tube is
metallic barium.
4. Cover a portion of amalgam of barium with a concen
trated solution of salammoniac. An amalgam of ammonium
is immediately produced. See page 469.
5. Fill a small glass capsule with a concentrated solution
of sulphate of copper, and put into the liquor a bead of
amalgam of barium + to # inch in diameter. The metal
begins immediately to rotate, and very remarkable changes
of colour and figure are produced in the liquor by the sul
phate of barytes, which is gradually deposited. Flocks of
this salt mixed with other flocks of oxide of copper, seem to
spring forth from the ball of amalgam, and to enclose it in
a growth of party coloured moss, round which the cupreous
solution moves in two opposite whirlpools, till the action is
at an end.
6. The amalgam of barium put into distilled water, dis
engages a large quantity of hydrogen gas, and produces a
solution of caustic barytes.
7. The amalgam of barium exposed to the air is gradually
converted into carbonate of barytes.—Boettger.

BARYTEs.—Bao. A greyish-white, earthy substance,

of corrosive alcaline taste and alcaline reaction. In
fusible in common fires. Its specific gravity is 4.0. It
is a violent poison. It has no smell. When water is
476 BARIUM.

poured upon dry barytes, it slakes like quicklime,

evolving, however, more heat. It tinges the flame of
burning alcohol yellow, the flame of the blowpipe green.
It is procured by exposing crystallised nitrate of barytes
to a red heat in a porcelain crucible, keeping up the
heat for an hour or two.
PERoxIDE OF BARIUM.–Ba0°. Formed by heating
barytes in oxygen gas. It dissolves in diluted acids
without disengaging oxygen gas, and is used to prepare
peroxide of hydrogen.
HYDRATE OF BARYTEs, BaO, H2O, or when crystal
lised, BaO + 9 H2O. White, fusible, but not decom
posable by heat. Dissolves in 20 parts of cold, or 2
parts of boiling water. The solution (barytic water) is
alcaline, and is employed as a delicate chemical test,
for carbonic and sulphuric acids, with both of which it
produces a white precipitate. It is poisonous. It is
prepared by boiling a solution of sulphuret of barium
with an excess of black oxide of copper, added little by
little, and filtering when the liquor gives a white pre
cipitate with acetate of lead. BaS + CuO = CuS +
BaO. The hot saturated solution deposits crystals of
hydrate of barytes, on cooling. Some hyposulphite
of barytes remains in the mother liquor.
CoMPOUNDs of BARIUM.—See pages 147 and 159.
SALTS OF BARIUM.—Detection. See page 118.
The salts of barium are all very heavy. Their solu
tions are poisonous. The soluble salts give a green
colour to the blowpipe flame. Their solutions when
largely diluted with water, give with a solution of any
sulphate, even those of lime and strontian, a granular
precipitate of sulphate of barytes, which is insoluble in
nitric and muriatic acids. With solutions of chromates
they give a yellow precipitate which is soluble in diluted
nitric acid. They also give a precipitate with a solu
tion of hydrofluosilicic acid. See page 415.
NITRATE OF BARYTEs. BaO, N2O5.—Octahedral
ºrystals, which contain no water of crystallisation.
Soluble in 8 parts of cold water. The saturated solu
tion at 62°F. has less strength than 100°. The pre
 SULPHURET OF BARIUM. 477

sence of free nitric acid causes the salt to precipitate.

Poisonous. Decrepitates when heated. To procure
this salt, add nitric acid to a solution of sulphuret of
barium till effervescence ceases, and the solution reddens
blue litmus paper. Sulphuretted hydrogen is disen
gaged and sulphur precipitated. Separate the latter
by filtration, and evaporate the filtered solution till a
pellicle appears on its surface. It may then be set
aside, and on cooling will deposit nitrate of barytes in
crystals. This salt is employed in the manufacture of
fireworks, and is used by chemists as a delicate test for
sulphuric acid.
GREEN FIRE FOR THEATREs.—Materials as follow:—
Nitrate of Barytes, 10 oz. Sulphuret of Antimony, 3 oz.
Chlorate of Potash, 3 oz. Charcoal of Soft Wood, OZ. }
Sublimed Sulphur, 1} oz.
They must all be perfectly dry, and in very fine powder.
Each substance is to be pounded separately, sifted and dried,
and the whole to be then carefully and cautiously mixed.
See the precautions given in the prescription for Red Fire,
in the article Nitrate of Strontian.
SULPHURET of BARIUM. BaS.—Formed when 8
parts of finely pulverised sulphate of barytes are mixed
with 1 part of charcoal powder and 2 parts of rosin, and
ignited at a white heat for two hours in a covered cruci
ble. BaO, SO3 + 4 C = BaS + 4 CO.
The sulphuret of barium can be dissolved
out of the ignited mass, by being boiled
in water. The filtered solution is trans
parent and colourless. When the calcin
ation has been insufficient, the solution
possesses a yellow colour, and the sulphu
ret is then impure. It is from the solution
of sulphuret of barium, that all the salts used by che
mists are prepared. Thus, the addition of muriatic
acid, produces the chloride of barium, that of nitric
acid, the nitrate, and that of acetic acid, the acetate of
barytes. The solution after being mixed with the acid,
is filtered, evaporated, and crystallised.
If dry barytes is heated in a glass tube, and gaseous
478 BARIUM.

sulphur passed over it, inflammation occurs, and the

product is a mixture of sulphuret of barium, and sul
phate of barytes.
SULPHATE of BARYTEs. BaO, SO3.−Heavy Spar.
—This salt abounds in nature, especially in veins of
rocks containing metals. It is generally obtained in
crystals, sometimes of a tabular form, and sometimes
prismatic; but both derived from a right rhombic prism.
It is the heaviest of all the earthy salts, and is perfectly
insoluble in water and in acids. It is tasteless and
inodorous. It is not poisonows—this property distin
guishes the sulphate from all the other salts of this
earth, which are poisonous. When formed into a thin
cake with flour and water, and exposed for some time
to a very strong heat, it shines afterwards in the dark.
This property was discovered in Bologna, and hence
the mineral was formerly termed Bolognian phosphorus.
Sulphate of barytes is precipitated whenever solutions
of sulphates come into contact with solutions of any
compound of barium. It is a white powder.
In the island of Arran very pure sulphate of barytes occurs
in large quantities. It is ground into powder, boiled in oil
of vitriol, to separate iron, made up into cakes, and sold as a
white paint. The colour is perfectly white; but as the
powder is crystalline and therefore partially transparent,
the paint does not cover so well as white lead, and cannot
replace that substance as a pigment. This purified heavy
spar being very finely ground, serves extremely well for the
preparation of sulphuret of barium.
Use of Sulphate of Barytes in chemical analysis.-Solutions
of sulphates and of salts of barytes, serve as tests or preci
pitates for each other. The substance precipitated is sul
phate of barytes, perhaps the most insoluble of salts. It
falls down most readily when the solution is hot, and when
a little free nitric acid is present. The powder can be
brought on a filter, washed, (page 410, or page 431,) dried,
ignited in a platinum or porcelain crucible and weighed.
From the ascertained weight of the precipitate its propor
tion or equivalent of barium, sulphur, oxygen, barytes, or
anhydrous sulphuric acid, can be reckoned by means of the
factors given at page 159. Thus, if the weight is 5 grains,
 CHLORATE OF BARYTES. 479

the quantity of sulphur contained in it is 5 × 13797 –

'68985 grains, and the quantity of barytes is 5 × 58768 =
2-9384 grains.
CHLoRIDE OF BARIUM. BaCl2.—Prepared from BaS,
in the same manner as nitrate of barytes, employing
muriatic acid instead of nitric acid. A white mass
which melts in a strong heat. It produces tabular
crystals containing water of crystallisation = Ba C12
+ 2 Aq, which decrepitate when heated, and afterwards
melt and lose their water. It is readily soluble in
water. It dissolves in 5000 parts of boiling alcohol,
and in 8000 parts of cold alcohol. It is not altered by
air, and only partially decomposed by heat. It has a
nauseous burning taste, and is poisonous; but is some
times given medicinally in small doses. Like nitrate
of barytes it is of great use as a test for sulphuric acid.
Solution of Chloride of Barium of 100°-Prepared
by dissolving 1299.53 grains of the anhydrous chloride,
or 1524.49 grains of the crystallised chloride, in distilled
water, and diluting the solution to the bulk of a deci
gallon, at the temperature of 62°F. See page 292.
Action of Chloride of Barium as a Precipitant:—
Salts Precipitated. Salts not Precipitated.
Sulphates. Iodates. Chlorates. Nitrates.
Silicofluorides.|Sulphites. Chlorides. | Hyponitrites.
Phosphates. |Arseniates. || Iodides. Sulphurets.
Carbonates. | Borates. Bromides. Hyposulphites.
Oxalates. Fluorides. || Cyanides. Arsenites.
Chromates. Seleniates. |Perchlorates. Hyposulphates.
CHLORATE OF BARYTES. Ba0, C12O5.—Saturate
aqueous chloric acid, page 453, with barytic water or
carbonate of barytes, evaporate and crystallise. Colour
less quadrangular prisms, soluble in 4 parts of water;
insoluble in alcohol. Detonates powerfully with com
bustible bodies. Gives a green light when heated with
sulphur. When mixed with oil of vitriol, it gives a
flash like lightning. Used in making fireworks.
A test atom dissolved in water, and mixed with a test atom of
º: of sulphuric acid, page 264, gives a precipitate of sul
phate of barytes and a solution of hydrate of chloric acid.
480 STRONTIUM.

CARBONATE OF BARYTEs. BaO, CO2.-This salt is

found native as Witherite, but not so abundantly as
the sulphate of barytes. It crystallises, is very heavy,
tasteless, inodorous, and nearly insoluble in water. It
is not altered by air, but is decomposed by heat. It
can be employed to produce nitrate of barytes or
chloride of barium, instead of the solution of sulphuret
of barium. The artificial carbonate of barytes is a
white powder. To obtain it in a state of purity, add a
solution of carbonate of ammonia to a solution of crys
tallised pure nitrate of barytes. Wash the precipitate,
page 410, till the water gives no precipitate with
sulphuric acid. Then dry and expose it to a red heaf
in a platinum crucible. Carbonate of barytes requires
for solution about 15000 parts of cold water, or 140000
parts of water rendered alcaline by ammonia.

19. STRONTIUM. Sr = 547-285.

Strontium occurs in very small quantities, chiefly in
the mineral called Celestine. This metal nearly re
sembles barium. An amalgam of it may be formed by
the process described at page 475.
STRONTIAN. Sr0.-It bears a considerable resem
blance to barytes in its properties. It differs from it
chiefly in being infusible, much less soluble, of a dif
ferent form when crystallised, weaker in its reactions,
and not poisonous. A peculiar characteristic of stron
tian is the giving of a blood-red colour to flame.
CoMPOUNDS OF STRONTIAN.—See pages 153, 154, 163.
SALTs OF STRONTIAN. Detection.—See page 118.
These salts resemble those of barytes, page 476.
But their sp. gr. is less; they are not poisonous, and
they give a rich crimson colour to the blowpipe flame.
NITRATE of STRONTIAN. Sr0, N2 05.-A soluble
crystallisable salt, which can be decomposed by heat.
Applied to the wick of a candle, or added to burning
alcohol, it gives a deep red colour to the flame.
RED FIRE FOR THEATREs.-An excellent composition for
the production of the red fire employed at theatres during
 SULPHATE OF STRONTIAN. 481

the performance of melodramas, may be prepared as follows:

Take of Nitrate of strontian, 10 ounces.
Chlorate of potash, 1+ ounces.
Sublimed sulphur, 33 ounces.
Sulphuret of antimony, 1 ounce.
Charcoal, ounce.
The nitrate of strontian is to be finely pulverised and sifted,
and then dried in an iron, copper, or porcelain vessel, until
it no longer forms balls, but is reduced to a fine dry dust.
The chlorate of potash is to be finely pulverised apart.
The sulphur, charcoal, and sulphuret of antimony are to be
pulverised and mixed together, and the whole, including the
chlorate of potash, is then to be very intimately mixed by
cautious trituration, (see page 437.) with the nitrate of
strontian. The presence of the charcoal promotes the
momentaneous kindling and the intensity of the combustion
of the composition. But the success of the experiment de
pends very much upon the thorough drying of the ingredi
ents before admixture. The combustion of the composition
does not take place explosively, so that it is not attended
by danger.
The red and green fires (page 477,) are burnt at the sides
and back of the stage, behind standards, &c. to produce
strong tints; the red to aid the effect of a conflagration; and
the green that of infernal or supernatural appearances–-as
spectres rising from and sinking beneath the stage, &c.
These effects are farther heightened by silk shades of the
respective colours before the side and foot lights of the stage.
The beautiful effect of moonlight is thus produced.
SULPHURET of STRONTIUM. SrC12.—Prepared from
the sulphate of strontian, in the same manner as sul
phuret of barium is prepared from sulphate of barytes.
Page 477. Used to prepare other compounds of stron
tium.
SULPHATE of STRONTIAN. Sr0, SO3.—This bears
considerable resemblance to sulphate of barytes. It
occurs native, in a crystallised form, constituting a
mineral known by the name of celestine. It is insolu
ble in water, but not so completely insoluble as sulphate
º
of barytes, for which reason a solution of sulphate of
strontian can be employed as a test to distinguish a
solution containing barium from one containing stron
2 S
482 CALCIUM.

tium, as it gives a precipitate with the former but not

with the latter. To prepare this test, add an excess of
sulphuric acid to a solution of nitrate of strontian or of
chloride of strontium ; filter the solution, and wash the .
precipitate until the washings do not change the colour
of litmus. Boil the edulcorated precipitate in distilled
water, allow it to cool, filter the solution and preserve
it. This salt dissolves in 7000 parts of cold water, in
10000 parts of hot water, and in 12000 parts of water
containing a little free acid.
CHLORIDE OF STRONTIUM. Sr Cl*.-Forms deliques
cent crystals, soluble in less than their own weight of
water. Taste cold and sharp. It dissolves in 112 parts
of cold alcohol, and 260 parts of boiling alcohol.
The Fire Cloud—Mix 5 parts of chloride of strontium with
1 part of nitrate of copper. Saturate about a pint of alcohol
or pyroxilic spirit with these mixed salts. Put this into a
metallic fountain, condensing into it a quantity of air by a
syringe. A small jet being affixed, the mixture is pressed
out with considerable force. If allowed to play upon the
roof of a room, and there kindled, a brilliant cloud of varie
gated fire is produced.
CARBONATE OF STRONTIAN is found native, chiefly at
Strontian, in Scotland; but, as well as the preceding
salts, may be formed artificially. The native substance
appears in semi-transparent crystals, of a white colour
tinged with green. It is insipid ; insoluble ; not altered
by exposure to the air; but decomposed by heat. If
thrown in powder on well kindled coals, it exhibits red
sparks. It is much lighter than carbonate of barytes,
(with which body it was long thought identical,) and is
not poisonous. It dissolves in 18000 parts of cold water,
and in 57000 parts of water containing a little free am
InOnlay,

20. CALCIUM. Ca = 256-019.

Occurrence.—See page 16.
Properties.—CALCIUM is silver-white and solid. It
rapidly becomes oxidised in the air. When heated in
 HYDRATE OF LIME. 483

the air, it burns brilliantly, and produces dry lime. It

decomposes water, discharging hydrogen gas, and pro
ducing a solution of lime.
LIME. CaO =356:02.—The most important and
the widest spread of all the earths. As carbonate and
sulphate, it forms whole mountains. As phosphate, it
constitutes the bones of animals. As carbonate, with
a little phosphate, it constitutes shells.
Lime is a soft white substance, with a caustic astrin
gent, and alcaline taste. It fuses with great difficulty.
It is slightly soluble in water. One part of lime
requires about 500 parts of water to dissolve it. It
renders vegetable blues, green ; and yellows, brown;
and restores to reddened litmus its usual purple. If a
little water only be sprinkled upon dry newly-burnt
lime, it is rapidly absorbed, with the evolution of much
heat and vapour. It has a strong tendency to combine
with carbonic acid, which it rapidly absorbs when ex
posed to the atmosphere.
PURE LIME is obtained by exposing oyster shells,
marble, or chalk, to the action of a clear kitchen fire,
for about an hour; the heat drives off carbonic acid, and
the substance remaining, is pure lime, which must be
put into a bottle while warm, and be well secured from
the air.
HYDRATE OF LIME. CaO, H20 = 468-5.—Burnt
lime, moistened with water, becomes extremely hot,
swells up and produces a bulky dry white powder. This
is slaked lime or hydrate of lime, in which l atom of oxide
of calcium is combined with 1 atom of water. 3 Parts
of lime produce 4 parts of hydrate, which a weak red
heat can again reduce to 3 parts of lime.
When an additional proportion of water
is added to slaked lime, it forms a white
paste, and with still more the white
liquor called milk or cream of lime." If
this is allowed to settle in a tall jar,
the undissolved hydrate falls to the bot
tom, and lime water in a transparent
state remains above. This solution
484 CALCIUM.

has alcaline powers, and is employed as a test. It

absorbs carbonic acid freely from the atmosphere, and
exhibits a skin of carbonate of lime. 500 parts of
water dissolve only 1 part of lime. Newly slaked
lime has the property of hardening with sand and
water into a stony mass, termed mortar.
Preservation of Caustic Lime for Chemical use.—Allow the
cream of lime to settle a short time, and then pour off the
liquor containing the finest powder in suspension. Let this
settle completely. Pour off the lime water, and transfer the
paste to a glass bottle. Repeat this process till the bottle
is full, when it is to be securely stopped, and the lime pre
served wet. Lime water, or milk of lime, can be readily
prepared at any time from this slaked lime; and the washing
process separates the lime both from sand and unburnt car
bonate of lime.—Crum.

CoMPOUNDS OF CALCIUM. See pages 148 and 159.

CoMPOUNDS OF LIME. See pages 150 and 161.
SALTs of LIME.-Detection. See pages 113, 118.
The salts of lime greatly resemble those of barytes
and strontian. They are, however, of less sp. grav.,
the soluble salts give a red colour to the blowpipe
flame, and all the salts are slightly more soluble than
those of the other two earths, with the exception of the
oxalate, which is very insoluble.
The sulphates of the three earths may be discrimi
nated as follows: Put the newly precipitated sulphate
into a solution of chloride of sodium. If it is insoluble,
it is barytes. If it dissolves, add sulphuric acid. If
precipitation takes place, it indicates strontian. If
there is no precipitate, the substance is sulphate of
lime.
NITRATE OF LIME. CaO, N2 0°.--To form this salt,
nitric acid, diluted with five or six parts of water, must
be saturated with carbonate of lime. When the solu
tion is evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, and
exposed in a cool place, the salt crystallises. Its
crystals resemble bundles of needles, diverging from a
centre. Its taste is hot and bitter. It deliquesces in
the air, and is so extremely soluble, that it can only be
 SULPHATE OF LIME, 485

kept in the dry state with great difficulty. It is soluble

in an equal weight of alcohol.
Action of a solution of Nitrate of Lime as a Test.
No PRECIPITATE:—Chlorides. Chlorates. Iodides. Iodates.
Nitrates. Sulphurets. Chromates. Bromides. Bromates.
Cyanides.
WHITE PRECIPITATE:-Sulphates, soluble in a large quan
tity of water. Phosphates, soluble in sal ammoniac.
Borates, soluble in water. Oxalates, soluble in nitric acid,
but not in water. Carbonates, soluble in nitric acid.
SULPHURET OF CALCIUM.–Obtained (a) by igniting
sulphate of lime with charcoal; (b) by igniting lime in
sulphuretted hydrogen gas; (c) by igniting lime with
sulphur. Yellowish earthy infusible hepatic mass, very
slightly soluble. Phosphorescent, i.e. after exposure
to the sunshine it gives light in darkness.
HYDRosULPHURET OF CALCICM.–Into a pretty thick or
pasty milk of lime, pass a current of sulphuretted hydrogen
gas, keeping the mixture well stirred, until it becomes of a
dark lead-grey colour. Add any kind of volatile oil to cover
the scent of the sulphuretted hydrogen. This preparation
is a cosmetic or depilatorium, and serves to remove superflu
ous hair from the neck and arms. A fashionable cosmetic
sold in Bond-Street, London, for this purpose, consists of 6
parts of quicklime, 1 part of sulphuret of arsenic, and some
starch and colouring matter. It is, consequently, extremely
poisonous. The hydrosulphuret of calcium is not poisonous,
and it acts rapidly upon hair without injuring the skin. The
paste is spread over the hair that is to be removed, and five
minutes afterwards is scraped off with a knife, when it carries
the hair with it.

