Pascal’s law:

The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.

F1 F2 F A
P1  P2    2  2
A1 A2 F1 A1
The area ratio A2/A1 is called the ideal mechanical advantage of the hydraulic lift.

Lifting of a large weight by a small force by

the application of Pascal’s law.

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Laws of Ideal Gases
Laws of ideal gases are not strictly followed by real gases. Real gases follow this law in a specific
range of high temperature and low pressure. Ideal gas is the one that follows the behavior as
proposed in the kinetic molecular theory of gases.
Boyles Law:
Volume of the gas is inversely proportional to the applied pressure provided the temperature of
the gas is kept constant.

1
V (Temperature being constant)
P
Charles Law:
The volume of the gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature provided the pressure is
kept constant.

V T
Combining the two laws we have,

T
V
P
PV
 constant
T
PV
1 1  P2V2 =constant
T1 T2
For unit mass (1 kg) of a gas we have

PV  RT
And for m kg of a gas we have,

PV  mRT
This equation is called the thermal equation of state. The R is gas constant with the units as
kJ/kg.K. Now,

19
 m
PV  M RT  PV  nR T
M o
where
m
 n  no. of moles
M
and MR  R or R =universal gas constant
o
so,
PV  nR T Thermal equation of state in modern form
o
The value of universal gas constant can be found using the Avogadro’s law. I mole of a gas
at 101.325 kPa and 0 C occupies 22.4135 m³ volume.

The Real Gas Equation

PV  mRT  nRoT
The equation fails to trace the behavior of gases at high pressure and at low temperatures. So the
following equation for the real gases was developed where Z (correction factor) is the
compressibility factor of the gas under observation:

PV = ZnRoT

20
The value of Z is unity for ideal gases and for real gases it can be any value except unity. By
comparing the value of Z for gas with unity we can guess its ideal behavior.

Z  z( Pr ,Tr )
Z is the function of reduced pressure and temperature where;

P T
Pr  and Tr 
Pc Tc

21
P , T are critical pressure and critical temperature of the gas. Charles law and the Boyles law fail
c c
at high pressure and low temperatures. Critical values of the gas are obtained using the generalized
compressibility chart to determine Z.

A Compressibility chart as shown contains different curves at different pressure. The Z factor for
all the gases is approximately the same at the same reduced pressure and reduced temperature.
This is called the principle of corresponding states. The departure from ideal gas behavior is
greatest in the vicinity of critical point.

a
(P  2
)(v  b)  RT (Van Der Waals Equation)
v

a
Where is the pressure correction (loss of pressure due to intermolecular collisions) and b is
v2
the volume correction (volume of voids or empty spaces).

22
C.P#1-Calculate the mass of the 10 m³ of air t 1.2 bar and 150 ˚C. R for air is 0.0287
kJ/kg.K.
The given data is as follows:
V  10 m3 P  1.2 bars  120 kPa T  15C o  288.15 K
R  0.0287 kJ / kgK
we have
PV  mRT
PV (120)(10)
m   145.10 kg
RT (0.0287)(288.15)

C.P#2-A vessel of volume 0.2 m³ contains N2 at 1.013 bar and 15˚C. If 0.2 kg of N2 is now
pumped into the vessel calculate the new pressure when the vessel has returned to its initial
temperature. M (molecular mass) for N2 is 28 kg/mole.

We have
PV  mRT
Where
P1  1.013 bar  101.3 kPa
V1  V2  V  0.2 m3
T2  T1  T  15 C o  288 K
M  28 kg / mole
mass added  m  0.2kg
we have to find
P2  ? initial mass=m1  ? final mass=m2  ?
now
1 1  PV
PV 1  m1 RT1  m1 RT
Ro 8.3143
wheere as we have R  = =0.2969 kJ / kgK
M 28
PV (101.3)(0.2)
Thus m1  1 1   0.237 kg
RT (0.2969)(288.15)

so m2  m1  m  0.237  0.2  0.437 kg

and
2 2  PV
PV 2  m2 RT2  m2 RT
m2 RT (0.437)(0.2696)(288.15)
 P2    187 kPa  1.87 bars
V (0.2)

Engr. Imran Zahid (Lecturer) GCU, Faisalabad

23
C.P#3-In an air compressor the pressure at the inlet and the outlet are 1 bar and 5 bar
respectively. The temperature of the air at the inlet is 15˚C and the volume at the beginning
of the compression is 3 times at the end of the compression. Calculate the temperature at the
outlet and the increase in the specific internal energy ‘u’.

