Network Topology

The arrangement of a network which comprises of nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver
is referred as network topology. The various network topologies are :

Types of Network Topology

a) Mesh Topology :

In mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via particular channel.

Every device is connected with another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as links.
 If suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in mesh topology, then total
number of ports that is required by each device is N-1. In the Figure 1, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence total number of ports required is 4.
 If suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in mesh topology, then total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In the Figure 1, there
are 5 devices connected to each other, hence total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of this topology :
 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Problems with this topology :
 Installation and configuration is difficult.
 Cost of cables are high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.
  Cost of maintenance is high.

b) Star Topology :

In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central
node and all others nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e. not
intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as
active hubs. Active hubs have repeaters in them.

A star topology having four systems connected to single point of connection i.e. hub.

Advantages of this topology :

 If N devices are connected to each other in star topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device require only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub.

Problems with this topology :

 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash
down.
 Cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

c) Bus Topology :

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single
cable. It transmits the data from one end to another in single direction. No bi-directional feature is in
bus topology.
A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via drop lines.

Advantages of this topology :

 If N devices are connected to each other in bus topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is 1 which is known as backbone cable and N drop lines are required.
 Cost of the cable is less as compared to other topology, but it is used to built small networks.
Problems with this topology :
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various
protocols are used in MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD etc.

d) Ring Topology :

In this topology, it forms a ring connecting a devices with its exactly two neighbouring devices.
A ring topology comprises of 4 stations connected with each forming a ring..

The following operations takes place in ring topology are :

1. One station is known as monitor station which takes all the responsibility to perform the
operations.
1. To transmit the data, station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token is
to be released for other stations to use.
2. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
3. There are two types of token release techniques : Early token release releases the token just
after the transmitting the data and Delay token release releases the token after the
acknowledgement is received from the receiver.
Advantages of this topology :
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
Problems with this topology :
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 Addition of stations in between or removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.

e) Hybrid Topology :

This topology is a collection of two or more topologies which are described above. This is a scalable
topology which can be expanded easily. It is reliable one but at the same it is a costly topology.
A hybrid topology which is a combination of ring and star topology.
Line coding

For reliable clock recovery at the receiver, one usually imposes a maximum run length
constraint on the generated channel sequence, i.e., the maximum number of consecutive ones or
zeros is bounded to a reasonable number. A clock period is recovered by observing transitions
in the received sequence, so that a maximum run length guarantees such clock recovery, while
sequences without such a constraint could seriously hamper the detection quality.
After line coding, the signal is put through a physical communication channel, either
a transmission medium or data storage medium. Sometimes the characteristics of two very
different-seeming channels are similar enough that the same line code is used for them. The most
common physical channels are:
The line-coded signal can directly be put on a transmission line, in the form of variations of the
voltage or current (often using differential signaling).
 The line-coded signal (the " baseband signal") undergoes further pulse shaping (to reduce its
frequency bandwidth) and then modulated (to shift its frequency) to create an "RF signal"
that can be sent through free space.
The line-codedsignal can be used to turn on and off a light source in free-space optical
communication, most commonly used in an infrared remote control.
The line-coded signal can be printed on paper to create a bar code.
The line-coded signal can be converted to magnetized spots on a hard drive or tape drive.

The line-coded signal can be converted to pits on an optical disc.

Switching techniques

Switched communication networks are those in which data transferred from source to destination is
routed between various intermediate nodes. Switching is the technique by which nodes control or
 switch data to transmit it between specific points on a network. There are 3 common switching
techniques:
1. Circuit Switching
2. Packet Switching
3. Message Switching
Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching is generally used in the public networks. It come into existence for handling voice
traffic in addition to digital data. How ever digital data handling by the use of circuit switching
methods are proved to be inefficient. The network for Circuit Switching is shown in figure.

Circuit Switching Network

 Here the network connection allows the electrical current and the associated voice with it to flow
in between the two respective users. The end to end communication was established during the
duration of call.
 In circuit switching the routing decision is made when the path is set up across the given network.
After the link has been sets in between the sender and the receiver then the information is
forwarded continuously over the provided link.
 In Circuit Switching a dedicated link/path is established across the sender and the receiver which is
maintained for the entire duration of conversation.
Packet Switching
In Packet Switching, messages are broken up into packets and each of which includes a header with
source, destination and intermediate node address information. Individual Packets in packet
switching technique take different routes to reach their respective destination. Independent routing of
packets is done in this case for following reasons:
 Bandwidth is reduces by the splitting of data onto different routes for a busy circuit.
 For a certain link in the network, the link goes down during transmission the the remaining packet
can be sent through the another route.

Packet Switching Network

 The major advantage of Packet switching is that they they are used for performing data rate
conversion.
 When traversing the network switches, routers or the other network nodes then the packets are
buffered in the queue, resulting in variable delay and throughput depending on the network’s
capacity and the traffic load on network.
 Packet switching contrasts with another principal networking paradigm, circuit switching, a
method which sets up a limited number of dedicated connections of constant bit rate and constant
delay between nodes for exclusive use during the communication session.
 In cases where traffic fees are charged, for example in cellular communication, packet switching
is characterized by a fee per unit of information transmitted.
Message Switching
In case of Message Switching it is not necessary to established a dedicated path in between any two
communication devices. Here each message is treated as an independent unit and includes its own
destination source address by its own. Each complete message is then transmitted from one device to
another through internetwork.

