ASSIGNMENT – 2

(Physical parameters such as color, odor, taste, pH, turbidity, TDS, TVS, TSS, oil)

GROUP – 1(ROLL NO. 1-15)

According to Einstein, two things are unlimited – “One is the universe, and the other is the
man’s foolishness”. We can only hope that the latter does not lead him to go no blindly
polluting his environment until he falls victim to his own folly.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

WATER 2
USES OF WATER 2
WATER POLLUTION 2
DEFINITIONS OF WATER POLLUTION 3
Water pollution is mainly caused by- 3
CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER 4
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 4
TURBIDITY 4
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 4
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE 4
APPLICATION OF TURBIDITY DATA 5
WATER SUPPLY 5
DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL WASTE TREATMENT 6
COLOR 6
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS: 6
PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE 6
INTERPRETATION AND APPLICATION OF COLOR DATA 7
TASTES AND ODOURS 7
MISCELLANEOUS TREATMENT 8
REMOVAL OF COLORS, ODORS AND TASTES FROM WATER 8
PH 9
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 9
TEMPERATURE : 10
SPECIFIC CONDUCTIVITY OF WATER : 10
SOLIDS 10
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 10
DISSOLVED AND UNDISSOLVED SOLIDS 11
VOLATILE AND FIXED SOLIDS 11
SETTLEABLE SOLIDS 12
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SOLIDS 12
DETERMINATIONS 12
DETERMINATIONS OF SOLIDS IN WATER SUPPLIES 12
TOTAL SOLIDS OR RESIDUE ON EVAPORATION 12
SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE 13
DISSOLVED AND SUSPENDED MATTER 13
SETTLEABLE SOLIDS 13
TOTAL SOLIDS OR RESIDUE ON EVAPORATION 13
SUSPENDED SOLIDS 14
APPLICATION OF SOLIDS DATA IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING PRACTICE. 14
OIL 15
COUNTER MAJORS 15
SOURCES OF OIL POLLUTANTS IN SEA WATER 16
IMPACTS 16
RECENT OIL SPILLS IN MARINE WATER 16
Counter measures against oil spills : 17
QUALITY STANDARDS FOR MUNICIPAL AND DOMESTIC SUPPLIES: 18
INDIAN STANDARDS : 18

water

Water is one of the abundantly available substances in nature. It is an essential constituent of all
animal and vegetable matter and about 75% of the matter of earth’s crust. It is also an essential
ingredient of animal and plant life. Water is distributed in nature in different forms, such as rain
water , river water, spring water and mineral water. Rain water is the purest form of naturally
occurring water .The rain water, however, is associated with dissolved gases such as CO 2, SO2,
NH3 etc. from the atmosphere. India, being a vast country, with an area of about 806 million acres,
has the rainfall constituting one of the most important and largest source of water.
Uses of water
Water is mostly used for industrial and municipal purposes. In order to ensure the right quality and
quantity of water for these purposes it is extremely important to monitor water supply
throughoutly taking all the aspects into consideration. The various factors to be considered for the
supply of water for any purpose are:

 The quantity of water available.

 Seasonal variation in quantity as well as quality.
 Analysis of water taking into consideration its chemical, physical, microscopical and bactereological
characteristics.
 Influence of industrial wastes, sewage etc. on the quality of water.
 Cost involved in getting continuous supply of required quality and quantity of water.