SULPHATE of LIME.—CaO, SO3. Large mountains

are formed of this salt, which in various states has re
ceived the names of gypsum, selenite, plaster of Paris,
alabaster, anhydrite, &c. Crystallised gypsum and
alabaster contain 27 per cent, of water, = CaO, SO?
+ 2 H2O. By calcination, gypsum is deprived of its
water, and converted into stucco or plaster of Paris, a
fine white powder. When this is mixed with water,
heat is produced, and the mixture hardens to a solid
2 S2
486 CALCIUM.

mass, slightly enlarging its bulk. Hence the use of

stucco in making casts, medallions, and other orna
mental articles. Sulphate of lime dissolves in about
460 parts of water, and crystallises from its solution in
small needles. These needles are produced when sul
phuric acid is added to any solution of lime. A solu
tion of sulphate of lime is prepared in the same way as
a solution of sulphate of strontian, page 482.
PHosphur ET of CALCIUM.–Prepared by igniting
lime in a tube, and making phosphorus sublime overit,
or by putting bits of phosphorus into a glass flask con
taining ignited lime. A reddish-brown mass contain
ing phosphate of lime, and commonly called phosphuret
of lime. This substance, when thrown into water, dis
engages spontaneously inflammable phosphuretted hy
drogen gas.
PHosphaTE OF LIME.—This is the basis of the bones
of animals, and the principle which gives to them
their hardness and strength; hence it is a body of
great importance. It is not only found in bones, how
ever, but in considerable abundance in a native mineral
state, and it may be formed artificially. It is sometimes
obtained crystallised, but generally in the form of a
white powder, which is insoluble in water. By a violent
heat, it may be fused into an enamel. It is used for
making cupels, which are vessels employed by assayers
in the operation of refining silver. It is also used in
polishing gems and metals, to absorb grease from linen,
paper, and silk, and as a medicine. It is identical with
the burnt hartshorn of the shops.
The chemical composition of bone ash is 2 (3 CaO,
P*05) + 1 (2 CaO, H20, P90%). The composition
of the mineral Apatite is 3 (3 CaO, P*05) + CaF2,
or Ca C19. There are many other varieties of phos
phate of lime.
CHLoRIDE OF CALCIUM. Ca C12 = 698-67. Muriate
of Lime.—Obtained by dissolving marble in muriatic
acid, evaporation, and fusion. It is a product of the pre
paration of ammonia. A white crystalline fusible sub
stance, of bitter, saline, disagreeable taste; it rapidly
 FLUORIDE OF CALCIUM. 487

absorbs water from the atmosphere, and deliquesces, on

which account it is used to dry gases,and to abstract water
from alcohol. The salt acts most powerfully in drying
gases when it has been recently fused and is quite dry.
It need not be pure. See page 234. The anhydrous
salt dissolves with heat in water, and crystallises from
its concentrated solution in extremely large transparent
columnar crystals, which contain 49 per cent. of water,
and are extremely deliquescent. The crystals dissolve
in half their weight of cold water, under production of
a very great degree of cold, on which account they are
employed in freezing mixtures. Page 89.
CHLORIDE OF LIME. Tennant's Bleaching Powder.
Hypochlorite of Lime. CaO, C12O.—Prepared in the
large way by saturating hydrate of lime with chlorine
gas. It dissolves in water, depositing lime, and pro
ducing a bleaching liquor. A similar solution can be
prepared by passing chlorine gas into milk of lime. It
smells of chlorine, and discharges chlorine when mixed
with acids. It is employed in bleaching cotton and
linen, and in destroying bad smells and the effluvia of
sick rooms.
FLUORIDE OF CALCIUM. CaF2.—Occurs native as
Fluor Spar, in cubic and octahedral crystals, sometimes
tinged with shades of green, purple, rose, yellow, and
innumerable other colours. The fluoride of calcium
prepared by art is an insoluble white powder. The
fluor spar found in Derbyshire is a very beautiful
variety, and is murch employed in the formation of
various ornaments for cabinets, and of cups, candle
sticks, &c. It is insoluble in water. When heated,
it decrepitates, and afterwards phosphoresces or shines
in the dark. At a strong heat, it melts into a glass.
Several acids, when assisted by heat, decompose
fluoride of calcium, and expel hydrofluoric acid in
white fumes. Fluor spar is the material from which
all the fluorides are prepared. Pages 367 and 412.
Phosphorescence of Fluor Spar—Put a small bit of
fluor spar into a glass tube of this size, and fix it at the
bottom, by inserting a glass rod in the tube. Expose
488 CAL CIUM.

the fluor spar to the heat of the blowpipe jet in a dark

(Q J
room, holding it at some distance in front of a small
blue flame. The fluor spar will shine with a beautiful
phosphorescent light.
CARBONATE OF LIME. CaO, CO2 = 632'46.—This
forms a considerable part of the solid strata of the
globe. It is generally mixed with other earths and
metals, but is occasionally obtained pure in transparent
crystals. In these various states it is known by the
names of chalk, marble, limestone, stalactites, calc spar,
&c. With the exception of chloride of sodium, it is of
more importance than any other of the salts. Carbon
ate of lime has no taste, is insoluble in water, but
slightly soluble, like the other carbonates, in water
impregnated with carbonic acid. By exposure to the
air, the extra dose of carbonic acid flies off, and the
salt reverts to its state of insolubility. 10000 parts of
water dissolve only 1 part of neutral carbonate of lime.
If ammonia is present, 65000 parts of water are required
to dissolve 1 part of carbonate of lime. It dissolves in
acids with effervescence, giving off carbonic acid gas.
No alteration is effected in it on exposure to the air.
When heated it decrepitates, its water flies off, and
lastly its acid; but this requires a pretty strong heat.
By this process it is burned into lime. The specific
gravity of carbonate of lime is about 27, but varies
according to its state of aggregation; chalk and marble
are essentially the same in constitution, but very dif
ferent in their relative weights.
Preparation of Pure Carbonate of Lime.—Dissolve
calcined oyster shells in muriatic acid. Precipitate
the phosphate of lime by ammonia and filter. The
solution then contains nearly pure chloride of calcium.
Add a solution of carbonate of ammonia, and wash the
precipitate thoroughly with hot water. Page 410.
 TESTING OF LIMESTONE. 489

TESTING OF LIMESTONE AND MARLS.—The value of

limestone commonly depends upon the quantity of car
bonate of lime which it contains. This is true, whether
the limestone is to be used as a flux for ironstone in the
blast furnace, or to be burnt for mortar or for manure.
Marls usually contain from 50 to 80 per cent. of car
bonate of lime, the residue consisting of sand or clay.
On the contrary, fine English chalk and Irish lime
stone are almost pure carbonate of lime. The follow
ing method of testing limestones is extremely easy, and
gives very good results. The flask a must be chosen of
about the capacity of 6 ounces
of water, and with a cylindri
cal neck, about 6 inches long
and 1 inch in diameter. b is
a tube of thin glass, that fits
the neck of the flask pretty
close, but slips easily up and
down; it is filled with cold
water, and stopped by a large
cork, c. Weigh out on a watch
glass, for analysis, 634 grains
of the limestone, previously re
duced in a porcelain mortar to a fine powder.
Put into the flask, a, 100 septems of muriatic
acid of 100°. To do this easily and accu
rately, use a pipette of this form, graduated
to deliver 100 septems. Dip this into the pre
pared acid, adjust the measure, and then
transfer the pipette to the flask, a. Add the
pulverised limestone gradually to the muria
tic acid, agitating the mixture after every
addition of powder. When the powder has
been all added, if any of it sticks about the
neck of the flask, it must be washed down
into the acid by means of the spirting bottle,
page 431. Put the tube b into the flask, and apply heat
to the flask by means of the water bath, page 357. This
completes the action of the acid on the limestone and
expels the disengaged carbonic acid, which lifts up the
490 MAGNESIUM.

tube, b, and escapes. The cold water is intended to con

dense any vapour of muriatic acid that may be produced
by the heat, and so prevent its escape from the flask.
When the liquor has been raised to a boiling heat, the
flask may be removed from the water bath. The outside
of the tube b is to be washed by the spirting bottle, and
the washings added to the contents of the flask. Add
12 drops of solution of litmus to the mixture, which
will become red, and then by means of a centigrade
test tube, add solution of ammonia of 100° until the
mixture turns blue, page 291. Result.—Every septem
of ammonia required to be added to neutralise the mix
ture in the flask, indicates 1 per cent. of impurity in
the limestone. Thus, if 20 septems of ammonia are
used, the limestone contains 80 per cent. of carbonate
of lime. The reasons are obvious: 63} grains of car
bonate of lime, 100 septems of acid of 100°, and 100 sep
tems of ammonia of 100°, all contain the Po part of a
test atom of the respective reagents, provided all are
pure. Hence, if carbonate of lime is deficient, the
ammonia supplies its place and indicates the quantity.
OxALATE of LIME.-White powder, perfectly in
soluble in water. The oxalic acid precipitates lime
from the solution of every calcareous salt, and serves
to detect and separate calcium from all its combina
tions. . By ignition in a platinum crucible over a spirit
lamp, it is converted into carbonate of lime, under dis
engagement of carbonic oxide gas.

21. MAGNESIUM. Mg = 158.353.

Occurrence.—Page 18.
Properties..—Magnesium is silver white, possessed
of a strong metallic lustre, hard and malleable; about
as fusible as silver; not affected by dry air; burns
when heated in the air or in oxygen gas with a most
brilliant light, and produces magnesia. It dissolves in
acids, and produces solutions containing salts of mag
Ilesla.

MAGNESIA. MgO,-A fine white light powder, taste

 SALTS OF MAGNESIA. 491

less and inodorous, infusible in common fires, almost

insoluble in water. 55000 parts of water dissolve 1
part of magnesia. Readily soluble in acids. If laid on
reddened litmus paper and moistened, it changes the
colour to blue. Produces no heat when mixed with
water. Preparation.—Add a solution of carbonate of
potash to a boiling solution of sulphate of magnesia.
The precipitate is to be washed, filtered, dried, and
strongly ignited. The residue is pure magnesia, the
calcined magnesia of commerce.
CoMPOUNDS OF MAGNESIA.—See pages 150 and 161.
DETECTION OF MAGNESIA IN SALTs.—Pages 113, 120.
The soluble salts of magnesia all possess the peculiar
bitter taste which is characteristic of Epsom salts.
They give no precipitate with carbonate of ammonia.
They give a crystalline precipitate with phosphate of
and InCIlla.

SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA. MgO, SO3, or in crystals,

MgO, SO3 + 7 Aq.—To form this, saturate the com
mon magnesia of the shops with diluted sulphuric acid,
filter the solution, and crystallise the salt by concen
trating the solution, and then allowing it to cool. For
the purposes of experiment, dissolve, filter, and recrys
tallise the sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) of the
shops.
siphate of Magnesia received the name of Epsom
salts from having been obtained, for a long time, by
evaporating the water of the saline springs at Epsom, in
England. It is now generally obtained from sea water,
in which it exists in large quantities, mixed with chlo
ride of sodium. Its taste is cool, bitter, and saline. It
is very soluble, requiring only an equal weight of cold
water, and three-fourths its weight of hot. It effloresces
in the air, though but slowly. When heated, it dis
solves in its water of crystallisation, which amounts to
51 per cent. of its weight, but is not decomposed. It
is chiefly used as a purgative in medicine, and to fur
nish magnesia by its decomposition.
PHosphaTE of MAGNESIA AND AMMONIA. Am O,
2 MgO, P20% + 12 Aq—Precipitates in sandy grains
492 ALUMINUM.

from any solution in which phosphoric acid, magnesia,

and ammonia, meet together. Its formation is a test
of the presence of magnesia or phosphoric acid.
CHLoRIDE of MAGNESIUM. MgCl2, or when in crys
tals, MgCl2 + 6 H2O.-A white, crystallisable, deli
quescent salt. -

CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA.—Prepared by adding a

solution of carbonate of potash to a boiling solution of
sulphate of magnesia. The washed and dried (but not
ignited) precipitate forms a white, tender, light mass,
commonly called magnesia, or magnesia alba. This
powder is a mixture or compound of carbonate of mag
nesia, with hydrate of magnesia. To obtain pure car
bonate of magnesia, it is necessary to expose magnesia
mixed with water to a current of carbonic acid gas. It
forms transparent crystals, MgO, CO2 + 3 Aq, which
contain 27 per cent. of water of crystallisation.
22. LANTANUM. La.-See CERIUM.

23. AllJMINUM. Al= 171.167.

Occurrence.—Aluminum, in combination with oxygen,
forms clay, a body which, next to silica, is the most
abundant material of the mineral world.
Properties.—Aluminum is procured by igniting potas
sium with chloride of aluminum. It resembles pulveru
lent platinum, and acquires a perfect tin white metallic
lustre by friction. It does not soften in the heat which
liquifies cast iron. Heated in the air, it burns with a
powerful light and produces alumina. In oxygen, it
burns with a light almost too powerful for the eyes to
suffer. Aluminum dissolves readily in aqueous acids.
It also dissolves in solutions of fixed alcalies, and in
liquid ammonia, from which it disengages hydrogen
gas.
OxIDE OF ALUMINUM, OR ALUMINA, Al2O3, is an
earth which, as constituting the plastic principles of all
clays and loams, was called argil, or the argillaceous
earth, but now, as being obtained in greater purity
 PREPARATION OF ALUMINA. 493

from alum, is styled alumina. Pure alumina is soft,

pulverulent, white; adheres to the tongue, forms with
water a smooth paste, produces no change in vegetable
colours, is insipid, inodorous, and insoluble in water,
but mixes with it in all proportions. It is infusible,
but hardened by fire. It is the basis of some hard
gems, namely, sapphire, ruby, and corundum, in which
it is the hardest of all bodies, next to the diamond. It
is used in the manufacture of all kinds of earthenware,
and, in the arts of dyeing and calico printing, as a
mordant or means of fixing colours to the fibre of cloth.
Preparation of Alumina. – 1. Dissolve crystallised alum in
water and filter the solution through paper into a large jar.
Add a solution of carbonate of soda. At
first, a precipitate appears which again dis
solves. Continue to add the carbonate of
soda in small quantities, until on a sudden
the alumina precipitates. Let it settle.
When the liquor is clear at the top, add a
drop of carbonate of soda. If it produces a
turbidness, add more to throw down the
remainder of the alumina. If the precipitate
is brown, it shows that the alum contains
iron; otherwise the precipitated hydrate is
white. It appears extremely like a jelly, and settles very
slowly. As soon as it has fallen down, remove the clear
liquor by a pipette. Add hot pure water to fill the jar. Stir
up the mixture with a glass rod, and again let it settle. This
may be repeated three or four times. Alumina is a very
difficult thing to wash clean. A small quantity can be
washed most effectually by Shier's process, page 410, but
large quantities cannot be so washed. After washing by
decantation, the alumina may be brought upon a filter, and
washed with the spirting bottle, page 431. The alumina is
clean when the wash-water ceases to give a precipitate with
a solution of nitrate of barytes. As thus prepared, the
hydrate of alumina contains a small quantity of sulphate of
potash, but does not differ in appearance from pure hydrate
of alumina. It is a semi-transparent white jelly.
To purify it, add muriatic acid to it, and warm the mixture
in a porcelain basin till the alumina is nearly all dissolved,
avoiding an excess of acid. The solution then contains chlo
2 T
494 ALUMINUM.

ride of aluminum. To this add liquid ammonia until the

mixture, after being well stirred with a glass rod, smells of
ammonia. This produces an extremely bulky gelatinous
precipitate of hydrate of alumina. Wash it as described
above. In this state, the alumina can be dissolved in any
acid, to form a salt.
If you wish to have it anhydrous, dry the washed alumina
and make the powder red-hot in a porcelain or platinum
crucible over a spirit lamp, whereby it shrinks very much in
bulk. The ignited substance is pure alumina, which in that
state is difficultly soluble in acids, but readily soluble in
solutions of caustic potash and soda.

CoMPOUNDS OF ALUMINA.—See pages 146 and 158.

DETECTION OF ALUMINA IN SALTs.—Pages 113, 120.
Alumina is distinguished from other earths by its
solubility in caustic potash and caustic soda ; by giving
octahedral crystals of alum when its solutions are
mixed with potash and sulphuric acid; by acquiring a
blue colour when moistened with a solution of nitrate
of cobalt, and ignited on charcoal before the blowpipe,
page 120; and by giving a white precipitate (hydrate
of alumina) with sulphuret of ammonium.
SULPHATE OF ALUMINA.— Prepared by dissolving
precipitated hydrate of alumina in sulphuric acid. It
crystallises in thin, pearly, soluble spangles.
ALUM is a salt containing a certain quantity of sul
phate of alumina, combined with a certain quantity of
some other sulphate. Thus, sulphate of alumina and
sulphate of potash make potash alum, (the common
kind); sulphate of alumina and sulphate of soda make
soda alum; and sulphate of alumina and sulphate of
ammonia make ammonia alum. The formula of potash
alum is Al2O3,3S03 +KO, SO 8-H 24H2O. The others
are similarly constituted. Besides which three kinds
of alum, there are several others in which the aluminum
isº by iron, chromium, or manganese.
Alum is sometimes found in a native state, but is
generally manufactured from the mineral termed alum
shale. It can also be made by acting on clay with
sulphuric acid, and adding potash and ammonia, or a
 PREPARATION OF PYROPHORUS. 495

mixture of both. The salt is formed in chemical oper

ations whenever sulphuric acid, potash, and alumina,
meet together in a concentrated solution. Crystals of
alum are soon deposited. Alum crystallises in regular
octahedrons, transparent and colourless; its taste is
astringent; its reactions somewhat acid; it contains
45% per cent. of water of crystallisation. It dissolves
sparingly in cold water, abundantly in hot water.
When heated, it intumesces strongly, gives off its
water of crystallisation, and produces an inflated white
pulverulent mass—burnt alum. This salt is very impor
tant: it is extensively used in medicine, bleaching, dye
ing, calico-printing, tanning, paper-making, and various
other arts.
To MAKE A Powder w HICH INFLAMES ON ExPOSURE TO AIR.
To the substance possessing this property is given the name of
Homberg's pyrophorus: it is prepared in the following manner.
Equal parts of alum and coarse brown sugar are to be mixed
together and dried over the fire in an iron ladle, being diligently
stirred all the while with an iron rod. The mixture melts, be
comes thick, swells up, and runs into small dry lumps. These
are coarsely powdered in a mortar, and again roasted till the
operator is well assured that the mass contains not the least
moisture, when it looks like a blackish powder of charcoal.
This must be put, while hot, into a common phial, previously
luted on the inside, by being washed with a weak solution of
borax, made as thick as cream by the addition of pipe-clay.
The phial, when charged, must have a narrow glass tube, six
inches long and open at both ends, luted into its neck, and it
should be only three-fourths filled. When ready, it is to be
placed in a crucible, or deep iron pan, and covered with sand;
and the crucible is to be put into a fire and heated to redness;
a thick smoke will rise from the tube for a quarter of an hour,
and be succeeded by a sulphurous vapour, which must be in
flamed. When this flame disappears, the operation is completed;
the tube must then be . by a plug of soft clay, and the
crucible must be removed from the fire. As soon as the phial
becomes cool enough to be handled, the contents of it must be
hastily transferred into a dry and warm stout glass phial, which
must be secured by a ground glass stopper.—Experiment. Throw
a little of this powder from the bottle upon some flat dry surface:
in a short time it will burst into flame.—Rationale. The sulphuret
of potassium derived from the alum, attracts moisture, or (per
haps) a little potassium formed in the process, attracts oxygen
from the air, and generates sufficient heat to kindle the carbon
aceous matter mingled with it.
496 THE SCARCE EARTHS.

Gay Lussac’s Pyrophorus.-This is the most combustible com

pound of this kind. It forms a shower of sparks when thrown
into the air. Prepared by calcining an intimate mixture of 16
parts of lamp-black with 27 parts of sulphate of potash.
Alum BASKEis.-Form a small basket about the size of the
hand, of iron wire or split willow; then take some cotton, such
as ladies use for running into flounces; untwist it, and wind it
round every limb of the basket. Boil a pound of alum in a quart
of water, or quantities in that proportion : stir the mixture while
boiling until the alum is completely dissolved. Pour the solu
tion into a deep pan or other convenient vessel, and suspend the
basket in the liquor so that no part of the basket shall touch the
vessel, or be exposed to the air. Let the whole remain perfectly
at rest for twenty-four hours. When you then remove the
basket, the alum will be found very prettily crystallised over all
the limbs of the cottoned frame.
In the same manner, a cinder, piece of coke, sprig of a plant,
or any other trifle, suspended in the solution by a silk thread,
may be covered with beautiful crystals.
To DETECT ALUM IN BREAD.—Soak or boil the bread in dis
tilled water. Filter the solution, and apply to it the proper
tests for sulphuric acid, page 323, and alumina, page 494.

SILICATE of ALUMINA.—This occurs abundantly in

the mineral kingdom, and constitutes the principal in
gredient of common clay, of porcelain, of all potter's
ware, tiles, bricks, &c., on account of which numerous
uses, it may be considered as one of the most valuable
of nature's mineral productions.

24, GLUCINUM. G = 331.261.

25. YTTRIUM. Y. – 402-514.
26. ZIR CONIUM. Zr = 420,201.
27. THORIUM. Thi-744-9.
GLUCINA= G20° is obtained from the minerals
called beryll, emerald, and chrysoberyll. YTTRIA =
YO, is obtained from the mineral gadolinite. Zirconia
= Zr” O’ is obtained from the minerals zircon and hya
cinth. Thorina = Tho is obtained from the minerals
Pyrochlore and thorite.—These substances are all very
rare; they have been applied to no use except as gems;
and they serve to explain no interesting chemical prin
“inle. It is therefore needless to dwell upon them.
 IRON. 497

28. IRON. FERRUM. Fe = 339.205.

Properties.—Iron has a light grey colour; but, when
perfectly pure, it is nearly white. Combined with
carbon, as in the state of crude and cast iron, its colour
is more or less dark; yet steel has a lighter colour than
bar iron, though it contains a greater proportion of
carbon. Iron has a brilliant metallic lustre, is very
hard and malleable. Steel is harder than iron, especi
ally after it has been heated, and then suddenly cooled.
Cast iron is hard and brittle, especially when it is of a
white colour; the grey-coloured cast iron is less brittle.
All varieties of iron are attracted by the magnet, but
steel retains the magnetic power longer than any other
variety. This metal is distinguished by its magnetic
powers from all others, excepting cobalt and nickel.
Iron is extremely difficult of fusion; steel melts more
easily than bar iron, and cast iron more easily than
steel. Iron is not affected by dry air; but in moist air
it is converted into rust, or hydrate of peroxide of iron.
It is also oxidised when ignited in the open air or in
oxygen gas. In the latter case, its combustion produces
a brilliant light. The sp. gr. of bar iron is 7-7.
Iron is the most useful and most abundant of all
the common metals. It is tenacious and ductile in a
very eminent degree. It is malleable also, but less so
than silver. One of its most advantageous properties
is that of welding. By undergoing this process, peculiar
to itself and platinum, two pieces of metal may be joined
into one. The loadstone, in which the power of mag
netism chiefly exists, is an iron ore. Iron is widely
diffused: it is found in animals, vegetables, minerals,
and meteoric stones. -

Muriatic acid readily dissolves iron, disengaging

hydrogen gas, and producing a solution of protochloride
of iron. Diluted sulphuric acid readily dissolves iron,
disengaging hydrogen gas, and producing a solution of
protosulphate of iron. Cold nitric acid dissolves iron,
and produces protonitrate of iron; while hot nitric acid
produces pernitrate of iron. Chlorine gas passed over
heated iron, produces volatile perchloride of iron,
2T2
498 IRON.

