Timber is a type of wood which has been processed into beams and planks.

It is also
known as “lumber” in US and Canada. Basically, timber or Lumber is a wood or firewood
of growing trees. Any wood capable of yielding a minimum dimensional size can be
termed as a timber or lumber. It is a stage in the process of wood production. Timbers
are used for the structural purpose. Those woods which are adapted for building
purposes are timbers. Finished timber is supplied in standard sizes for the industry.
Timber is used for building houses and making furniture.

Characteristics of timber
The quality of timber must be ensured before using it for a purpose. The quality can be
ensured by investigating the properties of timber. Here we have discussed both
physical and mechanical properties of timber which affects timber quality.
Followings are the physical and mechanical properties of timber:

 Colour
 Appearance
 Hardness
 Specific Gravity
 Moisture Content
 Grain
 Shrinkage and Swelling
 Strength
 Density
 Toughness
 Elasticity
 Warping
 Durability
 Defect less
 Workability
 Soundness
 Free of abrasion

These properties are briefly discussed below:

Colour
Color is a uniform property by which most trees are characterized as they show
variation from tree to tree. Light color indicates weak timber. For example, freshly cut
teak, Deodar, and Walnut have a golden yellow, whitish and dark brown shades
respectively.

Appearance
Smell is a good property as timbers for few plants as they can be identified by their
characteristic aroma. Fresh cut timbers have a good smell. For example resinous smell
from pine.
Hardness
For the resistance of any kind of damage, hardness is an obvious property.

Moisture Content
Timbers are hygroscopic and gain water from nature (atmosphere). The absorption of
water or dehydration depends on atmospheric humidity. If timbers moisture content is
high that means the timber quality is low. Water content is the risk of fungal attack.

Grain
Several types of grain arrangement found. On the grain structure quality of timber
varies. Grains remain closely related.

1. Straight grain: Arrangement of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) is important

which grow parallel to the length of the timber that is termed as straight grain.
2. Coarse grain: vascular tissue and fibre arranged broadly and widely.
3. Interlocked grain: Instead of parallel arrangement twisted, a spiral arrangement
may be found.

Shrinkage and Swelling

The percentage of shrinkage and swelling varies from plant to plant. Some give higher
percentage after drying. Shrinkage starts when cell walls of timber start to release
water. In moisture atmosphere timber swells when cell walls absorb water. Good quality
timbers swell less. Timbers having thicker wall swell more than a thinner one.

Strength
Best quality timbers have the highest strength. Strength means capable to bear loads.
Anisotropic material like timber has different structure at the different portion. So, the
strength of timber is different at different points. Grain structure determines the strength
of the timber. Some types of strength are

1. Compressive strength: 500 kg/cm2 to 700 kg/cm2 load is enough to test timbers
strength.
2. Tensile strength: When timber is enough strong to the tensile force. If
perpendicular force is made then timber is weaker. 500-2000 kg/cm2 is the
range of tensile strength load.
3. Transverse strength: Enough bending strength indicates good quality timber.

Density
Timber having higher density have a thicker wall. An important property that quality of
timber. Moisture content: Presence of defects: There may be some of the natural and
artificial defects in timber such as cross-grain, knots, and shakes, etc. All of them cause
a decrease in the strength of the timber.

Toughness
Timber has to have the capability to bear shocks, jerk. Anti-bending and ant splitting
characteristic is needed. Old timbers have annual rings which indicate their age is a
good indicator.

Elasticity
Another property elasticity means timber should attain its own shape after use. Because
of this quality, it is used in sports bat.

Warping
Environmental change with season can’t effect good quality timber.

Durability
A good quality timber has the property to resist the attack the infection of fungus or
other insects. This resistance quality makes timber better.

Defectless
This property is gained if the timber is from a sound tree. A defectless tree is free from
sap, shakes, and dead knots. To know more about timber defects read: Defects in
Timber

Workability
A good timber is always easy to work on it. Easy to drag using saw on good timber. The
finishing can be done well.

