1 Particles

proton number 2 nucleon

proton number
He
4

x
A
3
neutron Li Subatomic particles
y
7
2
He proton
electron nucleon number 3 number

2.1 Particles in the atom KC 2.2 The nucleus of the atom KC

O O O C O

C
6
RELATIVE 1s
s p
O2 CO2 12.0 ATOMIC MASS 2s 2p

ionisation energy
3s 3p 3d
RELATIVE FORMULA MASS 4s 4p
32.0 44.0 RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Electrons: energy levels, atomic orbitals,

1.1 Relative masses of atoms and molecules KC 2.3 ionisation energy, electron affinity
KC
Formula mass, relative atomic mass, and moles

6.022 × 10 1 Mole 23 ELEC

TRO
M

Br2
AG
N
ET

Au 197g He
Fe
55.9 g
O2
32.0 g H2O
4.00g
MASS
Ag 108g 18.0g
SPECTROMETRY
The determination of
1.2 The mole and the avogadro constant KC 1.3 relative atomic masses, Ar
KC

H H
C2H2n+2 24 dm 3
1 mole
n = cv
m
TITRATE UNTIL
END POINT
H C C H
n=
H H
general
CH mol/dm3
Mr

C2H6 empirical 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

molecular 80% C, 20%H 48 g + 32 g 80 g

The calculation of empirical and Reacting masses and volumes

1.4 molecular formula
KC 1.5 (of solutions and gases)
KC

Key: KC 1 KC 2 KC 3 KC 4 KC 5
Copyright © UCLES 2018
 2 Bonding and structure

Na Cl Cl Cl

positive ions negative ions + +

Covalent bonding
Covalent bonding and co-ordinate (dative covalent)
3.1 Ionic bonding KC 3.2 bonding including shapes of simple molecules
KC

H H
H H

+ + –
+ + + fixed positive
Lattice structures

Lattice structures
H C C H
H
C H H
C H cations
– –
C C C C –

+ + + +
H H
– mobile free
H – electrons
C C C C
–
H
H H H H – – –
C C C C
H H H H
+ + – + –
+ Al 3+ Na+ Ca2+

Shapes of organic molecules:

14.3 σ and π bonds
KC 3.4 Metallic bonding KC

+ –
+ –
+ 30˚C 50˚C

Intermolecular forces
– – –

+ –
+ +
– –

+ + – +
H
O
O
H
H
H liquid
Physical properties

4.3 The solid state: lattice structures KC 4.2 The liquid state KC

pV = nRT
p = pressure

V = volume melting and boiling points

n = number of moles

R = ideal gas constant ?

T = temperature electrical conductivity solubility volatility
Intermolecular forces

The gaseous state: ideal and real

4.1 gases and pV = nRT
KC 3.5 Bonding and physical properties KC

H
O
O
H

O
H
H
H H

δ+ Cl δ–
H
electronegativity

3.3 Intermolecular forces, electronegativity

and bond properties
KC

Key: KC 1 KC 2 KC 3 KC 4 KC 5
Copyright © UCLES 2018
 3 Controlling reactions 1
A B A B ENERGY A B ENERGY A B
Ea
Bond making/breaking
A making bonds breaking bonds
EXO ENDO ∆H
releases energy requires energy
B

exothermic endothermic

Enthalpy calculations
Enthalpy changes
5.1 Enthalpy change, ∆H 3.5 Bonding and physical properties

Bonds and properties

KC KC
Enthalpies of combustion

C F C Cl C Br C I A B
bond length ∆Hrθ
∆Hfθ (A) ∆Hcθ (B)
bond energy
bond polarity combustion products