Message Switching Data Network

 Each intermediate device receive the message and store it until the nest device is ready to receive it
and then this message is forwarded to the next device. For this reason a message switching
network is sometimes called as Store and Forward Switching.
 Message switches can be programmed with the information about the most efficient route as well
as information regarding to the near switches that can be used for forwarding the present message
to their required destination.
 The storing and Forwarding introduces the concept of delay. For this reasons this switching is not
recommended for real time applications like voice and video.

Multiplexing
Muxing (or) multiplexing can be defined as; it is a way of transmitting various signals over a media
or single line. A common kind of multiplexing merges a number of low-speed signals to send over an
only high-speed link, or it is used to transmit a medium as well as its link with the number of devices.
It provides both privacy & Efficiency. The entire process can be done using a device namely MUX
or multiplexer, and the main function of this device is to unite n-input lines for generating a single
output line. Thus MUX has many inputs & single output. A device is called DEMUX or
demultiplexer is used at the receiving end which divides the signal into its component signals.
So It has single input and number of outputs.

Types of Multiplexing Techniques

Multiplexing techniques are mainly used in communication, and these are classified into three
types. The 3 types of multiplexing techniques include the following.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

1). Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

The FDM is used in telephone companies in the 20th century in long-distance connections for
multiplexing number of voice signals using a system like a coaxial cable. For small distances, low-
cost cables were utilized for different systems such as bell systems, K-and N-carrier, however, they
don’t let huge bandwidths. This is analog multiplexing used to unite analog signals. This type of
multiplexing is useful when the link’s bandwidth is better than the United bandwidth of the
transmitted signals.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

In FDM, signals are produced by transmitting various device modulated carrier frequencies, and then
these are united into a solo signal which can be moved by the connection. To hold the adapted signal,
the carrier frequencies are divided by sufficient bandwidth, & these ranges of bandwidths are the
channels through the different traveling signals. These can be divided by bandwidth which is not
used. The best examples of the FDM comprise signal transmission in TV and radio.
2). Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
In fiber communications, the WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing) is one type of technology.
This is the most useful concept in high-capacity communication systems. At the end of the
transmitter section, the multiplexer is used to combine the signals as well as at the end of receiver
section, de-multiplexer for dividing the signals separately. The main function of WDM at the
multiplexer is for uniting various light sources into an only light source, and this light can be changed
into numerous light sources at the de-multiplexer.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

The main intention of WDM is to utilize the high data rate capacity of the FOC (fiber optic cable).
The high data rate of this FOC cable is superior to the data rate of the metallic transmission cable.
Theoretically, the WDM is similar to the FDM, apart from the data transmission through the FOC in
which the multiplexing & de-multiplexing occupies optical signals. Please refer the link to know
more about Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) Working and Applications

3). Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

The Time division multiplexing (or) TDM is one kind of method for transmitting a signal over a
channel of particular communication with separating the time edge into slots. Like single slot is used
for each message signal.
 Time Division Multiplexing

TDM is mainly useful for analog and digital signals, in which several channels with low speed are
multiplexed into high-speed channels used for transmission. Depending on the time, every low-speed
channel will be assigned to an exact position, wherever it works in the mode of synchronized. Both
the ends of MUX and DEMUX are synchronized timely & at the same time switch toward the next
channel.

Types of Time Division Multiplexing

The different types of TDM include the following.

 Synchronous TDM
 Asynchronous TDM
 Interleaving TDM
 Statistical TDM

1). Synchronous TDM

The synchronous TDM is very useful in both analog as well as digital signals. In this type of TDM,
the connection of input is allied to a frame. For example, if there are n-connections in the frame, then
a frame will be separated into n-time slots, and for every unit, each slot is assigned to every input
line.

In the sampling of synchronous TDM, the speed is similar for every signal, as well as this sampling
needs a clock (CLK) signal at both the ends of sender & receiver. In this type of TDM, the
multiplexer assigns the similar slot for each device at every time.
2).Asynchronous TDM
In asynchronous TDM, for different signals, the rate of sampling is also different, and it doesn’t need
a general clock (CLK). If the device has nothing for transmitting, then the time slot is assigned to a
new device. The design of a commutator otherwise de-commutator is not easy & the bandwidth is
low for this type of multiplexing, and it is applicable for not synchronous transmit form network.
3). Interleaving TDM
The TDM can be imagined like two speedy rotary switches on the multiplexing & demultiplexing
surface. These switches can be rotated & synchronized in reverse directions. Once the switch releases
at the surface of multiplexer ahead of a connection, then it has a chance of sending a unit into the
lane. Similarly, once the switch releases at the surface of de-multiplexer ahead of a connection a
chance to receiving a unit from the lane. This procedure is named as interleaving.
4). Statistical TDM
The statistical TDM is applicable to transmit different types of data simultaneously across a single
cable. This is frequently used to handle data being transmitted through the network like LAN (or)
WAN. The transmission of data can be done from the input devices which are connected to networks
like computers, fax machines, printers, etc. The statistical TDM can be used in the settings of
telephone switchboards to control the calls. This type of multiplexing is comparable to dynamic
bandwidth distribution, and a communication channel is separated into a random data stream number.
Applications of Multiplexing
The applications of multiplexing include the following.
 Analog Broadcasting
 Digital Broadcasting
 Telephony
 Video Processing
 Telegraphy