Wireless Communication Using Lpda Antenna: Aditya - Satti D.Kushal Reddy E.Dilip Roy
Wireless Communication Using Lpda Antenna: Aditya - Satti D.Kushal Reddy E.Dilip Roy
Wireless Communication Using Lpda Antenna: Aditya - Satti D.Kushal Reddy E.Dilip Roy
ADITYA.SATTI
D.KUSHAL REDDY
E.DILIP ROY
2010
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION USING LPDA ANTENNA
PROJECT REPORT
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
BY
ADITYA.SATTI (06261A0402)
D.KUSHAL REDDY (06261A0415)
E.DILIP ROY (06261A0417)
2010
MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad, A.P.)
CERTIFICATE
ADITYA.SATTI (06261A0402)
D.KUSHAL REDDY (06261A0415)
E.DILIP ROY (06261A0417)
The results embodied in this report have not been submitted to any other
University or Institution for the award of any degree or diploma.
-------------------------- --------------------------
Mrs.D.Rajeshwari Devi
Assistant professor Dr. E.Nagabhooshanam
Faculty Advisor/Liaison Professor & Head
(i)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are highly indebted to our Faculty Liaison Mrs.D.Rajeshwari Devi,
Electronics and Communication Engineering Department, who has given us all the
necessary technical guidance in carrying out this Project.
Finally, we thank all the people who have directly or indirectly help us through
the course of our Project.
We express our deep sense of gratitude to our Guide K.V.Shruti., Hyderabad, for
his valuable guidance and encouragement in carrying out our Project.
ADITYA.SATTI
D.KUSHAL REDDY
E.DILIP ROY
(iii)
ABSTRACT
This antenna design is used where a wide range of frequencies is needed while still
having moderate gain and directionality. It is sometimes used for a
(VHF/UHF) television antenna.
(iv)
LIST OF FIGURES
2.2:Critical Angle 10
2.3:Radiation Pattern 15
25
5.1.2 IC LA4510 29
5.1.3 Oscillator 30
5.1.3 RF Oscillators 32
5.2.1 Transformer 42
(v)
5.3.3 AM Diode Detector 52
5.3.5 Speaker 54
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (iii)
ABSTRACT (iv)
LIST OF FIGURES (v)
CHAPTER :1.INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 AIM OF THE PROJECT 2
1.2 METHODOLOGY 2
1.3 SIGNIFICANCE AND APPLICATIONS 2
1.4 OVERVIEW 2
1.5 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION 3
1.6 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM 5
CHAPTER :2.ANTENNA 8
2.1 FIELD INTENSITY 8
2.2 WAVE ATTENUATION 8
2.2.1 GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION 9
2.2.2 SKY WAVE PROPAGATION 9
2.2.3 SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION 11
2.4 SPECIFICATION OF AN ANTENNA 12
2.4.1 FREQUENCY RANGE 12
2.4.2 BANDWIDTH 12
2.4.3 VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO 13
2.4.4 GAIN AND DIRECTIVITY 14
2.4.5 RADIATION PATTERN 15
2.4.6 BEAM WIDTH AND GAIN OF MAIN LOBE 16
2.4.7 POLARISATION 17
2.4.8 FRONT TO BACK RATIO 17
CHAPTER :3 TYPES OF ANTENNA 18
3.1 MF ANTENNA 18
3.2 HF ANTENNA 18
3.3 VHF ANTENNA 19
3.4 UHF ANTENNA 19
1.2 Methodology:
The process of wireless communication is employed over here using a transmitter
section and a receiver section which have LPDA antennas on each side which are lined in
a matter of line of sight communication.
Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of
enhanced electrical conductors or "wires".The distances involved may be short (a few
meters as in television remote control) or long (thousands or millions of kilometers for
radio communications). When the context is clear, the term is often shortened to
"wireless". Wireless communication is generally considered to be a branch of
telecommunications.
The term "wireless" came into public use to refer to a radio receiver or transceiver
(a dual purpose receiver and transmitter device), establishing its usage in the field of
wireless telegraphy early on; now the term is used to describe modern wireless
connections such as in cellular networks and wireless broadband Internet. It is also used
in a general sense to refer to any type of operation that is implemented without the use of
wires, such as "wireless remote control" or "wireless energy transfer", regardless of the
specific technology (e.g. radio, infrared, ultrasonic) that is used to accomplish the
operation. While Guglielmo Marconi and Karl Ferdinand Braun were awarded the 1909
Nobel Prize for Physics for their contribution to wireless telegraphy, it has only been of
recent years that Nikola Tesla has been formally recognized as the true father and
inventor of radio.
Handheld wireless radios such as this Maritime VHF radio transceiver use
electromagnetic waves to implement a form of wireless communications technology.
Wireless operations permits services, such as long range communications, that are
impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used
in the telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g. radio
transmitters and receivers, remote controls, computer networks, network terminals, etc.)
which use some form of energy (e.g. radio frequency (RF), infrared light, laser light,
visible light, acoustic energy, etc.) to transfer information without the use of wires.[2]
Information is transferred in this manner over both short and long distances.
1.6 ELECTRO MAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The electromagnetic spectrum is a vast band of energy frequencies extending from radio
waves to gamma waves, from the very lowest frequencies to the highest possible
frequencies.
The spectrum is arranged by the frequency of its waves, from the longest, lowest energy
waves to the shortest, highest energy waves.
Our ability to tune in the more exotic electromagnetic waves has grown in recent
decades. For instance, radio is part of the spectrum, and it was only in the 20th Century
that humans began to be able to use any of the electromagnetic spectrum, starting with
radio at the long-wave end of the spectrum.
Today, living and working in the 21st century, we make great use of the electromagnetic
spectrum in all of our vocations and avocations. All of the frequencies we use for
transmitting and receiving energy are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. For instance:
GAMMA RAYS: Gamma rays are beyond X-rays on the electromagnetic spectrum.
Gamma rays that we find arriving at Earth from deep space are the result of violent
cosmic events such as supernovas, other nuclear explosions, and radioactive decay
30 3 300 30 3 30 3 3
km km m m m cm cm mm
| | | | | | | |
ANTENNA
Antennas are electric circuits of a special kind. In the ordinary circuits, the
dimensions of coils, capacitors and connections usually are small compared with the
wavelength that corresponds to the frequency in use. When this is the case, most of the
electromagnetic energy stays in the circuit itself and is either used up in performing
useful work or is converted in to heat. But when the dimensions of wiring or components
become appreciable, compared to the wavelength, some of the energy escapes by
radiation in the form of electromagnetic waves. When the circuit is intentionally
designed so that the major portion of the energy is radiated, such circuit is an
ANTENNA.