Intermolecular forces, electronegativity

3.3 and bond properties
KC 5.2 Hess’ law, including Born-Haber cycles KC

H H

Rh Pt Pd COAL
H2SO4
H C C H C O GAS
H H O
S
O H2SO3
NO x CO 2 Fuels 16
CO
HC
H2O
N2
O
N
O
OIL S
32.1

Sulfur: the formation of atmospheric

15.3 Hydrocarbons as fuels KC 13.2 sulfur dioxide, its role in acid rain
Redox

Fe + CuSO4 Cu + FeSO4 +2 +6 –2 rate of reaction

Fe + Cu2+ Cu + Fe2+ O
I

CuSO4
collisions

reduction L
R
oxidation I
G
Fe = reducing agent Cu = oxidising agent
2+ sum = 0 for neutral compounds concentration

Redox processes: electron transfer and Simple rate equations, orders of

6.1 changes in oxidation number (oxidation state)
KC 8.1 reaction and rate constants
KC

Acids
Rate

T1: room temperature T2: room temperature

enzymes denatured

Ea particles with
% of particles

T1
energy required
% of particles

% of particles

Ecat to react
particles with
energy required T2
particles with
energy required
A to react to react
∆H
with catalyst
B

energy of particles
energy of particles energy of particles

Homogenous and heterogenous Effect of temperature: on reaction rates and rate

8.3 catalysts including enzymes
KC 8.2 constants and the concept of activation energy
KC
Temperature effects
Catalysts

N2 + 3H2 2NH3 Haber

process
acid base conjugate acid conjugate base

[NH3] 2p(NH3) 2 H+ A– H+ A–
strong acid H H+ H

3 Kp = p(N ) + (H )3
A

Kc =
H+ A H A
H+

[N2] + [H2]
A– A–
Pa H +

2 2 A –
H +
A–
H+ A–
weak acid H A H A H A

Chemical equilibria: reversible reactions, Reversible reactions

7.1 dynamic equilibrium
KC 7.2 Ionic equilibria KC

Key: KC 1 KC 2 KC 3 KC 4 KC 5
Copyright © UCLES 2018
 4 Organic chemistry 1
+ –
+
H H H H O H O H H
H
addition A B C
X Y X Y
H
H H H
H C H C C H C C O H C C O H C C H H C H H C N
H H
substitution A B + C A C + B
H
H H H H H H H

X Y X Y
elimination A B + C
1 2 3 4 5 6 [O] condensation A + B A B + C

meth– eth– prop– but– pent– hex–

Nu + E –
[H] hydrolysis A + H2O B + C

Formulae, functional groups, and the

14.1 naming of organic compounds
KC 14.2 Characteristic organic reactions KC

H H H
H

Naming compounds
H
H H substitution
H
H H
+
reactions
C C Br Br H C C H
C C
C C
O O
H H
H
H C C H H H
H
H H H H Br Br
H C C Cl
H H complete combustion H H
H H H H
C C
H

H H
H

O C C C C
H
alkane alkene Br Br H
C
O O
H H H H
halogenoalkane n

Stereoisomerism
15.1 Alkanes KC 15.2 Alkenes KC
Substitution

H H H H
Cl
H
H O 3 3
transmittance

H
H C

H
C

H
C
H

H
HC

H
H

H
C C E
Cl
H C C O H H H C
C C
C
H C C C
H H 4 2 2 4 Cl Cl

H
H

H
C
H
H
1 1
H
C C Z
wavenumber
H
H

22.2 Infrared spectroscopy KC 14.4 Isomerism: structural and stereoisomerism KC

H R H R – H R
H H Nuc

SN1 H C C X H C C + H C C Nuc C F C Cl C Br C I
H C C X H R H R H R

bond strength
H H –
– H H H
Nuc F F

halogenoalkane
S N2 H C

H
X Nuc

H
C
H
X Nuc C

H
H
C

F
C

F
O3
n

The C–Hal bond

16.1 Halogenoalkanes KC 16.2 Relative strength of the C-Hal bond KC

H H H O
H H O H H H H
H
oxidation Cr2 O 72–
–
+
C C C C
O
H H O H H
C C H C C O Na
H C C O O O H H
H H H
reduction NaBH 4 /LiAlH 4
H H
H
H H H H H O H O H O H H O H
H O