Extraction of Iron from * Ore.—By far the greater part of the

iron that is applied tº useful purposes throughout the world is
extracted from the Clay frontone of the English and Scotch
Coal measures. This mineral consists of the carbonate of prot
oxide of iron, Feo, CO2, mixed with very variable proportions of
silicate of alumina (clay), carbonate of lime, carbonate of mag
nesia, coal, iron pyrites, &c. The sp.gr. of the mineral ranges from
3-0 to 3:4. It is never crystallised. It has the appearance of a dark
coloured limestone, but dis- -

jves in acids less

and completely, andreadily
with

proportion of iron in The

less effervescence. this
§re averages about 30, Pe.
cent. Some of the best
inds of black band iron
stone contain 80 per cent.
of carbonate of iron.
The figure represent: *
section of one of the Blast
Furnaces in which iron.99
is smelted at Glasgow. The
size may be judged of from
the figure of the workman
at the bottom. The dia
meter of the interior cavity
is ió feet. The external
height of the furnace is
about 60 feet. The body
of the furnace is closed at
bottom, but there are three
small openings called tºy
ers or tweers, one of which
is seen in the centre of the
figure, and one, in section
of the left hand. On the
rightathand
ing the istop
a third open
of the in
clined plane, and a fourth
opening at the level of the
hearth at the side of the
inclined
are closedplane. The through
by pipes tuyers which air is driven by the pressure
of a cylinder blower worked by stea. the air being in its course
aised to the temperature of about 600 F. A fire is lighted in
the body of the furnace, coals are put in at the top, and air
blown thrown the tuyers. Then roasted ironstºne, carbonate of
lime, and splint coal, are put in alternately and continuously at
the top of the furnace through doors shown in the section of the
 SMELTING OF IRON OIRES. 499

chimney, and the whole are burnt together by means of the hot
air driven in at the bottom. The quantity of air required for
this purpose is enormous. , 5 tons of roasted ironstone require 1
ton of limestone, 5 tons of coal, and 11 tons of air. These pro
fº. produce about 2 tons of pig iron. The action of the
heat on this mixture is to produce two liquids, namely, metallic
iron in fusion, and a slag consisting of lime in combination with
the clay and other impurities of the ironstone. The iron sinks
to the bottom of the furnace; the slag swims on it, and gra
dually escapes through the opening at the top of the inclined
plane. The opening at the side of the inclined plane is kept
plugged up with clay, but is opened every morning and evening
at 6 o'clock, and the fused iron is run off into gutters formed in
sand, where it consolidates into long rough bars called pig iron.
This pig iron contains, besides iron, more or less carbon, silicon,
phosphorus, and sulphur. The variable proportions of these
admixtures give to };
iron its variety of qualities.
The Refining of Iron.—This is effected in what is termed a
puddling furnace. The pig iron is fused, exposed to a current of
air, and well stirred. The oxygen of the air combines with the
impurities of the iron, and carries them off, partly in the state of
gas, and partly as a slag or cinder. The refined iron is then
subjected to hammering, pressing, and rolling, by which it is
converted into malleable iron, and formed into bars, plates, &c.
Manufacture of Cast Iron Vessels. Iron Founding.—The figure
represents an iron founder's
cupola furnace. . A fire is made
in the interior which is sustained
by coal thrown in at the top, and
air blown in at the two tuyers
seen on the left side of the figure,
by means of a blowing machine
called a fanner, which is worked
by a steam engine. The open
ing at the bottom on the right
side is plugged with clay. Pig
iron is thrown into the heated
cupola furnace with fresh coal,
and such a heat is kept up by
the air forced by the fanners
upon the ignited coal, that the
iron fuses and collects at the
bottom of the furnace. In the
meantime, the form of the ar
ticle to be cast is moulded in
sand. When all is ready, the clay plug of the furnace is pierced,
the melted iron is let out
into an iron ladle lined ->=s=
with clay, and poured
500 IRON.

thence into the sand mould, where it cools and solidifies into
the required form. When the castings are all accomplished, the
furnace is cleaned out, and the floor scraped with a scraper.

e—e,
CoMPOUNDs of IRON.—Pages 149, 150, 160.
SALTs oF IRON. Detection.—Pages 113 and 120.
The salts of the protocide are blueish green, mostly
soluble, with an inky taste. They become oxidised in
the air, and deposit an insoluble yellow subsalt. They
give with yellow prussiate of potash a white precipitate,
and with red prussiate of potash a blue precipitate.
Solutions of the perovide are brown, they give a blue
precipitate with yellow prussiate of potash, a brown
precipitate with caustic ammonia, and a black precipi
tate with gallic acid. Their reactions with H2S and
AmS, are described at pages 329, 330.
Solutions of salts of protoxide are converted into
salts of peroxide when boiled with a little nitric acid.
PROToxid E of IRON. Fe O.-An imaginary com
pound, supposed to be contained in the hydrate of prot
oxide of iron, in the protosalts of iron, &c.
BLACK OxIDE OF IRON. Fe3O4. Smithy Dust.—
Black scales produced by hammering iron when strongly
heated. Its composition is the same as that of mag
netic iron ore.
RED OxIDE OF IRON. Fe?08.-Occurs native as
iron glance and red iron-stone. Can be made by ignit
ing green vitriol for an hour or two in a crucible; the
heat must be strong. It forms a red powder—the
colouring matter of common bricks and tiles. It dis
solves but slowly in acids after ignition; is completely
. . soluble, however, in boiling muriatic acid, with which
it produces a solution of perchloride of iron.
SULPHURET OF IRON. FeS. — Iron combines with
sulphur when heated, with a production of fire. A roll
of sulphur bores a hole through bar-iron or steel at a
white heat, but not through cast iron. Iron filings, mixed
with sulphur and moistened, gives, at common tempera
tures, a black pulverulent sulphuret. Iron produces
 SULPHATE OF 1 RON. 501

several sulphurets, the highest of which is the common

mineral, iron pyrites, FeS2. This has a bright brass
yellow colour, and much lustre, is hard, not magnetic,
and insoluble in diluted acids. Deprived by dry distil
lation of part of its sulphur, and thereby rendered equal
in composition to another mineral, magnetic pyrites, or
to a sulphuret produced by mixing and melting 2 parts
of sulphur with 3 parts of iron-filings. Yellow, splen
dent, soluble in diluted acids, under disengagement of
sulphuretted hydrogen gas; converted, by roasting in
the open air, into green vitriol or protosulphate of iron.
To form Sulphuret of Iron.—Expose a bar of iron to a white heat
in a furnaee or smith's forge, and then touch the end of it with
the end of a roll of sulphur, molding the two together so as to
form the letter W. The sulphur must be held with a cloth, not
with the naked hand. If the iron is not hot enough, it sets the
sulphur on fire, and produces no sulphuret. A shower of sparks
is produced, and the sulphuret, as it falls to the ground in the
state of a thin liquid, divides into innumerable small globules,
producing a beautiful appearance. If you want to collect the
sulphuret, let it run down into water contained in an iron basin.
You can cut a piece of iron in two, by means of a roll of sulphur
applied in this way. Be careful not to let the hot sulphuret
run upon your hands. It is easily avoided, by holding the iron
and sulphur together in the V form.
SULPHATE of IRON. Fe0, SO3.—The body well
known by the names of green vitriol and copperas. It
forms beautiful transparent green crystals, which con
tain water, Fe0, SO3 + 7 H2O, effloresce in dry air,
and turn yellow. Its taste is harsh and styptic. It
reddens vegetable blues. Two parts of cold water and
less than 1 part of boiling water dissolve it. The pale
green solution of sulphate of iron is acted on by the
oxygen of the atmosphere, gradually depositing a yel
low subsalt and acquiring a brownish colour, from the
formation of peroxide. A moderate heat drives off its
water of crystallisation and a strong heat its acid. The
water-free salt is white and opaque. Sulphate of iron
is of extensive use in the arts of dyeing, ink-making, &c.
Sulphate of iron is very easily made, by dissolving iron in cold
and diluted sulphuric acid, page 227. When evaporated and
set aside, it readily forms very fine pale blueish-green crystals.
502 IRON,

Precipitates produced by Protosulphate of Iron :

WHITE PRECIPITATES:—Phosphates. Arseniates.
DIRTY WHITE:— Pyrophosphates. Arsenites.
GREENISH WHITE:- Borates. Carbonates.
BLUEISH WHITE:— Yellow Prussiate of Potash.
LEMON YELLOw:— Oxalates.
BROWNISH YELLOw:— Chromates.
PRUSSIAN BLUE:— Red Prussiate of Potash.
BLACK:— Sulphurets.
PERSULPHATE OF IRON. Fe2O3 + 3 S08.-A white
powder which gives a reddish-yellow solution with
water; not crystallisable.
CHLORIDES OF IRON.—1. Protochloride. White mass,
fusible and volatile at a strong heat, sublimes in glanc
ing spangles. Soluble in water. Produced by igniting
iron in muriatic acid gas, or dissolving iron in liquid
muriatic acid. From the pale green solution, it crys
tallises with water in pale green deliquescent crystals.
2. Perchloride. Sublimes in tabular, semi-metallic
glancing crystals; deliquescent; very easily soluble.
Produced by gentle ignition of iron in chlorine gas, by
solution of red oxide of iron in muriatic acid, or of
metallic iron in aqua regia. The solution is yellowish
brown, very styptic, and partially decomposable by
evaporation. The solution of perchloride of iron is a
test to distinguish red prussiate of potash from yellow
prussiate of potash in solution; it gives a blue precipi
tate with the yellow salt, but none with the red salt.
Precipitates produced by Perchloride of Iron :
WHITE PRECIPITATES:— Phosphates. Arseniates.
YELLOW-BROWN:— Arsenites. Chromates.
PALE BROWN:— Borates. Carbonates.
BLUE:— Yellow Prussiate of Potash.
Blood-Red Tinge, but no P.:—Sulphocyanides.
Brown Tinge, but no P.:— Red Prussiate of Potash, &c.
CARBONATE OF IRON.—This substance, in combina
tion with water containing carbonic acid, constitutes
chalybeate mineral waters. Preparation.—To a solu
tion of green sulphate of iron, add a solution of car
bonate of soda. When the precipitate has settled,
 SALTS OF II: ON. 503

decant the solution; add fresh water, agitate the whole,

and after the settling of the precipitate, again decant
it. Repeat this till the water ceases to acquire sul
phate of soda from the precipitate ; then gather the
latter on a linen filter, and squeeze it dry by the hand.
This carbonate, added to a solution of carbonic acid in
water, dissolves and produces an artificial chalybeate
water. It is used in medicine. It is very unstable,
soon becoming a hydrate of peroxide of iron.
OXALATE of IRON.— Iron Pyrophorus-A yellow
powder, difficultly soluble. When gently ignited, it
yields carbonic acid gas, and finely divided metallic
iron, which is gifted with the property of spontaneous
inflammation on exposure to the atmosphere.
CYANIDE OF IRON.—Prussian Blue.—It is said that
there is a protocyanide, a percyanide, and a compound
of 3 particles of the former with 2 of the latter. This
compound, in combination with water, forms pure Prus
sian blue. The Prussian blue of commerce contains a
large proportion of alumina. A better substance than
alumina for giving body to Prussian blue, is precipi
tated carbonate of zinc.
CYANIDE OFIRONAND POTASSIUM. YELLOW PRUSSIATE
of PotASH. FERRocyANATE of PotASH. 2 KCy?, Fe
Cy” + 3H2O.-On boiling Prussian blue in a solution
of caustic potash, it loses its colour, oxide of iron in the
state of hydrate is precipitated, and a yellow solution
rests above. The evaporation of this solution gives
citron yellow tabular crystals, which contain the same
constituents as two atoms of cyanide of potassium, one
atom of cyanide of iron, and three atoms of water; the
latter, however, can be expelled by heat. Compounds
similar to the one under consideration are formed by
the combination of one atom of cyanide of iron with
two atoms of the cyanide of some other metal.
Prussiate of potash is made in the large way by igniting animal
matters with potash and iron, and washing the residue. In
large crystals, it possesses a kind of toughness, and, in thin scales,
of elasticity. ater, when cold, dissolves one-third of its weight
of this salt, and an equal weight at the boiling point. A solu
504 IRON.

tion of this salt produces Prussian blue when mixed with a solu
tion of a persalt of iron. , Hence its use in the art of dyeing. It
is also one of the most valuable reagents which the chemist pos
sesses for metallic analysis. Its solution is not affected by alcalies;
but it is decomposed by almost all the salts of the permanent
metals, the cyanogen of the potassium and the cyanide of iron
precipitating with the metal, generally with some striking and
peculiar colour. Hence the use of prussiate of potash as a test.
Precipitates produced by Yellow Prussiate of Potash.
No PRECIPITATE:—Potash. Soda. Ammonia. Barytes.
Strontian. Lime. Magnesia. Alumina. Chromium. Gold.
Antimony. Arsenic.
WHITE PRECIPITATE:-Manganese, protosalts, or pale red.
Iron, protosalts. Zinc., Cadmium. Lead. Tin. Copper,
protosalts. Mercury. Silver.
YELLow PRECIPITATE:— Bismuth. Platinum.
GREEN PRECIPITATE: — Manganese, deutoxide, greyish.
Cobalt, blueish. Nickel, pale.
BLUE PRECIPITATE:— Iron, persalts.
BRowN PRECIPITATE:- Copper, deutoxide.
RED CYANIDE OF IRON AND POTAsSIUM. – Red
Prussiate of Potash. 3KCy” + Fe? Cy3.—-Formed
when a solution of the yellow cyanide is exposed to a
current of pure chlorine gas. Gives large transparent
crystals, possessed of a splendid morning-red colour
and great brilliancy. The powder is of an orange
colour. The crystals contain no water. Its solution is
yellow when dilute, brown when concentrated. It gives
a blue precipitate with solutions of the protosalts of
iron, whereas a solution of the yellow cyanide gives a
blue precipitate only with solutions of the persalts.
Precipitates produced by Red Prussiate of Potash.
WHITE.-- Tin, protosalts.
YELLowish WHITE.-Tin, persalts.
YELLow.— Cadmium. Mercury, protosalts.
YELLowish GREEN.—Nickel. Copper, persalts.
REDDISH YELLow.— Zine. Bismuth. Mercury, persalts.
REDDISH BRowN.— Mercury, protosalts. Uranium, proto
salts. Copper, protosalts. Siver.
Cobalt.
BRowN.— Manganese. Nickel in excess. Molyb
denum.
Blu E.— Iron, protosalts.
 MANGANESE. 505

29. MANGANES.E. Mn- 345.887.

MANGANESE is greyish white, not possessed of much
lustre. Very brittle, and very difficult to melt. Sp.
gr. 8. It becomes oxidised in the air, and falls to a black
powder. It decomposes water, and disengages hydro
gen gas.
Compounds of Manganese. Pages 151 and 161.
Detection of Manganese. Pages 113 and 119.
The salts of the protoxide give a flesh-coloured precipi
tate with sulphuret of ammonium, a white precipitate
with alcaline carbonates, a reddish white precipitate
with yellow prussiate of potash, and a dark brown pre
cipitate with solution of bleaching powder.
PROToxide of MANGANESE. MnO.—Dark greyish
green powder. Prepared by igniting carbonate of
manganese in a gun barrel, and passing hydrogen gas
over it. When heated in the open air, this oxide burns
to red oxide of manganese.
RED OxIDE OF MANGANESE. Mn2O4.—Reddish brown
powder, obtained by strong ignition of peroxide of man
ganese or deutoxide of manganese ; or by a less power
ful ignition of carbonate or protoxide of manganese.
DEUTOxIDE OF MANGANESE. Mn2O3.−Occurs as a
mineral. Black. May be obtained by exposing per
oxide of manganese to a long-continued low red heat.
PEROXIDE OF MANGANESE. MnO2.—An abundant
mineral. Dark steel-grey, shining crystals or crystal
line masses, employed in producing oxygen gas and
chlorine gas, in glass-making, as a means of rendering
it colourless when iron is present, and as a colouring
matter in glass and porcelain painting. On exposure
to a gentle ignition, it gives 9 per cent. of oxygen gas,
and is converted into deutoxide; on exposure to a white
heat, it yields 12 per cent. of oxygen gas, and produces
red oxide ; on exposure to heat with sulphuric acid,
it gives 18 per cent. of oxygen gas, and leaves a solu
tion of protosulphate of manganese. See page 204.
SULPHATE OF MANGANESE. MnO, SO3.—Prepared
as described in the preceding paragraph. The solution
gives pale rose-red crystals when concentrated by eva
2 U.
506 CERIUM. NICKEL.

poration. When mixed with a solution of potash it

gives a precipitate of white hydrate, which, on being
exposed to air, is quickly converted into a brown hydrate
containing an increased quantity of oxygen.
CHLORIDE OF MANGANESE. MnOl”. – Tose-red,
fusible, deliquescent mass, soluble in water, with which
it forms rose-red crystals. Mn Cl2 +4H2O. Obtained
by boiling peroxide of manganese in muriatic acid, a
process employed in preparing chlorine gas. Page 346.
CARBONATE OF MANGANESE.—2 (MnO, CO2) + Aq.
A white powder, soluble in 7700 parts of water.
Preparation.—Carbonate of manganese, free from iron, can be
prepared from the residue left by the distillation of chlorine from
peroxide of manganese and muriatic acid. First evaporate the
mixture to dryness, to separate the excess of acid. Then add a
little carbonate of soda, to produce a partial precipitation. Boil
the solution with the washed precipitate. Upon this, the pre
cipitated carbonate of manganese dissolves, and precipitates the
iron. Portions of the liquid are tested from time to time till
found to be free from iron. The mixture is then filtered, and
the manganese is precipitated by carbonate of soda, and well
washed. The peroxide of manganese intended to give pure salts
of manganese by this process, must be freed from lime by wash
ing with weak muriatic acid before it is boiled with stronger
acid to yield chlorine. Page 346. The pure carbonate is used to
prepare the other salts of manganese.
MANGANATE OF POTASH.-Mineral Chameleon. KO, MnO3.—
Take of chlorate of potash, l atom; caustic potash, 3 atoms; and
peroxide of manganese, 3 atoms. Pulverise the manganese and
chlorate of potash, mix them together in a mortar, and add the
potash dissolved in a small quantity of water. In this manner
an intimate mixture of the whole is obtained. This is to be put
into a crucible, and to be exposed to a dull red heat for an hour
and a half. See page 64.

30. CERIUM. Ce.

CERIUM is obtained from rare minerals called cerite,
orthite, and allanite. It is, however, now conjectured
that what was formerly considered as cerium, is a mix
ture or compound of cerium, lantanum, and didymium.
- 31. NICKEL. Ni = 369-675.
. NickBL has a silver-white colour, and a strong metal
lic lustre. In the state of powder, as produced in
 COBAL.T. 507

certain experiments, it is greyish black. Its sp. gr. is

9. It is extremely hard, malleable, and very difficult
of fusion. It is attracted by the magnet, and can re
tain the magnetic influence. It oxidises when heated
in the air; but a very high temperature reduces the
oxide to the metallic state. It is an ingredient in the
new silver; albata, or German silver, which is an alloy
of nickel, copper, and zinc.
Nickel dissolves easily in nitric acid; it also dissolves
in muriatic and sulphuric acids.
Compounds of Nickel.—Pages 151 and 162.
Detection of Nickel. Pages 113 and 124.—The salts
of nickel and their solutions are emerald green. Caus
tic ammonia gives a violet colour to the solutions. Sul
phuret of ammonium gives a black precipitate. Caustic
potash an apple green precipitate.
OxIDE OF NICKEL. NiO.—Dark greenish grey.
Easily reduced to the metallic state by ignition in pre
sence of hydrogen or charcoal.
The Peroxide, Ni2O3, is a black powder.
NITRATE OF NICKEL. NiO, N2O3 + 6 H2O.
SULPHATE OF NICKEL. NiO, SO3 + 7 H2O.
CHLORIDE OF NICKEL. Ni Cl2 + 9 H2 O.
These three salts form emerald green crystals, all of
which dissolve in water, producing green solutions.
32. COBAL.T. Co - 368-991.
COBALT has a reddish-grey colour. It is somewhat
malleable, very difficultly fusible, and remarkable for
being attracted by the magnet, and for being able to
retain the magnetic power. Occurs in Speiscobalt
and Glance Cobalt.
Nitric acid dissolves cobalt very easily. The other
acids dissolve it with more difficulty.
CoMPounds of CobALT. Pages 148 and 160.
SALTs oF CoBALT. Detection. Pages 113, 123.
The crystallised soluble salts have a crimson colour;
and produce red solutions in water. The insoluble
salts have often a peach-blossom colour. They give
with sulphuretted hydrogen no precipitate; with sul
508 COPPER.

phuret of ammonium a black precipitate ; with ammo

nia a blue precipitate from alcaline liquors, but none
from acid liquors; with caustic potash, when hot, a
rose-red precipitate; with carbonates of alcalies a peach
blossom coloured precipitate; with yellow prussiate of
potash, a green precipitate ; and with red prussiate of
potash, a brown-red precipitate.
OxIDE OF COBAL.T. Co0.—Greenish grey, easily re
ducible by hydrogen gas or charcoal. It forms a red
hydrate when precipitated from solution: CoO, H2O.
The black perovide of cobalt, Co? 08, is formed when
the oxide or the soluble salts are strongly heated.
NITRATE OF COBALT.—Dissolve metallic cobalt, oxide
of cobalt, or carbonate of cobalt, in nitric acid, and con
centrate the solution by evaporation. Red crystals
which contain water, CoO, N2O3 + 6Aq. It is a test
for magnesia, alumina, and zinc. See page 120.
SULPHATE OF COBAL.T. Red Vitriol. CoO, SO3 +
7 Aq.—Rose-red crystals, soluble in water. Isomor
phous with green vitriol.
CHLoRIDE OF COBALT. CoCl2.-Obtained by dis
solving cobalt in aqua regia. Pale red when water is
present, but blue when it is dried by heat ; gives a rose
red colour to its solution in water ; forms, with water,
garnet-red crystals. Its solution in water, acidulated
with muriatic acid, forms the blue sympathetic ink. If
muriate of soda is mixed with the cobalt, in its prepara
tion, the result is the green sympathetic ink. Iron or
nickel also make the colour green. See page 72.
Cobalt gives a deep blue colour to melted glass. Hence the
use of this metal in colouring glass, enamel, and porcelain. It
is also an ingredient in various, pigments.--Smalt. Made by
melting the roasted ore of cobalt with sand and potash, and
pulverising the deep blue melted glass.-Thenard's Blue. This
fine colour is made by adding a solution of alcali, to a mixed
solution of potash alum and phosphate of cobalt, and igniting the
precipitate.-Rinmann's Green. "Made in the same way as Then
ard's Blue, but substituting a salt of zinc for the alum.

33. COPPER. CUPRUM. Cu =395-695.

Qccurrence.—Its chief ores are sulphuret of copper
and sulphuret of copper and iron (Copper Pyrites): ' It
 SALTS OF COPPER, 509

is also found in the metallic state, as oxide, as sulphate,

and in small quantities in many other minerals.
Properties.—Copper has a peculiar reddish-brown
colour, and strong metallic lustre. It is very malleable,
tenacious, and ductile; harder than silver, but lighter;
highly sonorous. Its sp. gr. is 89. It requires a very
strong heat for its fusion; when violently heated in the
air it burns with a vivid green flame. It is not affected
by dry air; but air and water together convert it into
a green basic carbonate. It oxidises when heated in
the air, and acquires a coating of black oxide of copper,
which falls off when the metal cools. It is one of the
most useful and most abundant of metals.
Copper does not dissolve in muriatic acid in close ves.
sels. It dissolves partially if air is admitted. Diluted
sulphuric acid acts very slightly on copper. Strong and
boiling sulphuric acid dissolves it. Nitric acid readily
dissolves copper, producing a solution of nitrate of copper.
Copper combines with zinc to form brass, pinchbeck,
prince’s metal, &c.; with tin, to form bell-metal, bronze,
cannon, mirrors, &c.
CoMPOUNDs of CoPPER. See pages 148, 149, 160.
SALTs of CoPPER. Detection. Pages 113, 123.
The salts of copper are white when anhydrous, but
blue or green when they contain water. Their solu
tions redden litmus, and possess a disagreeable metallic
taste. They are poisonous. Zinc, cadmium, tin, lead,
iron, phosphorus, and sugar, precipitate metallic copper
from them. All the salts are easily reduced before the
blowpipe. See page 377. The precipitates produced
by the principal reagents have the following colours:—
BLACK:— Sulphuretted hydrogen and AmS. P.329
'WHITE:— Iodide of potassium.
WHITE:— Protochloride of tin.
BLUE:— Caustic potash. If boiled, it turns black.
BRowN:— Y. Prussiate of potash. Very delicate test,
BRowN-RED:— Chromate of potash.
GREEN, YELLOWISH:—Cyanide of potassium.
GREEN, BLUEish:— Carbonate of potash or soda.
GREEN, WHITISH:— Oxalic acid.
BLUE Solution:— Caustic ammonia in excess.
2 U 2
510 COPPER.

PROToxide of CoPPER. Cu2O.—Red-brown powder.

DEUTOxDE OF COPPER. CuO.—A black powder,
obtained by igniting nitrate or carbonate of copper, or
by making a plate of copper red hot, and plunging it
in that state into cold water, or by precipitating sul
phate of copper with carbonate of soda in excess, and
boiling the precipitate for a long time.
These oxides are easily reducible by fusion with
charcoal, page 377, or ignition in hydrogen gas, page
248, but not when heated alone. The protoxide colours
glass red ; the deutoxide green, as may be shown by
fusing a little of each with borax before the blowpipe.
See page 465.
NITRATE of CoPPER. CuO, N*05. Preparation.
See pages 62 and 282.
To crystallise this salt, evaporate the saturated and
filtered solution till a strong pellicle is formed on its
surface, then set it by to cool. The crystallisation does
not succeed well with a small quantity of the solu
tion. Great cold and a rather dilute solution produces
tabular crystals, CuO, N* O' + 6Aq. A concentrated
solution with less cold produces prismatic crystals,
CuO, N° 0' + 3Aq. The crystals have the fine blue
colour of the solution.
Nitrate of copper is very caustic and poisonous. Its
crystals are deliquescent, soluble, and decomposable by
heat. From the facility with which it parts with
oxygen, this salt is capable of acting on several sub
stances with much energy. Nitrate of copper is de
composed by the alcalies, by iron, by tin, page 518, and
by several other bodies.
SULPHURET OF CoPPER. CuS.—A black precipitate,
that readily oxidises in the air. See also page 312.
Ignite sulphur with CuO in a glass tube.
SULPHATE OF COPPER. BLUE WITRIOL. CuO, SO 3
or in crystals, CuO, SO3 + 5Aq. It is a regularly
crystallised salt, easily dissolved by water. The crys
tals are large and of a beautiful deep blue colour, and
hence obtained the name of blue vitriol. They contain
36 per cent. of water of crystallisation. It is a salt
 SALTS OF COPPER. 511

that is of great use in several of the arts. It is caustic,

reddens vegetable blues, and effloresces when exposed
to the air. It is decomposed by heat, by pure and car
bonated alcalies, and by several metals. Obtained in
the large way by roasting and washing sulphuret of
copper. Produced when copper is boiled in oil of vitriol.
Used in dyeing and colour-making.
This being a cheap salt, and one that readily forms fine crys
tals, is a good subject for young chemists to make their early
attempts at crystallising upon.—If a bit of phosphorus is sus
pended in a solution of sulphate of copper, the metal is reduced
and precipitated, and the liquor becomes colourless.