WATER POLLUTION

The word pollution is derived from the Latin word ‘POLLUTIONEM’, meaning defilement.
Today water resources have been most exploited natural system since man strode the earth .
Pollution of water bodies is increasing steadily due to rapid population growth, industrial
proliferation, urbanization, increasing living standards and wide spheres of human activities. Time
is, perhaps not too far when pure and clean water, particularly in densely populated, industrialized
water scarce areas may be inadequate for maintaining the normal living standards.
Ground water, rivers, seas, lakes, ponds and streams are founding it more and more difficult to escape from
pollution. Many rivers of the world receive heavy flux of sewage, industrial effluents, domestic and agricultural
wastes which consists of substances varying from simple nutrients to highly toxic hazardous chemicals.
In India, all the major 14 rivers e.g. Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Gomti, Kosi, Cauveri, Ravi , Sone , Jhelum ,
Narmada , Mahi , Tapti and Krishna are facing acute water pollution problems. In Varanasi alone about 35000
human bodies are cremated on funeral pyres every year. Most of the large rivers of world are nothing but open
sewers fit only to carry urban liquid wastes, half burnt bodies, poisonous pesticides and several other waste
products. Many of our lakes , including Dal and Nagin lake of Kashmir have become severely polluted with foul
odor , silt deposits and get choked due to excessive algal growth.

DEFINITIONS OF WATER POLLUTION

1) Alteration in physical , chemical and biological characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on
human and aquatic biota. (president’s science advisory committee, Washington, USA)
2) Addition of excess of undesirable substances to water that make it harmful to man, animal , and aquatic life, or
otherwise causes significant departures from the normal activities of various living communities living in and
around water.
3) Foreign substances , either from natural or anthropogenic sources, contaminated with water supplies , may be
harmful to life because of their toxicity, reduction of normal oxygen level of water , aesthetically unsuitable
and spread epidemic diseases. (World Health Organization, 1966)
4) Water is said to be polluted if it has not been of sufficiently high quality to be useful for man in present or
future. ( National Water Commission, 1975 )
5) Water gets polluted when its normal functions and properties are altered.
6) Pollution means the presence of any toxic substance in water that degrades the quality to constitute a hazard or
impair its usefulness. (United States Public Health Service )
Thus water pollution disturbs the normal uses of water for irrigation , agriculture , industries,
public water supply and aquatic life . It is now considered not only in terms of public health, but
also in terms of conservation, aesthetics and preservation of natural beauty and resources.

Water pollution is mainly caused by-

1) Natural process in which the decomposed vegetable , animal and weathered products are
brought into main water resources. All these processes are interdependent on each other and
lead to deterioration of natural environment . For instance, if organic waste is added to water ,
it will not only influence the chemical characteristics, but will also affect color , odor and
biological properties of water.
2) Anthropological processes such as industrial , agricultural , urban domestic , radioactive
,mining sources , use of pesticides and fertilizers by man etc. These pollutants are constantly
poured in water deteriorating it to such an extent that it becomes unfit for living communities .

CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

The raw and treated waters can be checked and analyzed by studying and testing their physical ,
chemical and microscopical characteristics . Our scope of study restricts us to explain only the
physical characteristics which goes like this:

Physical characteristics

Physical analysis of water is carried out in order to determine the physical characteristics of
water. The physical characteristics/parameters are turbidity, color , taste, odor , conductivity
and amount of solids in terms of TDS (Total dissolved solids) , TSS( Total suspended solids ) ,
TVS ( Total volatile solids ).

Turbidity
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The term turbid is applied to waters containing suspended matter that interferes with the passage
of light through the water or in which visual depth is restricted. If a large amount of suspended
matter such as clay , silt or some other finely divided organic materials are present in water, it will
appear to be muddy or cloudy or turbid .
Turbidity may be caused by a variety of materials . In glacier fed rivers and lakes most of the
turbidity is due to colloidal rock particles produced by the grinding action of the glacier. As rivers
descend from mountain areas onto the plains, they receive contribution of turbidity from farming
and other operations that disturb the soil. Under flood conditions , great amount of top soil are
washed to receiving streams. Much of this material is inorganic in nature but considerable amount
of organic materials are included. As the river progress toward the ocean , they pass through urban
areas where domestic and industrial wastewaters , treated or untreated , may be added. The
domestic waste may add great quantities of organic and some inorganic materials that contribute
turbidity. Certain industrial wastes may add large amounts of other inorganic substances that
produce turbidity. Organic materials reaching rivers serve as food for bacteria , and the resulting
bacterial growth and other microorganisms that feed upon the bacteria produce additional
turbidity. Inorganic substances such as nitrogen and phosphorous present in wastewater
discharges and agricultural runoff stimulate the growth of algae , which also contributes turbidity.
Since people donot like turbid water, the turbidity of raw water must be measured , and then
reduced by treatment to permissible values, so as to make it almost invisible to naked eyes.

