NATIONAL MANUAL OF GOOD PRACTICE FOR BIOSOLIDS

Chapter 6 – Odor Control

Odors are often the initial concern cited with a biosolids management program. Once odors are
associated with a facility or a program, other concerns often are raised. Odor is frequently noted
as the reason a facility or program is abandoned.

There are a number of sources for odors within wastewater treatment and solids
management facilities. Significant potential sources at treatment facilities include:
• Headworks area
• Primary clarifiers
• Solids holding and thickening tanks
• Aerobic digesters
• Dewatering systems
• Solids loading areas

Solids processing facilities such as composting and thermal drying facilities also can generate
odor. The minimization of odor generation and release should be a primary consideration during
all process and facility design.

There is no single process to eliminate odor. Odors are always a potential with a biosolids
management program. However, careful planning of a biosolids management program can
greatly reduce the potential for offensive odors.

This chapter addresses odor control at wastewater treatment and solids management facilities. It
discusses containment, collection, treatment, and dispersion of odors generated “inside the
fence”. This chapter does not address reducing odor through process optimization. Methods to
optimize unit processes and biosolids management programs are described throughout the
manual.

6.1 Odor Controls

A number of controls are associated with the containment, collection and treatment of odors.
They include:
• Ventilation rates
• Negative pressure
• Airstream characteristics
• Type of odor requiring treatment

These controls should be addressed in the planning and implementation of odor control systems.

6.2 Ventilation Rates

Ventilation of enclosed spaces is required to prevent the buildup of combustible vapors,

minimize the escape of odors, reduce the potential for corrosion, and provide a safe working
environment for employees. Required ventilation rates will vary widely depending on the

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characteristics of the odorous air, the degree of conservatism in minimizing the escape of
odors, and the use and accessibility of the enclosed space. (NFPA 1990)

Criteria for establishing ventilation rates for covered processes include:

• Maintenance of a minimum negative pressure. A minimum negative pressure of 0.1 inch
water column is recommended to prevent release of odors.
• Maintaining a safe working environment. If the enclosure will be entered routinely, the
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) concentration must remain below 10ppm.
• Minimize the potential for buildup of combustible gases such as methane.
• Control hydrogen sulfide (H2S) levels to reduce corrosion.

Ventilation rates for enclosed areas are usually expressed by the number of air changes per hour
(AC/hr), which can be calculated as follows:

AC/hr = Exhaust air flow (cfm) x 60

Enclosed Volume (cu ft)

Table 6.1 provides recommended ventilation rates for various covered processes. Facilities
should have an air exchange rate of at least 12 air changes per hour for continuously ventilated
and occupied areas having exposed biosolids. This ventilation rate suggested in National Fire
Protection Association’s (NFPA) Fire Protection in Wastewater Treatment and Collection
Facilities publication number 820, is necessary to reduce the possibility of accumulation of
combustible vapors. (NFPA 1990)

Negative Pressure
For covered channels, grit chambers, and effluent launders that are not routinely entered, the
most important criterion is minimizing the escape of odors. NFPA recommends a minimum
negative pressure of 0.1 inch water column under all operating conditions. Consider the opening
of hatches and inspection of ports as part of routine operating and maintenance practices.

Ventilation fans should be sized to provide a slightly than required rate of ventilation higher
approximately 10 percent. Cover seals may deteriorate over time and hatches may be left open
by operations staff. The application of the negative pressure criteria may or may not be necessary
depending on the strength of the odor and how much escape is acceptable. Maintaining a
negative pressure under all operating conditions may result in high air flow rates and large
treatment systems that are expensive to construct and operate.

Materials of Construction
Enclosing or covering of odorous processes without ventilation
is not recommended. If the area to be enclosed is a source of
odors, it is likely to contain H2S, which is corrosive at low
concentrations and toxic at high concentrations. The
decomposition of organic matter can generate methane gas,
which is explosive. Hydrogen sulfide will attack concrete and
carbon steel. Significant damage will occur in spaces that do not
have adequate ventilation. Even processes or channels that normally treat or convey aerobic

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wastewater can accumulate gases when taken out of service and the wastewater is allowed to
become septic.