Fig2.2:Critical Angle
Critical Angle
As seen above the antenna design for long distance
communication, the first three waves will do no good, they all take off
at angles high enough that they pass through the ionosphere layers
and are lost in the space. As the angle of radiation decreases the
amount of reflection or bending needed for sky wave communication
also decreases. The fourth wave from the left takes off at what is
called “critical angle”, the highest that will return the wave to Earth, at
a given density of ionization in the layer for the frequency under
consideration at a point ‘A’.
Hopping
If the antenna that radiates at a lower angle, as with 5th
wave from the left. This wave gets reflected to Earth far away than
the 4th wave at point B similarly 6th wave with its low radiation angle
comes back to Earth much farther away from point ‘B’ and so on. The
Earth itself acts as a reflector of radio waves. Often radio signals are
re-reflected from Earth at point ‘A’. This signal reflected from point ‘A’
travels through the ionosphere again to point ‘B’ Signal travel from
Earth through the ionosphere and back to the Earth is called ‘hop’.
Skip distance
When the critical angle is less than 90° there will always be a
region around the transmitter where the ionospherically propagated
signal cannot be heard or heard weakly. This area lies between the
outer limit of his ground wave range and the inner edge of energy
return from the Ionosphere. It is called “Skip Zone” or Null Zone and
the distance between the originating site and the beginning of the
ionosphere return is called “Skip Distance”.
Fading
When all the variable factors in long distance communication
are taken into account it is not surprising that signals vary in strength
during almost every contact beyond the local range, which is called
fading. These are mainly the result of changes in the temperatures
and moisture content of the air in the 1st few thousand feet above the
ground on the paths covered by ionospheric modes, the causes of
fading are very complex – constantly changing layer height and
density, random polarization shift, portions of the signal arriving out of
phase and so on.
Some immunity from fading during reception can be had by
using two or more receivers connected to separate antennas,
preferably with different polarizations and combining the receiver
outputs in what is known as “diversity receiving system”.
Reception
The strength of the signal will depend on the transmitter
power. If the far off signals are to be received, it is possible only with
high power transmitter on the other end. If the receiving antenna falls
in a skip zone, there will be no signal. Hence it is necessary to select
frequencies for reception in the full band, depending on the day
frequencies, night frequencies and also the season.
All VHF, UHF and Microwave frequencies antennas propagate in space wave
propagation
b) SPECIFICATIONS OF AN ANTENNA
The frequency range of antenna is very important to calculate its wave length,
based on which an antenna can be designed. The range of frequency in which antenna
either radiates or receives signal by satisfying all other specifications is called as
frequency range.
For example if the Frequency range of an antenna is 300 MHz to 350 MHz then
its wave length is
Mid Frequency= Lower frequency + Higher frequency = 300+350 =650= 325 MHz
2 2 2
2.4.2 Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna is a measure of its ability to radiate or receive
different frequencies. It refers to the frequency range over which operation is satisfactory
and is generally taken between the half power points in the direction of maximum
radiation. The bandwidth is the range of frequencies that the antenna can receive (or
radiate) with a power efficiency of 50% (0.5) or more or a voltage efficiency of 70.7%
(that is –3dB points). The operating frequency range is specified by quoting the upper
and lower frequencies but the bandwidth is often quoted as a relative value. Bandwidth is
commonly expressed in one of the two ways:
1. Percentage.
2. As a function or multiple of an octave.
An octave is a band of frequencies between one frequency can the frequency that is
double or half the first frequency, for instance, we have an octave between 300 MHz. and
600 MHz.). When it is expressed as a percentage bandwidth its center frequency should
be quoted and the percentage expressed in octaves its lower and upper frequency should
be also quoted.
VSWR =
max
1: 1 is the VSWR for an ideal antenna but practically 1:1
VSWR cannot be obtained, up to 2:1 is tolerated.
Similarly the ratio of maximum current to the minimum current is same as
VSWR. Either of the measurements will determine the standing wave ratio, which is
index of the mismatch existing between the transmitter and antenna, through transmission
lines.
Every Antenna used for Transmission or Reception should be properly
matched to the Trans receiver to ensure that maximum power is radiated or received for
efficient Communication. For example if a transmitter is designed to deliver 100 Watts
of RF Power output, the entire Power is to be transmitted fully but due to line losses, only
80 to 90% is transmitted. Hence the antenna efficiency is to be measured before it is
connected to the equipment, which test is otherwise called VSWR Test.
2.4.4 Gain and Directivity
d) All antennas, even simplest types, exhibits directive effects in the intensity of
radiation is not all the same in all directions from the antenna. This property
of radiating more strongly in some directions than in others is called
directivity of antenna. The ratio of the maximum power density, to the
average power density taken over the entire sphere is the directivity of the
antenna.
P
D=
Pav
Where
D = Directivity
P = Power density at its max. point
Pav = average power density
e) Gain of the antenna is closely related to directivity, so the antenna gain is
P = K Pav
G
Where
© Decibel is an excellent practical unit for measuring power ratios. The number of
decibels corresponding to any power ratio is equal to 10 times the common logarithm of
the of the power ratio or dB= 10 log P1/P2
2.4.5 Radiation pattern
A graph showing the actual or relative field intensity at a fixed distance, as a function
of the direction on the Antenna system is called radiation pattern. To understand the
basis of such a graph, please see the figure. RF Power is fed to the antenna under test
and the receiver or detector, which is also called field strength meter, indicates the RF
Signal received. For convenience, the transmitting antenna under test is rotated slowly
to numerous positions. Different types of radiation patterns are appended herewith.
Fig2.3:Radiation Pattern
The radiation of RF signal is the “beam” and the width of the beam differs from
different categories of Antennas.
The beam width of antenna is the angular separation between the two half-power
points on the power density radiation pattern. The beam width of an antenna is
commonly defined in two ways. The most well known definition is the –3dB or half
power beam width but the 10dB beam width is also used especially for antenna with very
narrow beams the –3dB or half power beam width of an antenna is taken as the width in
degrees at the points on either side of the main beam where the radiated level is 3dB
lower than the maximum lobe value. The –10dB value is taken as the width in degrees
on either side of the main beam where the radiated level is 10dB lower than the
maximum lobe value.