Environmental significance

Turbidity is an important consideration in public water supplies for three major reasons.
1) AESTHETICS – consumers of public water supplies expect and have a right to demand turbidity
free water. Any turbidity in the drinking water is automatically associated with possible
wastewater pollution and the health hazards occasioned by it.
2) FILTERABILITY- filtration of water is rendered more difficult and costly when turbidity
increases. The use of slow sand filters has become impractical in most areas because high
turbidity shortens filter runs and increases cleaning costs. Satisfactory operation of rapid sand
filters depends upon the effective removal of turbidity by chemical coagulation before the
water is admitted to filters . failure to do so results in short filter runs and production of an
inferior quality water, unless filters of special construction are used.
3) DISINFECTION- disinfection of public water supplies is usually accomplished by means of
chlorine or ozone. To be effective , there must be contact between the agent and the organisms
that disinfectant has to kill.
In turbid waters, most of the harmful organisms are exposed to the action of the disinfectant .
However, in cases in which turbidity is caused by sewage solids, many of the pathogenic
organisms may be encased in the particles and protected from the disinfectant. For this and
aesthetic reasons the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has placed a limit of 1 unit of
turbidity as the maximum amount allowable in public water supplies.

APPLICATION OF TURBIDITY DATA

Turbidity measurements are of particular importance in the field of water supply. They have
limited use in the field of domestic and industrial waste treatment.

Water Supply

Knowledge of the turbidity variation in raw-water supplies is of prime importance to the

environmental engineer. He uses it in conjunction with other information to determine whether a
supply requires special treatment by chemical coagulation and filtration before it may be used for
a public water supply. Many large cities, such as New York, Boston, and Seattle, have upland or
mountain supplies whose turbidities are so low that treatment other than chlorination is not
required.
 Water supplies obtained from rivers usually require chemical flocculation because of high
turbidity. Turbidity measurements are used to determine the effectiveness of the treatment
produced with different chemicals and the dosage needed. Thus they aid in selection of the most
effective and economical chemical to use. Such information is necessary to design facilities for
feeding the chemicals and for their storage.

Turbidity measurements help to gauge the amount of chemicals needed from day to day in
the operation of treatment works. This is particularly important on “flashy” rivers where no
impoundment is provided. Measurement of turbidity in settled water prior to filtration is useful in
controlling chemical dosages so as to prevent excessive loading of apid sand filters. Finally,
turbidity measurements of the filtered water are needed to check on faulty filter operation.

Domestic and Industrial Waste Treatment

The suspended-solids determination is usually employed in waste treatment plants to determine

the effectiveness of suspended-solid removal. The determination to low and time-consuming, and
in plants employing chemical treatment, changes in chemical dosages have to be made rather
frequently. Turbidity measurements can be used to advantage, because of the speed with which
they can be made, to gain the necessary information. By their use, chemical dosages can be
adjusted to use the minimum amount of chemical while producing a high-quality effluent.

COLOR
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS:
Many surface waters, particularly those emanating from swampy areas, are often colored to the
extent that they are not acceptable for domestic or some industrial uses without treatment to
remove the color. The coloring material results from contact of the water with organic debris,
such as leaves, needles of conifers, and wood, all in various stages of decomposition. It consists
of vegetable extracts of a considerable variety. Tannins, humic acid, and humates, from the
decomposition of lignin, are considered to be the principal color of high potency.

Natural color exists in water primarily as negatively charged colloidal particles. Because of
this fact, its removal can usually be accomplished by coagulation with the aid of a salt having a
trivalent metallic ion, such as aluminum or iron.