Table 6.1 Typical Ventilation Rates

TYPICAL VENTILATION RATES

Process Air Exchange Rate (air changes per

hour)
Lift Station 15 to 25
Headworks 12 to 20
Covered Primary Clarifiers 12 to 15
Covered Secondary Clarifiers 12 to 15
Gravity Thickeners 12 to 20
Mechanical Thickeners 12 to 15
Mechanical Dewatering 12 to 15
Anaerobic Digestion Control Room 12 to 20
Enclosed Composting Facility 12 to 15

6.2 Odor Treatment Technologies Methods

Airstream Characteristics
Enclosing an odorous process, ventilation of the enclosed space, and treatment of the air are very
effective means of controlling odors and emissions. The selection of an odor control technology
depends largely on the characteristics of the air stream to be treated, site considerations, and the
degree of odor reduction required.

Determining the characteristics of the air to be treated is extremely important in selecting a

control technology. Air stream characterization can include GC/MS or other analytic techniques
to identify specific constituents. Analytic techniques are particularly important for odor control
applications where the odors are complex and consist of compounds other than hydrogen sulfide
and reduced sulfur. Odor panel analysis also can be used as an analytic tool. Such tests provide
useful data on odor strength or detectability, which is defined as the number of dilutions required
before half the odor panel can no longer detect the odor. Air flow is also an important design
parameter that may affect the cost-effectiveness of a particular technology. Ventilation rates of
enclosed spaces also should be evaluated for fire prevention.

Technology selection and design are affected by the specification of performance requirements.
If high odor removal efficiencies are required, multiple stages or a combination of technologies
may be necessary.

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A summary of air treatment technologies is presented in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2 Summary of Odorous Air Treatment Alternatives

SUMMARY OF ODOROUS AIR TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES

Technique Frequency Cost Factors Advantages Disadvantages
of Use
Packed-tower High Moderate capital Effective and Spent chemical must
wet scrubbers and O&M cost reliable; long be disposed; high
track record chemical
consumption; not
effective for VOCs
Fine-mist wet Medium Higher capital cost Lower Water softening
scrubbers than packed towers chemical required for scrubber
consumption; water; larger scrubber
can be vessel
designed for
VOC removal
Activated High Cost-effectiveness Simple; few Only applicable for
carbon depends on moving parts; relatively dilute air
adsorbers frequency of carbon effective streams in order to
replacement/ ensure long carbon
regeneration life
Biofilters Medium Low capital and Simple; Effective with a range
O&M costs minimal of odors; requires
O&M; monitoring for bed
effective for moisture; requires
some VOCs periodic media
replacement
Thermal Low Very high capital Highly Only economical for
oxidizers and O&M (energy) effective for high-strength,
costs VOCs and difficult-to-treat air
odors streams
Diffusion into Low Economical if Simple; low Concern for blower
activated existing O&M; corrosion; may not be
sludge basins blowers/diffusers effective appropriate for very
are used strong odors
Odor masking High Cost dependent on Low capital Only mask odors; no
agents chemical usage cost; easy to VOC control
obtain; good
for sporadic
odor incidents

Source: Water Environment Federation, MOP-22, 1995

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There are a number of odor treatment methods available. This section provides a summary of the
treatment systems commonly implemented.

Packed-Tower Wet Scrubbers

The packed-tower wet scrubber consists of a vessel with an air inlet, packing bed, packing
irrigation system, and air outlet. A scrubbing liquor sump may be integrated with the scrubber or
may be located remotely. Sumps are often located indoors in cold climates to reduce freezing
potential. The basis for wet scrubbing is the induction of intimate contact between the
contaminant-laden air and a scrubbing solution, causing a mass transfer between the two media
in which the contaminant molecules are absorbed into the liquid. The packing bed is the region
where this mass transfer occurs. The scrubbing solution is usually recirculated through the
system while its pH and/or oxidation reduction potential (ORP) are continually monitored and
adjusted.

Fine-Mist Wet Scrubbers

Fine-mist or fog scrubbers treat odor by bringing the air in contact with 10 micron-sized droplets
of scrubber solution. Special atomizers, usually using compressed air, create the fine droplets of
controlled dilute chemical solution. The atomization is a continuous process and the air and
droplets flow concurrently with no recirculation of liquid effluent. Chemical feed rate is
continuously controlled by sensing exhaust, liquid effluent, or inlet parameters. A mist scrubber
functions on two principles: diffusion and reaction of water-soluble contaminants, and adsorption
of non-water-soluble compounds.