Soundness
A good quality timber gives good sound.
Texture
The texture of good timber is fine and even.
Free of Abrasion
Timber should not be damaged by the external environment. It has to gain the ability to
protect its skin.
Types of Timber and Lumber
Timber can be divided into two categories - hardwoods and softwoods. There are many
types of timber under these two categories. They are-

 Bamboo
 Birch
 Cedar
 Cherry
 Cross-laminated
 Glulam
 Green timber
 Lime
 Mahogany
 Oak
 Pine
 Plywood
 Sapele wood
 Tulipwood
 Walnut
 Wood ash
 Spruce
 Fir

Few of the commonly used timbers are described below.

Bamboo
Bamboo is a natural organic material. It is one of the most unique plants on earth.
Bamboo is grown in abundance in many parts of the world, especially in tropical and
subtropical regions. Most timber producing bamboos are from South Asia. The color of
bamboo timber is pale yellow to almost gold. It is an industrial material also identified as
the most promising building material. Bamboo timber is an alternative to tropical
hardwoods in recent years. It is available in many forms.
 Figure: Bamboo Sports Hall for Panyaden International
School.

Advantages of Bamboo
 Bamboos are fast growing and high yielding.
 They are easily renewable.
 Bamboos quickly reach full maturity after only one or two years.
 Bamboo timber has a unique earthy odor while being worked.
 Bamboo timber is energy extensive, processed and glued up imported products.
 Strong bamboo fibers have tensile strength.
 It is highly resistant to warping and cupping in ambient humidity.
 Bamboo timber requires little fertilizer.
 Grows initially at full width.
 Bamboo timbers are used in-veneer, paper, flute, window blinds, fishing rods,
ladders, scaffolding, carving etc.

Disadvantages of Bamboo
 Bamboo timber is a polluting material.
 Bamboo timber requires special care.
 It is susceptible to insect attack.
 Bamboo fibers tend to split and pull out when being cross-cut.

Birch
Birch is a great craft-wood. It is an important source of hardwood timber. Birch is of
many types of like-yellow birch, white birch etc. Yellow birch is commonly used which is
also known as gray birch, or swamp birch. It is light reddish brown color. Birch gives low
natural luster.
 Figure Source: mod3building newyork.

Advantages of Birch
 Birch is economical in most cases.
 Inner birch is aromatic.
 Birch is long-lasting.
 It is usually heavy, hard and strong.
 It is always easy to work with a birch and glues and it finishes well.
 Birch gives widely ranging appearances.
 Birch is suitable for high-quality furniture. Birch has great durability.
 Birch is used for creating strong plywood.
 Birch is waterproof.
 Birch can easily support a large structure.
 It is used in- boxes, crates, skateboards, furniture, and other wood items.
 Birch gives wavy fine texture.

Disadvantages of Birch
 Birch is perishable, readily rot and decay.
 Birch is susceptible to insect attack.
 Birch can cause tear-outs during machine operations.
 Birch is reported as “sensitizer” which includes respiratory irritation.
 Birch is slow-growing.
 Birch is harder than other hardwoods.

Cedar
Cedar is a timber of high quality. It comes from several different trees known as cedars.
Where both strength and appearance of the exposed wood beams are important, cedar
is the only savior and perfect fit for this. It is used in for-landscape, park, garden
structure. Its moderate strength and softness make it unique. Cedar offers the
advantage of the natural advantage. Basically, it is a workable material.

Figure Source: internet images

Advantages of Cedar
 It is weather resistant.
 Cedar gives a natural wood look.
 Cedar is light in weight.
 It works easily.
 It is dimensionally stable.
 Cedar has long-time durability.
 Cedar has exceptional resistance to insects and decay.
 It is smooth to the touch.
 It has a high quality of consistency.
 It exhibits fairly prominent growth.
 Cedar shows high resistance to warping and twisting.
 Cedar helps to reduce noise in specific areas.
 It is sustainable.
 It is used in-cladding, decking, roofing, fencing.

Disadvantages of Cedar
 Cedar dust may be irritant.
 Cedar has low strength.
 Cedar can cause splintering during some operations.