Surface waters may appear highly colored, because of colored suspended matter, when in
reality they are not. Rivers which drain areas of red clay soils, such as those in the Piedmont area
of the South Atlantic states, become highly colored during times of flood. Color caused by
suspended matter is referred to as apparent color and is differentiated from color due to vegetable
or organic extracts that are colloidal and which is called true color. In water analysis it is
important to differentiate between apparent and true color. Color intensity generally increases
with increase in pH. For this reason recording pH along with color is advised.

Surface waters may become colored by pollution with highly colored waste waters.
Notable among these are wastes from dyeing operations in the textile industry and from pulping
operations in the paper industry. Dye wastes may impart colors of wide variety that are readily
recognized and traced. The pulping of wood produces considerable amounts of waste liquors
containing lignin derivatives and other materials in dissolved form. The lignin derivatives are
highly colored and quite resistant to biological attack. Much of this material is disposed off into
natural watercourses, adding color which persists for great distances. Considerable research is
underway to find an economical way of removing color from pulp-mill wastes.

PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE

Waters containing coloring matter derived from natural substances undergoing decay in swamps
and forests are not considered to possess harmful or toxic properties. The natural coloring
materials, however, give a yellow-brownish appearance to the water, somewhat like that of urine,
and there is a natural reluctance on the part of water consumers to drink such waters because of
the associations involved. Also, disinfection by chlorination of waters containing natural organics
results in the formation of chloroform, a problem of current concern.

It is the responsibility of any water purveyor, public or private, to produce a product that is
hygienically safe. Public health officials are aware of the fact that consumers will seek other
sources of drinking water if the public water supply is not aesthetically acceptable, no mater how
safe it may be from the hygienic viewpoint. Where waters are not aesthetically acceptable,
consumers often shun safe domestic supplies and use waters from uncontrolled springs or private
wells which may serve as foci for dissemination of pathogenic organisms. For this reason, waters
intended for human use should not have a color exceeding 15 units.

INTERPRETATION AND APPLICATION OF COLOR DATA

The color of surface waters utilized for domestic supplies is of major concern for reasons
mentioned above. Many industrial processes also require the use of color-free water. Removal of
color is an expensive matter when capital investment and operating costs are considered.
Therefore the water engineer, when developing or looking for new supplies, is always searching
for a suitable supply with a color low enough so that chemical treatment will not be required. This
“prospecting” may or may not be successful. If it is, he will use color data as one of the
parameters to satisfy his client that expensive chemical treatment is not necessary. If it is not
successful, he will use color data along with other information to prove that expensive chemical
coagulation and sand filtration are needed to produce an acceptable supply.

Before a chemical treatment plant is designed, research should be conducted to ascertain the
best chemicals to use and amounts required. In dealing with colored waters, color determinations
serve as the basis of the decisions. Such data must be obtained for proper selection of chemical
feeding machinery and the design of storage space.

Once operation of the treatment facilities has begun, color determinations on the raw and
finished waters serve to govern the dosages of chemicals used to ensure economical operation, and
to produce a low-color water that is well within accepted limits.
TASTES AND ODOURS

The dissolved organic materials or the inorganic salts, or the dissolved gases may impart tastes
and odors to the water, which generally occur together. Taste and odor may be caused by the
presence of : dissolved gases such as H2S, CH4, CO2, O2 etc., combined with organic matter;
mineral substances like NaCl, iron compounds, carbonates and sulphates of other elements; and
phenols & other tarry or oily matter, especially after chlorination. Some tastes, such as those
imparted by dissolved oxygen and dissolved carbon dioxide are generally desirable. Evidently,
for drinking purposes, the water must not contain any undesirable or objectionable taste & odor.
In order to remove the taste & odor from the raw water, the chemical composition of water must
first be ascertained, so as to determine as to what treatment, if any, is required to make its taste
and odor acceptable for domestic use.

