What is Sampling

Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined

number of observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology
used to sample from a larger population depends on the type of analysis being
performed but may include simple random sampling or systematic sampling.

Difference Between Census and Sampling

Census and sampling are two methods of collecting survey data about the population that are
used by many countries. Census refers to the quantitative research method, in which all the
members of the population are enumerated. On the other hand, the sampling is the widely
used method, in statistical testing, wherein a data set is selected from the large population,
which represents the entire group.
Census implies complete enumeration of the study objects, whereas Sampling connotes
enumeration of the subgroup of elements chosen for participation. These two survey methods
are often contrasted with each other, and so this article makes an attempt to clear
the differences between census and sampling, in detail; Have a look.
Definition of Census
A well-organised procedure of gathering, recording and analysing information regarding the
members of the population is called a census. It is an official and complete count of the
universe, wherein each and every unit of the universe is included in the collection of data. Here
universe implies any region (city or country), a group of people, through which the data can be
acquired.
Under this technique, the enumeration is conducted about the population by considering the
entire population. Hence this method requires huge finance, time and labour for gathering
information. This method is useful, to find out the ratio of male to female, the ratio of literate
to illiterate people, the ratio of people living in urban areas to the people in rural areas.

BASIS FOR
CENSUS SAMPLING
COMPARISON

Meaning A systematic method that Sampling refers to a portion of

collects and records the data the population selected to
about the members of the represent the entire group, in
population is called Census. all its characteristics.

Enumeration Complete Partial

Study of Each and every unit of the Only a handful of units of the
population. population.

Time required It is a time consuming process. It is a fast process.

Cost Expensive method Economical method

Results Reliable and accurate Less reliable and accurate, due

to the margin of error in the
data collected.

Error Not present. Depends on the size of the

population

Appropriate for Population of heterogeneous Population of homogeneous

nature. nature.

Sampling: Definition
Sampling is defined as the process of selecting certain members or a subset of the population
to make statistical inferences from them and to estimate characteristics of the whole
population. Sampling is widely used by researchers in market research so that they do not need
to research the entire population to collect actionable insights. It is also a time-convenient and
a cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any research design.
For example, if a drug manufacturer would like to research the adverse side effects of a drug on
the population of the country, it is close to impossible to be able to conduct a research study
that involves everyone. In this case, the researcher decides a sample of people from
each demographic and then conducts the research on them which gives them an indicative
feedback on the behavior of the drug on the population.

Types of Sampling: Sampling Methods 

Any market research study requires two essential types of sampling. They are:
1. Probability Sampling: Probability sampling s a sampling method that selects random
members of a population by setting a few selection criteria. These selection parameters
allow every member to have the equal opportunities to be a part of various samples.
2. Non-probability Sampling: Non probability sampling method is reliant on a researcher’s
ability to select members at random. This sampling method is not a fixed or pre-defined
 selection process which makes it difficult for all elements of a population to have equal
opportunities to be included in a sample.
In this blog, we discuss the various probability and non-probability sampling methods that can
be implemented in any market research study.

Types of Sampling: Probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which sample from a larger population are
chosen using a method based on the theory of probability. This sampling method considers
every member of the population and forms samples on the basis of a fixed process. For
example, in a population of 1000 members, each of these members will have 1/1000 chances of
being selected to be a part of a sample. It gets rid of bias in the population and gives a fair
chance to all members to be included in the sample.
There are 4 types of probability sampling technique:

 Simple Random Sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in
saving time and resources, is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a trustworthy
method of obtaining information where every single member of a population is chosen
randomly, merely by chance and each individual has the exact same probability of being
chosen to be a part of a sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team
building activities, it is highly likely that they would prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this
case, each of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.

 Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire
population into sections or clusters that represent a population. Clusters are identified
and included in a sample on the basis of defining demographic parameters such as age,
location, sex etc. which makes it extremely easy for a survey creator to derive effective
inference from the feedback.
For example, if the government of the United States wishes to evaluate the number of
immigrants living in the Mainland US, they can divide it into clusters on the basis of states such
as California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii etc. This way of conducting a
survey will be more effective as the results will be organized into states and provides insightful
immigration data.