Activated Carbon Absorbers

Activated carbon adsorption is effective for removing low levels of odorous compounds such as
hydrogen sulfide, reduced sulfur compounds, and VOCs from air emissions at municipal
wastewater treatment facilities. Granular activated carbon (GAC) is an extremely effective
adsorbent because it possesses a high surface area per unit weight, an intricate pore structure, and
a primarily hydrophobic surface. Bituminous coal and coconut shell are the most widely used
sources for manufacturing GAC because they create an activated carbon with good physical
properties and excellent porosity. Activated carbon made from coconut shell is preferred for use
in VOC removal because of the greater retentivity of the coconut shell carbons for small VOC
molecules. Alkali-impregnated bituminous coal carbons are commonly used to remove H2S and
other reduced sulfur compounds. The alkali impregnant (e.g., NaOH or KOH) increases the low
adsorption capacity of H2S and methyl mercaptans on virgin GAC from about 3 to 5 percent by
weight for virgin carbon and from approximately 25 to 27 percent by weight for impregnated
carbon. Mixed beds of media, a layer of impregnated GAC, and a layer of coconut shell-based
GAC have been used for applications requiring simultaneous a H2S and VOC removal.

Biofiltration
Biofilters use a porous media to absorb and adsorb compounds from an airstream similar to dry
media scrubbers. However, biofilters rely on microbial degradation of the absorbed/adsorbed
compounds to renew the sorptive capacity rather than frequent media replacement. Biofilters are
typically constructed with an in-ground air distribution system that discharges through media
beds, which can be open to the environment, covered, or totally enclosed for a stack discharge.
Packaged, proprietary biofilter systems are also available. Biofilters are effective in removing

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both odors and VOCs and are considered most appropriate for airstreams with hydrocarbon
levels up to 1,000 ppm, such as, methane. Table 6.3 provides design criteria.

Table 6.3 Biofilter Design Criteria Summary

BIOFILTER DESIGN CRITERIA SUMMARY

Item Range Typical

Detention Time (secs) 30 to 60 60
Bed Depth (ft) 2 to 3 3
Surface Loading Rate Up to 7.5 3
(cfm/sq ft)
Moisture Content (%) 45 to 65 50
Media pH 6 to 9 7
Media Temperature (°C) 5 to 45 15 to 37
Influent Gas Humidity (%) >95 >98

Thermal Oxidation Systems

Thermal oxidation is a very effective means of destroying odors and VOCs that are primarily
organic, because organic compounds are completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and water vapor.
In general, thermal oxidation is not recommended for inorganic odors composed primarily of
sulfur and nitrogen such as H2S, ammonia NH3, sulfides, etc. The reason for this is twofold.
First, combustion of sulfur- and nitrogen-based compounds will form sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides, which are odorous. Second, SO2 can form sulfuric acid, particularly in the final
stages of heat recovery systems where the flue gas temperature is lowered, and condensation of
acid gases may occur and cause severe corrosion. Low levels of sulfur- and nitrogen-based
compounds can be incinerated provided that the concentrations of SO2 and nitrogen oxides in the
flue gases are low and adequately dispersed in the atmosphere so that ground-level
concentrations of these compounds are below detection limits. In addition, the combustion and
heat recovery system should be designed so that the chance for condensation of acid gases is
minimal. The flaring of landfill gas is one example where oxidation of significant levels of H2S
is commonly performed.

The four types of thermal oxidation systems are:

• Direct flame or flare
• Recuperative
• Catalytic
• Regenerative

All four types have been used extensively in industrial applications. For wastewater treatment
and biosolids management facilities applications, regenerative thermal oxidizers (RTOs) have
several advantages over the other types of oxidizers and are more commonly used.

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Direct Flame
Direct flame or flare units are the simplest to operate and have the lowest capital costs, but are
the most costly to operate because no heat recovery is provided. Therefore, direct flame oxidizers
are usually used on fume streams, which are sufficiently concentrated to sustain autogenous
combustion. For dilute air streams, direct flame units are usually considered for only low-flow
cases of less than 2,000 cfm.