Precipitates produced by Sulphate of Copper.

BLAck, BRowNish:— Sulphurets. Hyposulphites.
White, GREENish:— Oxalates. Iodides.
BLUE, VERY PALE:— Carbonates. Borates. Pyrophosphates.
BLUE, PALE:— Phosphates. Arseniates.
GREEN, YELLowish:—Cyanides. Arsenites.
Red Prussiate of Potash.
GREY, GREENish:— Sulphocyanides.
BRow N:— Yell. Prussiate of Potash. Chromates.

Anhydrous Sulphate of Copper produces great O

heat when it combines with water.—Heat 2 ounces .
of crystallised sulphate of copper in a porcelain
crucible over a spirit lamp, till it produces a
white light powder. Ascertain the amount
of water expelled. Add that quantity of water
suddenly to the dry white powder, and stir the
mixture, which instantly becomes boiling hot
and recovers its blue colour.

CHLoRIDE of COPPER. CuCl2 + 2Aq.—Dissolve

black oxide of copper in muriatic acid, evaporate and
crystallise. Emerald green crystals, very deliquescent
and soluble, producing a green solution. Converted
by ignition into a Protochloride, CuCl.
CARBONATE of CoPPER.—Precipitate a hot solution of
sulphate of copper by carbonate of potash. The pro
duct is a basic carbonate of copper, used as a pigment
under the name of mineral green: CuO, CO3 + CuO,
H2O. See page 65. The beautiful green mineral called
Malachite has the same composition.
512 URANIUM. BISMUTH.

Cuprate of Ammonia? See Chameleon Spirit, page 63.

All the compounds of copper are violent poisons, and
hence the danger arising from cooking food in untinned
copper vessels, or rather of suffering it to remain in
them after it is cooked. No fat or sour substance
should be allowed to cool in a copper pot. The best
antidotes against the poison of copper are substances
always at hand—Sugar and white of egg.

34. URANIUM. U = 802:49. Peligot.

Occurrence.—In the mineral called Pitchblende.—
The compounds of this element are not exactly ascer
tained. What was once considered to be the pure
metal is now thought to be an oxide. It is used in
porcelain painting to give both a black and a yellow
colour.
Hydrate of Owide of Uranium. U*O3, H2O.—A
yellow powder.
Nitrate of Uranium. U3O8, N°0′ +6Aq—Yellow
prismatic crystals soluble in water to a greenish yellow
solution.

35. BISMUTTH. Bi – 886.920.

Metallic bismuth has a tin-white colour, verging to—

wards reddish. This latter character serves to dis–
tinguish it from antimony, which it otherwise resembles
in its leafy structure and its brittleness. Its sp. gr. is 9-8.
It fuses more easily than lead, and can be volatilised
in close vessels. When raised to a strong red heat in
contact with the air, it burns with a pale blue flame.
When heated on charcoal before the blowpipe, it throws
upon the charcoal a yellow coating of oxide of bismuth.
If fused in large quantity and cooled slowly, it crystal
lises in cubes.
Muriatic acid dissolves, bismuth very sparingly.
Nitric acid dissolves it easily, producing a solution of
nitrate of bismuth. If pulverised bismuth is treated
with fuming nitric acid, the mixture often becomes red
 LEAD. 513

hot. Sulphuric acid acts upon bismuth only when very

strong and hot. Chlorine gas converts heated bismuth
into chloride of bismuth.
CoMPounds of BISMUTH. Pages 148 and 159.
SALTs of BISMUTH. Detection. Pages 113 and 121.
The salts are colourless. The neutral salts are de
composed when put into water, a basic salt falling down,
and an acid salt remaining in solution. Free acid
prevents this decomposition. Zinc, cadmium, tin, and
iron precipitate metallic bismuth.
Colours of precipitates by:—
H2S Black. ECI 2 Brown.
NaO, H2O White. KO, CO3 Yellow.
OxIDE OF BISMUTH.—A crust which forms when bis
muth is melted in a crucible freely exposed to air.
Yellow powder, red when heated, fusible to a yellow
mass, easily reducible to the metallic state by fusion on
charcoal before the blowpipe.
NITRATE OF BISMUTH.—White crystals, which, on
being put into water, suffer decomposition, and pro
duce a soluble acid nitrate and an insoluble sub-nitrate
of a beautiful white colour, used as a paint, under the
name of magistry of bismuth. This white paint is
readily blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen.
SULPHURET OF BISMUTH.—Precipitated as a black
powder when sulphuretted hydrogen gas is passed into
a solution of bismuth.
CHLORIDE OF BISMUTH.—Formed by heating two
parts of corrosive sublimate with one of bismuth, and
expelling the superfluous substances by raising the
heat. Grey, granular substance, easy of fusion, for
merly called butter of bismuth.
Bismuth is used in soldering, and as an ingredient
in fusible alloys. See Tin. -

36. LEAD. PLUMBUM. Pb = 1294°498.

Occurrence.—Chiefly in the mineral called Galena,
or sulphuret of lead, which yields the metal when
roasted and then melted with coal and lime.
Properties.—Lead has a grey colour, and a strong
514 LEAD.

metallic lustre. Its structure is not crystalline; it

makes a black mark on paper; it is very soft ; and
when bent it makes no noise. It is heavier than silver;
its sp. gr. being 11.4. It melts at about 600°F.; it
volatilises at a white heat in close vessels, and at a red
heat in the open air. It loses its metallic brilliancy in
the air. Pure lead is obtained by exposing oxalate of
lead to a dull red heat in a Hessian crucible.
Muriatic acid does not dissolve lead. Nitric acid
readily dissolves it, producing a solution of nitrate of
lead. Concentrated and boiling sulphuric acid converts
it into insoluble sulphate of lead. Chlorine gas passed
over heated lead, changes it into chloride of lead. Pure
water passed through lead pipes, dissolves lead in
sufficient quantity to render the water poisonous. Ac
cording to Professor Clark, the contaminated water
can be purified by filtration through a sufficiently thick
bed of sand. The presence of salts such as exist in
hard water prevents the solution of the lead pipes.
CoMPounds of LEAD. Pages 150 and 161.
SALTs of LEAD. Detection. I’ages 113 and 122.
They are colourless except when the acid has a col
ouring power (as chromic acid). They have a sweet
astringent taste. Many are soluble in water. All are
easily reducible to metallic lead on charcoal before the
blowpipe, pages 122 and 377. Zinc precipitates me
tallic lead in brilliant spangles.
The Lead Tree.—Dissolve half an ounce of ace
tate of lead in 8 ounces of boiled and filtered
water. Filter the solution into a large vial or
jar, suspend in it a crooked piece of zinc wire or
a mass of spongy granulated zinc. See the figure.
Place the jar in a quiet place. After some
hours, the lead will be precipitated on the zinc
in the shape of scales or leaves, which have a
brilliant appearance, and form a species of metal
lic shrub.
Solutions of lead give the following precipitates:–
SO 3, H2O
KO, H2O > White.
H2S
AmS } Bl
ack.
KO, CO2 KI2
H2Cl2 White, Yellowish. || KO, CrO3 } Yellow.
 SALTS OF LEAD. 515

YELLow Oxide of LEAD. PbO.—Yellow powder,

which melts at a red heat into a yellow glass. Ob
tained by heating dry and finely powdered oxalate of
lead in a porcelain capsule, with continual stirring, till
the product is obtained. The massicot of commerce is
identical with this oxide. Litharge contains this oxide,
mixed with a little red lead.
RED OxIDE OF LEAD. Common Red Lead.—Pb 8 O4.
—Bright red-coloured heavy powder, used as a paint.
Heat converts it into yellow oxide and oxygen gas.
Nitric acid produces nitrate of lead, and brown oxide
of lead. Not easily prepared in small experiments.
BRowN Oxide of LEAD. PbO2.—Dark brown pow
der, obtained by digesting red-lead in nitric acid. In
flames when triturated with sulphur. Becomes red-hot
in sulphurous acid gas, and produces white sulphate of
lead.
NITRATE of LEAD. PbO, N2O4.— Obtained by di
gesting lead in diluted nitric acid, sustaining the heat
as long as effervescence continues; and, after filtration,
evaporating the solution till a pellicle forms on its
surface, when it is set aside to crystallise. Colourless
octahedral crystals, free from water. Soluble.
Precipitates produced by Nitrate of Lead.
No PRECIPITATE:— Chlorates. Nitrates. Bromates.
WHITE PRECIPITATE:— Iodates. Sulphates. Phosphates.
Borates. Oxalates. Carbonates.
Chlorides (yellowish). Fluorides.
Arsenites. Arseniates. Bromides.
YELLow PRECIPITATE:—Chromates. Iodides.
BLAck PRECIPITATE:— Sulphurets.
SULPHURET OF LEAD. PbS.–Occurs native, as
Galena. Dark blue-grey, strong lustre, crystallises in
cubes, and, when massive, readily splits into cubes.
Easily reduced by ignition before the blowpipe. Formed
by passing sulphuretted hydrogen gas into solutions of
salts of lead. The sulphuret appears as a black pre
cipitate. -

SULPHATE OF LEAD. PbO, SO3.−White insoluble

powder, produced when solutions of sulphates are added
516 TIN.

to solutions of lead-salts. 1 Part dissolves in 23000

parts of cold water, or in 36000 parts of water contain
ing sulphuric acid.
CHLoRIDE OF LEAD. PbCl2.—Formed when solu
tions of chlorides are added to concentrated solutions
of lead salts. Small pale yellow crystals very sparingly
soluble in water.
Remarkable Crystallisation of Chloride of Lead.—Dissolve 1 part
of crystallised nitrate of lead in 4 parts of hot water, and when
the solution is cold, put it into a glass cylinder of 4 inches high
by 3 inches wide, which must be filled. Add a solid lump of
sublimed sal ammoniac of about half a cubic inch in size, and
let the mixture repose. In a short time a shrubbery of crys
tallised chloride of lead will begin to grow about the lump of
sal ammoniac, and in less than half an hour it will extend to
the height of two or three inches, and branch out into a variety
of fantastic arms, which possess such a degree of solidity, that
the solution can often be poured off without breaking them.
IoDIDE OF LEAD. PbT2. – Prepared by adding a
solution of iodide of potassium to a solution of acetate
of lead. A yellow insoluble powder. If the solution is
boiled and cooled, the iodide of lead forms most beauti
ful spangles, of the colour and lustre of burnished gold.
CARBONATE OF LEAD, PbO, CO2, commonly known
by the name of white lead, and much used as a white
paint, is formed by exposing thin plates of lead, coiled
up, to the vapour of vinegar. The metal is oxidised
by the decomposition of the vapour of the acetic acid;
and the salt is formed by the abstraction of carbonic
acid, partly from the atmosphere, and partly from the
acetic acid vapour. Carbonate of lead can be formed
in the small way, by adding a solution of carbonate of
potash to a solution of nitrate or acetate of lead. It
is a heavy white insoluble powder. 50000 parts of
water dissolve only 1 part of carbonate of lead.
37. TIN, STANNUM, Sn = 735-296.
TIN is a yellowish white metal, possessed of great
brilliancy, which it partially retains when exposed to
air; soft and very malleable. Its sp. gr. is 7.29. It
can be beat into very thin leaves (tin foil), creaks when
 SALTS OF TIN. 517

bent, so as to give a very peculiar sound, and exhales

a very disagreeable odour when rubbed, especially if
the fingers are moist. It melts nearly as readily as
lead. Excluded from air, it does not easily volatilise.
Heated in the air, it is converted into impure oxide of
tin. At a white heat, it burns with a blinding white light.
Nitric acid converts tin into insoluble peroxide of
tin, Diluted and very cold nitric acid dissolves tin,
and produces a solution of protonitrate of tin. Aqua
regia and muriatic acid both dissolve tin, producing
solutions of chloride of tin. Sulphuric acid dissolves
tin, if concentrated, under disengagement of sulphurous
acid gas; if dilute, under disengagement of hydrogen gas.
CoMPOUNDs of TIN.—Pages 154 and 164.
SALTS OF TIN.—Detection. Pages 113 and 121.
They are mostly colourless. The solutions redden
litmus. Zinc precipitates metallic tin. With H2S,
the protosalts give a brown precipitate ; the persalts, a
yellow precipitate.
PROToxide of TIN. SnO.—Heavy black powder,
which readily burns to peroxide of tin.
PEROxIDE OF TIN. SnO2.—The white substance
produced by putting metallic tin into nitric acid, is a
hydrate of peroxide of tin. It dissolves both in acids
and alcalies, acting either as a base or an acid. When
ignited, it loses water, turns yellow, and becomes
insoluble in acids. Teducible to the metallic state by
strong ignition on charcoal before the blowpipe. This
oxide is used as an ingredient in white enamels.
SULPHURET OF TIN. SnS.—A grey crystalline brittle
mass, produced by heating tin and sulphur. Another
sulphuret, containing more sulphur, and called mosaic
gold, SnS”, is made by exposing a mixture of equal
parts of finely powdered tin, sulphur, and sal ammoniac,
to a heat rather below redness, and retaining it in that
temperature for a considerable time. At a red heat
the mosaic gold is decomposed. This substance is
used in bronzing. It forms gold-coloured scales.
CHLORIDE OF TIN.—Tinfoil inflames spontaneously
in chlorine gas, and produces perchloride, SnCl4. It
2 x
518 ZINC.

is a thin, colourless, volatile, strongly fuming liquid,

which, in combination with one-third of its weight of
water, produces a crystalline fusible mass. The proto
chloride of tin, SnCl4, is a grey transparent fusible
solid. With water, it forms large transparent crystals
—tin salt, used in dyeing.—To make protochloride of tin,
dissolve pure tin in muriatic acid, keeping an excess of
tin present. When hydrogen gas ceases to pass off,
evaporate the solution, and set it aside to crystallise.
Dissolve the crystals in distilled water, and add a little
muriatic acid to render the solution clear. You must
prepare the solution every time you want it, as it will
not keep good. It is sometimes used as a test.
Tin is very much employed in the arts, namely, to coat the
inside of copper and iron pots; to convert sheet iron into tin
late or white iron; in the state of foil, with mercury, to silver
ooking glasses; to give body to carmine and to the colours
called lakes; in the state of chloride, as a mordant in dyeing;
and as an ingredient of solders, fusible metals, pewter, cannon,
bronze, and bell metal.
Tinning.—Dissolve peroxide of tin in a solution of caustic pot
ash; filter the solution; put into it turnings of tin, and on the
turnings É.i. the piece of copper or brass that you wish to have
tinned. Boil the mixture. An electric current is produced, and
by its action, the copper or brass becomes tinned.
Zincing can be executed by a similar process, using a solution
of chloride of zinc and small pieces of metallic zinc.—Böttger.
Curious instance of Combustion resulting from intense Chemical
Action.—Coarsely powder a few crystals of nitrate of copper,
lay them on a piece of tin foil, add enough of water to make
them into a thick paste, and then quickly fold up the tin foil,
doubling the sides and corners well together, so as to exclude
air: in a short time, nitrous gas will force its way out of the
packet, and the tin foil will be set on fire.
To make Pewter.—Melt, in a crucible, 1 part of lead or bis
muth, with about 20 parts of tin.
Spoons which Melt in Hot Water.—Fuse together in a crucible,
8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin : these metals will
combine, and form an alloy, of which spoons may be made, pos
sessed of the remarkable property of melting in boiling water.

38. ZINC. Zn = 403.226.

ZINC is of a brilliant blueish-white colour, and a
fibrous structure. Its sp. gr. is 6:8. It is flexible, and
 SALTS OF ZINC. 519

can be beat into leaves. It can be beat out best when

rather hotter than boiling water. But when heated
nearly to its melting point, and when very cold, it is
brittle. It melts pretty readily, and at a white heat is
volatile and can be distilled. When the metal is fused
in the open air, it takes fire, continues to burn with a
dazzling blueish-green flame, and is oxidised so rapidly
that the oxide flies up in light white filaments, called
flowers of zinc or philosophical wool.
Zinc readily dissolves in cold and diluted muriatic
and sulphuric acids, under a rapid disengagement of
hydrogen gas. It also dissolves in nitric acid.
To granulate zinc, or reduce it to small zig-zag pieces, melt it
in an iron ladle, and pour it from a height of 3 or 4 feet into
cold water kept in motion by a besom.
Mode of Diriding Plates of Zinc for Batteries.—Grease the
plate of zinc by means of a rag and a little tallow. Draw lines
in the required direction by means of a pointed instrument, so
as to remove the grease and cut a id: way into the metal.
ſº dilute sulphuric acid to the cut lines by means of a feather,
and then let a few drops of mercury run along the lines. The
zinc becomes amalgamated in the required direction and is ren
dered so brittle, that it can be broken into pieces.—Waidele.
COMPOUNDs of ZINC.—Pages 155 and 164.
SALTs of ZINC.—Detection. Pages 113 and 121.
Most of them are colourless and soluble in water. The
solutions redden litmus, have an unpleasant metallic
taste, and cause vomiting. No other metal reduces
zinc. The solutions when neutral give a white pre
cipitate with sulphuret of ammonium ; with caustic
potash, a white precipitate, which dissolves in an excess
of potash; with yellow prussiate of potash, a white pre
cipitate: and with red prussiate of potash, a yellowish
red precipitate.
OxIDE OF ZINC. ZnO.-A white powder which turns
yellow whenever it is exposed to heat. This may be
tried by ignition on a charcoal pastile. Page 376.
Reducible by ignition with charcoal, but not by hydro
gen gas.
SULPHURET OF ZINC. — Occurs native, and called
Blende. The white precipitate produced by adding
520 capulus.
sulphuretted hydrogen to a solution of zinc, is a hydrated
sulphuret.
SULPHATE of ZINC. ZnO, SO3 + 7 Aq.—Produced
by pouring sulphuric acid, diluted with 6 parts of water,
upon granulated zinc. The metal is dissolved by the
acid, forming a colourless solution, while hydrogen
escapes in the gaseous state. If the solution is rapidly
evaporated to dryness, the salt is obtained in a mass
which bears a resemblance to loaf sugar. But, if
slowly evaporated to the due degree of density, it
shoots, on being allowed to cool, into regular crystals.
This is the white vitriol of commerce ; the crystals are
large, transparent, colourless, very easily soluble in
water, and fusible by heat, under a loss of 44 per cent.
of water of crystallisation. This salt is used in dyeing.
CHLoRIDE of ZINC.—Grey, transparent, soft, fusible,
volatile, deliquescent. Prepared by the spontaneous
inflammation of thin zinc foil in chlorine gas, or by
the solution of zinc in diluted muriatic acid.
CYANIDE of ZINC.—White insoluble powder, used in
medicine. Prepared by adding free prussic acid to a
solution of acetate of zinc.
ALLoys of ZINC.—The new silver, or German silver,
is formed by fusing together 5 parts of nickel, 5 of zinc,
and 15 of copper. Brass is formed of zinc and copper.
—Alloy which may be kept in Fusion woon a Paper held
over a Candle. Melt together in a crucible, lead 1 part,
zinc 1 part, and bismuth 1 part.

39. CADMIUM. Cd = 696:767.

CADMIUM is a tin-white metal, brilliant and soft ; sp.
gr. 8:6; when bent, it creaks like tin. It is very easily
fusible. Heated in the air, it burns and produces a
brownish-yellow smoke of oxide of cadmium. Procured
from ores of zinc.; but pure sulphuret of cadmium has
been found in small quantity near Glasgow, constitut
ing the mineral called Greenockite.
Nitric acid dissolves cadmium very easily, producing
a solution which contains nitrate of cadmium.
 MERCURY. 521

CoMPOUNDS OF CADMIUM.–See pages 148 and 159.

SALTs OF CADMIUM.–Detection. Pages 113 and 121.
Zinc reduces cadmium. HºS produces an orange
yellow precipitate in acid solutions.
OxIDE OF CADMIUM. Cd O.—Brown powder.
SULPHURET of CADMIUM is a fine orange-coloured
substance, which might be used as a pigment if it could
be procured in sufficient quantity. The mineral Green
ockite is pure CdS. It always occurs in small but
very beautiful transparent orange-coloured crystals.
SULPHATE of CADMIUM. Cd 0, SO3+4 Aq.-Colour
less crystals, soluble in water.
CARBONATE OF CADMIUM.–A white insoluble powder.

40. MERCURY. Hydrargyrum. Hg = 1265.822.

Occurrence.—It is either obtained in the mineral
world, in the metallic state, or as Cinnabar, Mr.S.;
rarely as chloride of mercury.
MERCURY is the metal commonly called quicksilver.
It is distinguished from all other metals, by being fluid
at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. When
exposed to intense cold, it freezes to a solid; when
boiled, it evaporates as a colourless gas. The colour
of mercury is silver-white; it possesses a metallic lustre,
and is heavier than silver, its specific gravity being 15.5.
Muriatic acid does not dissolve mercury. Nitric acid
dissolves it, either hot or cold. Cold sulphuric acid
does not dissolve it; but boiling sulphuric acid dis
solves it, under disengagement of sulphurous acid gas.
With chlorine, it forms calomel and corrosive subli
mate; with sulphur, it forms cinnabar, or vermillion;
with oxygen, it forms red oxide of mercury; with
metals, it forms amalgams. All the compounds of
mercury are either volatilised or decomposed by heat.
CoMPOUNDS OF MERCURY.—See pages 151 and 161.
SALTS OF MERCURY.—Detection. Pages 113 and 122.
The salts of both oxides are reduced to the metallic
state by metallic copper, phosphorous acid, and proto
chloride of tin. They are all reduced when heated
2 X2
522 MERCURY.

with dry carbonate of soda in glass tubes. Their solu

tions give the following precipitates:—
Tests. Salts of the Protoxide, Salts of the Peroxide.
Sulphuretted Hydrogen,...Bl ....Black or White.
Caustic Potash, ...... .Orange-Yellow.
..Brown.
Iodide of Potassium,........ ,...Scarlet.
Chromate of Potash,........ Red,................. Orange.
OxIDES OF MERCURY.-There are two, both of which
are decomposed by heat into mercury and oxygen gas.
One of these is a black powder, Hg”O, the other a red
crystalline powder, HgC), very poisonous. The first
contains twice as much metal as the last, with the same
quantity of oxygen. The red oxide is prepared by
heating dry nitrate of mercury till the nitric acid is
entirely expelled. Red Precipitate."
NITRATE of PROToxide of MERCURY is made by dis
solving mercury in cold diluted nitric acid. The satu
rated solution is ponderous, colourless, and very caustic.
It yields large transparent crystals on evaporation. It
tinges the skin of an indelible black colour.
Precipitates produced by Protonitrate of Mercury:—
No PRECIPITATE, ... ...Chlorates. Nitrates.
WHITE PRECIPITATE,......Iodates. Sulphates. Phosphates.
Oxalates. Chlorides.
PALE YELLOW PRECIP.,...Borates. Carbonates. Iodides.
BLAck PRECIPITATE, ......Sulphurets.
Red PRECIPITATE,...... ... Chromates.
NITRATE OF PEROXIDE OF MERCURY. Dissolve mer
cury in boiling nitric acid. Not crystallisable. It
gives the following precipitates:—
BLACK,........................Sulphurets. -

WHITE,............. Sulphurets (sometimes). Sulphites.