The IEEE definition of gain of an antenna relates to the power radiated by the
antenna to that radiated by an isotropic antenna (that radiates equally in all direction) and
is quoted as a linear ratio or in decibels referred to an isotropic (dBi, i : for isotropic)
when we say that the gain of an antenna is for instance, 20dBi (100 in linear terms) we
man that an isotropic antenna would have to radiate 100 times more power to give the
same intensity at the same distance as that particular directional antenna.
The radiation pattern of an antenna shows the power on the bore sight as 0dB and
the power in other directions as negative values. The gain in all directions is plotted
relative to the gain on bore sight. In order to find the absolute gain in any direction the
gain on bore sight must be known. If this gain is expressed in decibels, (as is normally
the case) then this value can simply be added to the gain at any point to give the absolute
gain. The absolute gain on bore sight is measured by comparison with a standard gain
antenna, which functions as a reference antenna whose gain is calculated or measured
with a high degree of accuracy.
2.4.7 Polarization
Polarization or plane of Polarization of a radio wave can be defined by the
direction in which the electrical vector is aligned during the passage of atleast one full
cycle. Polarization refers to the physical orientation of the radiated electro
magnetic waves in space.
Polarization is a characteristic of the antenna that they radiate linearly
(Vertical or horizontal) waves. The direction of an antenna and polarization is alike i.e., if
an antenna is vertical, it will radiates vertically polarized waves and a horizontal antenna,
horizontally polarized waves.
Beside linear polarization antenna may also radiate circularly or elliptical
polarized waves. If two linearly polarized waves are simultaneously produced in the same
direction from the same antenna provided that the two linear polarizations are mutually
perpendicular to each other with a phase difference of 90º, then circularly polarized
waves are produced. Circular polarization may be right handed or left handed depending
upon the sense of rotation i.e., phase difference is positive or negative.
3.1M.F. Antennas:
• ‘T’ ANTENNA
• CONIFAN ANTENNA
HF VERTICAL DIPOLE
H.F. ANTENNA OMNI DIRECTIONAL
• CAGE DIPOLE
• TELEMETRY ANTENNA
3.4U.H.F.Antennas:
• HELICAL ANTENNA
• BICONICAL ANTENNA
• DISCONE ANTENNA
• U H F COLLINEAR ANTENNA
• YAGI ANTENNA
CHAPTER:4
ANTENNA TESTING PROCEDURE
4.1 VSWR
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is the ratio of the maximum voltage to the
minimum voltage in the standing wave on a transmission line. Standing waves are the
result of reflected RF energy. As the VSWR approaches 1.00:1, the reflections on the line
approach zero and maximum power may be transmitted.
Reflections occur any place where the impedance of the transmission line
changes. Inside a typical base station antenna, the impedance of the line is changed at
many places in order to distribute the RF energy across the aperture. Antenna engineers
design matching sections inside the antenna to minimize the overall impedance change
(and associated reflections) relative to a 50 ohm reference. Measuring the VSWR of the
antenna indicates the how closely the antenna is matched to 50 ohms impedance and
indicates the magnitude of the reflected energy.
When base station antennas are tested at the factory, the antenna is placed in front
of a wall of RF absorbing material. The RF absorber dissipates the radiated energy from
the antenna and prevents reflections outside of the antenna from bouncing back into the
measurement. This allows an accurate, repeatable measure of the antenna’s VSWR and
closely simulates the free-space environment the antenna will see in the field.
Since RF absorbing walls are not generally available in the field, care must be
taken to minimize external reflections when measuring the antenna. The best test location
is one that allows a clear, unobstructed view of the sky over a wide horizontal area. Since
most base station antennas have a wide beam in the azimuth direction, care must be given
to minimize obstructions ± 60° on either side of the antenna. Testing the antenna while it
is installed on a tower will typically provide good results. If the antenna is being tested on
the ground, candidate test locations are fields, empty lots, rooftops or loading docks.
Other considerations:
1) Never test base station antennas inside a building (unless you have a wall of RF
absorber!)
2) Do not point the antenna at the ground.
3) Avoid parked cars, fences and buildings within the field of view of the antenna.
4) Do not put any part of your body in front of the antenna while performing a test. Arms
and legs in front of the antenna will cause large reflections!
Do not measure the antenna VSWR through a feed line and/or jumper cable!
Measuring the antenna + feed line and/or jumper cable will provide a measure of the
cascaded mismatch of the various transmission line components. The VSWR measured in
this manner is not an accurate measure of the antenna mismatch by itself. To determine
whether or not the antenna is functioning correctly, the reference plane of the network
analyzer must be connected directly to the antenna under test.
5.1.1 Microphone
A microphone (colloquially called a mic or mike )is an acoustic-to-electric transducer or
sensor that converts soundinto an electrical signal. In 1876, Emile Berliner invented the
first microphone used as a telephone voice transmitter. Microphones are used in many
applications such as telephones, tape recorders, karaoke systems, hearing aids, motion
picture production, live and recorded audio engineering, FRS radios, megaphones, in
radio and television broadcasting and in computers for recording voice, speech
recognition, VoIP, and for non-acoustic purposes such as ultrasonic checking or knock
sensors. Most microphones today use electromagnetic induction (dynamic microphone),
capacitance change (condenser microphone, pictured right), piezoelectric generation, or
light modulation to produce an electrical voltage signal from mechanical vibration.
Condenser Microphones
Condenser means capacitor, an electronic component which stores energy in the form of
an electrostatic field. The term condenser is actually obsolete but has stuck as the name
for this type of microphone, which uses a capacitor to convert acoustical energy into
electrical energy.
A voltage is required across the capacitor for this to work. This voltage is supplied
either by a battery in the mic or by external phantom power.
The preceding stages in such a chain are low power audio amplifiers which perform tasks
like pre-amplification, equalization, tone control,mixing/effects, or audio sources
like record players,CD players, and cassette players. Most audio amplifiers require these
low-level inputs to adhere toline levels.
While the input signal to an audio amplifier may measure only a few hundred microwatts,
its output may be tens, hundreds, or thousands of watts.
IC LA 4510
Applications
• Especially suited for use in 3V micro cassette recorder,
mini cassette recorder, headphone stereo applications.
Features
• Operating supply voltage range : 2 to 5V.
• Low current dissipation (7mA typ/VCC=3V).
• Output power :
240mW typ at VCC=3V, RL=4W, THD=10%
40mW typ at VCC=3V, RL=32W, THD=10%
• Built-in muting circuit to be operated at the time of power switch ON capable of
varying starting time and making pop noise low.
