Children, Youth and Families & Socioeconomic Status: SES Affects Our Society

Abstract
Recent research consistently reports that persistent poverty has more detrimental effects on IQ,
school achievement, and socioemotional functioning than transitory poverty, with children
experiencing both types of poverty generally doing less well than never-poor children. Higher
rates of perinatal complications, reduced access to resources that buffer the negative effects of
perinatal complications, increased exposure to lead, and less home-based cognitive stimulation
partly account for diminished cognitive functioning in poor children. These factors, along with
lower teacher expectancies and poorer academic-readiness skills, also appear to contribute to
lower levels of school achievement among poor children. The link between socioeconomic
disadvantage and children's socioemotional functioning appears to be mediated partly by harsh,
inconsistent parenting and elevated exposure to acute and chronic stressors. The implications of
research findings for practice and policy are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013
APA, all rights reserved)
Children, Youth and Families &

Socioeconomic Status
Socioeconomic status (SES) is often measured as a combination of education, income, and
occupation. It is commonly conceptualized as the social standing or class of an individual or
group. When viewed through a social class lens, privilege, power, and control are emphasized.
Furthermore, an examination of SES as a gradient or continuous variable reveals inequities in
access to and distribution of resources. SES is relevant to all realms of behavioral and social
science, including research, practice, education, and advocacy.
SES Affects our Society

Low SES and its correlates, such as lower education, poverty, and poor health, ultimately affect
our society as a whole, in particular, America’s children. Children in the United States face one
of the highest rates of poverty within the industrialized world. Inequities in wealth distribution,
resource distribution, and quality of life are increasing in the United States and globally. Society
benefits from an increased focus on the foundations of socioeconomic inequities and efforts to
reduce the deep gaps in socioeconomic status in the United States and abroad. Behavioral and
other social science professionals possess the tools necessary to study and identify strategies that
could alleviate these disparities at both individual and societal levels.
SES Impacts the Lives of Children, Youth, and Families

Research indicates that SES is a key factor that influences quality of life for children, youth, and
families (CYF). SES affects human functioning in many ways, including development across the
life span, psychological health, and physical health.
Psychological Health
Increasing evidence supports the link between lower SES and negative psychological health
outcomes, while more positive psychological outcomes such as optimism, self-esteem, and
perceived control have been linked to higher levels of SES for youth.
Lower levels of SES have been found to be associated with the following:
 Higher rates of attempted suicide, cigarette smoking, and engaging in episodic heavy
drinking (Newacheck, Hung, Park, Brindis, & Irwin, 2003)
 Higher levels of emotional and behavioral difficulties, including anxiety, depression,
attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder, and conduct disorders (Weissman et al., 1984;
Goodman, 1999; Spencer et al., 2002)
 Higher levels of aggression (Molnar et al., 2008), hostility, perceived threat, and
perceived discrimination for youth (Chen and Paterson, 2006)
 Higher incidence of Alzheimer’s disease later in life (Fratiglioni, Winblad, & von
Strauss, 2007; Karp et al., 2004; Fratiglioni & Rocca, 2001; Evans et al., 1997)
Physical Health
Research continues to link lower SES to a variety of negative health outcomes at birth and
throughout the life span.
Lower levels of SES have been found to be associated with the following:
 Higher likelihood of being sedentary (Newacheck et al., 2003) and higher body mass
index for adolescents (Chen and Paterson, 2006), possibly because of a lack of
neighborhood resources — such as playgrounds and accessible healthy food options
 Higher physiological markers of chronic stressful experiences for adolescents (Chen and
Paterson, 2006)
 Higher rates of cardiovascular disease for adults (Steptoe & Marmot, 2004; Colhoun,
Hemingway, & Poulter, 1998; Kaplan and Keil, 1993)
Education
Increasing evidence supports the link between SES and educational outcomes.
 Socioeconomic status appears to create achievement gaps for Black and Hispanic
children, when compared to the achievement levels of White children (Duncan and
Magnuson, 2005).
 Children from low-SES families often begin kindergarten with significantly less
linguistic knowledge (Purcell-Gates, McIntyre, & Freppon, 1995).
 Children from less-advantaged homes score at least 10% lower than the national average
on national achievement scores in mathematics and reading (Hochschild, 2003).
 Children in impoverished settings are much more likely to be absent from school
throughout their educational experiences (Zhang, 2003), further increasing the learning
gap between them and their wealthier peers.
 While national high school dropout rates have steadily declined (National Center for
Education Statistics, 2002), dropout rates for children living in poverty have steadily
increased. Between 60 and 70% of students in low-income school districts fail to
graduate from high school (Harris, 2005).
Family Well-Being
Evidence indicates that socioeconomic status affects family stability, including parenting
practices and resulting developmental outcomes for children (Trickett, et al., 1991).
 Poverty is a reliable predictor of child abuse and neglect. Among low-income families,
those with family exposure to substance use exhibit the highest rates of child abuse and
neglect (Ondersma, 2002).
 Lower SES has been linked to domestic crowding, a condition which has negative
consequences for adults and children, including higher psychological stress and poor
health outcomes (Melki et al., 2004).
 All family members living in poverty are more likely to be victims of violence. Racial
and ethnic minorities who are also of lower SES are at an increased risk of victimization
(Pearlman, Zierler, Gjelsvik, & Verhoek-Oftedahl, 2004).
What You Can Do

Include SES in your research, practice, and educational endeavors
 Measure, report, and control for SES in research activities.

 Take SES into consideration in all published work. Report participant characteristics
related to SES.
 Consider how SES affects clients’ presenting problems, ways of coping, and the
development of effective treatment strategies.
 Establish practice opportunities in community settings where students have access to
diverse social class populations.
Get involved
 Support legislation and policies that explore and work to eliminate socioeconomic
disparities. Visit the Office on Government Relations for more details.
 Become an SES Key Contact! As an expert, advocate for SES-related issues.
 Join APA’s SES Network to contribute to and stay abreast of current developments in
SES-related activities
 Visit APA’s Office on Socioeconomic Status (OSES) website.
 Visit APA’s Children, Youth, and Families office website.
References can be found online.

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Abstract

Children, Youth and Families &

SES Affects our Society

SES Impacts the Lives of Children, Youth, and Families

What You Can Do

 Measure, report, and control for SES in research activities.

References can be found online.

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