Cherry
Cherry timber is grown as a tree plantation timber. Among different types of cherry
timbers, black cherry timber is the largest of the native cherries and the only of
commercial value. It is found throughout the Eastern United Nations. In cherry timber,
the grain is generally straight. It is a hardwood. It has medium density and moderately
durable. And used for small pieces of furnitures-veneers, handles, cabinets, scientific
instruments etc.

Figure Source: google images

Advantages of Cherry
 Cherry timber is firm and strong.
 It has a fine and uniform texture.
 It works well and finishes smoothly.
 Cherry timber can contain pith flecks and gum pockets.
 It has a good workability.
 Cherry timber is easy to machine, nail, and glue.
 It is an excellent timber for turning and carving.
 It has good bending properties.
 It has low stiffness.
 Cherry timber is shock resistance.
 The best feature is it is used for high-end applications like furniture, cabinet
making. Boat making and musical instruments.

Disadvantages of Cherry
 It is highly prized.
 Cherry timber is sensitive to UV.
 It can tear on cross-grain.
 Cherry timber doesn’t have a grand dimension.
 If stained, it gives blotchy results.
 The sawdust of cherry timber has been associated with respiratory effects such
as wheezing.
Mahogany
Mahogany is a high-quality timber. It is grown commercially almost in every continent.
Mahogany is widely used in the furniture and cabinet building industry. It is made into
plywoods and all kinds of trim. It displays hard grain. It is one of the softer of all the
hardwoods that are commonly in use. It is moderate natural luster. The color of
mahogany timber darkens with age. The texture is medium and uniform. The price of
this timber is in mid-range.

Figure Source: ig-

mebekoe_

Advantages of Mahogany
 Mahogany timber is very stable.
 It is resistant to termites.
 It is very easy to work with tools in mahogany timber.
 It cuts and machines easily.
 Mahogany timber sandy very easily.
 It turns glues, stains, and finishes well.
 It can bend without splintering or shattering.
 It possesses a slightly flexible quality.
 Mahogany timber can resist warping and twist for many years.
 It is long lasting, strong and beautiful.
 It contains high density.
 Each piece of timber is long.
 Mahogany timber is used for-veneers, musicals instruments, carving etc.
Disadvantages of Mahogany
 Mahogany timber is vulnerable to insects.
 It can tear out or chip during machining.
 It is reported as “sensitizer”.
 When mahogany timber gets in touch with water, a strong mahogany color
comes up.
 Slight dulling of cutters can occur in this timber.
 Mahogany timber includes respiratory irritation in eye, skin which includes boil,
nausea, dizziness, asthma type symptoms etc.
 It is vulnerable.

Oak
Oak timber is a type of hardwood from the oak tree. It has been used as timber for
thousands of years. It is straight grained. It is used for light construction most of the
time. Oak timber is used for -homeware, wine barrels, firewood etc.

Figure Source: the house of longboat

Advantages of Oak
 Oak timber is exceedingly strong.
 It is durable.
 It has a long living nature.
 Oak timber is used for cladding.
 Oak timber is resistant to fungal attack.
 It takes glues, nails, and screws well.
 It is lighter in weight.
 Oak timber is resistant to decay.
 Oak timber is extremely resistant to preservative treatment.
 It is workable with machine or hand tools.

Disadvantages of Oak
 Oak timber is heavy.
 It is hard.
 It has low-moisture content.
 Oak timber is unsuitable for external use.
 It is difficult for oak timber to treat acid content.
 Oak timber reacts with iron, galvanized or copper nails.

Walnut
Walnut is a premium timber. It is a specialist hardwood. The grain is straight but it can
be irregular. Walnut timber is really decorative. It carries a lot of design for the interior. It
has moderate natural luster. Walnut timber is moderately durable. It is medium density.
 Figure Source: ig-bodger53

Advantages of Walnut
 Walnut gives vivid highlight to the grain.
 It works well with machine and hand tools.
 Walnut timber is good for turning and carving.
 The right glues and polishes can be successfully done in walnut timber.
 It stains and finishes well.
 Walnut timber responds well to steam bending.
 It has a good dimensional stability.
 It is shocking resistant.
 It has a fine texture.
 Overall walnut has a good strength.
 It has low stiffness.