5.1.3 OSCILLATORS
Introduction
Oscillators can generally be categorised as either amplifiers with positive feedback
satisfying the wellknown Barkhausen Criteria (Ref. 1), or as negative resistance circuits
(Ref. 2). Both concepts are illustrated At RF and Microwave frequencies the negative
resistance design technique is generally favoured.
It can be shown that in the presence of excess negative resistance in the small-signal
state, any small perturbation caused, for example, by noise will rapidly build up into a
large signal steady-state resonance given by equation Negative resistors are easily
designed by taking a three terminal active device and applying the correct amount of
feedback to a common port, such that the magnitude of the input reflection coefficient
becomes greater than one. This implies that the real part of the input impedance is
negative . The input of the 2-port negative resistance circuit can now simply be
terminated in the opposite sign reactance to complete the oscillator circuit. Alternatively
high-Q series or parallel resonator circuits can be used to generate higher quality and
therefore lower phase noise oscillators. Over the years several RF oscillator
configurations have become standard. The Colpitts, Hartly and Clapp circuits are
examples of negative resistance oscillators shown here using bipolars as the active
devices. The Pierce circuit is an op-amp with positive feedback, and is widely utilised in
the crystal oscillator industry
Fig 5.1.3 RF oscillators
This paper will now concentrate on a worked example of a Clapp oscillator, using a
varactor tuned ceramic coaxial resonator for voltage control of the output frequency. The
frequency under consideration will be around 1.4 GHz, which is purposely set in-between
the two important GSM mobile phone frequencies. It has been used at Plextek in Satellite
Digital Audio Broadcasting circuits, and in telemetry links for Formula One racing cars.
At these frequencies it is vital to include all stray and parasitic elements early on in the
simulation. For example, any coupling capacitances or mutual inductances affect the
equivalent L and C values in equation, and therefore the final oscillation frequency.
Likewise, any extra parasitic resistance means that more negative resistance needs to be
generated.
5.1.4 Amplitude Modulation
In order that a radio signal can carry audio or other information for broadcasting or for
two way radio communication, it must be modulated or changed in some way. Although
there are a number of ways in which a radio signal may be modulated, one of the easiest,
and one of the first methods to be used was to change its amplitude in line with variations
of the sound.
When a carrier is modulated in any way, further signals are created that carry the actual
modulation information. It is found that when a carrier is amplitude modulated, further
signals are generated above and below the main carrier. To see how this happens, take the
example of a carrier on a frequency of 1 MHz which is modulated by a steady tone of 1
kHz.
The process of modulating a carrier is exactly the same as mixing two signals together,
and as a result both sum and difference frequencies are produced. Therefore when a tone
of 1 kHz is mixed with a carrier of 1 MHz, a "sum" frequency is produced at 1 MHz + 1
kHz, and a difference frequency is produced at 1 MHz - 1 kHz, i.e. 1 kHz above and
below the carrier.
If the steady state tones are replaced with audio like that encountered with speech of
music, these comprise many different frequencies and an audio spectrum with
frequencies over a band of frequencies is seen. When modulated onto the carrier, these
spectra are seen above and below the carrier.
It can be seen that if the top frequency that is modulated onto the carrier is 6 kHz, then
the top spectra will extend to 6 kHz above and below the signal. In other words the
bandwidth occupied by the AM signal is twice the maximum frequency of the signal that
is used to modulated the carrier, i.e. it is twice the bandwidth of the audio signal to be
carried.
There are several advantages of amplitude modulation, and some of these reasons have
meant that it is still in widespread use today:
• It is simple to implement
• it can be demodulated using a circuit consisting of very few components
• AM receivers are very cheap as no specialised components are needed.
5.1.5 Mixers
The function of the mixer is to convert the receiver RF signal to a fixed frequency IF, by
mixing it with a locally-generated oscillator signal (local oscillator, or LO). This means
that selective filtering, most of the system gain, and demodulation can all be carried out
at a convenient fixed frequency. Generally, when two signals are combined in a non-
linear element, other frequencies are generated , the principal of these being the sum and
the difference between the two input frequencies. For example, if frequencies of 100MHz
and 145MHz are mixed, we get 245MHz and 45MHz at the output. Either of these could
be selected as our IF but, for receiver applications, it would be usual to choose 45MHz.
The higher frequency would selected for a transmitter (up-converter).
Usually the IF is at a lower frequency than the input RF, but this is not always the case.
Sometimes, where a very broad tuning range is required (such as in a multi-band HF
communications receiver), it is more convenient to use a first IF of 45MHz, say, and then
to convert down again in a second mixer. Using a high first IF and a second conversion
has other benefits.
The last active device in the transmitter chain is generally known as the Power Amplifier
(PA). This device (sometimes there are two, as in a balanced amplifier) provides the
specified RF output power to the antenna. Transmitter output power is generally defined
as the power fed to a resistive dummy load, connected at the antenna port. Inevitably,
there will be losses between the PA and the antenna port (PIN switch and/or
filter/duplexer). A good design will make every effort to minimize these losses, but the
actual PA power may need to be 2 - 3dB higher than the specified output power. Thus,
for 10 watts output, the PA will need to deliver 16 - 20 watts.
Matching.
In order to deliver maximum power, the device should be ‘matched’ at input and output.
Figures will be given on the manufacturer’s data sheet for input and output impedances
under different operating conditions. As these impedances are usually ‘complex’, it is
important to remember that the matching network must be the conjugate of the given
figures. For example, a transistor having a Zout = 5 + j3 needs a matching impedance of
5 - j3. The output will generally be matched to 50Ω, but sometimes it is convenient to
match the input directly to the driver impedance (non-50Ω). In calculating values for the
matching network, it is helpful to use a Smith Chart and there are several useful
programs that will do this on your PC. Another factor to be considered is the ‘Q’ of the
matching network. For a single frequency, the Q can be quite high, but where a
transmitter is required to operate over a wide band of frequencies, the Q will need to be
low. It is no use matching the transmitter at band center if there is a serious mismatch at
the band extremities. Low Q is achieved by using two or more sections] in the matching
network. The effect of this can easily be seen on the Smith Chart, when Q curves are
displayed. A link to a free program, QuickSmith, is given in section 3.17 (Appendices).