-----------

Sulphocyanides. Arsenites.
Yellow Prussiate of Potash.
YELLowish-WHITE,......Oxalates. Sulphates.
YELLOW, .....................Sulphates. Hyposulphites.
Arseniates. Prussiates (some).
ORANGE,................ ....Chromates. Red Prussiate of Potash.
RED,.... .Iodides.
BRowN, .Borates. Carbonates.
SULPHURET OF MERCURy. CINNABAR–Take 6 parts
of mercury, and 1 part of sulphur. Melt the suſphur
in a crucible over a charcoal fire, pour the mercury
 SILVER. 523

into the melted sulphur, and stir the mixture for some
time. The blackish-red mass thus produced is after
ward to be submitted to sublimation, when it produces a
brilliant scarlet powder (vermillion). Cinnabar burns
in the air with a blue flame. It occurs as a mineral.
SULPHATE OF MERCURY.—Prepared by boiling mer
cury in oil of vitriol, during which sulphurous acid is
discharged in abundance. A white mass, decomposable
by water into a soluble acid sulphate, and an insoluble
basic sulphate, which is a yellow powder.
CALOMEL. PROTochloridE OF MERCURY. Hg2Cl2.
Sublimed calomel is a white, crystalline, semitranspa
rent, heavy mass; tasteless, insoluble in water, volatile,
but not fusible. When obtained by adding common
salt to the solution of mercury in cold nitric acid, it
forms a heavy white powder. Useful in medicine.
When a lump of calomel is placed in a hot solution
of tin, it gives metallic mercury.
PERCHLORIDE OF MERCURY. CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE.
HgCl2.- Crystallises from its aqueous solutions in long
white crystals, which sublimation converts into a white,
transparent, heavy mass. When heated, it melts, boils,
and sublimes. It dissolves in water. In this solution,
caustic potash gives a yellowish-red precipitate, and
ammonia a white precipitate. Corrosive sublimate is
prepared by subliming a mixture of sulphate of mer
cury and common salt. It is extremely poisonous.
White of egg is the best antidote.
IoDIDEs of MERCURY.—Hg?I2 is dark green. HgI2
is sometimes scarlet red and sometimes bright yellow.
CYANIDE OF MERCURY. HgCy?.—Colourless, soluble,
poisonous crystals, used to prepare cyanogen.
FULMINATING MERCURY.—White silky crystals, which explode
with extreme violence when heated or struck. Used for preparing
percussion caps. Produced by adding a solution of nitrate of mer
cury to alcohol. The process is very dangerous. Several persons
have been killed while endeavouring to prepare this compound.

41. SILVER. ARGENTUM. Ag = 1351-607.

Occurrence.—Native: also as sulphuret, and as an
ingredient of compound sulphurets containing a variety
of other metals, especially lead, arsenic, and antimony.
524 SILVER.

SILVER possesses a very white colour, and a strong

metallic lustre. It is very sonorous, extremely mal
leable, ductile, and tenacious; harder than gold, but
more easily fusible. It is not oxidised by being heated
in the air. Its sp. gr. is 10:47. It enters into combus
tion when exposed to the action of a galvanic battery,
and gives a brilliant green light. It is alloyed with
copper in coins to make it harder. -

Muriatic acid gives a coating of chloride of silver to

a mass of silver, but does not act upon the whole of the
silver. Nitric acid readily dissolves silver, and pro
duces a solution of nitrate of silver. Diluted sulphuric
acid does not act upon silver. Strong and boiling sul
phuric acid dissolves it, under disengagement of sul
phurous acid, and produces insoluble sulphate of silver.
CoMPOUNDs of SILVER.—Pages 153 and 163.
SALTs OF SILVER.—Detection. Pages 113 and 125.
The salts of silver are colourless when their acid is
not coloured. They have a strong metallic taste, are
poisonous, and colour the skin black [removable by
cyanide of potassium, page 447]. Iteducible by soda.
before the blowpipe. Reducible from their solutions
by phosphorus, sulphurous acid, copper, mercury, and
most of the common metals, and by many other deoxid
ising substances. The salts that are insoluble in water
generally dissolve in caustic ammonia, except the iodide
and sulphuret.

Solutions of the Salts of Silver produce the following

I’recipitates :—
BLACK, ...................Sulphurets.
WHITE,...................Iodides. . Chlorides. Pyrophosphates.
Cyanides. Borates. Oxalates.
ellow Prussiate of Potash.
YELLow-WHITE, ...... Carbonates. Bromides.
I’ALE YELLow,.........Iodides. Phosphates.
YELLow, ...... ...Arsenites.
BRow N,.................. Caustic Alcalies. Arsenites.
Red Prussiate of Potash.
RED,....................... Chromates.
NoNE,..................... Chlorates. Nitrates. Sulphates (dilute).
Fluorides. ji. Ammonia.
Carbonate of Ammonia.
 OXIDE AND NITRATE OF SILVER. 525

OxIDE OF SILVER. AgO = 1451.61.—A black pow

der, obtained by adding a solution of caustic potash to
a solution of nitrate of silver. The black oxide pre
cipitates. Heat converts it into silver and oxygen gas.
It is soluble in cyanide of potassium.
Preparation of Pure Ovide of Silver. Professor Gregory's
Process.-Dissolve common alloyed silver in nitric acid. Preci
pitate the solution by a solution of common salt. Wash the
chloride of silver thoroughly by decantation with hot water.
Cover the precipitate to the depth of half-an-inch, with a solu
tion of caustic potash, of spec. grav. 1:25 to 1-3. Take care to
break down all the lumps or hard masses with a platinum
spatula. Boil the whole for 10 minutes, or until the chloride
has become converted into a heavy jet-black powder. If any
white specks are observed, the mixture may be rubbed in a mor
tar, and once more boiled for a short time. When the decom
position appears complete, the oxide is to be carefully washed
by decantation with hot water, until all the saline matter is re
moved. . The oxide of silver so obtained has a very different
aspect from that precipitated by potash from the nitrate ; it is
a very heavy ... powder, with, if any thing, a tinge of blue,
and is probably crystalline. It dissolves completely and easily
in nitric acid, forming a colourless solution of pure nitrate.
Caustic potash has but little effect on .#. of silver in the
cold; but if the solution be sufficiently strong, and the tempera
ture raised to ebullition, the salt is completely decomposed and
converted into oxide. But if the chloride of silver has been once
dried, it is with great difficulty decomposed by the caustic potash,
even when the ebullition is continued a long time.
Metallic Silver.—When this oxide of silver is heated to redness,
it gives off oxygen gas, and pure spongy metallic silver remains.
NITRATE of SILVER. Ag0, N205 = 2128-64.—Put
a small quantity of pure metallic silver or oxide of silver
into a glass flask, and pour over it
twice its weight of nitric acid, and
twice as much water as acid. The
silver will be quickly dissolved, and
at the same time nitrous gas will be
discharged. The solution, if the me
tal and acid be both pure, will be
transparent and colourless; but if any
copper be present, the solution will
have a blue colour; and if any gold
be present, it will be precipitated in
526 SILVER.

the form of a black powder. If the nitric acid contains

any muriatic or sulphuric acid, an insoluble white
powder will be formed, which will be chloride or sul
phate of silver. This is to be separated by decanta
tion, for the solution of nitrate of silver is injured by
filtration through paper, and the salt made liable to turn
black. The solution is limpid, colourless, heavy, and
caustic. It stains hair, the skin, and most animal sub
stances, black, which is not removable by washing with
soap, but can be taken out by cyanide of potassium, page
447. It forms brilliant transparent crystals, possessed
of a very bitter metallic taste; very soluble in water,
not deliquescent, decomposable by light, converted by
heat into an opaque mass, which is used in medicine
under the name of lunar caustic. Very poisonous.
This salt can be obtained in a pure state from a
solution containing copper, by evaporating the solution,
and exposing the dry residue to a gentle melting heat,
or by adding oxide of silver to the solution, which de
composes the nitrate of copper, and leaves insoluble
oxide of copper.
Nitrate of silver in solution is peculiarly adapted to
the discovery of muriatic acid and the chlorides. The
silver combines with the chlorine of these compounds,
and forms a flaky precipitate, which at first is white,
but on exposure to the sun’s light, acquires a blueish, and
finally a black colour. Muriatic acid, consequently, is
a test for silver in solution. The coloured precipitates
produced by nitrate of silver are noticed at page 524.
Solution of Nitrate of Silver of 10°.-Dissolve 213
grains of dry crystals of pure nitrate of silver in dis
tilled water, and dilute the solution in the decigallon
bottle, page 264, at the temperature of 62°F. to the
bulk of a decigallon. Observe the precautions indicated
at page 292. This solution of nitrate of silver has,
necessarily, only one-tenth part of the strength of a solu
tion of 100°. Consequently, 10 septems of it precipi
tate 1 septem of any soluble chloride of 100°. See the
analysis of muriatic acid, page .357, and salt springs,
page 455. This method of analysing chlorides is very
 MARKING INK FOR LINEN. 527

easy and trustworthy. By a modification of the pro

cess, it is possible to estimate the amount of silver con
tained in any solution by employing a solution of chloride
of sodium of 10° or 100° to precipitate it.

Permanent Ink for Marking Linen.—Dissolve a drachm of lunar

caustic (fused nitrate of silver) in thrice its weight of water, and
add about half a drachm of gum-arabic. This forms the ink,
with which you must write, or rather paint, with a clean pen,
upon the linen prepared as follows:—Dissolve half an ounce of
sub-carbonate of soda in an ounce of distilled water, and add 20
grains of gum-arabic; this forms the mordant. Well moisten,
with the mordant, the º of the linen that is to be written on,
dry it well by a gentle heat, rub the surface of the linen smooth
with a round piece of glass or china, and then apply the ink in
the manner above directed, to the place that has been moistened.
The writing, when exposed to the sun, becomes black. This ink,
if well prepared, stands washing with soap and soda; but it can
be totally effaced without injury to the fabric, by means of a
solution of cyanide of potassium. Page 446. -

Formation of the Silver Tree.—Mix one part of a saturated

solution of nitrate of silver, with twenty parts of distilled water,
and pour the mixture upon two parts of metallic mercury in a
phial. After some time (the phial being left standing quietly)
it puts forth branches, and the figure of a tree formed of brilliant
silver will appear to grow from the mercury in a very beautiful
Inanner.

Easy Production of Silver Shrubbery.—Bend a piece of copper

wire into the shape of a tree, (but flat), or any figure you choose,
and lay it upon a piece of glass or slate, over which you have
previously spread a few drops of nitrate of silver. In a few hours
the copper will be covered by brilliant ramifications of silver.—
2. Drop a little solution of nitrate of silver upon a clean plate of
copper; in a short time, a very elegant metallic vegetation will
be observed to branch out. -

To give a piece of Charcoal a rich Coat of Silver—Lay a crystal

of nitrate of silver upon a piece of burning charcoal,—the
metallic salt will deflagrate, and throw out beautiful scintilla
tions. The silver is reduced, and produces upon the charcoal
an appearance very brilliant.
To make beautiful Silvery Figures upon Silk.-Immerse a piece
of silk in a diluted solution of nitrate of silver, and expose it
while wet to a current of hydrogen gas (forced through a jet, as
described at page 237) the silver will quickly be reduced; various
colours—blue, purple, red, orange, yellow—-accompany the
reduction, and at last the threads of the silk appear like silver
Wire.
528 SILVER.

Fulminating Silver.—A salt that explodes with extreme vio

lence, by heat, or the slightest friction, and which it is very dan
erous to make. Preparation.—Oxide of silver precipitated
#. the nitrate by caustic potash or lime water, and well washed
and drained, is to be digested twelve hours with cold and very
strong ammonia. Pour off the liquor, wash the powder with fresh
ammonia, pour that off, and drain the powder on blotting paper.
This, when dry, is the fulminating silver, which it will perhaps
puzzle you to dispose of; for it is scarcely possible to touch it
without the risk of being blown up. The only way to proceed
with a chance of safety is to divide the powder while quite wet
into many very small portions, and to dry these separately. But
even this does not preclude danger. The young chemist should
º careful never to bring ammonia into contact with oxide of
Silver.

SULPHURET OF SILVER. AgS.—The black substance

formed when silver is exposed to sulphurous vapours,
or when it is precipitated by H2S. It is insoluble in
ammonia, but soluble in cyanide of potassium, page 446.
SULPHATE of SILVER. AgO, SO3.—Small, shining,
nearly insoluble crystalline needles. It is the white
precipitate which appears when solutions of sulphates
are added to solutions of silver-salts. To obtain it
pure, add an excess of sulphuric acid to a solution of
nitrate of silver, filter the solution, and wash the preci
pitate till the washings do not change the colour of
litmus. Boil the edulcorated precipitate in distilled
water, allow it to cool, filter the solution, and preserve
it. 87 Parts of water dissolve about 1 part of the salt.
This liquor is a test for chlorides, in solutions of which
it produces a white precipitate.
CHLoRIDE OF SILVER. AgCl2=1794.26.—Obtained
by adding muriatic acid, or the solution of any chloride
to a solution of any silver salt. . White cheesy precipi
tate; after drying, a white insoluble powder, which in
sunshine turns violet or black. The deposition of pre
cipitated chloride of silver is facilitated by heat, agita
tion, and a slight excess of nitric acid. See page 357.
Easily fuses to a yellow transparent liquor, which cools
to a grey crystalline, tough mass, horn silver. It is
soluble in ammonia. Very easily reduced to the
metallic state by contact with water and iron, or water
 PLATINUM. 529

and zinc, or fusion with carbonate of potash, or cyanide

of potassium.
The ready formation and absolute insolubility of
chloride of silver in water, make solutions of silver and
of chlorides valuable tests for detecting each other in
solution.
IoDIDE of SILVER. AgI2.—Pale yellow, much like
the chloride, but insoluble in ammonia. A reagent for
separating iodine from chlorine.

42. PLATINUM. Pt -1233.499.

PLATINUM has a greyish-white colour. In the state
of fine powder it is grey, and without metallic lustre;
but the lustre can be produced by friction. Platinum
is the heaviest of all metals. Its sp. gr. is 21-5. It is
harder than copper, but not so malleable as gold and
silver. It can be drawn into exceedingly fine wire. It
cannot be melted by the heat of a furnace; but it can
be fused by means of a blowpipe, supplied with oxygen
gas, and directed upon the flame of a spirit-lamp.
Page 226. It can be welded at a white heat. It does
not oxidise when heated in the air. Platinum dissolves
in hot aqua regia, but not in any simple acid. The
solution contains chloride of platinum. When pure
alcalies or nitrate of potash is ignited with platinum,
the metal is corroded. When brought, in the state of
a fine, porous, spongy mass, into a mixture of oxygen
and hydrogen gas, it becomes red hot, and inflames the
gas. Page 247.
CoMPOUNDs of PLATINUM. Pages 152 and 162.
SALTs of PLATINUM.–Mostly yellow or brown. Phos
phorus and silver precipitate the metal. Concentrated
solutions give yellow precipitates with concentrated
solutions of sal ammoniac and chloride of potassium.
Spongy Platinum.—Prepared by igniting the double
chloride of platinum and ammonia in a porcelain
crucible, over a spirit lamp. This substance becomes
red hot when placed in oxyhydrogen gas, and inflames
the gas. See pages 243 and 247.
2 Y
530 PLATINUM.

Platinum Black —Mix the solution of platinum with dilute

sulphuric acid, and add a plate of zinc, which is to remain as
long as hydrogen gas continues to be disengaged. The platinum
gradually precipitates in the state of platinum black, meanwhile
the yellow solution becomes colourless. To separate zinc and
other accidental impurities, the platinum black, after separation
from the solution, is digested with warm muriatic acid, and then
well washed in water and dried.—Böttger.
CHLoRIDE of PLATINUM.–Mix two parts of concen
trated muriatic acid with one part of concentrated nitric
acid, and dissolve a piece of platinum in the mixture.
To prevent waste of acid, effect the
solution in a flask with a long cylin
drical neck, and put into the neck a
cold water tube, similar to b, pago
489. The cold water is to be fre
quently renewed. Evaporate the so
lution to dryness in a porcelain cap
sule. Dissolve the dry chloride in
strong alcohol. It is a test for salts
of potash and ammonia, with solu
tions of both of which substances it
gives a yellow precipitate. The com
position of these precipitates, KC1* + PtCl4, and
AmCl2 + PtCl4, is quoted at pages 152 and 162. No
such precipitate is produced in salts of soda. Hence
the chloride of platinum is used in the analysis of mixed
salts of potash and soda, to determine the quantity of
the potash in the mixture.
A Wire which instantly becomes red-hot when placed in contact
with a Vapour.—Let a few drops of ether be thrown into a cold
glass, or a few drops of alcohol into a warm one; let a few coils
of platinum wire, of the 60th or 70th part of an inch in thickness,
be heated to redness by a spirit lamp, and when it has ceased to
be red-hot, let it be held in the glass over the ether: in some parts
of the glass it will become glowing, almost white-hot, and will
continue so, as long as a sufficient quantity of vapour and air
remain in the glass.
Lamp without Flame.—Take platinum wire,
about 1-100th of an inch in thickness. Coil it up
and stick, the coil loosely on the wick of a spirit
lamp. The cotton of the lamp must be very
straight, and not pressed by the wire. There
should be about 16 spiral turns, one half of which
 GOLD. 531

should surround the wick, and the rest rise above it. Having
lighted the lamp for an instant, on blowing it out, the wire will
become brightly ignited, and will continue to glow as long as
any alcohol remains.
Another Kind.—Put sulphuric ether into a glass spirit lamp,
and put into the wick holder the burner figured in
the margin. This consists of a cotton wick c, in the
centre of which is a narrow glass tube b, to which
is fastened a ball of spongy platinum a, such as is
represented at page §. If the cotton is lighted
for a few minutes, and the flame then blown out,
the platinum continues red hot for hours. The
combustion of alcohol or ether by this method pro
duces an acid vapour termed lampic acid, or alde
hyde. This can be collected by placing the head of
an alembic over the lamp. If a glass capsule con
taining Eau de Cologne, is suspended over the lamp, the perfume
will be volatilised by the heat of the ball of platinum.

43. PALI, ADIUM. Pd = 665 899.

44. IRIDIUM. Ir = 1233'499.
45. RHODIUM. IR = 651387.
46. OSMIUM. Os = 1244'487,
These four elements occur in small quantities in the
ore of platinum, and rarely under any other circum
stances. They are of so little present importance, that
I may pass them over without notice, referring the
reader who desires farther particulars, to chemical
works of greater compass. Compounds: Pages 149-158.

47. GOLD. AURUM. Au- 1243-013.

GoLD has a beautiful yellow colour, which is not
tarnished by exposure to air. When reduced to very
thin leaves, it appears green by transmitted light. When
precipitated in the form of powder it is brown, but be
comes yellow and brilliant on being rubbed. Gold is
one of the heaviest metals. Its specific gravity is 19:2.
It is soft, very malleable, and very ductile. A grain
gives a wire 500 feet long, or a leaf of 56 square inches.
It requires a strong heat for its fusion, stronger than
that required by copper. It is blueish-green in the
532 GOLD.

fused state. It is not volatile, and does not oxidise

when heated in the air. It is insoluble in nitric acid,
muriatic acid, and sulphuric acid; but it dissolves when
heated in aqua regia. The resulting solution is yellow,
and contains chloride of gold. It colours the skin
purple. The stain is removable by cyanide of pot
assium. Page 447.
Gold readily combines with other metals. Coins
contain gold and copper. Gold combines with chlorine,
forming a yellow chloride of gold, which can be obtained
in crystals. It also produces double chlorides, by com
bination with chlorine, and with the metallic bases of
the alcalies, such as potassium.
CoMPOUNDs of GoLD. Pages 149 and 160.
DETECTION OF GoLD. Pages 113 and 124.
The compounds of gold are all reduced when fused
with cyanide of potassium.
To obtain pure Gold.—Add to a solution of gold in
aqua regia a solution of green sulphate of iron, as long
as precipitation ensues: the precipitated gold is to be
well washed first with diluted muriatic acid, and then
with pure water.
CHLORIDE OF GOLD.—Mix two parts of concentrated
muriatic acid with one part of concentrated nitric acid.
The mixture heats, effervesces, and becomes of an
orange colour. This is aqua regia, a liquor which has
the property of dissolving gold, and producing a solu
tion of chloride of gold. The mixture may be heated
in a glass flask placed in a water bath. The metal
should be rolled thin, otherwise much acid is wasted.
When the acid is saturated, it has a deep yellow colour,
is very caustic, and of an astringent metallic taste. It
tinges the skin, and almost all animal and vegetable
bodies, and even marble, of a deep and indelible purple.
See page 447. It crystallises from an acid solution in
combination with hydrochloric acid, its beautiful golden
colour being preserved. The crystals are very soluble
in water, and still more so in ether. Decomposition
of this salt is effected by light, heat, earths, alcalies,
and several metals. When the crystals of chloride of
e
 CHROMIUM. 533

gold are heated, they first part with their excess of

muriatic acid; afterwards, they lose two-thirds of their
chlorine acid, Au” C1" becoming Au% Cl”. If water is
added to this salt, it is decomposed, and you obtain
Au% in the metallic state, and Au? Cl" in solution,
perfectly neutral. This is the only method of procuring
a neutral solution of chloride of gold.
If the solution of gold is to be used as a TEST, eva
porate it to dryness in a porcelain capsule, and dissolve
the dry chloride in spirits of wine. It is a test for tin,
with which it gives a purple precipitate.

CoMPOUNDs.
48. TITANIUM. Ti = 303:662. Pages 154,164.
49. TANTALUM. Ta-1153-715. Pages 154, 164.
50. TUING STEN.W =11830. Pages 154,164.
51. MOLYBDENUM. Mo- 598.52. Pages 151,162.
52. WANADIUM. V = 85584. Pages 154, 164.
Tèare metals of comparative unimportance.
--

53. CHROMIUM. Cr- 351-815.

CHROMIUM has a greyish-white colour, is brittle, and
very difficult of fusion. Its sp. gr. is 6. . It is not acted
on by air, nitric acid, or aqua regia; but is dissolved
by hydrofluoric acid. It is chiefly procured from
chromate of iron. It occurs also in small quantities in
chromate of lead and in serpentine and the emerald.
CoMPOUNDs of CHROMIUM. Pages 148 and 159.
GREEN OxIDE OF CHROMIUM. Cr20%.-An insoluble,
infusible, bright green powder, nearly insoluble in acids
after ignition, and very difficult of reduction. It is
used to paint emerald green on porcelain, and to give
the same colour to glass.
HYDRATE OF OxIDE OF CHROMIUM. Cr2O3 + 3 H2O.
A dull blueish green powder. At a red heat it loses its
water, and is changed into the anhydrous green oxide.
Preparation.—l. Ignite chromate of mercury in a small por
celain crucible, over the spirit lamp. Anhydrous green oxide of
chromium remains. 2. Make a solution of chromate of potash
2Y2
534 CHROMIUM.
*

in a tube, add a little muriatic acid and alcohol, and boil the
mixture. The original yellow solution becomes green. Add
caustic ammonia, which gives a precipitate of green hydrate of
chromium. Bring it on a filter and wash it thoroughly with
water. 3. Expose 100 grains of bichromate of ammonia on
a flat porcelain capsule to the heat of a small spirit lamp... In
a few minutes the whole is decomposed by a violent reaction,
accompanied by vivid combustion, and pure oxide of chromium
is produced in large films resembling tea leaves.
A Volcano.—Take 48 parts of fine gunpowder, 240 parts of
bichromate of potash, and 5 parts of sal ammoniac,
all in dust dry fine powder. Mix well and sift
through a fine sieve. Fill with the dry mixture,
a conical but not very tall glass. Press a piece of
tinplate on the top, invert the whole, and remove
the glass, leaving the powder in the form of a cone.
Apply to the summit a piece of lighted tinder, upon
which the mixture will take fire, and burn slowly
and quietly to the bottom. Collect and wash the
residue, which will consist of very fine bright green anhydrous
oxide of chromium.—Böttger.
SALTs of OxIDE OF CHROMIUM. Detection. Pages
113 and 124.
They are generally green, but their solutions have
sometimes an amethyst colour. The examination before
the blowpipe, of the green precipitate produced in their
solutions by alcalies, leads to certain detection. See
pages 465 and 472. º

Brown Owide of Chromium. Insoluble powder.