 Systematic Sampling: Using systematic sampling method, members of a sample are

chosen at regular intervals of a population. It requires selection of a starting point for
the sample and sample size that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of
sampling method has a predefined interval and hence this sampling technique is the
least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population
of 5000. Each element of the population will be numbered from 1-5000 and every 10th
individual will be chosen to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 =
10).

 Stratified Random Sampling: Stratified Random sampling is a method where the

population can be divided into smaller groups, that don’t overlap but represent the
entire population together. While sampling, these groups can be organized and then
draw a sample from each group separately.
For example, a researcher looking to analyze the characteristics of people belonging to different
annual income divisions, will create strata (groups) according to annual family income such as –
Less than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000 etc. and people
belonging to different income groups can be observed to draw conclusions of which income
strata have which characteristics. Marketers can analyze which income groups to target and
which ones to eliminate in order to create a roadmap that would definitely bear fruitful results.

Use of the Probability Sampling Method

There are multiple uses of the probability sampling method. They are:

 Reduce Sample Bias: Using the probability sampling method, the bias in the sample
derived from a population is negligible to non-existent. The selection of the sample
largely depicts the understanding and the inference of the researcher. Probability
sampling leads to higher quality data collection as the population is appropriately
represented by the sample.

 Diverse Population: When the population is large and diverse, it is important to have

adequate representation so that the data is not skewed towards one demographic. For
example, if Square would like to understand the people that could their point-of-sale
devices, a survey conducted from a sample of people across US from different industries
and socio-economic backgrounds, helps.

 Create an Accurate Sample: Probability sampling helps the researchers plan and create
an accurate sample. This helps to obtain well-defined data.

Types of Sampling: Non-probability Sampling Methods

The non-probability method is a sampling method that involves a collection of feedback on the
basis of a researcher or statistician’s sample selection capabilities and not on a fixed selection
process. In most situations, output of a survey conducted with a non-probable sample leads to
skewed results, which may not totally represent the desired target population. But, there are
situations such as the preliminary stages of research or where there are cost constraints for
conducting research, where non-probability sampling will be much more effective than the
other type.
There are 4 types of non-probability sampling which will explain the purpose of this sampling
method in a better manner:

 Convenience sampling: This method is dependent on the ease of access to subjects such

as surveying customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed
as convenience sampling, as it’s carried out on the basis of how easy is it for a
researcher to get in touch with the subjects. Researchers have nearly no authority over
selecting elements of the sample and it’s purely done on the basis of proximity and not
representativeness. This non-probability sampling method is used when there are time
and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In situations where there are resource
limitations such as the initial stages of research, convenience sampling is used.
For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute
leaflets of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the entrance
of the mall and giving out pamphlets randomly.

 Judgmental or Purposive Sampling: In judgemental or purposive sampling, the sample

is formed by the discretion of the judge purely considering the purpose of study along
with the understanding of target audience. Also known as deliberate sampling, the
participants are selected solely on the basis of research requirements and elements who
do not suffice the purpose are kept out of the sample. For instance, when researchers
want to understand the thought process of people who are interested in studying for
their master’s degree. The selection criteria will be: “Are you interested in studying for
Masters in …?” and those who respond with a “No” will be excluded from the sample.

 Snowball sampling: Snowball sampling is a sampling method that is used in studies

which need to be carried out to understand subjects which are difficult to trace. For
example, it will be extremely challenging to survey shelterless people or illegal
immigrants. In such cases, using the snowball theory, researchers can track a few of that
particular category to interview and results will be derived on that basis. This sampling
method is implemented in situations where the topic is highly sensitive and not openly
discussed such as conducting surveys to gather information about HIV Aids. Not many
victims will readily respond to the questions but researchers can contact people they
might know or volunteers associated with the cause to get in touch with the victims and
collect information.

 Quota sampling:  In Quota sampling, selection of members in this sampling technique

happens on basis of a pre-set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed on basis of
specific attributes, the created sample will have the same attributes that are found in
the total population. It is an extremely quick method of collecting samples.
Use of the Non-Probability Sampling Method
There are multiple uses of the non-probability sampling method. They are:

 Create a hypothesis: The non-probability sampling method is used to create a

hypothesis when limited to no prior information is  available. This method helps with
immediate return of data and helps to build a base for any further research.