At microwave frequencies, lumped elements (capacitors, inductors) become unsuitable as
tuning] components and are used primarily as chokes and bypasses. Matching, tuning,
and filtering at microwave frequencies are therefore accomplished with distributed
(transmission-line) networks. It is common to use a transmission line between the device
and load to provide the desired matching value. A stub that is a quarter-wavelength at the
frequency of interest and open at one end provides a short circuit. Similarly, a quarter-
wavelength shorted at one end provides an open circuit. Stubs that are less than a quarter-
wavelength behave as capacitors.
Advantages:
1. Guaranteed performance.
2. Extremely compact size.
3. 50Ω input and output impedances (requires no matching).
Disadvantages:
1. May not be available for less popular frequency bands.
2. Single source manufacturer.
3. Can be more expensive than discrete equivalent.
Class A.
When the active device is biased for linear operation, such that any small change at its
input causes a corresponding, but much larger change at its output, this is defined as
Class A operation. When this is applied to a PA stage, a constant high current will flow
through the device. Maximum power will be when the load equals the (resistive) output
impedance of the device and the peak-to-peak output voltage is equal to the supply
voltage (less any volt-drop across the active device itself). Maximum stage efficiency is
25% and, for good linear performance, may drop to 15 - 20%.
Class B.
For Class B operation, the active device is biased at the cut-off point (i.e. zero current)
and conducts only during the positive half of the drive cycle. In the absence of a ‘tank’
circuit, this would act like an inverting half-wave rectifier and only negative-going half
cycles would appear at the output. The tank actually comprises a matching network with
a ‘Q’ value greater than unity and preferably at least 3. To recover the missing half cycle,
the tank allows the supply voltage to over-swing by an amount equal to the negative
excursion, thus effectively doubling the supply voltage and hence the available RF output
voltage. Since the actual dc supply does not change and average current remains the
same, it follows that the PA efficiency is doubled to 50%. Again, this is an ideal figure
and actual efficiency may be more like 45%.
Class AB.
In Class AB, the active device is biased such that it is just turned on, but the quiescent
current is very much lower than for a Class A amplifier. Class AB is not linear, and so
could not be used where a linear amplifier is required. Its benefit is that it is more
efficient than a Class A stage, but requires less drive power than Class B or Class C.
Class C.
Class C operation is very similar to Class B, except that the active device is biased
beyond cut-off. With discrete silicon transistors, this condition is conveniently achieved
by simply omitting any dc bias components and returning the base-drive input to ground
through an RF choke, or resistor. The drive voltage will cause base current to flow during
the positive half-cycle and the rectifying action of the base-emitter junction will result in
a negative dc voltage on the base. The angle of conduction will depend upon the
amplitude of the drive voltage and the value of resistance in the return path. Thus, a large
value of resistor would cause a large negative bias and the transistor would conduct only
on the tips of the drive waveform, resulting in little or no output power. A low value of
resistor will result in a larger angle of conduction and, with zero ohms, the bias will
effectively be the fixed Vb-e of the transistor itself (about 0.7V). For adequate drive to
achieve the desired power output, the conduction angle should not be less than 60°, where
a PA efficiency of up to 70% is possible. See Class C output stages are quite common for
FM (or FSK) transmitters in the VHF and low UHF bands, but as the operating frequency
is increased, it becomes difficult to achieve sufficient gain in
the PA stages without using some forward bias. For very high power transmitters using
vacuum tubes, a fixed negative supply voltage is required to achieve Class C operation.
A Class C power amplifier for the 440MHz band. Self-bias is produced by conduction at
the base-emitter junction and is proportional to the drive current and the value of base
resistor. A 2-stage PA for 1.8GHz, using FET’s and transmission line matching elements.
Note that this is not operating in Class C - these devices require a negative gate voltage
for normal conduction.
Class D.
A Class D PA uses two or more transistors as switches to generate a square-wave at the
transmitter frequency. A series-tuned output filter passes only the fundamental-frequency
component to the load. Current is drawn only through the transistor that is on, resulting in
a theoretical 100% efficiency for an ideal PA. If the switching is sufficiently fast,
efficiency is not degraded by reactance in the load, but practical PA’s suffer from losses
due to saturation, switching speed, and output capacitance. Finite switching speed causes
the transistors to be in their active regions while conducting current. Output capacitances
must be charged and discharged once per RF cycle, resulting in power loss that is
proportional to, and increases directly with frequency. Class D PA’s with power outputs
of 100 W to 1 kW are readily implemented at HF, but are seldom used above lower VHF
because of the losses associated with output capacitance.
Class E.
Class E employs a single transistor operated as a switch. The load voltage waveform is
the result of the sum of the dc and RF currents charging the load shunt capacitance. For
optimum performance, the PA voltage drops to zero and has zero slope just as the
transistor turns on. The result is an ideal efficiency of 100%, elimination of the losses
associated with charging the load capacitance in class D, reduction of switching losses,
and good tolerance of component variation. Variations in load impedance and shunt
susceptance cause the PA to deviate from optimum operation, but the capability
for efficient operation in the presence of significant drain capacitance makes class E
useful in some applications. High-efficiency HF PA’s with power levels to 1 kW can be
implemented using low-cost MOSFETs intended for switching rather than RF use. Class
E has been used for high-efficiency amplification in the PA for a 900MHz CDMA
handset, using a single GaAs-HBT RFIC that includes a single-ended
Class-AB PA.
A typical PA module produces 28 dBm (631 mW) at full output with a typical PA
efficiency of 35 - 50%. A useful (free) design program may be found at
Page 70
Class F.
Class F boosts both efficiency and output by using harmonic resonators in the output
network to shape the waveforms. The voltage waveform includes one or more odd
harmonics and approximates a square wave, while the current includes even harmonics
and approximates a half sine wave. Alternately (inverse class F), the voltage can
approximate a half sine wave and the current a square wave. As the number of harmonics
increases, the theoretical efficiency increases from 50% toward 100% (e.g., 70.7, 81.65,
86.56, 90.45 for two, three, four, and five harmonics, respectively). The required
harmonics arise naturally from non-linearity and saturation in the transistor. While class
F requires a more complex output filter than other PA’s, the impedances at the “virtual
drain” must be correct at only a few specific frequencies. A variety of modes of operation
in-between classes C, E, and F are possible.
5.2 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY
The micro controller IC requires a 5v of regulated voltage for its function.
To provide regulated voltage we go for R.P.S. It consists of a step down transformer and
a rectifier circuit and a filter circuit and a regulator circuit.