CHROMIC ACID. CrO3.—Bright crimson coloured
crystals, sometimes fibrous. Fusible to a dark red
liquor. By a stronger heat reduced to green oxide.
Without odour. Taste acid and bitter. Stains the
skin yellow, removable by alcali. The crystals deli
quesce in the air, and readily dissolve in water, pro
ducing when concentrated a dark red, and when dilute
a bright yellow liquor. The chromic acid combines
with oxides to form chromates.
Preparation of Chromic Acid.—Prepare a hot saturated solu
tion of bichromate of potash, and let it cool. Pour 2 measures
of the cold solution into 3 measures of concentrated oil of vitriol,
of.sp. gr. 184, stirring the acid actively, while the solution is
being added. Place the porcelain capsule on a straw support,
and immediately cover it with a piece of board made to fit it as
 CHROMIC ACID. 535
s

close as possible. At the end of 3 hours a quantity of dark

crimson-coloured crystals will be observed in the solution.
These are chromic acid. Pour off the red liquor, and put out
the crystals with a spatula on a tile or flat piece of absorbent
pottery. Cover them with a glass jar, and put sand round the
mouth to keep off the air. In two days the crystals will be dry.
They contain a little sulphuric acid, which may be separated by
solution in very little water, and crystallisation over oil of vitriol
in an exhausted receiver. The red residual liquor gives off oxy
gen gas when boiled. Page 206, process h.
Reduction of Chromic Acid.—It has commonly been considered
that chromic acid dissolves in alcohol, producing a solution
which is decomposed both by light and heat. According to my
observations, alcohol is decomposed instantaneously by dry chromic
acid, frequently under a considerable disengagement of light
and heat.
2. If, for example, dry chromic acid is thrown into absolute
alcohol, the acid becomes ignited and suffers deoxidation. The
liberated oxygen combines with the alcohol, and produces that
highly odorous solution of aldehyde, which commonly bears the
name of lampic acid. -

3. If about a tea spoonful of dry chromic acid is placed in a

porcelain capsule and moistened with a few drops of absolute
alcohol, the latter immediately inflames, while the reduced por
tion of the chromic acid continues for some time in a state of
ignition.
4. If absolute alcohol is mixed with a little sulphuret of carbon,
we obtain a mixture which bursts into flame on the addition
of even the smallest portion of dry chromic acid; yet sulphuret
of carbon by itself is not in the least degree affected by dry
chromic acid.
5... If a white glass bottle of the capacity of 20 ounces of water,
is filled with alcohol vapour mixed with atmospheric air, and a
small quantity of dry chromic acid is thrown into it, the almost
immediate result is an explosion. No danger attends this ex
periment, if the bottle is left open when the acid is put into it.
6. As soon as the explosion referred to in the last experiment
has occurred, a few drops of absolute alcohol are to be poured
into the bottle as quickly as possible, a little more dry chromic
acid is to be added, and the bottle is to be closed. The atmo
spheric air in the bottle having been expelled by the previous
explosion, the mutual decomposition of the chromic acid and
the alcohol now proceeds quietly, yet in a manner highly inter
esting. If, for example, the experiment is made in a darkened
chamber, then the chromic acid produced in the operation in a
state of fine division, is observed to circulate about the glass,
perfectly red-hot, for a long time. The most striking thing con
nected with this part of the experiment is, that every little atom,
like a brilliant meteor, turns with inconceivable rapidity about its
536 CHROMIUM.

aris, swimming round about in the newly produced aldehyde

atmosphere, and continuing in this state of strong ignition, as
long as the least trace of undecomposed alcohol remains within
the vessel. On many eccasions these extremely interesting phe
nomena are perfectly visible even in day-light, and sometimes
continue for nearly 10 minutes.—Böttger.
7. If a current of dried ammonia gas (page 296,) is thrown upon
crystallised chromic acid, combustion occurs, and the chromic
acid is reduced to green oxide of chromium.
8. Fit a glass spirit lamp with a thick wick of asbestus instead
of cotton. Fill the lamp with common alcohol, or with alcohol
mixed with sulphuret of carbon. Cut the wick square across,
at # inch above the wick-holder, spread it out into a brush, and
moisten it with a few drops of absolute alcohol, and put upon it
a small quantity of anhydrous crystallised chromic acid. The
alcohol immediately bursts into flame, and the chromic acid be
comes white hot and is reduced to green oxide of chromium.
Blow out the alcohol flame. The oxide of chromium then con
tinues to burn at a red heat, and the combustion of the alcohol
is kept up precisely as if spongy platinum were employed.—
Böttger.
CHROMATEs.-Detection. Pages 114 and 131.
The neutral chromates of alcalies and earths are
yellow; the bichromates are red, and communicate
these colours to their solutions in water. The insoluble
chromates of the heavy metals possess yellow, red, or
other brilliant colours. The chromates behave before
the blowpipe the same as the salts of oxide of chromium.
See pages 465 and 472. When heated with oil of
vitriol, they disengage oxygen gas; with muriatic acid,
they disengage chlorine gas: in both cases producing
green solutions. When heated with chloride of sodium
and oil of vitriol together, they give off oxychloride of
chromium in bright red vapours. All the chromates
are soluble in nitric acid.
Precipitates produced by Solutions of Chromates :—
PALE YELLow, ................... Barium. Tin, protosalts.
BRIGHT YEllow,. ..Lead.
I Bismuth.
ORANGE, .......... . Mercury, persalts.
BRick-RED,. ... Mercury, protosalts.
BROWN-RED, ..................... Silver. Copper.
Oxychloride of CHROMIUM. CrC12O2. — Chloro
chromic Acid. CrC1"--2 CrO3. See page 175.
 CHROMATE OF POTASH. 537

Preparation.—Melt 10 parts of chloride of sodium with 16.9

parts of neutral chromate of potash in a Hessian crucible. Pour
out the mass. Break it into coarse pieces, and put them into a
large tubulated retort, and apply a receiver. Add 30 parts of
fuming, or of very concentrated, sulphuric acid. The distilla
tion commences immediately, without the application of heat.
The oxychloride of chromium must be collected in a receiver
effectively cooled by water. A little heat must be applied near
the end of the distillation.
Theory:—NaCl2+KO, CrO3+2H2O,SO3= CrC12O2+NaO, SO3+
KO, SO3 + 2 H2O.
Properties.—A splendid blood-red liquor, of sp. gr. 1-71, very
volatile and fuming. At about 250° F. it forms an orange
coloured gas. If poured into water, it produces muriatic acid
and chromic acid—
CrCl2O2+ H2O = CrO3 + H2Cl2.
Phosphorus put into it occasions a fiery explosion. Sublimed
sulphur moistened with it takes fire. Put a little into a V-tube,
and pass dried ammonia gas over it, the mixed vapours take
fire. When mixed with oil of turpentine, or with absolute alco
hol, it inflames.
Sulphate of Chromium. Crº O'º, 3 SO3 + 15 Aq.—
Violet-coloured octahedral crystals. There are several
other sulphates, but none important.
CHLORIDE OF CHROMIUM. Cr2Cl6. – Sublimes in
peach-blossom-coloured scales. The solution in water
is green by reflected light, and red by transmitted light.
Produced by dissolving hydrate of oxide of chromium
in muriatic acid, or by decomposing a chromate by
boiling muriatic acid, mixed with a little alcohol. See
page 533, prep. 2.
CHROMATE of PotAsh. KO, CrO3.—Beautiful yel
low crystals of the form of sulphate of potash, easily
soluble in water, giving a yellow solution, possessed of
extraordinary colouring properties.—BICHROMATE OF
PoTASH. KO, 2 CrO3. — Forms large easily-fusible
crystals, distinguished by a splendid red colour, which
it communicates to its aqueous solution.—Bichromate
is obtained by adding nitric acid to the solution of the
neutral salt, and crystallising the mixture.—Neutral
chromate can be prepared by adding caustic potash to
the bichromate. The neutral chromate does not crys
tallise so readily as the bichromate.
538 ANTIMONY.

Chromate of potash is used in dyeing, in which, with

salts of lead, it produces most beautiful yellow and red
colours. It is also the material employed to produce
all other compounds of chromium, several of which are
employed as pigments. The precipitates given by a
solution of chromate of potash are noticed at page 536.
Reduction of Chromic Acid, as earisting in the Chromates, to Oride
of Chromium.—CHROME ALUM.—Set up the apparatus described
at page 315. Put a solution of bichromate of potash into the
V-tube, and pass sulphurous acid through it till the solution
becomes green. Add sulphuric acid to this liquor till efferves
cence is occasioned. The spontaneous evaporation of this liquor
produces octahedral crystals of chrome alum.
Conversion of Owide of Chromium into Chromic Acid.—Ignite a
mixture of chlorate of potash and #. oxide of chromium in a
tube of hard glass. Oxygen and chlorine are given off, and
chromate of potash may be extracted from the residue by solu
tion in water, filtration, and crystallisation.
CHROME IRON ORE. Fe0, Cr2O3.—The mineral
from which chromate of potash is prepared.—Mix 10
grains of the ore very finely pulverised in an agate
mortar, with 30 grains of nitre. Ignite the mixture
strongly and for a considerable time, in a porcelain,
earthen, or iron crucible, placed in a furnace. Digest
the mixture in water; filter; neutralise the solution
with nitric acid; filter, evaporate, and crystallise. The
crystals are chromate of potash.
CHROME YELLow.—This pigment is the chromate of
lead. The beautiful red sub-chromate of lead is obtained
by fusing an atom of the neutral chromate of lead with
an atom of saltpetre. The insoluble chromates of silver,
mercury, barytes, &c., require no particular notice.
They are prepared by precipitation, and possess the
general properties of chromates, and the properties of
the particular bases. See their colours, page 536. They
all dissolve in nitric acid.

54. ANTIMONY. STIBIUM. Sb-806-452.

ANTIMONY is a metal of a silver-white colour, with a
strong metallic lustre and a leafy structure. Its sp. gr.
is 67. It is brittle, and easy to powder. When heated,
 SALTS OF ANTIMONY. 539

it readily fuses. If excluded from air during the opera

tion, it volatilises only in a very slight degree; if ignited
in the open air, it remains red hot for some time after
removal from the fire, and produces a thick, white
smoke of oxide of antimony, which gradually forms a
mass of shining crystals on the face of the residual
antimony. If a morsel of antimony is ignited on char
coal before the blowpipe, the fused metallic bead ex
hibits a net-work consisting of crystallised oxide of
antimony. If the heat is sustained, the antimony
volatilises completely in the state of oxide. If the hot
bead of antimony is thrown from the charcoal to the
floor, it parts suddenly into numerous smoking frag
ments. If a quantity of antimony is melted in a
crucible, and poured upon the ground or upon a stool,
from a height of 3 or 4 feet, it forms a multitude of
smoking globules, which rush upwards like an explosion
from a volcano.
Hot nitric acid converts antimony into an insoluble
oxide of antimony. Muriatic acid does not dissolve
antimony. Aqua regia dissolves antimony completely;
the resulting solution gives a white precipitate upon
being mingled with water. Chlorine gas passed over
warm antimony produces liquid chloride of antimony.
A variety of useful alloys have antimony for one of
their constituents: the metal for printers’ types, that
on which music is engraved, and pewter, belong to
this class. Antimonial preparations serve also as paints
and as medicines.
CoMPOUNDs of ANTIMONY. Pages 147 and 158.
PROToxide OF ANTIMONY.—Prepared by igniting
antimony in the open air, or by boiling it in a mixture
of nitric acid and diluted sulphuric acid. It is white,
turns yellow when heated, fuses, and, on cooling, forms
a greyish crystalline mass. It sublimes in crystals
when heated in close vessels; is easily reduced when
ignited with charcoal.
Detection of Owide of Antimony in Salts. Pages 113,122.
NATIVE SULPHURET OF ANTIMONY.— Obtained as a
mineral. Lead-grey, compact, fibrous, sometimes found
540 TELLURIUM. ARSENIC.

in prisms. Fuses in close vessels without change. The

antimony of commerce is extracted from this ore. Dis
solves in boiling muriatic acid, under disengagement of
sulphuretted hydrogen gas. It is therefore sometimes
employed in the preparation of sulphuretted hydrogen
gas. An equivalent sulphuret of antimony can be
prepared by melting antimony with sulphur. The sul
phuret of antimony obtained by precipitation has an
orange colour.
CHLoRIDE OF ANTIMONY.—A soft solid, easily liqui
fied by heat, and giving crystals on cooling. Produced
by throwing powdered antimony into a jar of chlorine
gas, an operation attended by combustion.
BICHLORIDE OF ANTIMONY.—A transparent, volatile,
fuming liquid, produced by passing dry chlorine gas
over heated metallic antimony.

55. TELLURIUM. Te=801.76.

A very rare substance. Compounds. Pages 154, 163.
56. ARSENIC. As = 470-042.
Metallic arsenic forms rinds and crystalline masses
of a steel-grey colour, with a brilliant metallic lustre,
but which lose their lustre and become black on expo
sure to the air. It is brittle, and easy to powder. Its
sp. gr. is 5-7. When heated, it readily volatilises with
out undergoing fusion. The vapour possesses a pecu
liar odour, resembling that of garlic. When heated
in the air, it produces a white smoke, which is arsenious
acid. When more powerfully heated, or when heated
in oxygen gas, it burns with a pale blue flame.
It dissolves in hot nitric acid, producing arsenious
acid. It dissolves in aqua regia, producing arsenic acid.
It is insoluble in muriatic acid. The arseniuret of tin
or of zinc dissolves in muriatic acid, under disengage
ment of arseniuretted hydrogen gas. Arsenic and all
its compounds are poisonous. Arseniuretted hydrogen
gas is peculiarly dangerous. Its smell is deadly.
CoMPOUNDs of ARSEN1c.—See pages 147, 158, 159.
 TESTING FOR ARSENIC. 541

ARSENIous Acid. White Arsenic. As2O3. — A heavy white

wder, which sublimation converts into a white glassy mass.
ery volatile, the vapour not odorous; easily reducible by igni
tion with charcoal, or cyanide of potassium, the vapour giving
the garlic odour peculiar to metallic arsenic; sparingly soluble
in water. A violent poison.—ARSENITEs.-Arsenites of the
alcalies are formed by dissolving white arsenic in hot solutions
of the caustic alcalies.—Detection. Pages 114 and 127.
Precipitates produced by Solutions of Arsenites:—
WHITE,..................... Lime Water in excess. . Chloride of
Arsenite of Lime. Calcium with excess of Ammonia.
ORANGE YELLow,.......Sulphuretted hydrogen with excess of
Sulphuret of Arsenic. Muriatic Acid.
YELLOW.................... Nitrate of Silver with excess of Am
Arsenite of Silver. monia.
GRASS-GREEN,...... ......Sulphate of Copper with excess of
Arsellite of Copper. Ammonia.

Reduction of Arsenious Acid.—l. Put a minute quantity of

arsenious acid at the point, a, of a test tube; and at b, c, put a
long narrow splinter of charcoal, previously dried by ignition in
a closed tube. Heat the tube with a spirit lamp from b to c, and

when the charcoal is red hot, bring the point, a, into the flame.
The vaporised arsenious acid is reduced by the charcoal, and
metallic arsenic is deposited at d.
2. Arsenious acid, or any compound containing arsenic, mixed
with dry carbonate of soda, and heated on a reducing pastile in
the inner blowpipe flame, (pages 129, 377,) produces the garlic
odour of arsenic. This test is very delicate.
ARSENic Acid. As2O3.-Colourless, fusible, glassy mass.
Deliquescent, forming an acid solution. Preparation,-4 parts
of arsenious acid, 1 part of muriatic acid, sp. gr. 1:2, and 12
parts of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1:25, are to be boiled together to dry
ness, and the residue is to be very slightly ignited.—ARSENIATES.
The arsenic acid is tribasic. One atom of it combines with 3
atoms of base, which may be 2 H2O and 1 MO, or l H20 and
2 MO, or 3 MO. These salts correspond to the three varieties of
tribasic phosphates. The arseniates of alcalies are soluble in
water. The others are soluble in nitric and muriatic acid.--
Detection. Pages 114, 129, and 542.
- 2 Z
542 ARSENIC.

The Solutions of Arseniates give the following Precipitates —

Rose-Red,......... Cobalt Salts. ſ The Earths.
Brown-Red, ......Silver. Manganese.
Green, ............. Nickel. White Iron.
Greenish-Blue,...Copper. 2- - - - - - - Lead.
Mercury, peroxide. | Zinc.
{
Yellow, sulphurétted hydrog. U Tin.

ARSENIURETTED HYDROGEN. H6As2. – See page 175. A

colourless gas, possessing the odour of garlic. Exceedingly
poisonous. It is even dangerous to smell it. It is produced by
putting zinc and muriatic acid into a solution containing arseni
ous acid, or any arsenite. The hydrogen gas then produced
combines with arsenic, and produces gaseous arseniuretted
hydrogen. This gas is decomposed when burnt at a jet, or
when passed through a red-hot tube; in both cases depositing
metallic arsenic.
Marsh’s Arsenic Test—The apparatus consists of a bent glass
tube, either with or without bulbs. It is supported in a vertical
position, and provided with a
stopcock and fine brass jet, as
represented in the margin. A
bit of pure zinc is put into the
short branch, and below it a
piece of glass rod, to prevent the
zinc from slipping into the bent
part of the tube. Pure muriatic
acid, not stronger than 100°, is
}. into the apparatus till it rises
alf way up the short branch.
Hydrogen gas , is immediately
produced, which fills the short
branch, and can be made to
sweep the atmospheric air out of
the apparatus. If a solution of arsenic is then poured into the
long branch, the next gas produced will be arseniuretted hydro
É.en.—a). If the jet is partially opened, the gas inflamed, and a
of white porcelain held in the flame, a black mirror of metal
lic arsenic is deposited on the porcelain.—b). If the gas is burnt
in the manner described at page 245, an aqueous solution of
arsenious acid will be collected in the receiver at e, and solid
arsenious acid will be deposited in the bent tube, c.
Liquors containing organic matters may be subjected to this
trial, and the presence of such matters does not hinder the separ
ation of the arsenic; but they occasion an excessive frothing,
which often spoils the experiment. It is prudent, therefore, to
separate arsenic from organic matters before subjecting it to
special tests.
 TESTING FOR ARSENIC. 543

The following apparatus for the separation of arsenic has

been recommended by Professor Clark. A is a sulphuretted
hydrogen bottle, page 106; b a block of wood by which the
cork, the funnel,
and the bent
tube, a, are fixed
together. The V
tube, B, contains
asolution ofcaus
tic potash, C a
solution of ace
tate of lead, and
D a solution of
nitrate of silver. Pure hydrogen gas is prepared by this appa
ratus, and when it is found that the hydrogen gas passes º
B, C, and D, without action, the arsenical liquor is poured in y
the funnel. The great capacity of the bottle permits considerable
frothing without damage. The arseniuretted hydrogen passes
through the V-tubes. In B, it deposits sulphuretted hydrogen
and some other impurities. In C, it produces no action, if the
washing in A is sufficient. In D, it throws down metallic silver,
and the arsenic is retained in solution. When the current of gas
ceases, the liquor in D is mixed with muriatic acid to throw down
the excess of silver, and the liquor is filtered and evaporated to
dryness. This produces pure arsenic acid, which can be sub
jected to its appropriate tests.
Remove the V-tubes from the apparatus last described, and
attach to the bent tube, a, a long tube of hard Bohemian glass,
of one-fifth inch diameter; make the middle of this tube red-hot
by a spirit lamp, and pass the arseniuretted hydrogen through
it. The gas will be decomposed by the red-hot glass, and
metallic arsenic will be deposited a little beyond the flame.
SULPHURETS OF *†† Red Sulphuret, or Realgar.
As2S3, Prepared by melting sulphur with half its weight of white
arsenic. A yellowish-red, transparent, glassy mass, with glanc
ing shelly fracture. Very fusible and volatile.—(b) Yellow Sul
phuret of Arsenic, or Orpiment. As2S3, Prepared by precipitat
ing arsenic from an acidulated solution of arsenious acid, by
means of a current of sulphuretted hydrogen gas. A yellow
powder, fusible, and volatile, (c) Pentasulphuret of Arsenic.
As2S5. Prepared by passing a current of sulphuretted hydrogen
gas into an acidified solution of arsenic acid. A pale yellow pre
. very slowly produced. The precipitation of arsenic by
sulphuretted hydrogen is most effectual at a boiling heat.
Eatraction of Metallic Arsenic from the Sulphuret.—l. The sul
phuret is put at the point, b, of a subliming tube, and above it a
quantity of dry and recently-charred tartrate of lime. . A strong
spirit lamp heat is applied to the latter, and when it is red-hot
 544 ARSENIC,

the point of the tube is brought into the flame, upon which the
sulphuret is decomposed, and metallic arsenic is deposited at a.

()
2. One part of the sulphuret is mixed with 3 parts of cyanide
of potassium and 9 parts of dry carbonate of soda. The mixture
is put into a narrow tube of hard glass, which is placed horizon
tally and connected with a gas bottle, from which a slow current
of dry carbonic acid gas is passed through the tube. Heat is
then applied to the tube below the mixture, whereupon metallic
arsenic sublimes and condenses upon the cold part of the tube.
Reduction of Arsenite and Arseniate of Lime-Mix the dried
arsenite or arseniate with three times its bulk of recently-charred
oxalate of lime, and a little boracic acid. Put the mixture into a

small bulb, a, without soiling the tube, and heat the mixture
gradually to ignition. The metallic arsenic is deposited at b.
The tube must be held aslant, that the water disengaged from
the arsenite may not run down to the red-hot bulb and break it.
The subliming tubes used in the analysis of arsenical substances
must be made of infusible Bohe
mian glass, free from lead. Most (HO g

of the reducing experiments can

be made satisfactorily in a tube no larger than the subjoined
figure (a). The following is Berzelius's form of subliming tube.
 APPARATUS.

IN describing many experiments in the preceding pages, I

have, for brevity sake, spoken only of those parts of the
apparatus that are essential to the particular experiments,
and not referred to certain portions that are common to
many different experiments. I shall therefore describe,
under this head, a few instruments of general use that have
not been delineated in the preceding pages, but which are,
nevertheless, of general utility.
The figure shows some additions to the small lamp
furnace, pages 37, 97, 357, &c.
which are useful when small
quantities of solutions are to be
prepared. a is the cylinder con
taining the spirit lamp; b, a tin
plate sand bath; c, a saltglaze
stoneware foot, open at the bot
tom, with seven holes pierced in
the top; d, d, d, are three short
and wide glass test tubes. An
excellent size for such tubes is
3 inches long by 1 inch in dia
meter; but they may also be
used of the length of 4, 5, and 6
inches. The use of the foot, c,
is to make the tubes stand up
right in the sand, and it answers
the purpose admirably.
I have described at page 51, a method of filtering small
solutions without a funnel. The operation is quickened
when the point of the filter touches the inside of the glass
into which the filtered liquor runs. The following figures
show two methods of carrying this improvement into effect.
3 A
546 APPARATUS.