The given data is

Initial Pressure= P1  1 bar  100 kPa
Final Pressure =P2  5 bar  500 kPa
also V1  3V2  V
constant volume specific heat  cv  0.718 kJ / kgC o
we have to find
Final temperature  T2  ? change in specific internal energy  u
now
PV PV (100)(V ) (500)(3V )
1 1
 2 2  
T1 T2 288.15 T2
thus T2  480 K  207 C o
now
U mcv (T2  T1 )
u    0.718(480  288.15)  0.718(191.85)  137.856 kJ / kg
m m

C.P#4-Argon gas at 1 bar and 20 ˚C is contained in the vessel of volume 0.1 m³. Calculate the
mass of the gas in the vessel. If M=40 kg/mole and Ro= 8.3143 kJ/kg K.

The given data is

temperature=T  20 C o  293.15 K volume=V  0.1 m3
pressure  P  1 bar  100 kPa molecular mass  M  40 kg / mole
universal gas constant  Ro  8.3124 kj / moleK
8.3124
gas costant R  207.86 kJ / kgK
40
now we have the equation
PV (100)(0.1)
PV  mRT  m =  0.164 kg
RT (207.86)(293.15)

Engr. Imran Zahid (Lecturer) GCU, Faisalabad

24
C.P#5-0.1 kg of a certain perfect gas occupies a volume of 0.26 m³ at a pressure of 7 bars and
a temperature of 131˚C. Calculate the M of the gas when the gas is compressed then its
volume becomes 0.02 m3 and at the temperature of 100 ˚C. Also calculate the final pressure.

The data provided to us is as follows:

Initial volume  V1  0.26 m3
Final volume  V2  0.02 m3
Initial Pressure  P1  7 bars  700 kPa
Initial temperature  T1  131 C o  404.15 K
Final temperature  T2  100 C o  373.15 K
Mass of the gas  m  0.1 kg
Universal gas costant  Ro  8.3143 kJ / kgK
we have to calculate the
Final Pressure  P2  ?
Molecular mass  M  ?
This can be done finding the gas constant R we proceed as follows:
PV (700)(0.26)
1 1  mRT1  R   4.50 kJ / kgK
1 1
PV
mT1 (0.1)(404.15)
Thus
Ro 8.3143
M   1.84 kg / mole
R 4.50
also we have the relation
PV PV
1 1
 2 2
T1 T2
PV T (700)(0.26)(373.15)
 P2  1 1
 2   8402 kPa  84.02 bars
T1 V2 (404.15)(0.02)

C.P#6-A can contains CO2 at 5 bar and 30˚C. A leak occurs in the tank which remains
undetected until the pressure has dropped to 2.6 bars? If the temperature at that point is
20˚C. compute the mass of the CO2 that has leaked out. If the original mass was 25 kg.

25
The data provided to us is as follows:
Initial volume  Final volume  V1  V2  V
Initial Pressure  P1  5 bars  500 kPa
Final Pressure  P2  3.6 bars  360 kPa
Initial temperature  T1  30 C o  303.15 K
Final temperature  T2  20 C o  293.15 K
Initial mass  m1  25 kg
Universal gas costant  Ro  8.3143 kJ / kgK
we have to calculate the
Final mass  m2  ?
This can be done finding the change in the mass m we proceed as follows:
PV PV
1 1  m1 RT1 2 2  m2 RT2  R   2 2
1 1
PV PV
m1T1 m2T2
PV PV
1 1
 2 2 as the volume of the vessel s constant V1  V2  V
m1T1 m2T2
P1 P P m T (360)(25)(303.15)
 2  m2  2 1 1   18.61 kg
m1T1 m2T2 PT
1 2 (500)(293.15)

C.P#6-A gas contained in a cylinder is expanded from a volume of 100 cm³ to a volume of
800 cm³ by the motion of a sliding piston. The equation for the pressure is P=160/V – V/12
bar. Calculate the work done during the expansion.

26