Fig5.2.1 Transformer
5.2.2 RECTIFIERS
A d.c. power supply is used for operating all digital circuit applications using BJTS ,or
FETS .The d.c voltage needed are in the range of +18V to -18V.In digital circuits,
particularly for the TTL gates the d.c voltage required is +5V. Use batteries is an solution
for supplying power to the transistor circuits, and in fact in large number of applications
they are .Unfortunately batteries run down very fast when currents are drawn and the
only convenient source of power is the 230V, 50Hz a.c supply mains. The a.c. signal is
stepped down, rectified, filtered and regulated to give the required d.c voltage.
Semiconductor diodes are invariably used as rectifiers for lower voltages in the transistor
circuits.
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
The 230V,50Hz a.c is stepped down to Vac by a transformer and applied to the
diode. The diode conducts only when the voltage at its anode is positive with respect to
the cathode. In most of the analysis to follow we shall neglect the small cut-in voltage of
the diode in comparison to the Vac.the diode current Id ,is positive and unidirectional.
The output voltage Vo across the load resistance will be IdR. The output voltage will
have the same wave shape as the signal for the positive half cycle and zero otherwise.
FULLWAVE RECTIFIER
The circuit arrangement in the half wave rectifier is such that the current is driven into
the load only during half the cycle. By the full wave rectifier arrangement it is possible to
get this difficulty and drives the load during the positive and negative half cycles of the
input. The circuit consists of a centre tapped transformer. During the positive half cycle,
the diode D1 conducts and the current flows into the load R. The voltage at the anode of
diode D2 is negative throughout this positive cycle and hence it is cut-off. During the
negative half cycle the voltage at the anode of D2 is positive and it conducts. Thus, the
load current and hence the voltage across R is unidirectional.
Between the two rectifier circuits, the half wave and the full wave –the voltage output,
ripple factor and the efficiency of the full wave rectifier is superior. An additional factor
in favour of the full wave rectifier circuit is that equal current flows through the two
halves of the centre tapped secondary of the transformer and consequently d.c.
saturation of the core is avoided. Half wave rectifier has the advantage of a simpler
circuitry and lower cost.
The frequency components other than the zero frequency must be reduced by some
method in order to provide a useful d.c. voltage at the output .The simplest technique will
be to filter out the unwanted frequencies by a low pass filter.
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
As the name suggests the four diodes are connected in a bridge and circuit is a full wave
rectifier. One of the main feature of the bridge rectifier is that it does not require a centre
tap transformer. On the positive half of the cycle, the current flows from A through
D1,R,D2 and back to B. During the negative half cycle the current flows from B through
D3,R,D4 and back to A. The current through the load R is in the same direction the two
half cycles. When D1 and D2 conduct the diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and vice-
versa. The peak inverse voltage across the diode is Vm only whereas it was 2Vm in the
full wave rectifier circuit. The current flows all the time in the secondary of the
transformer of the bridge rectifier , as against the full wave rectifier where the current
flows half the time in each winding of the centre-tapped transformer. The current rating
of the transformer in the bridge rectifier is thus about 2/3 of the rating of the same
transformer in the full wave circuit.
Figure 3.2 shows one possible low-pass filter. The circuit is essentially a
frequency-sensitive voltage divider. At high frequencies the output behaves as if it
is shorted while at low frequencies the output appears as an open circuit.
Mathematically we have
High-Pass Filter
5.3 RECEIVER
The charge flows back and forth between the plates of the
capacitor, through the inductor. The energy oscillates back and forth between the
capacitor and the inductor until (if not replenished by power from an external circuit)
internal resistance makes the oscillations die out. Its action, known mathematically as a
harmonic oscillator, is similar to a pendulum swinging back and forth, or water sloshing
back and forth in a tank. For this reason the circuit is also called a tank circuit. The
oscillations are very fast, typically hundreds to billions of times per second.
LC Tuned Circuit
An LC circuit is a resonant circuit or tuned circuit that consists of an inductor,
represented by the letter L, and a capacitor, represented by the letter C. When connected
together, an electric currentcan alternate between them at the circuit's resonant frequency.
LC circuits are used either for generating signals at a particular frequency, or picking out
a signal at a particular frequency from a more complex signal. They are key components
in many applications such as oscillators, filters, tuners and frequency mixers. An LC
Fig5.3.1 LC oscillator
An LC circuit can store electrical energy vibrating at its resonant frequency. A capacitor
stores energy in the electric field between its plates, depending on the voltage across it,
and an inductor stores energy in itsmagnetic field, depending on the current through it.
If a charged capacitor is connected across an inductor, charge will start to flow through
the inductor, building up a magnetic field around it, and reducing the voltage on the
capacitor. Eventually all the charge on the capacitor will be gone and the voltage across it
will reach zero. However, the current will continue, because inductors resist changes in
current, and energy will begin to be extracted from the magnetic field to keep it flowing.
The current will begin to charge the capacitor with a voltage of opposite polarity to its
original charge. When the magnetic field is completely dissipated the current will stop
and the charge will again be stored in the capacitor, with the opposite polarity as before.
Then the cycle will begin again, with the current flowing in the opposite direction
through the inductor.
The charge flows back and forth between the plates of the capacitor,
through the inductor. The energy oscillates back and forth between the capacitor and the
inductor until (if not replenished by power from an external circuit)
internal resistance makes the oscillations die out. Its action, known mathematically as
a harmonic oscillator, is similar to a pendulum swinging back and forth, or water sloshing
back and forth in a tank. For this reason the circuit is also called a tank circuit. The
oscillations are very fast, typically hundreds to billions of times per second.
5.3.2 DETECTOR
Envelope detector
One major technique is known as envelope detection. The simplest form of envelope
detector is the diode detector that consists of a diode connected between the input and
output of the circuit, with a resistor and capacitor in parallel from the output of the circuit
to the ground. If the resistor and capacitor are correctly chosen, the output of this circuit
will approximate a voltage-shifted version of the original signal.
An early form of envelope detector was the cat's whisker, which was used in the crystal
set radio receiver.
Product detector
A product detector is a type of demodulator used for AM and SSB signals. Rather than
converting the envelope of the signal into the decoded waveform like an envelope
detector, the product detector takes the product of the modulated signal and a local
oscillator, hence the name. At least partially, it multiplies the signal by the output of the
local oscillator. This can be accomplished by heterodyning. The received signal is mixed,
in some type of nonlinear device, with a signal from the local oscillator, to produce
an intermediate frequency, referred to as the beat frequency, from which the modulating
signal is detected and recovered.