In a, the filter is placed in a glass filter ring, which ends in a

hook. This hook is put into a perforated cork, which, by

means of a double collar of tinplate, is made to pass up and

down a wooden rod, so as to be adjusted to the height of the
solution glass. In b, the filter is put into a glass ring that
has a flat end. This end is adapted to a slit made in an
upright rod, upon which are placed several false bottoms
that can be easily pushed aside, or brought together, so as
to adjust the position of the filter and glass.
When large quantities
of liquid are to be filtered,
and the precipitate is to
be washed clean, it is
best to use a funnel and
funnel holder, and to
support them in the man
ner shown by the figure
in the margin, where a is
the funnel ring; b, the
sliding thumb screw by
which it is fixed at any
given height on the rod;
d, the filter in the fun
nel, and e, a beaker glass
to receive the filtered so
lution.
 APPARATUS, 547

One of the best forms of glass vessels for receiving filtered

liquors in analytical operations, is the Bohemian beaked
tumbler, a section of which is given
in the margin. This is made of uni
form thickness throughout. The liquor
can be safely boiled in it, and the form
is such that it can be easily cleaned.
Six sizes are useful, capable of contain
ing from 2 to 24 ounces of liquor.
Almost equally useful is the Bohemian
beaker, marked e in the preceding figure.
This vessel may be had of 12 different
sizes, containing from 2 ounces to 100
ounces. When a liquor is bulky, does not
require to be heated, but may require to be
stirred, it is better to collect it in a stout
cylindrical glass jar of the annexed form, or
one like that depicted in page 483.
When small portions of solution are to be evaporated to
dryness in testing processes, it is good to use a porcelain
capsule, of 1 to 2 inches in diameter, with
a º: |...} namely, flat on the out
side, and round on the inside, as shown by Q D
this figure. This is placed on the sand W.2.
bath, and is removed when the liquor is
nearly but not quite dry. The heat retained
in the mass of porcelain then suffices to finish the evaporation,
without carrying the heat to the point of decomposing the
dried salt. The following cut shows the full size of another
porcelain evaporating basin for microchemical experiments.
The handle renders this a very convenient apparatus.

At page 100, I have recommended Clark's conical test glass

as best adapted for mixing solutions with liquid tests. It is
sometimes preferable to use a thin Bohemian test tube,
which has the advantage, that the mixture can, if necessary,
 548 APPARATUS.

be boiled without transference to another vessel. A good size

of test tube is 5 inches long by # inch diameter, or 6 inches

|
by 1 inch diameter. The frame shown in the figure is very
convenient for such vessels. When the tubes are in use,
they stand in the holes, mouth upwards. When out of use,
they are inverted over the stone pegs, which keeps the dust
out of them.
A great variety of salts can be quickly and economically
prepared in small quantities for examination by tests, &c., hy
the following process, which is strongly re
commended to young students. Solutions
of the principal acids, alcalies, and alcaline
carbonates, all of 100° of strength, are first
prepared by the processes described under
the respective articles, setting out with the
normal solution of carbonate of soda, de
scribed at page 456. Solutions of the princi
pal salts should also be prepared of 100°, 50°,
or 10° of strength. But as, of such solutions,
a student will not require so large a quantity
as a decigallon, he should be provided with
a centigallon (100 septems) test mixer of the
form shown in the margin, but graduated
from below upwards. To prepare solutions
of 100° with this instrument, tº part of a
test atom of each salt is required for 100
Septems of solution. That is to say, the num
bers in the table at page 146 require the deci
mal point to be moved one figure to the left.
 APPARATUS. 549

Thus 152} grains of crystallised chloride of barium will give

1 centigallon of solution of 100° at 62°F.—A tube of this
sort, graduated to 250 septems, requires 4 of a
test atom of the salt, and gives 4 fluid ounces
of solution.—When the student has prepared a
series of such solutions, he can proceed to make
a series of other salts by adding, for example, 10
septems of sulphuric acid of 100° to 10 septems
of solution of potash of 100°. The measure is
best effected by a pipette, graduated so as to
deliver 10 septems (1 milligallon) of liquid, inde
pendent of what adheres to the tube. The mix
ture may be made in a capsule of glass or porce
lain, in which the product can be evaporated for
the purpose of crystallisation. No filtration is
necessary, because the liquors are all considered
to be pure. The above mixture yields, if the
operation is correctly performed, neutral sulphate of potash.
Other salts may be thus produced. If 10 septems of muriatic
acid of 100° are put into a test tube, and 64 grains of pure
calcareous spar are added, and the liquor is boiled when the
effervescence ceases, the muriatic acid should be entirel
neutralised, and the liquor contain neutral chloride of .
cium. For 10 septems of acid of 100° is the 100th part of a
test atom, and 64 grains of calc spar is also the 100th part
of a test atom, and these are therefore equivalent quantities.
See page 489. If the resulting solution of chloride of cal
cium is diluted with water to the bulk of 100 septems, then
the solution will be of 10° of strength, and 10 septems of it
should be exactly precipitated by 10 septems of solution of
nitrate of silver of 10° of strength, (page 357). In the same
manner 10 septems of nitric acid of 100° should dissolve the
100th part of a test atom, namely, 4 grains, of metallic cop
per, producing the 100th part of a test atom of nitrate of
copper. The various compounds that may thus be formed
can be evaporated and crystallised, or preserved in the liquid
state, or be tested by the reagents, or be converted by double
decomposition into other salts. Thus 10 septems of chloride
of barium of 100° mixed with 10 septems of sulphate of soda
of 100° will be totally decomposed, producing the 100th part
of a test atom of insoluble sulphate of barytes, and the 100th
part of a test atom of soluble chloride of sodium. By filtra
tion, washing, and evaporation to dryness, both may be
obtained in the solid state and pure. It is quite evident
3A 2
550 APPARATUS.

that a vast number of accurate experiments may thus be

performed with facility and great economy.
The annexed figure shows a box containing a balance.
In the title page of the volume, the balance is represented
on asupport, which
is so contrived that
the balance can be
raised from the
table by turning a
peg placed in the
front. An eight
inch beam, which,
when loaded with
500 grains in each
pan, will turn with
the 20th part of a
grain, will suit the
early experiments of a student; but for quantitative analysis
(the analysis of soils, minerals, &c.) he should have a
10-inch beam, that will carry 800 grains in each pan, and
turn with the 50th part of a grain. Chemists engaged in
researches(organic analysis, &c.) that require great accuracy,
must have a 12 or 16-inch beam, that will carry 1000 or
1200 grains in each pan, and turn with the 100th of a grain.
Fine balances must be used in glass cases, page 132. The
balances must be accompanied by accurate grain weights,
the number of which must depend upon the power and deli
cacy of the balance.
Rather expensive instruments, but, like the balance, very
0. b

e
tº
useful ones, are a crucible, fig.c.; a capsule, fig, a or d, and a
spatula, fig, e, of platinum. The size of these vary according
 APPARATUS. 551

to the kind of experiments for which they are used. They

are only required in analytical researches. For most expe
riments in testing, crucibles of Berlin porcelain, fig, b, or page
454, are sufficient. These also vary much in size. -

For measuring large quantities of liquors, it is convenient

to have a cylindrical measure graduated
into imperial fluid ounces, 16 to the
pound and 20 to the pint. Page 197.
It is sometimes necessary to have
powders of particular degrees of fine
ness, as, for
example, in
the analysis of
soils, where it
is in all cases
advisable, to
subject the
soil to a pre
liminary me
chanical analysis. The figure represents a double sieve of
japanned tinplate, the two parts of which are fastened toge
ther by a bayonet catch. It has a series of three moveable
wire-gauze bottoms. The first contains 10 apertures, the
second 40 apertures, and the third 90 apertures in the lineal
inch. By means of this instrument, fine sand, coarse sand,
grit, and small stones, are easily separable from one another.
The two following instruments are adapted for drying
powders or other substances for analysis. Fig. A is a hollow

pot of porcelain, or salt-glazed stoneware, the top of which

has a cavity that exactly fits a paper filter, being moulded at
an angle of 60°. a is the pot, b is a rivetted tinplate sand
552 APPARATUS,

bath, in which the pot is exposed to heat over a fire or lamp.

Water or lintseed oil is poured into the pot through the
handle, and kept as hot as possible, and the substance to be
dried is put into the funnel-shaped cavity in the top.–Fig.
B is a double box of copper, hard soldered with brass. The
neck in the middle opens into the inner space. The other neck
opens into the space between the two boxes. This space is
filled with water or lintseed oil, the box is placed on a hot
sand bath, and the substance to be dried is placed in the
inner box. When the desiccation is to be effected at a par
ticular temperature, one thermometer is put into the oil and
another into the inner box, both through the necks at the top
of the box. The heat is then raised or diminished, until
the desired temperature is reached.
In many analytical operations, it is necessary to wash a
precipitate with a large quantity of water, and afterwards to
evaporate the wash water till it is brought into a small com
pass. If this happens to be the case where the operator has
not the command of a furnace or sand bath, or of a gas light,
then the most convenient source of heat is an argand oil lamp

pº
= | T
º-HHill
ºdapted to a large lamp furnace, such as is shown in this
figure, a is the oil reservoir, b the wick holder, c the cop
 APPARATUS. 553

per chimney. The lamp is on the solar principle, and the

deflector is shown in dotted lines within the chimney. d is
a tinplate cylinder, 10 inches in height and 8 inches in dia
meter. It is supported over the burner of the lamp by an
iron stool with three legs. The door is to enable the opera
tor to turn the wick of the lamp up or
down. e is a sand bath of thin cast-iron,
lined with china, of this form. f a flask
containing a solution under trial; g an
iron trellis; h an iron triangle, and i a
tinplate ring, any of which can be placed on the cylinder, d,
instead of the sand bath, e, according to the form of the appa
ratus that is to be placed over the lamp. This lamp furnace
forms the complement, as it were, of the argand spirit lamp
described at page 220. The spirit lamp serves to apply a
strong igniting heat for a short time to crucibles and articles
of small bulk. The oil lamp gives a long continued low
heat to large masses of liquor. If the Excise regulations of
this country permitted to chemists the use of alcohol, duty
free, it would not be necessary for them to resort to oil
lamps; but as things are, the oil lamp, with its inconve
niences, can scarcely be avoided, unless the chemist has coal
gas at his command.
The following is a convenient method of employing coal
gas in chemical operations, when the chemist is so fortunate
as to have it to use. For many purposes, it is the most con
venient of all kinds of fuel. e, e, is the pipe that admits the

(l,

& C.
g E. R
554 APPARATUS,

gas to the laboratory table. It may come in any convenient

direction, but the stopcock, f, must be within easy reach.
a is a bronzed brass gas tube, terminating in a ground socket,
and connected with the pipe, e, by the flexible tube, d. b is
a brass collar, furnished with a thumb screw, and fastened to
the laboratory table by three screws at c. By means of the
screw, b, the tube, a, can be raised or lowered any height
within the range of eight inches. g is a thistle burner,
which gives a clear circular flame consisting of 8, 12, or 16
jets, according to the size of the burner, and which is well
adapted for heating a sand bath, for boiling a kettle, or for
evaporating liquors contained in large evaporating dishes;
the largest jet producing a circular flame of about 6 inches
diameter. h is a single jet, to be used when only a small flame
is required. These jets are ground to fit the socket in the
top of the tube, a.—The vessels that are to be heated by the
gas flame may either be supported by the cylinder, d, of the
large lamp furnace, page 552, or by the rings of a retort
stand, page 555.
A powerful heat, free from smoke, can be applied to cru
cibles, by means of a gas flame, as follows:—The tube, a, of
the apparatus described above is put down as low as possible,
the burner, g, is put on, and the cylinder, i, is placed above
it. The upper end of this cylinder is covered with iron wire
gauze of 40 meshes in the lineal inch, which is fastened on
by a collar and screws, k. If the stopcock, f, is then opened,
the gas mixes with the atmospheric air in the cylinder, i, and
the combustible mixture passes through the gauze, k. If it
is set on fire there, it burns with a pale blue scarcely visible
flame, which possesses great power of ignition. A crucible
or any other vessel fixed above it, at about a quarter of an
inch from the trellis, is subjected to the action of an intense
heat. The cylinder, i, is about 8 inches long and 3 inches
in diameter. The power of the apparatus is increased by
placing a second cylinder, about 6inches in height, on the
ºf
at k.
the cylinder, i, supporting it by the projecting knobs
Figure a, page 555, is a ring support or retort stand, adapted
for small operations. It is of iron. It stands firmly upon
three feet. The round table is of such a size as just to hold
the lamp furnace, page 545. It has one ring by which it can
Support a flask or a porcelain basin of about 4 or 5 inches
in diameter; and it has a thin iron wire triangle, which,
 APPARATUS. 555

when fixed on the ring, adapts it to sustain crucibles and

other small articles.—Figure b represents a retort stand,
adapted to sustain large and heavy articles. One such stand
is necessary, both b
in the laboratory
and the lecture
room, when work
ing with large
quantities of liquor.
The foot is of cast
iron, with a flat
upper surface and
three balls at 12

inches distance from one another. The upright rod is of

wrought iron, 3 inches long, and nearly 1 inch in diameter.
Both these are japanned black. The other fittings are of
brass. The socket, d, fixable by the screw, a, serves to sup
port three massive rings, c, of 5,6, and 7 inches diameter. The
socket, b, c, is to support the vice, f, g, h, of which the figure
contains three views. The use of the rings is to support
retorts, basins, and flasks, and the vice is adapted to support
large retorts, tubes, and other articles. The mouth of the
vice is lined with chamois leather.—When crucibles are to
be exposed to an intense heat over a spirit lamp, or gas
flame, they should be supported by a slender apparatus, such
as that figured in page 220, where h is a crucible support,
intended to be fixed to the nutt, e, by the screw, q. A mas
sive ring would carry off too much of the heat.
 556

TABLE OF ACETIC ACID.

Anhydrons Acid. C4H908 = 643-19 Grains.
Hydrated Acid. C4H8O3 + H2O = 755-67 Grains.
Temperature of Solutions 62°F.

Specific Grains of Atoms of Septems

Gravity C4H8O3 C4H8O3 containin
of the in 1000 in 1000 1 atom o
Solution. Septems, Septems. C4H6O3.

1.058286 6142.5 9°55 104.71

1-074428 5.145°5 8:00 125:00
1*056386 2572-8 4'00 250-00
1-044043 1929.6 3:00 333-33
1-031514 1286-4 2:00 500.00
1.016343 643-19 1.00 1000-0
1.0.10314 385-91 •60 1666-7
J-0086.29 321-60 •50 2000-0
1.007057 257-28 •40 2500-0
1-003429 128-64 •20 5000-0
1-001943 64.319 •10 10000
1.000286 6°4319 •01 100000

The strongest acetic acid that I could º at 62°F. had

the strength of 955°. This acid crystallised very readily, but its
composition was 1 (C4H8O3) + 1.178 H2O. I could not prepare
the protohydrate at that temperature. The acid of commerce,
called crystallisable, has commonly a strength of about 900°.
The strong pyroligneous acid prepared for the use of calico -
printers is about 300°. Malt vinegar, No. 24, or proof vinegar,
is 60°. The London vinegar, called No. 16, is 40°. Hence the
acid crystallised at 62°F. is 24 times stronger than London vine
gar, No. 16. -

The strength of acetic acid is easily determined by means of

ammonia of 100°, page 307, in the same manner as nitric acid,
page 291, and muriatic acid, page 356. The colouring matter
of malt vinegar obscures, in some degree, the action of the test
on the litmus, but does not prevent the experiment being accu
rately performed. Acetic acid cannot be tested by solutions of
alcaline carbonates, because free carbonic acid acts upon litmus
the same as dilute acetic acid, and we cannot expel the car
bonic acid by heat without also expelling some acetic acid.
 IND E X.

ACEtic acid, 556 Ammonium, hydrate of oxide, 305

Acid funnel, 287 — oxide, 305
Acid holder, 301 — sulphuret, 328
Acids, tests for, 31 —, - as a test, 330
Adapter, 405 Analysis, 5, 8, 133
Affinity, 22, 26 — of salts, 93
Air, 14, 269 Anhydrite, 485
Air pump, 273 Animal charcoal, 58, 369, 371
Air syringe, 273 — substances, origin, 15
Alabaster, 485 — — discriminated, 57
Albata, 507, 520 Antimony, 20, 538
Alcalies, tests for, 31 — bichloride, 540
Alcalimeters, 265, 459 — chloride, 540
Alcohol, 385, 397 — oxide, 539 º

Aldehyde, 531 —, - detection, 113,539 *

Alteration of vegetable colours by — sulphuret, 539
acids and alcalies, 31 Apparatus, 30, 545
Alum, 36, 45, 494 Aqua regia, 360
Alum baskets, 496 Aqua = water, 144
Alum in bread, detected, 496 Argentum, 144, 523
Alum pyrophorus, 495 Argillaceous earth, 492
Alumina, 40, 492 Argand oil lamp, 552
– detection, 113, 494 Argand spirit lamp, 220
— silicate, 496 Arsenic, 20, 540
– sulphate, 494 — acid, 541
Aluminum, 16, 492 — sulphurets, 543
— chloride, 493 Arsenious acid, 541
Ammonia, 14, 58, 295 Arseniuretted hydrogen, 542
— detection, 470 Arseniates, 14, 129, 541
— bicarbonate, 473 Arsenites, 114, 129, 541
– carbonate, 473 Assay note, 101, 114
– hydrochlorate, 472 Aspirator, 257, 315, 339
— hydrosulphuret, 328 Atmospheric air, 14, 269
— liquid, 103,301 Atom defined, 134
—, - table of 305 Atomic constitution, 193
—, -strength calculated, 306 Atomic measure, method of ex
—, -, - tested, 306 pressing, 170
—, - solution of 100°, 307 – measure of elementary gases,
—, - as a test, 307 166
– muriate, 472 —, - of compound gases, 168
—, - table of solutions, 473 — theory, 132
— nitrate, 470 — weights of elements, 135
— oxalate, 474 —, - of compounds, 146
– phosphate, 471 —, - compared, 188
— sesquicarbonate, 473 Attraction, chemical, 27
— soda-phosphate, 471 Aurum, 144, 531
– sulphate, 471 BALANCE, 550
Ammonium, 305, 467 Balloons, 212, 235
— amalgam,468 Barium, 21, 474
— chloride, 472 — amalgam, 475
—, - table of, 473 — chloride, ll0, 479
3 B
-

558 INDEX.

Barium, chloride, solution of Boron, fluoride, 409

100°, 479 Brass, 520
— peroxide, 476 Brimstone, 17, 308
— silicofluoride, 414 Brine springs, 455
— sulphuret, 477 Bromates, 361
Barytes, 475 Bromic acid, 361
— carbonate, 480 Bromides, 361
– chlorate, 479 Bromine, 360
— chromate, 538 Burette, 459
— detection, 476 CABBAGE liquor, 33, 35, 60
— hydrate, 476 Cadmium, 20, 520
— nitrate, 476 — carbonate, 521
– sulphate, 478 — detection, 113, 121, 521
Barytic water, 476 — oxide, 521
Beaker glass, 547 – sulphate, 521
Beaker tumbler, 547 – sulphuret, 521
Benzoic acid, 49 Calcium, 16,482
Bicarbonates, 387 – chloride, 112, 486
Bismuth, 20, 512 – detection, 484
– chloride, 513 — fluoride, 487
– detection, 113, 121,513 — hydrosulphuret, 485
— magistry, 513 — phosphuret, 486
— nitrate, 513 — sulphuret, 485
— oxide, 513 Calc spar, 488
– sulphuret, 513 Calomel, 523
Black chalks, 373 Camphor, 42
Bladders, how filled with gases, Caoutchouc cement, 406
209, 212 Capsule, porcelain, 38
– how prepared for gases, 235 Capsule, platinum, 550
Blast furnace, 498 Carbon, 14, 368
Bleaching liquor, 36, 350, 487 — sulphuret, 404 -

— powder, 487 Carbonates, detection of, 114, 387

— by chlorine gas, 349 – testing of, 388,443, 458, 489
— by sulphurous acid, 314 Carbonic acid, 218, 379
Blowpipe apparatus :— — solution, 382
— blowpipe, 54 Carbonic oxide, 377
—, -lamp, 54, 121 Carburetted hydrogen:—
— charcoal, 121 light, 394
—, - pastiles, 373 heavy, 396
— spoon, 54 Cartesian devil, 271
— tongs, 119 Centigallon, 197
— wire, brass, 126 Centigallon pipette, 265, 320, 489
—, - platinum, 117 Centigallon, test mixer, 548
– fluxes and tests:— Centigrade test tubes, 265,459, 460
—, - borax, 377, 465 Cerium, 21, 506
—, -- soda, 377, 463 Chalk, 136, 387, 488
—, - microcos.-salt, 376, 472 Chalybeate waters, 502
—, -cyanide of potassium, 447 Charcoal, 51, 368
—, - cobalt solution, 120 Charcoal exists in paper, 56; in
Boiling point, 86 cloth, 369; in sugar, 370; in
Bolognian flask, 466 flesh, 371; in leather, 57; in
Bones, 58 diamond, 368; in carbonates,
Bone ash, 58, 371,486 51; in chalk, 387.
Bone black, 369, 371 **. 373
Charcoal blowpi
Boracic acid, 40; Chemical .. and formulae
Borates, 114,409 explained, 143
Borax, 465 Chemical statics, 132
Boron, 21, 407 Chlorates, 114, 352
— chloride, 409 Chlorides, 114, 358
 INDEX. 559

Chlorides, per centage testing, Confirming tests, 99, 116

357 Constitution of compounds, 136
Chloric acid, 351, 453, 479 – of gases, 164, 172
Chlorine, 16, 344 Cooper's receiver, 297
— detection, 126, 351 Copper, 20, 508
— hydrate, 348 — carbonate, 5ll
— oxides, 35) – chlorides, 511 ~
— solution, 348 — detection, l 13, 509 ~

— hydrocarburet, 400 — nitrate, 62, 510

Chlorochromic acid, 536 — oxide, black, 510
Chlorous acid, 351 —, - analysed, 248
Chromates, 14, 131, 536 —, - red, 510
Chrome alum, 538 — pyrites, 508
Chrome iron ore, 538 – sulphate, 510
Chrome yellow, 538 — sulphuret, 510
Chromic acid, 534, 538 Copperas, see vitriol
— reduction, 535, 538 Corrosive sublimate, 523
Chromium, 20, 533 Course of testing, 93
– chloride, 537 Cotton, test for, 431
– oxides, 533, 534 Crayons, 373
—, - detection, l 13, 124, 534 Crucible, platinum, 550
— oxychloride, 536 — porcelain, 5.11, 550
-- sulphate, 537 Cryophorus, 90
Cinnabar, 522 Crystallisation, 41; by fusion, 309;
Clay iron stone, 498 instantaneous, 9}, 452
Coal gas, 400 Crystals, forms of, 43
Cobalt, 20, 507 Cube, 45
— chloride, 508 - Cubic nitre, 450
– detection, l 13, 507 Cup, platinum, 54, 550
– oxides, 508 — porcelain, 52, 125,547
— nitrate, 508 Cupola furnace, 499
— sulphate, 508 Cuprum, 144, 508
Cochineal, 57 Cy, see cyanogen
Coke, 40ſ) Cyanides, 402
Colours of solutions, 261 Cyanogen, 401
— acted on by acids and alcal. 31 Cyanurets, 402
— experiments with, 59 DALTon’s atomic theory, 133
Combination, 21 Davy's safety lamp, 395
Composition of compounds, 156 Decigallon, 197,261, 264
Compounds, 13 Decimal equivalents, 156
Comparison of the atomic weights Decimal measures, 197, 261
of different authors, 188 Decomposition, 23
Combustion : Decrepitation, 454
— in air, products of, 385 Definite proportions, 155
—, - chlorine gas, 349 Deflagrating spoon, 219
—, - olefiant gas, 398 — jar, 219
—, - oxychloride of chrom. 537 Defiagration, 53, 433,437
Degrees of strength of solutions
—, -iodine, 363, 439 explained, 264
—, -sulphur, 3.2 Deliquescence, 47
— with chlorate of potash, 437 Demonstrations, 9
—, -nitre, 53, 220, 433 Depilatorium, 485
—, -nitric acid, 371 Desiccating tubes, 233,234, 296
—, - phosphorus, 334, 349 — baths, 551
— under water, 337, 343, 435 Detonating balloons, 238, 241
Condensation of vapour, how Diamond, 368
effected, 245, 256, 287, 302, 355 Didymium, 416, 506
Condensation produced by com Differential thermometer, 78
bination, 67, 322 Digestion, 15
560 INDEX.