H H H C C H

H C C O H C C H H C C O H C C C H H C C C H
H
–
alcohol H H H H H H H H H Nuc
Oxidation and reduction

17.1 Alcohols KC 18.1 Aldehydes and ketones KC

H H H O H H
H H H O H acid hydrolysis carboxylic acid
H C C O
H H C C O
H C C O
H C C O C H alcohol
H H H H

H
H O H O H H base hydrolysis carboxylate salt
– +
H C C H H C C O Na

R C N carboxylic acid esters ester alcohol

H H

19.1 Carboxylic acids KC Esterification 19.3 Esters KC

Copyright © UCLES 2018 Key: KC 1 KC 2 KC 3 KC 4 KC 5

 5 Chemical trends
increases
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

ionisation energy
atomic radius

conducts electricity

melting point (˚C) 98 650 660 1423 44 120 –101 –189 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

Periodicity of physical properties of Electrons: energy levels, atomic orbitals,

9.1 2.3

Periodic trends
KC KC
the elements in Period 3 ionisation energy, electron affinity
Period 3

Na2O MgO Al 2O3 P4O10 SO2 SO3

O O
Rb Sr Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Cl Cl NaCl MgCl 2 Al 2Cl 6 SiCl 4 PCl 5

H
O
H
NaOH Mg(OH)2 ACID Al 2O3 BASE ?
Periodicity of chemical properties of
9.2 the elements in Period 3
KC 9.3 Chemical periodicity of other elements KC
Hydroxides

CaCO3 soil pH
MO M(OH) 2 MCO 3 thermal stability solubility

BeCO 3 Be(NO 3) 2 Be(OH) 2 Be(SO4)

O MgCO 3 Mg(NO 3) 2 Mg(OH) 2 Mg(SO4)

Group 2 compounds
Ca(OH)2
CaCO 3 Ca(NO 3) 2 Ca(OH) 2 Ca(SO4)
H HCl
H SrCO 3 Sr(NO 3) 2 Sr(OH) 2 Sr(SO4)

BaCO 3 Ba(NO 3) 2 Ba(OH) 2 Ba(SO4)

Similarities and trends in the properties of the Group 2

10.1 metals, magnesium to barium, and their compounds
KC 10.2 Some uses of Group 2 compounds KC