 Exploratory research: This sampling technique is widely used when researchers aim at

conducting qualitative research, pilot studies or exploratory research.

 Budget and time constraints: The non-probability method when there are budget and
time constraints and some preliminary data has to be collected. Since the survey
design is not rigid, it is easier to pick respondents at random and have them take
the survey or questionnaire.
Difference between Probability Sampling and Non-Probability Sampling Methods
We have looked at the different types of sampling methods above and their subtypes. To
encapsulate the whole discussion though, the major differences between probability sampling
methods and non-probability sampling methods are as below:

Probability Sampling Methods Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling is a sampling Non-probability sampling is a sampling

technique in which sample from a technique in which the researcher selects
Definition larger population are chosen using a samples based on the subjective
method based on the theory of judgment of the researcher rather than
probability. random selection.

Alternatively
Random sampling method. Non-random sampling method
Known as

Population
The population is selected randomly. The population is selected arbitrarily.
selection

Market
The research is conclusive in nature. The research is exploratory in nature.
Research

Sample Since there is method to deciding Since the sampling method is arbitrary,
the sample, the population the population demographics
 demographics is conclusively
representation is almost always skewed.
represented.

Take a longer time to conduct since

This type of sampling method is quick
the research design defines the
Time Taken since neither the sample or selection
selection parameters before the
criteria of the sample is undefined.
market research study begins.

This type of sampling is entirely This type of sampling is entirely biased

Results unbiased and hence the results are and hence the results are biased too
unbiased too and conclusive. rendering the research speculative.

In probability sampling, there is an

underlying hypothesis before the In non-probability sampling, the
Hypothesis study begins and the objective of hypothesis is derived after conducting
this method is to prove the the research study.
hypothesis.

Essentials of sampling
The following are some of the essentials of sampling.
1. The sample selected should be representative of the entire population. This may be achieved
by using the random sampling method.
2. The size of the sample must also be adequate. The larger the size of the sample, the greater
will be the accuracy of the results.
3. All the units of the universe should have the same chance of getting selected. The researcher
should not use his judgement in selecting the sample.
4. There should be no basic difference in the nature of the units of the universe.

Types of sampling
1. Simple random sampling
In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has
an equal chance, or probability, of being selected. One way of obtaining a random sample is to
give each individual in a population a number, and then use a table of random numbers to
decide which individuals to include.1 For example, if you have a sampling frame of 1000
individuals, labelled 0 to 999, use groups of three digits from the random number table to pick
your sample. So, if the first three numbers from the random number table were 094, select the
individual labelled “94”, and so on.
As with all probability sampling methods, simple random sampling allows the sampling error to
be calculated and reduces selection bias. A specific advantage is that it is the most
straightforward method of probability sampling. A disadvantage of simple random sampling is
that you may not select enough individuals with your characteristic of interest, especially if that
characteristic is uncommon. It may also be difficult to define a complete sampling frame and
inconvenient to contact them, especially if different forms of contact are required (email,
phone, post) and your sample units are scattered over a wide geographical area.

  Restricted Random Sampling

There are three methods of restricted random sampling each of which is briefly explained
below:
1) systematic
2) stratified
3) cluster
2. Systematic sampling
Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame. The intervals are chosen
to ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a sample size n from a population of size x, you
should select every x/nth individual for the sample.  For example, if you wanted a sample size of
100 from a population of 1000, select every 1000/100 = 10 th member of the sampling frame.
Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple random sampling, and it is easy to
administer. However, it may also lead to bias, for example if there are underlying patterns in
the order of the individuals in the sampling frame, such that the sampling technique coincides
with the periodicity of the underlying pattern. As a hypothetical example, if a group of students
were being sampled to gain their opinions on college facilities, but the Student Record
Department’s central list of all students was arranged such that the sex of students alternated
between male and female, choosing an even interval (e.g. every 20 th student) would result in a
sample of all males or all females. Whilst in this example the bias is obvious and should be
easily corrected, this may not always be the case.

