RECORDING SYSYTEM

Recorders provide a permanent visual trace or record of an applied electrical signal. There are many
types of recorders utilizing a variety of techniques for writing purposes. The most elementary
electronic recording system is shown in Fig. 4.1. It consists of three important components. Firstly,
the electrode or the transducer. The electrode picks up the bioelectrical potentials whereas the
transducer converts the physiological signal to be measured into a usable electrical output. The
signal conditioner converts the output of the electrode/transducer into an electrical quantity
suitable for operating the writing system. The writing system provides a visible graphic
representation of the quantity of the physiological variable of interest.

In medical recorders, the signal conditioners usually consist of a preamplifier and the main amplifier.
Both these types of amplifiers must satisfy specific operating requirements such as input impedance,
gain and frequency response characteristics for a faithful reproduction of the input signal.To make
the signal from any transducer compatible with the input signal required for the driver amplifier of
the display or recording system, it is usual to arrange to normalize the electrical signals produced by
each transducer. This is done in the signal conditioner which adjusts its output to a common signal
level, say one volt. The necessary adjustments of gain and frequency response are provided by the
signal conditioners. By this means, it is possible to interchanging conditioners to record any one of
the physical or bioelectric events on the same writing channel. The writing systems which are
available in many forms constitute the key portion of the recording instrument. The commonly used
writing systems are the galvanometer type pen recorder,the inkjet recorder and the potentiometric
recorder.

 Sources of noise in low level recording circuits

The distributed capacitance between the signal conductors and from the signal conductors to the
ground provides a low impedance ac path, resulting in signal contamination from external sources
like power lines and transformers. Similarly, the alternating magnetic flux from the adjacent power
line wires induces a voltage in the signal loop which is proportional to the rate of change of the
disturbing current, the magnitude of the disturbing current and the areas enclosed by the signal
loop. It is inversely proportional to the distance from the disturbing wire to the signal circuit.
Unequal distances of the two signal carrying conductors from the disturbing current wire result in
unequal mutual inductances, which cause the magnetic field to produce a noise voltage across the
amplifier input terminals. Low-level signals are sensitive to external contamination especially in the
case of high source impedance. Referring to Fig. , it is obvious that the currents generated by various
noise signals will flow through the signal source impedance Z and result in an unwanted addition to
the bioelectric or transducer signal.
This may include electromagnetic noise pick-up, electrostatic pick-up and the unwanted current
generated by a ground loop between two separate grounds on the same signal circuit. The
magnitude of these unwanted signals will be directly proportional to the signal source impedance as
shown by the relationship:

Amplifier input signal = E + I Z

where E = normal signal amplitude

Z = impedance of signal source

I = current generated by noise

It is obvious that as the signal source impedance approaches zero, so will the noise input to the
amplifier. In fact, low-source impedance effectively shunts out the noise. To prevent noise pick-up
from electrostatic fields, low-level signal conductors are surrounded by an effective shield. This is
usually a woven metal braid around the signal pair, which is placed under an outside layer of
insulation. A more effective shielding is provided by a special type of signal cable, which has lapped
foil shields, plus a low resistance drain wire instead of the conventional braided wire shield.

The easiest and generally the best way to protect a signal cable against external electromagnetic
disturbances is to twist the circuit conductors closely together to electrically cancel the effect of an
external magnetic field. The shorter the lay of the twist, the greater the noise rejection. Thus,
electromagnetic coupling is reduced by shielding, wire twisting and proper grounding which provide
a balanced signal pair with satisfactory noise rejection characteristics.

 Proper Grounding
Placing more than one ground on a signal circuit produces a ground loop which may generate so
much noise that it may completely obscure the useful signal. The term ‘grounding’ means a
lowimpedance metallic connection to a properly designed ground grid, located in the earth. Stable
grounding is necessary to attain effective shielding of low level circuits to provide a stable reference
for making voltage measurements and to establish a solid base for the rejection of unwanted
common-mode signals. There are generally two grounding systems—a system ground and a signal
ground. All low-level measurements and recording systems should be provided with a stable system
ground to assure that electronic enclosures and chassis operating in an electromagnetic
environment are maintained at zero potential. In most instances, the third copper conductor in all
electrical circuits, which is firmly tied to both electric power ground—the building ground and the
water system, will provide a satisfactory system ground. In the signal ground, on the other hand, it is
necessary to ensure a low noise signal reference to the ground. This ground should be a low
impedance path to wet earth to minimize the introduction of spurious voltages into the signal
circuitry. It is important to note that a signal circuit should be grounded at one point only. Two
separate grounds are seldom at the same absolute voltage. If we connect more than one ground to
the same signal circuit, an unwanted current will flow in the ground loop thus created. This current
combines itself with the useful signal (Fig. 4.12). Also, there is a second ground loop through the
signal cable-shield from the signal source to the amplifier. The current in the shield is coupled to the
signal pair through the distributed capacitance in the signal cable. This current then flows through
the output impedance of the signal source and back to the ground, thus adding a second source of
noise to the useful signal. Either one of these ground loops generates a noise signal that is larger
than a typical millivolt useful signal. Ground loops are eliminated by the floating lower input terminal
of the amplifier. The amplifier enclosure is still solidly grounded to earth-round No. 2 but this will not
create a ground loop, since the amplifier enclosure is insulated from the signal circuit. The ground-
loop through the signal cable is removed by grounding the shield only at the signal source which is
the proper configuration for minimum noise pick-up (Fig. 4.13).