Dilution, 38 Fulminating powder, 433

Discrimination of vegetable, ani Funnel holder, 98,546
mal, and mineral bodies, 50 Fusible alloys, 513, 518, 520
Dissolving power of different li Fusion, 6
quids, 41 GASES, EXPERIMENTS WITH:—
Distillation, 6; of water, 255; "of Air, 270
nitric acid, 287; of oil of vi Ammonia, 299
triol, 317; of muriatic acid, Arseniuretted hydrogen, 542
355; of sulphuret of carbon, Carbonic acid, 383
405; of potassium, 423 Carbonic oxide, 379
Double decomposition of salts, Carburetted hydrogen
general principle of, 25 — light, 394
Drainer for crystals, 392 — heavy, 398
Dropping tube, 100, 103 Chlorine, 348
Drying of gases, 234 Chlorous acid, 35l
EDUCATION, reasons why it should Cyanogen, 401
embrace the study of chemis Fluoride of boron, 409
try, Fluoride of silicon, 412
Efflorescence, 47, 455 Hydriodic acid, 364
Effervescence, 48, 381 Hydrofluoric acid, 367
Electrical relations of the ele Hydrogen, 234
ments, 23 Iodine, 363
Electrical pistol, 240 Muriatic acid, 353
Electrophorus, 240 Nitric oxide, 282
Elements, 13, 14, 24 Nitrogen, 269
Elementary experiments, 30 Nitrous acid, 284
Emerald, 496 Nitrous oxide, 280
Epsom salts, 491 Oxychloride of chromium, 536
Equations, chemical, 195 Oxygen, 217
Equivalents, 143, 155, 187 Phosphuretted hydrogen, 342
— decimal, 156 Sulphur, 311
Erbium, 416 Sulphuret of carbon, 406
Ether lamp, 226, 531 Sulphuretted hydrogen, 326
Etherine, 396 Rºgºrous acid, 314
Eudiometer, 246 GASES:
Evaporation, 6, 39, 44, 90, 552 — absolute weight of, 178
Evaporating basin, 38,547, 550 — absorbed by charcoal, 371
Expansion by heat, 75 — bulk of, what changes the, 183
Explosive gases, 238, 398 — collected by displacement,when
FERMENTATIon, 380 light, 299; when heavy, 313
Fermented liquors, 380 — constitution of, 164, 174
Ferroprussic acid, 402 — how collected over liquids, 206
Ferrum, 144 — how dried, 234, 296
Filter box, vii, — how purified, 233
Filter rings, 51, 546 — management of 215
Filtration, 6, 51, 98,546 — precautions to be observed in
Fire cloud, 482 experiments with, 215
Fire damp, 394 – receivers for, 208, 297
Fixed air, 379 — solutions of, how prepared, 302
Fluorides, 114, 128, 368 — spec. gravity, 164, 174
Fluorine, 21, 366 — statical relations of, 174
Fluorspar, 487 — volumeter for, new, 181
Form employed in chemical Gas blowpipes, 225, 226, 242, 379
calculations, 193 Gas bottles, for chlorine and other
Fountain of fire, 343 gases, prepared with heat,
Freezing mixtures, 89 345, 413; for hydrogen, 228,
Fresenius and Will's carbonic 229; for sulphuretted hydro
. . acid apparatus, 389 #. !06, 325
Fritsche's apparatus, 389 Gas holders, 210, 214, 225
 INDEX. 561

Gas jars, 209 Ink, indelible, for linen, 372, 527

Gas of marshes, 394 —, - how removed, 446
Gas as fuel, 553 – sympathetic, 68, 508
Galena, 515 Inorganic elements, 20
Gallon measure, 197, 261 Intoxicating gas, 280
Galvanic batteries; single cell, Introduction, 1
254; Young's, 253 Iodates, 364
Galvanic decompositions; water, Iodic acid, 364
25!: salts, 255 Iodides, 114. 127, 362, 365
Galvanometer, 251 Iodine, 19, 361
Gay Lussac's pyrophorus, 406 – bromide, 366
German silver, 507, 520 — chloride, 366
Ginger beer powders, 464 Iridium, 20, 531
Glass, 411, 466 Iron, 19, 497
Glass, to engrave, 367 — black oxide, 500
Glauber's salt, 450 — carbonate, 502
Glucinum, 21, 496 – chlorides, 502
Gold, 21, 531 — cyanide, 503
— chloride, 121, 532 – detection, 113, 500
-- Detection, l 13, 124, 532 – extraction from its ore, 498
Granulation of zinc, 519 — founding, 499
Green firc, 477 — oxalate, 503
Gunpowder, 433 – oxides, 500
Gypsum, 485 — perchloride, 502
HEAT, conductors of, 10. 79 — persulphate, 502
Heat, experiments on, 73 — protochloride, 502
Heavy spar, 478 — protosulphate, 501
Hemmings's jet, 242 — protoxide, 500
Horn silver, 528 — pyrites. 501
Hydrargyrum, 144, 521 – pyrophorus, 503
Hydrobromic acid, 361 – red oxide, 500
Hydriodic acid, 364 — refining, 499
Hydrochlorates, 358 – sulphate, 501
Hydrochloric acid, 352 – sulphuret, 107, 500
Hydrocyanates, 402 — and potassium, cyanide, 503
Hydrocyanic acid, 401 —, - red ditto, 504 -

Hydrofluoric acid, 367 Ironstone smelted, 498

Hydrofluosilicic acid, 412 Isomeric bodies, 340
Hydrogen, 14, 226 Ivory black, 58, 369, 371
Hydrogen lamp, 243 Jars for solutions, 547
Hydrogen, peroxide, 266 KALIUM, 144
Hydrometer, 263 Kerr's gas tube, 390
Hydrosulphocyanic acid, 403 Kitchen salt, 16, 38,43, 454
Hypochlorous acid, 351 LAMP black, 370
Hypophosphorous acid, 338 Lamp furnace, 37, 357, 545, 552
Hyponitric acid, 284 Lamp without flame, 530, 536
Hyponitrites, 284 Lampic acid, 531
Hyponitrous acid, 283 Landscape, changeable, 72
Hyposulphuric acid, 324 Lantanum, 21, 492, 506
Hyposulphurous acid, 324 Latent heat, 88
Ignition, 6 Laughing gas, 280
1mponderable bodies, 73 Lead, 20, 513
Incombustible dresses, 408, 471 — carbonate, 516
Indicating tests, 99; for metals, — chloride, 516
113; for acids, 114 —, - crystallisation, 516
Indigo, bleached, 36 – chromate, 538
Inflammable nitre, 470 — detection, 113, 514
Ink, 501 – iodide, 516 º
— indelible, for paper, 372 — nitrate, 111, 515,
3 B 2
562 INDEX.

Lead, oxides, 515 Measures, graduated, ounces, 551

– subchromate, 538 |— decimal, 197
--i-----s

– sulphate, 140, 515 – imperial liquid, 197

– sulphuret, 515 — septem, 197
Lecture experiments, 12 – milligallon, 197, 549
Levelling block, 459 – centigallon, 548
Leyden jar, 240, 246 — decigallon, 264
Lime, 16, 483 Menstruum, 38
— arsenite, 541, 544 Mercury, 20, 521
— carbonate, 488 – chlorides, 523
—, - how tested, 489 - chromate, 538
— chloride, 487 — cyanide, 523
– detection, 113, 484 – detection, 113, 521
– hydrate, 483 — fulminating, 523
— hypochlorite, 487 – iodides, 523
— milk, 483 — nitrates, 522
– muriate, 486 – oxides, 522
— nitrate, 484 º – sulphate, 523
– oxalate, 490 — trough, 297, 298
— phosphate, 486 Metalloids, 198
-— phosphuret, 344, 486 Metallic elements, 416
– sulphate, 119,485 Metals burnt in gases:—
— water, 483 — in oxygen, 223
Limestone tested, 489 — in chlorine, 349
Linen analysed, 369 — in sulphur, 312
Liquor of flints, 448 Metals classified, 416
Litharge, 515 — general properties, 417
Lithium, 21, 467 — oxides of, 200, 224
Litmus, use as a test, 32,291 — salts of, 417, 548
Liver of sulphur, 435 – sulphurets of, 327
Lucifer matches, 438 — chlorides of, 345
Lunar caustic, 526 Metamorphoses, chemical, 59
MAGNESIA, 490 Metaphosphates, 341
— alba, 492 Micro-chemistry, 11
— ammonia phosphate, 491 Microcosmic salt, 471
— calcined, 491 Milligallon, 197, 549
— carbonate, 492 Mineral bodies, how distinguished
— detection, 113,491 from vegetable and animal, 59
– sulphate, 491 Mineral chameleon, 64, 500
Magnesium, 18, 490 Molybdenum, 20, 533 -

– chloride, 492 Mortar, 38,468

#. 497 -
Mosaic gold, 517
Malachite, 511 Mother liquor, 47
Manganese, 19, 505 Multiple proportions, 155
– carbonate, 506 Muriatic acid, 352
– chloride, 506 — strength of 100°, 357
— detection, 113, 505 — table of, 356
– oxides, 505 — testing of, 356
– sulphate, 505 NATRUM, 144
Manipulation, 31 Nature of chemistry, 1
#. ink, 527 Neutral bodies, 35
— discharged, 446 Neutralization, 34
Marls tested, 489 Nickel, 20, 506
Marsh's arsenic apparatus, 542 – chloride, 507
Massicot, 5.15 — detection, 113, 507
Matches, 336,438 — nitrate, 507
— inextinguishable, 434 — oxides, 507
Measures, graduated : — sulphate, 507
— drachms, 36 Nitrates, 114, 295 -
 INDEX. 563

Nitre, 432 Phosphuretted hydrogen, 342

– cubic, 450] Pig iron, 499
Nitric acid, 284 Pipettes, 31, 100, 103,420, 429
— detection, 114, 295 — centigallon, 265, 320, 489
— oxidising power, 293 — milligallon, 549
– preparation, 286 – Septem, 265
— purity tested, 289 Pitchblende, 512
— strength tested, 291 Plaster of paris, 485
— strength of 100°, 292 Platinum, 20, 529
— table of, 285 – alcaline chlorides, 530
Nitric oxide, 282 — black, 530
Nitrites, 283 – chloride, 118, 530
Nitrogen, 14, 267 — crucible, 550
— chloride, 359 — cup, 54, 550
– iodide, 365 — foil, 54
— protoxide, 279 — fusion of, 226, 242
Nitromuriatic acid, 360 — salts, 529
Nitrous acid, 283 — spoon, 54
Nitrous gas, 282 — spongy, 529
Nitrous oxide, 279 — tongs, 119
Objects of chemistry, 1 -- wire, 117
Octahedron, 45 Plumbum, 144, 513
Oil baths, 551 Pneumatic trough, 207, 211, 298
Oil lamp, 44, 552 Port fire, 434
Olefiant gas, 396 Potash, american, 440, 443
Operations, chemical, 5, 36 – anhydrous, 426
Organised bodies, 15 — bicarbonate, 444
Organic elements, 20 — bichromate, 537
Orpiment, 543 — bisulphate, 435
Osmium, 20, 531 — carbonate, 51,440
Oxalates, 114, 393 —, - solution of 100°, 442
Oxalic acid, 138, 142, 391 —, -table of solutions, 442
Oxides, 199, 224 --, - testing, 441, 443
Oxygen, 14, 199 — caustic, 427
Oxygen blowpipe, 225 — chlorate, 436
Oxyhydrogen blowpipe, 242 – chromate, i.18, 537 -

Oxyhydrogen gas, 238 — cyanate, 447

PALLadium, 20, 531 — detection, 427
Pastiles, blowpipe, 373 — ferrocyanates, 503
Pearl ash, 440 — hydrate, 427
— how tested, 443 — iodate, 440
Pelopium, 416 — manganate, 64, 506
Pepys' gas holder, 214, 225 — nitrate, 50, 432
Percussion powder, 438 —, - testing of, 433
Perchloric acid, 351 — oxalate, 445
Pewter, 5.18 — perchlorate, 438
Pharmacopæia, ll — prussiate, red, 504
Philosophical taper, 237 —, - yellow, 503
Philosophical wool, 519 — silicate, 448
Phosphates, 114, 341 — solution of 100°, 427
Phosphites, 338 — solution tested, 427
Phosphorescence, 487 — subcarbonate, 440
Phosphoric acid, 222, 338 – sulphate, 435
Phosphorised ether, 335 — table of solutions, 426
Phosphorised oil, 335 — yellow prussiate, 503
Phosphorous acid, 338 Potassium, 17, 421
Phosphorus, 18,331 — bromide, 440
– oxide, 337 — chloride, 439
— experiments with, 334 — cyanide, 445
564 INDEX.

Potassium, fluoride, 440 Salts, soluble in water, 95, 260

— hydrosulphuret, 435 — different kinds, 35
– iodide, 439 Saltpetre, 17, 432
— protoxide, 426 Salt springs tested, 455
– silicofluoride, 414 Saturation, 38
– sulphocyanide, 447 Sand bath, 545, 552
— sulphuret, 435 Scale of equivalents, 184
Pouret, 459 Schuster's alcalimeter, 460
Powder of fusion, 434 Sea salt, 454
Powders, how to put into tubes, 96 Seidlitz powders, 464
Precipitant, 41 Selenite, 485
Precipitate, 41 Selenium, 21, 331
Precipitation, 6, 40 Septem measure, 197, 261
Preparation of gases: see methods Septem pipette, 265
of collection, 206; general Septem, 197, 261
management of, 215; forms Shier’s steam washing apparatus,
of gas bottles, 106, 228, 229, 410
325; purification of, 233,280, Sieve, 551
302, 378; drying of 234, 296, Signal lights, 434
353; collecting over mercury, Silica, 409
297, 412; collecting by dis. Silicates, 4}}
placement of air, 299, 313. For Silicic acid, 409
special details, see the gases Silicon, 15, 409, 415
by name. — chloride, 409
Proximate constitution, 141 — fluoride, 412
Prussian blue, 503 Silicofluorides, 412, 414
Prussiates, 402, 503 Silver, 20, 523
Prussic acid, 401 — chloride, 528
Puddling furnace, 499 — chromate, 538
Pyrophorus, 495, 496, 503 — detection, 113, 524
Pyrophosphates, 341 — fulminating, 528
QUALITATIVE analysis, 8, 93 — iodide, 529
Quantitative analysis, 8 — nitrate, 111, 525
Quicksilver, 521 —, - solution of 10°, 526
RADIATION of Heat, 82 — oxide, 525
Reaction, 35 — reduction, 527
Reagents, 8, 41 — sulphate, 528
Receivers, 287 — sulphuret, 528
— for gas, 208 — tree, 527
Realgar, 543 Simple bodies, 13
Red fire, 480 Smalt, 508
Red lead, 515 Smelling salts, 474
Red precipitate, 522 Soap bubbles, explosive, 236, 241
Reflectors, 83 Soda, 449
Research, chemical, 5, 8 — ash, 456
Resin balloons, 241 —, - testing of 458
Respiration, 386 —, - manufacture, 460
Retort holder, 53, 555 — anhydrous, 449
Retorts, 287 —, - solution of 100°, 449
Reverberatory furnace, 461 —, - strength tested, 449
Rhodium, 20, 531 —, - table of solutions, 449
SAFETY lamp, 395 — bicarbonate, 464
Sal ammoniac, 472 — bisulphite, 451
Sal tartari, 441 — borate, 465
Salt of lemons, 445 — carbonate, 455
Salt, kitchen, ió, 454 -, - normal solution, 456
Salts, analysed, 93 -, - solution of 100°, 456
— bottles for, 418 -, - strength tested, 458
— how made, 417, 548 -, - table of solutions, 456
 in DEX. 565

Soda, caustic, 449 Sulphates, 114, 323

– chlorate, 453 Sulphites, 314
– chloride, 455 Sulphur, 17, 308
— detection, 449 — chloride, 359
— hypochlorite, 455 Sulphocyanides, 403
— hyposulphite, 451 Sulphocyanogen, 403
— hydrate, 449 Sulphurets, 114, 312, 327
— muriate, 45.4 — colours of precipitated, 330
— nitrate, 450 — of carbon, 404
— oxalate, 453, 465 Sulphuretted hydrogen, 324
— phosphate, 452 * — preparation, 106,325
— pyrophosphate, 453 — how applied in very small
— sesquicarbonate, 465 quantities, 105
— silicate, 466 — liquid, 326
– sulphate, 450 — table of its action as a test, 329
— sulphite, 451 Sulphuric acid, 316
Soda water, 382 — condensing power, 322
Soda water powders, 464 — detection, 323
Sodium, 16, 448 — direct production, 316
— bromide, 455 — distillation, 317
– chloride, 38, 43,66, 454 — strength of 100°, 320
— fluoride, 455 — table of, 319
– iodide, 455 – testing of, 3.9
— protoxide, 449 Sulphurous acid, 66, 221, 313 ,
– sulphuret, 450 Symbols, 135, 143, 146
Soils, 16 Sympathetic inks, 68, 508
Soluble glass, 448 Synthesis, 5, 133
Solutions, colours of, 261 Syphon, 430
Solution, 6, 36, 96 TANTALUM, 20, 533
Solvent, 38, 259 Tellurium, 20, 540
Sorrel, 17 Terbium, 416
Spatula, platinum, 550 Test atom, 264
Specific gravity bottle, 262 — glass, 31, 100
— gravity of gases, 164 – mixer, 265, 548
—, liquids, 261 — papers, 32
Speiscobalt, 507 — spoon, 50
Spirit lamp, 37 — spoonful, 50
— argand, 220, 553 – tube frame, 548
Spirit of salt, 352 – tube, 41,105,548
Spirting bottle, 431 Test solutions prepared, 264, 419
Spontaneous combustion, 312,343, TEST solutions,TABLEs of THEIR
349, 350, 399, 495 ACTION :
Stannum, 144, 516 — ammonia, l 13,307
Stalactites, 488 —, - carbonate, 474
Steam engine, 85 — ammonium, sulphuret, 330
Stibium, 344, 538 — barium, chloride, 114, 479
Still for water, 256 — barytes, nitrate, 114
Stirrers, 32, 443 — bismuth solutions, 513
Stopcocks, 235, 273 — calcium, chloride, 114
Strontian, 480 — cobalt solutions, 507
— carbonate, 482 – chromates, 536
— detected, 113, 486 — copper solutions, 509
— nitrate, 480 — copper, sulphate, 511
— sulphate, 481 — hydrofluosilicic acid, 415
Strontium, 21, 480 — iron, perchloride, 502
— amalgam, 480 — iron, protosulphate, 502
– chloride, 482 — lead, nitrate, 114, 515
– sulphuret, 481 — lead solutions, 514
Sublimation, 48, 311 — lime, nitrate, 114,485
566 INDEX.

TEST Solutions, continued. Vegetable bodies, discriminated,

– mercury, pernitrate, 522 from animal and mineral, 55
- mercury. protonitrate, 522 Vegetable colours changed by
– mercury solutions, 522 chemical reagents, 31, 61; by
– potash, carbonate, 113,444 voltaic action, 255 -

-, - caustic, 113, 430 -, - bleached, 35, 314, 349

-, - chromate, 536 Ventilation, 385 f
-, - oxalate, 445 Vinegar, 56, 556 t

— — red prussiate, 113, 504 Violet gas, 363

—, - yellow, ditto, 504 Vitriol, blue, 510; green, 50i; red,
– potassium, iodide, 440 508; white, 520
— silver, nitrate, 114, 526 Volatile alcali, 295
— silver solutions, 534 Voltameter, 251
– soda, carbonate, 113,463 . Volume, gaseous, 165
—, - caustic, 113, 450 V-tube, 302 º

– sulphuretted hydrogen, 113,329 WASHING bottle, 431

- zinc solutions, 519 Washing of precipitates by steam
Testing, 40, 93 410; by cold water, 431
— for acids, 110 Water, 14, 244
— for metals, 99 — bath, 241, 357, 551
Tests, 8,41,99, 110 — bottle, 31
— bottles for, jol, 420 — composed, 244
– classified, 99 — decomposed, 250
Thermometer, 76 — distilled, 255
— differential, 78 — how purified from lead, 514
Thorium, 21, 496 - — oxygenated, 266
Tin, 20, 516 — solvent power, 259
— chlorides, 517 — substances insoluble in, 260
— detection, 113, 517 — substances soluble in, 266
— foil, 516 Weighing, 36, 550
— oxides, 517 Weight of gases, 178
— plate, 518 Welding, 497, 539
— salt, 5.18 White arsenic, 541
– sulphurets, 517 White iron, 5iS
Tinning, voltaic, 518 White lead, 516
Titanium, 20, 533 Witherite, 480
Tongs, blowpipe, 54, 119 Wolframium, 144
Tooth powder, 373 Wollaston's scale, 187
Trays for gas jars, 208, 298 YouNg's battery, 253.
Trough, water, 207,211,212, 214 Yttrium, 21, 496
+, − mercury, 225, 297, 298 ZINg, 20, 518
Tube holder, 108 — alloys, 520
- support on sand bath, 545 — blende, 519
Tungsten, 20, 533 — chloride, 520
Turmeric as a test, 34 — cyanide, 520
Twaddell's hydrometer, 263 — detection, 113,519
ULTIMATE constitution, ifi — granulated, 519
Uranium, 20, 512 — oxide, 519
— oxide, 512 — plates divided, 519
— nitrate, 512 — sulphate, 520
U-tube, 302 – sulphuret, 519
VANADIUM, 20, 533 Zincing, voltaic, 518
Vaporisation, 83
Vapours, 166 Zirconium, 21, 496
*

BELL AND BAIN, PRINTERS, GLA'sGow,

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 AIDS TO THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE,
BY PROFESSOR EADIE, LL.D.

se

º I.

In 18mo, Price 3s.6d. Cloth,

A DICTIONARY OF THE HOLY BIBLE,

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A BIBLICAL CYCLOPEDIA;
Or, Dictionary of Eastem Antiquities, Geºgraphy, Matural History, Sacred Amals
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With Maps, and Numerous Pictorial Illustrations.

§ III.

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A NEW AND COMPLETE CONCORDANCE 3

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(ſºn tiſt Basis of QTruben’s.

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