 
3. Stratified sampling
In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all share a similar
characteristic. It is used when we might reasonably expect the measurement of interest to vary
between the different subgroups, and we want to ensure representation from all the
subgroups. For example, in a study of stroke outcomes, we may stratify the population by sex,
to ensure equal representation of men and women. The study sample is then obtained by
taking equal sample sizes from each stratum. In stratified sampling, it may also be appropriate
to choose non-equal sample sizes from each stratum. For example, in a study of the health
outcomes of nursing staff in a county, if there are three hospitals each with different numbers
of nursing staff (hospital A has 500 nurses, hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000), then it
would be appropriate to choose the sample numbers from each hospital proportionally (e.g. 10
from hospital A, 20 from hospital B and 40 from hospital C). This ensures a more realistic and
accurate estimation of the health outcomes of nurses across the county, whereas simple
random sampling would over-represent nurses from hospitals A and B. The fact that the sample
was stratified should be taken into account at the analysis stage.
Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and representativeness of the results by reducing
sampling bias. However, it requires knowledge of the appropriate characteristics of the
sampling frame (the details of which are not always available), and it can be difficult to decide
which characteristic(s) to stratify by.
 
4.- Multi-stage sampling
Multi-stage sampling (also known as multi-stage cluster sampling) is a more complex form
of cluster sampling which contains two or more stages in sample selection. In simple terms, in
multi-stage sampling large clusters of population are divided into smaller clusters in several
stages in order to make primary data collection more manageable. It has to be acknowledged
that multi-stage sampling is not as effective as true random sampling; however, it addresses
certain disadvantages associated with true random sampling such as being overly expensive
and time-consuming.

Merits and Demerits of Sampling Method of Data Collection

Merits:
1. Economical:
It is economical, because we have not to collect all data. Instead of getting data from 5000
farmers, we get it from 50-100 only.

2. Less Time Consuming:

As no of units is only a fraction of the total universe, time consumed is also a fraction of total
time. Number of units is considerably small, hence the time.

3. Reliable:
If sample is taken judiciously, the results are very reliable and accurate.
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4. Organisational Convenience:
As samples are taken and the number of units is smaller, the better (Trained) enumerators can
be employed by the organisation.

5. More Scientific:
According to Prof R.A. Fisher, “The sample technique has four important advantages over
census technique of data collection. They are Speed, Economy, Adaptability and Scientific
approach.”
It is based on certain laws such as:
(a) Law of Statistical Regularity
(b) Law of Inertia of Large numbers
(c) Law of Persistence
(d) Law of Validity.

6. Detailed Enquiry:
A detailed study can be undertaken in case of the units included in the sample. Size of sample
can be taken according to time and money available with the investigator.

7. Indispensable Method:
If universe is bigger, there remains no option but to proceed for this method. It is specially used
for infinite, hypothetical and perishable universes.

Demerits:
1. Absence of Being Representative:
Methods, such as purposive sampling may not provide a sample, that is representative.
2. Wrong Conclusion:
If the sample is not representative, the results will not be correct. These will lead to the wrong
conclusions.
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3. Small Universe:
Sometimes universe is so small that proper samples cannot be taken not of it. Number of units
are so less.
4. Specialised Knowledge:
It is a scientific method. Therefore, to get a good and representative sample, one should have
special knowledge to get good sample and to perform proper analysis so that reliable result
may be achieved.
5. Inherent defects:
The results which are achieved though the analysis of sampling data may not be accurate as this
method have inherent defects. There is not even a single method of sampling which has no
demerit.
6. Sampling Error:
This method of sampling has many errors.
7. Personal Bias:
As in many cases the investigator, chooses samples, such as convenience method, chances of
personal bias creep in.

Content: Sampling Error Vs Non-Sampling Error

1. Comparison Chart

2. Definition

3. Key Differences

4. Conclusion

Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
SAMPLING ERROR NON-SAMPLING ERROR
COMPARISON

Meaning Sampling error is a type of error, An error occurs due to sources

occurs due to the sample selected other than sampling, while
does not perfectly represents the conducting survey activities is
 BASIS FOR
SAMPLING ERROR NON-SAMPLING ERROR
COMPARISON

population of interest. known as non sampling error.

Cause Deviation between sample mean and Deficiency and analysis of data
population mean

Type Random Random or Non-random

Occurs Only when sample is selected. Both in sample and census.