The extent of taste or odor present in a particular sample of water is measured by a term
called odor intensity, which is related with the threshold odor. The threshold odor or threshold
odor number, as it is generally called, represents the dilution ratio at which the odor is hardly
detectable. Water to be tested is, therefore, gradually diluted with odor free water, and the
mixture at which the detection of odor by human observation is just lost, is determined. The
number of times the sample is diluted, represents the threshold odor number. Thus, if 40 ml
sample of water is diluted and is made 200 ml (till it just looses is taste or odor); then the
threshold number will be 5. For public supplies, the water should generally be free from odor, i.e.,
the threshold number should be 1 and should never exceed 3.

In routine examination of public supplies, odor is generally determined when water is cold;
although, however, it may change with change in temperature, sometimes not being noticeable
when cold. In thorough analysis of water, however, odor should be determined at different
temperatures, and results produced in tabulated form. Such analysis may help in revealing the
biological history of water.
Miscellaneous Treatment
Besides the normal treatment processes, such as, coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection ;certain
other special treatments are sometimes required in order to remove special minerals, tastes odors, colors etc. from
water. Dissolved gases such as CO2 or H2S,etc. may sometime be present in water, and may impart certain tastes
and odors, which are not removed under the conventional treatments. Dissolved CO2 also makes the water
corrosive. Organic matter derived from algae and other micro-organism may also impart tastes and odors which
may not be easily removed by the ordinary conventional methods. Similarly , the industrial waste water may
contain organic matter, such as phenols etc. which may create bad tastes and odors after chlorination. All these
aspects must be looked into, and steps taken to remove all the tastes and odors from water, so as to make it
attractive to the consumer’s tongue.

Removal of colors, odors and tastes from water

The special treatments which may be given to the water under special conditions for removing colors, tastes and
odors from it, are described below :
1) Aeration : under this process the water is brought in contact with air, so as to absorb O 2 and removeCO2 gas. It
also helps in removing H2S gas , Iron and manganese, killing bacterias to a certain extent. The aeration can be
carried out in following ways:
a) By using spray nozzles: in this method, water is sprinkled in air or atmosphere through special nozzles
which breaks the water into droplets, thus permitting the escape of dissolved gases. CO 2 gas is thus
considerably removed (upto 90% or so) in this method.
 b) By permitting water to trickle over cascades: water is allowed to fall from a certain height (1 to 3 m) and
during its fall it gets mixed up with atmospheric air.
c) By air diffusion: in this method compressed air is bubbled through the water so as to thoroughly mix with it
and complete the aeration.
d) By using trickling beds: in this method, the water is allowed to trickle down the beds of coke, supported
over the perforated bottom trays, and arranged vertically in series. The water is allowed to trickle down
from the top to the bottom bed. During the downward motion, the water gets mixed up with air and
aeration takes place.
Aeration, though helpful in removing Iron and Manganese besides removing volatile gases,
such as CO2 and H2S, yet cannot be relied upon to remove or even reduce the tastes and odor of
all kinds. However, the oxidation made possible by aeration, helps in removing oils and
decomposing products of algae and other aquatic vegetation , and thus helps in removing the
odors, tastes and colors due to their presence.
Aeration should, however, be used only to limited extent because too much of absorbed
oxygen will make the water corrosive and may necessitate the deaeration process.

2) Treatment with activated carbon: activated carbon is a specially treated carbon, which posses the property of
absorbing and attracting impurities, such as gases, liquids and finely divided solids. Because of its excellent
property of absorbing impurities, it is widely used for removing tastes and odors from public supplies.
The use of activated carbon may thus serve the following advantages:
a) When used in powdered form before coagulation, it aids in coagulation.
b) It reduces the chlorine demand of treated water.
c) It removes the organic matter present in water.
d) It removes the tastes, odors and colors caused by the presence of Iron, Manganese, phenol, excess chlorine,
hydrogen sulfide etc.
e) Its overdose is not harmful.