thermal stability
F + H H
F F Cl Cl Br Br F H F
oxidising ability

I I

bond energies
fluorine chlorine bromine iodine
Cl Cl + H H H Cl

volatility Br Br + H H H Br

van der Waals’ forces I I + H H H I

Physical properties of the The chemical properties of the

11.1 Group 17 elements
KC 11.2 elements and their hydrides
KC

Agriculture
– cold Cl 2 + 2NaOH NaCl + NaClO + H 2O
Cl white ppt HCl

– 0 –1 +1
Group 17

Br cream ppt HBr, Br2 , SO 2

– hot 3Cl 2 + 6NaOH 5NaCl + NaClO3 + 3H 2O

I yellow ppt HI, I 2 , SO 2 , S, H 2 S
Ag + & NH 3 H 2 SO 4 0 –1 +5

The reactions of chlorine with

11.3 Some reactions of the halide ions KC 11.4 aqueous sodium hydroxide
KC

Environmental concerns

Cl Cl Cl CFCs N N
eutrophication of water
N
Cl HCFCs NITRATES O O

C C N
H H
Cl Cl H nitrates
n

Some important uses of the halogens

11.5 and of halogen compounds 13.1 Nitrogen KC

Key: KC 1 KC 2 KC 3 KC 4 KC 5
Copyright © UCLES 2018
 6 Acids and bases

acid H+ proton donor

base H+ proton acceptor

A–
H+ H+ H H+ H A
H
+
A H
A – A
H+
A –
H
H+ A H A H A
A – A –

A–
A –
H+ H A
H A H A A–
H+

STRONG ACID WEAK ACID

HA H+ + A– pH = –log[H+(aq)]
pH

pH

HCO3–
volume of acid added volume of acid added

KW
KSP
pH

pH

Ka
volume of acid added volume of acid added pKa

7.2 Ionic equilibria KC

Copyright © UCLES 2018 Key: KC 1 KC 2 KC 3 KC 4 KC 5

 7 Electricity and metals
F = Le Cu2+ + 2 e – Cu E o = +0.34 V

OXIDISING
–1.602 × 10 –19 C

REDUCING
2 H+ + 2 e – H2 E o = 0.00V
+ anode metal OR H2 Cell potentials
+ – Fe2+ + 2 e – Fe E o = – 0.44V
– cathode halogen OR O2
E = E o + (0.059/z) log
[oxidised species]
Nernst equation
[reduced species]

Standard electrode potential Eo; standard cell

6.2 Electrolysis KC 6.3 potentials Eocell and the Nernst equation
KC

Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu H H
2+ N
Li+

H2O
OH2
OH2
–
H
H
H

Li+
Li+
H 2 + O 2 2 H 2O
Cu O Cl
– Li+
H
H2O OH2 + Li+
–
OH2 ligands Cu2+ + 2 e – Cu E o = + 0.34V

General characteristic chemical properties of the

12.2 first set of transition elements, titanium to copper
KC 6.4 Batteries and fuel cells KC
ligands

Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Tetrahedral
y
∆E
z z d orbitals
x x y
[Ar]3d 4s 2 2
d orbitals
Octahedral
y
Ti Cu
z

d
y ∆E
High melting
points and d orbitals
[Ar]3d 4s 10 1
x x
densities

General physical properties of the first set

12.1 of transition elements, titanium to copper
KC 12.3 Colour of complexes KC

ligand substitution reaction

[Cu(H 2O) 6]2+ + 4 NH 3 [Cu(NH 3)4(H 2O)2]2+ + 4 H 2O

[products] [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)22+]
Kstab = [reactants] = [Cu(H O) 2+] + [NH ]4
2 6 3

12.5 Stability constants, Kstab KC

Key: KC 1 KC 2 KC 3 KC 4 KC 5
Copyright © UCLES 2018
 8 Controlling reactions 2
∆Hf formation A B ENERGY A B increases
∆Hc combustion

electron affinity
ionic charge Na+ Mg2+ Al 3+
∆Ha atomisation

∆Hhyd hydration lattice enthalpy

∆Hsol solution ionic radius H He Li Be B C N O F

Cl + e – Cl –

Electrons: energy levels, atomic orbitals,

5.1 Enthalpy change, ∆H KC 2.3 KC
Enthalpy changes

ionisation energy, electron affinity

Trends
∆Hlatθ
∆Hrθ ions thermal stability solubility

A B ∆Hieθ

cation charge density

Reaction feasibility BeCO 3 Be(NO 3) 2 Be(OH) 2 Be(SO4)
∆Heaθ
MgCO 3 Mg(NO 3) 2 Mg(OH) 2 Mg(SO4)
atoms ionic crystal
∆Hf (A)
θ
∆Hf (B)
θ CaCO 3 Ca(NO 3) 2 Ca(OH) 2 Ca(SO4)
∆Haθ
SrCO 3 Sr(NO 3) 2 Sr(OH) 2 Sr(SO4)
∆Hfθ
COMPONENT ELEMENTS elements BaCO 3 Ba(NO 3) 2 Ba(OH) 2 Ba(SO4)

Similarities and trends in the properties of the Group 2

5.2 Hess’ law, including Born-Haber cycles KC 10.1 metals, magnesium to barium, and their compounds KC

∆G = ∆H – T∆S ∆S + ∆S –
increasing entropy

*
∆H +
+
Calculations

solid liquid gas not feasible ‡

∆H –
increasing disorder
increasing entropy
– feasible * = spontaneous at high temperature
‡ = spontaneous at low temperature