Disadvantages of Walnut
 Walnut is hard.
 It has been reported as a “sensitizer”.
 It includes eye and skin irritation.
 Walnut timber is high in the prices for a domestic species.
 It is susceptible to insect attack. Planer tear out can sometimes be a problem in
walnut timber./li>
 It has a faint, mild odor while being worked.
  It has a medium maintenance movement.
 Walnut timber has difficulty to treat acid contents.
 Walnut timber finds the problem with density.
 It is not termite resistant.
 It is hard.

Fir
Fir is one of the world’s best-known timber species. It is a premier building product for a
wide range of applications. It is a softwood species. Fir has a very straight grain. Fir has
become the standard woods of choice for timber framing. Fir timber is used tin-housing,
framing, flooring, lining fascias, bargeboards, and pergolas.

Figure Source: civiltoday.com

Advantages of Fir
 Fir timber ranges in color.
 Fir machines and turns well.
 Fir is moderately durable.
 It is permeable.
 It Is moderately resistant to decay.
 Fir timber has a low shock resistance.
  It has a good strength.
 Fir can be satisfactorily bonded using the standard procedure.

Disadvantages of Fir
 Fir timber lacks tensile strength.
 It is extremely difficult to treat.
 Fir timber is very stiff.
Classification of timber
Various bases are considered for the classification of timbers. The following are the
important basis:
(i) Mode of growth
(ii) Modulus of elasticity
(iii) Durability
(iv) Grading
(v) Availability.
(i) Classification Based on Mode of Growth: On the basis of mode of growth trees are
classified as (a) Exogeneous and (b) Endogeneous (a) Exogeneous Trees: These trees
grow outward by adding distinct consecutive ring every year. These rings are known as
annual rings. Hence it is possible to find the age of timber by counting these annual
rings. These trees may be further divided into (1) coniferrous and (2)
deciduous. Coniferrous trees are having cone shaped leaves and fruits. The leaves do
not fall till new ones are grown. They yield soft wood.
Deciduous trees are having broad leaves. These leaves fall in autumn and new ones
appear in springs. They yield strong wood and hence they are commonly used in
building construction. The classification as soft wood and hard wood have commercial
importance. The difference between soft wood and hard wood is given below:
1. In soft wood annual rings are seen distinctly whereas in hard wood they are
indistinct.
2. The colour of soft wood is light whereas the colour of hard wood is dark.
3. Soft woods have lesser strength in compression and shear compared to hard woods.
4. Soft woods are light and hard woods are heavy.
5. Fire resistance of soft wood is poor compared to that of hard wood.
6. The structure of soft wood is resinous while structure of hard wood is close grained.
The cross-section of a exogeneous tree is as shown in the Fig. 1.7. The following
components are visible to the naked eye:
1.Pith:
It is the inner most part of the tree and hence the oldest part of exogeneous tree
when the plant becomes old, the pith dies and becomes fibrous and dark. It varies
in size and shape.
2. Heart Wood:

This is the portion surrounding pith. It is dark in colour and strong. This portion is
useful for various engineering purpose. This is the dead part of wood. It consists
of several annular rings.
3. Sap Wood:

It is the layer next to heart wood. It denotes recent growth and contains sap. It
takes active part in the growth of trees by allowing sap to move in upward
direction. The annual rings of
sap wood are less sharply divided and are light in colour. The sap wood is also
known as alburnum.
4. Cambium Layer:

It is a thin layer of fresh sap lying between sap wood and the inner bark. It
contains sap which is not yet converted into sap wood. If the bark is removed and
cambium layer is
exposed to atmosphere, cells cease to be active and tree dies.
5. Inner Bark:

It is a inner skin of tree protecting the cambium layer. It gives protection to

cambium layer.
6. Outer Bark:
 It is the outer skin of the tree and consists of wood fibres. Sometimes it contains
fissures and cracks.
7. Medullary Rags:

These are thin radial fibres extending from pith to cambium layer. They hold
annular rings together. In some of trees they are broken and some other they
may not be prominent.
(b) Endogeneous Trees:

These trees grow inwards. Fresh fibrous mass is in the inner most portion. Examples of
endogenous trees are bamboo and cane. They are not useful for structural works.