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 PREAMPLIFIER
Modern multi-channel biomedical instruments and recorders are usually modularly designed to
meet both existing and anticipated requirements. Numerous configurations provide for every
measurement need, with or without interchangeable plug-in preamplifiers, which provides a of
signal conditioners for a large selection of analog measurements. Conventional preamplifiers
offer a wide range of input sensitivities to cover virtually all signal sources. Calibrated zero
suppression to expand desired portions of an input signal, and selectable lowpass filtering
facilities to reject noise or unwanted signal components are available on these amplifiers.

For biophysical measurements, the amplifiers employed include: (i) ac/dc universal amplifier
with special features such as capacity neutralization, current injection, low leakage current and
low dc drift suitable for intracellular measurements through high resistance fluid-filled
electrodes or to make extracellular recordings through metal microelectrodes for EMG, EEG,
EOG, etc. (ii) an ECG amplifier with full 12 lead selection and patient isolation (iii) a transducer
amplifier suited for bridge measurements on strain gauges, strain gauge based blood pressure
transducers, force transducers, resistance temperature devices and direct low level dc input
signals and (iv) a dc amplifier used in conjunction with standard thermistor probes for the
accurate measurement of temperature within the range of medical applications.

Various types of amplifiers which are generally used are as follows:

Differential amplifier is one which will reject any common mode signal that appears
simultaneously at both amplifier input terminals and amplifies only the voltage difference that
appears across its input terminals. Most of the amplifiers used for measuring bioelectric signals
are of the differential type.

Ac coupled amplifiers have a limited frequency response and are, therefore, used only for
special medical applications such as electrocardiograph machine. For electrocardiograms, an ac
amplifier with a sensitivity, giving 0.5 mV/cm, and frequency response up to 1 kHz and an input
impedance of 2 to 5 MW is used. For such applications as retinography, EEG and EMG, more
sensitive ac amplifiers are required, giving a chart sensitivity of say 50 mV/cm with a high input
impedance of over 10 MW.

Carrier amplifiers are used with transducers which require an external source of excitation. They
are characterized by high gain, negligible drift, extremely low noise and the ability to operate
with resistive, inductive or capacitive type transducers. They essentially contain a carrier
oscillator, a bridge balance and calibration circuit, a high gain ac amplifier, a phase-sensitive
detector and a dc output amplifier.

DC amplifiers are generally of the negative feedback type and are used for medium gain
applications down to about 1 mV signal levels for full scale. They are not practical for very low
level applications because of dc drift and poor common-mode rejection capabilities. They are
usually employed as pen drive amplifiers in direct writing recorders.

Chopper input dc amplifiers are preferred for low level inputs to instrumentation systems
because of their high sensitivity, negligible drift and excellent common mode rejection
capability. Their high frequency response is limited to about one half of the input chopper
frequency. Chopper stabilized dc amplifiers are used for low level but preferably wideband
applications such as oscilloscopes, tape recorders and light beam oscilloscope recorders. These
are complex amplifiers having three amplifiers incorporated in the module. This includes an ac
amplifier for signals above about 20 Hz, a dc chopper input amplifier for signals from about 20
Hz down to dc plus a wideband feedback stabilized dc amplifier.

DC bridge amplifiers are employed with resistive transducers which require an external source
of excitation. Essentially, the amplifier comprises of a stable dc excitation source, a bridge
balance and calibration unit, a high gain differential dc amplifier and a dc output amplifier. They
can be used as conventional dc high gain amplifiers and offer operating simplicity and high
frequency response. These amplifiers are necessary for transducers used to measure
temperature and blood pressure. The sensitivity in these cases may be 50 mV/cm with an input
impedance of 50 kW.