5.3 Entropy change, ∆S KC 5.4 Gibbs free energy change, ∆G KC

The effect of temperature

rate = k[A]m[B]n t½ = 0.693 / k

rate constant

zero order t1/2 t1/2 t1/2

concentration
rate of reaction

first order
second order
first order

concentration time temperature

Simple rate equations, orders of reaction Effect of temperature: on reaction rates and rate constants
8.1 and rate constants
KC 8.2 and the concept of activation energy

Key: KC 1 KC 2 KC 3 KC 4 KC 5
Copyright © UCLES 2018
 9 Organic chemistry 2
H H O
H H
H Cl O H E+ bases H H
Br Br E O O
O
H H

C
H
C
H
C
H
H C C Cl
C
H + E H C C O
H H H
H
H H H C
H sodium H C
H
C C C C C C C C C C H H H C C
Cl Cl diazonium salts
Al Cl 3
H O H H
C C C C C C H C C C C C C
H H H H H H H
C H C H C H
N C C C H C H nitration Comparing C H
O Cl H C C Cl
H H H H
H H H H KMnO4 H H H bromination acidity H

Formulae, functional groups, and the

14.1 naming of organic compounds
KC 15.4 Arenes KC 17.2 Phenol KC

Naming compounds

O
+ [O] carboxylic acids
H O
H O H O
H H H O H H O
increasing acidity

H H
O
H C C O H C C N H
H C C Cl H H C C O C HC H
C H H H H C C O
phenols
O
H O H H H
H H H O H H O
R R H H
H C C O H C C N

methanoic acid
O
C
O
alcohols H ester acyl chloride H
H
+ acyl chloride ethyl ethanoate phenyl benzoate

19.1 Carboxylic acids KC 19.2 Acyl chlorides KC 17.1 Alcohols KC

H H methylamine ammonia phenylamine H O

H O
R
H H basic O acidic POWER
H H H
H C C N increasing basicity H C C O H C C N H C C N
H H H
H C H
H H + –
H H H H
N O
– +
N N Cl

primary amine azo dyes hydrolysis amide reduction H

20.1 Primary amines KC 20.2 Amides KC 20.3 Amino acids KC

H H H H
Rh Pt Pd 3 3
O
N
O
Cl N N Cl M
H H
H H N

C C Pt Pt
H

C C Pt
H
N
NO x CO 2 4 2 2 4 H H H H

CO H2O Cl N Cl N
S M
O O

HC N2 1 1
H H H H

Homogenous and heterogenous Stereoisomerism in transition

8.3 catalysts including enzymes
KC 23.1 Synthesis of chiral drug molecules KC 12.4 metal complexes
KC

Polymerisation

?
O O O O
H H O O
F F
C A C N B N C A C N B N NYLON C A C N B N
Synthetic routes

H H

C C
H H H H

C C
n
n
H O H H
O O O O H H

C A C O B O C A C O B O TERYLENE H H
H C C O H C C N
H F F SUPERGLUE
n H H H n
n

21.1 Condensation polymerisation KC 21.2 Predicting the type of polymerisation 21.3 Properties of polymers KC

H H
hydrolysis A D
C C
polyesters
H H
n B E
polyamides
proteins C F

21.4 Degradable polymers KC 23.2 Synthetic routes KC

Copyright © UCLES 2018 Key: KC 1 KC 2 KC 3 KC 4 KC 5

 10 Analysis
Br2 C2H5Cl Rf = distance travelled by com pound
distance travelled by solvent

2.6 cm
2.1 cm
22.3 Mass spectrometry KC 22.1 Chromatography KC

Structure determination

Separating mixtures

H H H H H
[X in solvent 1]
Kpc = [X in solvent 2] H C C C
H C HC H

H H H H H

X (solute)

solvent 1

solvent 2

7.3 Partition coefficients KC 22.4 Carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy KC

NMR

H H
TMS
H C C O H

H H H

H C H

H H

H C Si C H

H H

H C H

22.5 Proton (1H) NMR spectroscopy KC

Key: KC 1 KC 2 KC 3 KC 4 KC 5
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