(ii) Classification Based on Modulus of Elasticity: Young’s modulus

is determined by conducting bending test. On this basis timber is classified as:
Group A: E = 12.5 kN/mm2
Group B: E = 9.8 kN/mm2 to 12.5 kN/mm2
Group C: E = 5.6 kN/mm2 to 9.8 kN/mm2.
(iii) Classification Based on Durability: Durability tests are conducted by the forest
research establishment. They bury test specimen of size 600 × 50 × 50 mm in the
ground to half their length and observe their conditions regularly over several
years. Then timbers are classified as:
High durability: If average life is more than 10 years.
Moderate durability: Average life between 5 to 10 years.
Low durability: Average life less than 5 years.
(iv) Classification Based on Grading: IS 883-1970 classifies the structural
timber into three grades-select grade, grade I and grade II. The classification is
based on permissible stresses, defects etc.
(v) Classification Based on Availability: Forest departments classify timbers
based on the availability as
X—Most common. 1415 m3 or more per year
Y—Common. 355 m3 to 1415 m3 per year
Z—Less common. Less than 355 m3 per year.
Uses of timber
Timber is used for the following works:
1. For heavy construction works like columns, trusses, piles.
2. For light construction works like doors, windows, flooring and roofing.
3. For other permanent works like for railway sleepers, fencing poles, electric poles and
gates.
4. For temporary works in construction like scaffolding, centering, shoring and strutting,
packing of materials.
5. For decorative works like showcases and furnitures.
6. For body works of buses, lorries, trains and boats
7. For industrial uses like pulps (used in making papers), card boards, wall papers
8. For making sports goods and musical instruments.

Sources of timber
Tropical countries produce about 35% of the world production of “roundwood” (total
wood removals), which amounted to about 3.4 billion m3 (cubic meters) in 1988, and
about one-fifth of the world’s wood products (Amelung, Torsten and Diehl, 1992). Most
international tropical hardwood now comes from Southeast Asia – Malaysia, Indonesia
and The Philippines – although the industry has shifted from The Philippines to
Indonesian and Malaysian Borneo (Kalimantan, Sabah and Sarawak) as the forests in
The Philippines are now seriously depleted. Southeast Asia has become dominant in
this trade because its forests are very rich in commercial timber species and contain a
large proportion of light hardwood trees, which are most in demand in the international
market. In 1988, Malaysia provided 62% of legal timber product exports, worth $1.5
billion, most of which went to Japan; while Indonesia provided 22% (Dobson, 1995). At
current rates of cutting, commercially-valuable trees will be gone from Malaysian and
Indonesian Borneo early in this century. As these forests are becoming depleted of
hardwoods, many of the Southeast Asian timber companies have headed for South
America. South American logging mainly supplies internal demands, although there is a
substantial export business in hardwoods, especially mahogany. Africa also produces
much wood for export, although the percentage of foreign exchange earned by timber
products is much lower than in Southeast Asia. In Cameroon and Liberia, 12% of
exports consist of timber and wood products (Dobson, 1995). Forty-five percent of the
global demand for tropical timber comes from Japan, for which wood is the second
most valuable import; Japan is followed by Korea and Taiwan (Amelung, Torsten and
Diehl, 1992). Tropical wood is made into plywood, veneer, and forms for concrete for
construction purposes. The plywood and veneer are exported as finished products and
are important in the Japanese economy. The wood construction forms for concrete are
used once or a few times and then discarded. The United States is the second largest
importer of tropical hardwoods, with demand continuing to grow. Tropical woods are
still only a small part of the US market for wood, however, and are used for paper pulp
and chip wood, as well as for furniture and construction.