Sample size Possibility of error reduced with the It has nothing to do with the sample
increase in sample size. size.

Definition of Sampling Error

Sampling Error denotes a statistical error arising out of a certain sample selected being
unrepresentative of the population of interest. In simple terms, it is an error which occurs when
the sample selected does not contain the true characteristics, qualities or figures of the whole
population.
The main reason behind sampling error is that the sampler draws various sampling units from
the same population but, the units may have individual variances. Moreover, they can also arise
out of defective sample design, faulty demarcation of units, wrong choice of statistic,
substitution of sampling unit done by the enumerator for their convenience. Therefore, it is
considered as the deviation between true mean value for the original sample and the
population.
Definition of Non-Sampling Error
Non-Sampling Error is an umbrella term which comprises of all the errors, other than the
sampling error. They arise due to a number of reasons, i.e. error in problem definition,
questionnaire design, approach, coverage, information provided by respondents, data
preparation, collection, tabulation, and analysis.
There are two types of non-sampling error:
  Response Error: Error arising due to inaccurate answers were given by respondents, or
their answer is misinterpreted or recorded wrongly. It consists of researcher error,
respondent error and interviewer error which are further classified as under.
o Researcher Error

 Surrogate Error
 Sampling Error
 Measurement Error
 Data Analysis Error
 Population Definition Error

 Respondent Error
 Inability Error
 Unwillingness Error

 Interviewer Error
 Questioning Error
 Recording Erro
 Respondent Selection Error
 Cheating Error

 Non-Response Error: Error arising due to some respondents who are a part of
the sample do not respond.
Key Differences Between Sampling and Non-Sampling Error
The significant differences between sampling and non-sampling error are mentioned in the
following points:
1. Sampling error is a statistical error happens due to the sample selected does not
perfectly represents the population of interest. Non-sampling error occurs due to
sources other than sampling while conducting survey activities is known as non-
sampling error.
2. Sampling error arises because of the variation between the true mean value for the
sample and the population. On the other hand, the non-sampling error arises because of
deficiency and inappropriate analysis of data.
 3. Non-sampling error can be random or non-random whereas sampling error occurs in the
random sample only.
4. Sample error arises only when the sample is taken as a representative of a
population.As opposed to non-sampling error which arises both in sampling and
complete enumeration.
5. Sampling error is mainly associated with the sample size, i.e. as the sample size
increases the possibility of error decreases. On the contrary, the non-sampling error is
not related to the sample size, so, with the increase in sample size, it won’t be reduced.
Conclusion
To end this discussion, it is true to say that sampling error is one which is completely related to
the sampling design and can be avoided, by expanding the sample size. Conversely, non-
sampling error is a basket that covers all the errors other than the sampling error and so, it
unavoidable by nature as it is not possible to completely remove it.

Central Limit Theorem

Definition: The Central Limit Theorem states that when a large number of simple random
samples are selected from the population and the mean is calculated for each then the
distribution of these sample means will assume the normal probability distribution.
In other words, the sample means will be normally distributed when the mean and standard
deviation of the population is given, and large random samples are selected from the
population, irrespective of whether the population is normal or skewed. Symbolically the
central limit theorem can be explained as:
When ‘n’ number of independent random variables are given each having the same
distribution, then:
X = X1+X2+X3+X4+…. +Xn, the mean and variance of X will be:

   The following three probability

distributions must be understood for the complete understanding of the Sampling Theory:
 Population (Universe) Distribution
  Sample Distribution
 Sampling Distribution
The utility of the central limit theorem is that it requires no condition on distribution patterns of
the random variables and in fact, uses the practical method to compute the approximate
probability values for the arbitrarily distributed random variables.
Also, it helps to determine why the vast number of phenomena shows approximate normal
distribution. Suppose, the population is skewed, the skewness of the sampling distribution is
inversely proportional to the square root of the sample size. Thus, if the sample size is 25,
then the sampling distribution exhibits only one-fifth as much skewness as the population.
Thus, it can be said that the sampling distribution of the sample mean assumes the normal
distribution irrespective of what distribution a population assumes from which the samples are
drawn, and the approximation to the normal distribution is likely to increase with the increase
in the sample size.