The preceding stages in such a chain are low power audio amplifiers which perform tasks
like pre-amplification, equalization, tone control,mixing/effects, or audio sources
like record players,CD players, and cassette players. Most audio amplifiers require these
low-level inputs to adhere toline levels.
While the input signal to an audio amplifier may measure only a few hundred microwatts,
its output may be tens, hundreds, or thousands of watts.
5.3.5 SPEAKER
Fig5.3.5 Speaker
Speaker drivers include a diaphragm that moves back and forth to create pressure
waves in the air column in front, and depending on the application, at some angle to the
sides. The diaphragm is typically in the shape of a cone or, less commonly, a ribbon or a
dome, and is usually made of coated or uncoated paper or polypropylene plastic.[1] More
exotic materials are used on some drivers, such as woven fiberglass, carbon
fiber, aluminum, titanium, and a very few use PEI, polyimide, PET film plastic film as
the cone, dome or radiator.
All speaker drivers have a means of electrically inducing back-and-forth motion.
Typically there is a tightly wound coil of insulated wire (known as a voice coil) attached
to the neck of the driver's cone. In a ribbon speaker the voice coil may be printed or
bonded onto a sheet of very thin paper, aluminium, fiberglass or plastic. This cone, dome
or other radiator is mounted to a rigid chassis which supports a permanent magnet in
close proximity to the voice coil. For the sake of efficiency the relatively lightweight
voice coil and cone are the moving parts of the driver, whereas the much heavier magnet
remains stationary. Other typical components are a spider or damper, used as the rear
suspension element, simple terminals or binding posts to connect the audio signal, and
possibly a compliant gasket to seal the joint between the chassis and enclosure.
Drivers are almost universally mounted into a rigid enclosure of wood, plastic, or
occasionally metal. This loudspeaker enclosure or speaker box isolates the acoustic
energy from the front of the cone from that of the the back of the cone. A horn may be
employed to increase efficiency and directionality. A grille, fabric mesh, or other
acoustically neutral screen is generally provided to cosmetically conceal the drivers and
hardware, and to protect the driver from physical damage.
In operation, a signal is delivered to the voice coil by means of electrical wires. The
current creates a magnetic field that causes the diaphragm to be alternately attracted to,
and repelled by, the fixed magnet as the electrical signal varies. The resulting back-and-
forth motion drives the air in front of the diaphragm, resulting in pressure differentials
that travel away as sound waves.
Speaker drivers may be designed to operate within a broad or narrow frequency range.
Small diaphragms are not well suited to moving the large volume of air that is required
for satisfying low frequency response. Conversely, large drivers may have heavy voice
coils and cones that limit their ability to move at very high frequencies. Drivers pressed
beyond their design limits may have high distortion. In a multi-way loudspeaker system,
specialized drivers are provided to produce specific frequency ranges, and the incoming
signal is split by a crossover.[1] Drivers can be sub-categorized into several types: full-
range, tweeters, super tweeters, mid-range drivers, woofers, and subwoofers.
CHAPTER: 6
LOG PERIODIC DIPOLE ARRAY (LPDA)
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The log-periodic dipole array (LPDA) consists of a system of driven elements, but not all
elements in the system are active on a single frequency of operation. Depending upon its
design parameters, the LPDA can be operated over a range of frequencies having a ratio
of 2:1 or higher, and over this range its electrical characteristics — gain, feed-point
impedance, front-to-back ratio, etc. - will remain more or less constant. This is not true of
any Multielement Directive Array Antenna, for either the gain factor or the front-to-back
ratio, or both, deteriorate rapidly as the frequency of operation departs from the design
frequency of the array. And because the antenna designs discussed earlier are based upon
resonant elements, off-resonance operation introduces reactance which causes the SWR
in the feeder system to increase.
The log-periodic array consists of several dipole elements which each are of different
lengths and different relative spacings. A distributive type of feeder system is used to
excite the individual elements. The element lengths and relative spacings, beginning from
the feed point for the array, are seen to increase smoothly in dimension, being greater for
each element than for the previous element in the array. It is this feature upon which the
design of the LPDA is based, and which permits changes in frequency to be made
without greatly affecting the electrical operation. With changes in operating frequency,
there is a smooth transition along the array of the elements which comprise the active
region.
A good LPDA may be designed for any band, hf to uhf, and can be built to meet the
amateur’s requirements at nominal cost: high forward gain, good front-to-back ratio, low
VSWR, and a boom length equivalent to a full sized three-element Yagi. The LPDA
exhibits a relatively low SWR (usually not greater than 2 to 1) over a wide band of
frequencies. A well-designed LPDA can yield a 1.3-to-l SWR over a 1.8-to-1 frequency
range with a typical directivity of 9.5 dB. (Directivity is the ratio of maximum radiation
intensity in the forward direction to the average radiation intensity from the array.
Assuming no resistive losses in the antenna system, 9.5 dB directivity equates to 9.5 dB
gain over an isotropic radiator or approximately 7.4 dB gain over a half-wave dipole.
The design principles of the LPDA are well established. The LPDA is an array of dipoles
connected to a common transmission line fed from the apex of the array.
The transmission line from the feed must alternate which side of the line
connects to which side of the dipole in order to get the correct phasing to create an
antenna that radiates in the direction of the array apex. The transmission line consisted of
two strip conductors, one on
either side of the board. By putting one half of each dipole on either side of the board and
connecting it to the transmission line strip, and alternating which half dipole went on
which
side of the board, the alternating feed connection was obtained.
Fibre-glass board (ε r = 4.5) 1/16 inch thick was used to construct the LPDA.
The required frequency range of the LPDA was 900 MHz to 3GHz which meant that the
dipole elements, based on a free space wavelength could easily be accommodated on the
200 mm by 300 mm printed circuit board used.
Fig 6.2 . LPDA Antenna
The LPDA is frequency independent in that the electrical properties such as the mean
resistance level, RO , characteristic impedance of the feed line ZO , and driving-point
admittanceYO , vary periodically with the logarithm of the frequency. As the frequency f1
is shifted to another frequency f2 within the passband of the antenna, the relationship is f2
= f1 / τ .
fig:6.3
β ar varies with τ and σ
as shown in Fig. 2. Element
lengths which fall
outside β ar play an
insignificant role in the
operation of the array. The
gain of an LPDA is
determined by the design
parameter τ and the relative element spacing constant σ . There exists an optimum
value for σ , σ opt , for each τ in the range 0.8 < τ < 1.0, for which the gain is
maximum; however, the increase in gain achieved by using σ opt and τ near 1.0 (i.e.,
τ = 0.98) is only 3 dB above isotropic (3 dBi) when compared with the minimum σ (σ
min = .05) and τ = 0.9, shown in Fig.