Recuperative
Recuperative thermal oxidizers use heat exchange tubes to transfer thermal energy from the hot
combustion flue gases to the inlet airstream. Recuperative oxidizers with extensive heat recovery
can achieve thermal efficiency of 70 to 73 percent. However, even with this relatively high
thermal efficiency, the fuel cost to operate the system is high. The most important limiting factor
with recuperative oxidizers is that their metallic heat recovery tubes are susceptible to corrosion
from condensation of acid gases. At wastewater treatment facilities, most odorous airstreams
contain H2S or other reduced sulur compounds which would render the heat recovery sections of
recuperative oxidizers susceptible to corrosion.

Catalytic
In catalytic oxidizers, the presence of a catalyst allows oxidation of an organic vapor or solvent
to take place at a lower temperature (typically 800°F to 1,100°F) and without a flame. Catalytic
oxidizers are capable of high VOC destruction efficiencies of approximately 95 percent or more.
The catalytic element is usually a ceramic fixed grid or honeycomb structure coated with
platinum, palladium, or other rare earth metals. The use of catalytic units is generally limited to
pure organic vapors and solvents with low residual ash content, which will not clog or coat the
catalytic surface. Because of the presence of sulfur in most odorous airstreams at wastewater
treatment plants, catalytic oxidizers generally are not recommended.

Regenerative
An RTO essentially consists of a combustion chamber filled with gas-fired burners and three or
more heat recovery chambers filled with inert ceramic packing media or saddles. The RTO is
equipped with inlet and exhaust manifolds with flow diverter valves that alternate the flow of
cool inlet air and hot flue gas through the heat recovery chambers. Each chamber alternately
absorbs heat from the flue gas and then releases this heat to the air inlet stream, preheating the
inlet air. By switching the flow of flue gas and inlet air from chamber to chamber, a high degree
of heat recovery can be attained. Overall thermal efficiencies of greater than 90 percent are
possible, which results in low fuel use. An RTO can achieve very high VOC destruction
efficiencies of 95 to 98 percent. RTOs are used on odorous airstreams with low levels of H2S and
NH3 because the ceramic saddles and refractory lining in the head recovery and combustion
chambers are resistant to these compounds and their acids.

RTOs are available in a variety of configurations with features such as different types of packing
media (loose, structured, or gravel), purge air systems, and proprietary valve and manifold
systems.

Activated Sludge Diffusion

Odorous air can be treated effectively by diffusion of the air into the mixed liquor of activated

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sludge aeration basins. Odors are removed through a combination of absorption, adsorption, and
biological oxidation. Most facilities with this odor treatment process use the existing blowers and
diffusers associated with the activated sludge process. Unfortunately, few design criteria are
available for new facilities. For a diffusion system designed exclusively for odor control, energy
costs can be high. Diffusion of odorous air into anything other than an aeration basin is not
recommended. The aeration basin has the high active biomass necessary for effective removal of
odors.

Dispersion
The adage “dilution is the solution to pollution” applies to odor. Dilution may be accomplished
by applying a mechanical fan, using an exhaust stack to improve atmospheric dispersion, or
implementing a combination of the two. In general, dilution and dispersion should be considered
for exhausts from odor control systems, but rarely should be the principal means of odor control.

There are aerodynamic recirculation zones around a building and other nearby structures.
Emissions should not be discharged into or trapped in these recirculation zones, which will
minimize the dispersion and dilution effect. A stack is preferred over a roof exhaust fan. A
horizontal-discharging wall exhaust fan is least desirable. Sufficient emission exit velocity and
temperature, which improves the upward movement of the plume, also are desired. A rain cap or
gooseneck design at the top of the stack merely deflects the exhaust downward and should be
avoided.

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References
National Fire Protection Agencies, “Fire Protection in Wastewater Treatment and Collections
Publication 820

Water Environment Federation, (1995), “American Society of Civil Engineers, Odor Control in
Wastewater Treatment Plants”, WEF Manual of Practice No. 22, ASCE Manuals and Reports on
Engineering Practice No. 82

National Fire Protection Association, (1990), Crouse-Hinds ECM Code Digest, Publication 70

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