An increase in τ means more elements and optimum σ means a long boom. A high-
gain (8.5
dBi) LPDA can be designed in the hf region with τ = 0.9 and s = .05. The relationship
of τ , σ , and α is as follows:
The method of feeding the antenna is rather simple. As shown in Fig. , a balanced feeder
is required for each element, and all adjacent elements are fed with a 180° phase shift by
alternating element connections. In this section the term antenna feeder is defined as that
line which connects each adjacent element. The feed line is that line between antenna and
transmitter. The characteristic impedance of the antenna feeder, Z O, must be determined
so that the feed-line impedance and type of balun can be determined. The antenna-feeder
impedance Z O depends on the mean radiation resistance level R O (required input
impedance of the active region elements - see Fig. 4) and average characteristic
impedance of a dipole, Z a. ( Z a is a function of element radius a and the resonant element
half length, where h = λ / 4. The relationship is as follows:
where Z O = characteristic impedance of feeder
R O = mean radiation resistance level or required input impedance of the active
region.
Z O = average characteristic impedance of a dipole
From Fig. we can see that R O decreases with increasing τ and increasing α . Also the
VSWR with respect to R O has a minimum value of about 1.1 to 1 at σ optimum, and a
value of 1.8 to 1 at σ = .05. These SWR values are acceptable when using standard
RG8/U 52-ohm and RG-11/U 72-ohm coax for the feed line. However, a one-to-one
VSWR match can be obtained at the transmitter end using a coax-to-coax Transmatch. A
Transmatch will enable the transmitter low-pass filter to see a 52-ohm load on each
frequency within the array passband. The Transmatch also eliminates possible harmonic
radiation caused by the frequency-independent nature of the array.
Once the value of Z O has been determined for each band within the array
passband, the
balun and feed line may be chosen. That is, if Z O = 100 ohms, a good choice for the
balun would be 1 to 1 balanced to unbalanced, and 72-ohm coax feed line. If Z O = 220
ohms, choose a 4 to 1 balun, and 52-ohm coax feed line, and so on. The balun may be
omitted if the array is to be fed with an open-wire feed line.
The terminating impedance, Z t , may be omitted. However, if it is used, it should
have a length no longer than λ max/8. The terminating impedance tends to increase the
front-tobac ratio for the lowest frequency used. For hf-band operation a 6-inch shorting
jumper wire may be used for Z t . When Z t is simply a short-circuit jumper the longest
element behaves as a passive reflector. It also might be noted that one could increase the
frontto- back ratio on the lowest frequency by moving the passive reflector (No. 1
element) a distance of 0.15 to 0.25 λ behind element No. 2, as would be done in the case
of an ordinary Yagi parasitic reflector. This of course would necessitate lengthening the
boom. The front-to-back ratio increases somewhat as the frequency increases. This is
because more of the shorter inside elements form the active region, and the longer
elements become additional reflectors.
6) Determine the boom length, L, number of elements, N, and longest element length, l1.
where λ max = longest free-space wavelength = 984/ƒ1. Examine L, N and l1, and
determine whether or not the array size is acceptable for your needs. If the array is too
large, increase α by 5° and repeat steps 2 through 6.
7) Determine the terminating stub Z t . (Note: For hf arrays short out the longest
element with a 6-inch jumper. For vhf and uhf arrays use: Z t = λ / max 8
8) Once the final values of τ and σ are found, the characteristic impedance of the
feeder Z O must be determined so the type of balun and feed line can be found. Determine
R O from Fig. , Z a from Fig. and σ . Note: Values for h /a, Z a, and Z O must be
determined for each amateur band within the array passband. Choose the element half-
length h nearest h = λ /4, at the center frequency of each amateur band. Once Z O is
found for each band, choose whatever combination of balun and feed line will give the
lowest SWR on each band.
9) Solve for the remaining element lengths
Network analyzers are used mostly at high frequencies; operating frequencies can range
from 9 kHz to 110 GHz.[1] Special types of network analyzers can also cover lower
frequency ranges down to 1 Hz. These network analyzers can be used for example for the
stability analysis of open loops or for the measurement of audio and ultrasonic
components.[2]
The two main types of network analyzers are
7.3 VSWR
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is the ratio of the maximum voltage to the
minimum voltage in the standing wave on a transmission line. Standing waves are the
result of reflected RF energy. As the VSWR approaches 1.00:1, the reflections on the line
approach zero and maximum power may be transmitted.
VSWR READINGS FOR ANTENNA : I
σ = 0.08 τ = 0.82
7.6 APEX ANGLE( α)
Cot (α) = 4σ / (1- τ) = 1.77
α = 29.55˚
7.7 LENGTH OF ANTENNA
The miniaturization concept of such antennas, however, was shown and can be
extended to more wideband and/or directive designs using more radiating elements. Such
designs will have similar levels of cross-polarization (i.e., around 20 dB or less) and
always very low at boresight (around 30 dB or less). Even with these shortcomings, the
miniaturized LPDA performs well and covers the entire frequency range with constant
gain, as expected from a conventional LPDA. This concept enables investigations on
more compact LPDAs. Meander and “zig-zag” dipoles that fill more efficiently the
antenna volume are candidate elements that give potential to this letter. The structure of
the LPDA is planar and relatively simple to fabricate using standard PCB fabrication
techniques. It can also be directly integrated with planar microwave circuits. The design
concept can easily be scaled for applications with different bandwidth and/or directivity
requirements by adjusting the angle and by adding more elements, which shall also
improve the VSWR.
2.Antenna Theory and Design (2nd edition), by W. Stutzman and G. Thiele, Wiley,
1997, ISBN 0-471-02590-9;
3.Antennas (3rd edition), by J. Kraus and R. Marhefka, McGraw-Hill, 2001, ISBN 0-072-
32103-2;
4.Antennenbuch, by Karl Rothammel, publ. Franck'sche Verlagshandlung Stuttgart,
1991, ISBN 3-440-05853-0; other editions (in German)
5.Antennas for portable Devices, Zhi Ning Chen (edited), John Wiley & Sons in March
2007
6.Broadband Planar Antennas: Design and Applications, Zhi Ning Chen and M. Y. W.
Chia, John Wiley & Sons in February 2006
7.The ARRL Antenna Book (15th edition), ARRL, 1988, ISBN 0-87259-207-5