3) Treatment with copper sulfate : copper sulfate helps in removing colors, tastes and odors from water. It may be
added to the treated water in distribution pipes, but its main advantage is obtained by adding it to the open
reservoirs or lakes. The chief function served by the copper sulfate in the reservoirs is to kill the algae or to
rather check the growth of algae , even before its production. These algae, if permitted to complete their life
cycle, or killed after attaining their growth, gives off oils and other decomposing products which impart highly
disagreeable tastes and odors to the water. The use of copper sulfate at the proper time will help in preventing
the growth of such algae, and thereby keeping the water free from the bad tastes and odors likely to be caused
by them.
Since copper sulfate may sometimes prove detrimental to fish life, it is necessary to workout
carefully its dose requirements for reservoirs and lakes; keeping in view the concentration
required for killing the types of algae present and also the tolerance limits of fish present in that
water.

4) Treatment with oxidizing agents : the colors, tastes and odors from the water may also be removed by
oxidizing the organic matter responsible for them. The oxidizing agents commonly used are KMnO 4, Cl2 , O3
etc. Chlorine also helps in removing the organic matter, provided sufficient doses are used.
Chlorine dioxide gas, ozone etc. may also be used as oxidizing agents for obtaining good tasty
water, but their use has not been found economical.

pH
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

pH is a term used rather universally to express the intensity of the acid or alkaline condition of a
solution. It is a way of expressing the hydrogen-ion concentration, or more precisely, the
hydrogen-ion activity. It is important in almost every phase of environmental engineering
practice. In the field of water supplies, it is a factor that must be considered in chemical
coagulation, disinfection, water softening, and corrosion control. In waste water treatment
employing biological processes, pH must be controlled within a range favorable to the particular
organisms involved. Chemical processes used to coagulate waste waters, dewater sludges, or
oxidize certain substances, such as cyanide ion, require that the pH be controlled within rather
narrow limits. For these reasons and because of the fundamental relationships that exist between
pH, acidity, and alkalinity, it is very important to understand the theoretical as well as the practical
aspects of pH.
The pH value of water indicates the logarithm of reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration present
in water. It is thus an indicator of acidity or alkalinity of water.
Since the pH is the log of reciprocal of H+, the higher values of pH means lower hydrogen ion
concentrations, and thus represent alkaline solutions; whereas, the lower values of pH means
higher hydrogen ion concentrations representing acidic solutions.

TEMPERATURE :
Testing the temperature of water has usually no practical significance in the sense that it is not
usually possible to give any treatment to control the temperature of water.

SPECIFIC CONDUCTIVITY OF WATER :

The total amount of dissolved salts present in water can be easily estimated by measuring
the specific conductivity of water. The specific conductivity of water is determined by means of a
portable dionic water tester and is expressed in micro-mhos per cm at 25 0C. [Mho is the unit if
conductivity and equals 1 ampere/1 volt.] The specific conductivity of water in micromhos per
cm at 250C is multiplied by a coefficient (generally 0.65)so as to directly obtain the dissolved salt
content in milligrams per litre (mg/1_ or ppm. The exact value of this coefficient depends upon
the type of salts present in water.

SOLIDS
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The environmental engineer is concerned with the measurement of solid matter in a wide variety
of liquid and semiliquid materials ranging from potable waters through polluted waters, domestic
and industrial wastes, and sludges produced in treatment processes. Strictly speaking, all matter
except the water contained in liquid materials is classed as solid matter. The usual definition of
solids, however, refers to the matter that remains as residue upon evaporation and drying at 103 0C
to 1050C. All materials that exert significant vapor pressure at such temperatures are, of course,
lost during the evaporation and drying procedures. The residue, or solids, remaining represent
only those materials present in a sample that have a negligible vapor pressure at 1050C.

Because of the wide variety of inorganic and organic materials encountered in the analyses
for solids, the tests are empirical in character and relatively simple to perform. Gravimetric
methods are used in almost all cases. Exceptions are the measurement of settleable solids and the
estimation of dissolved solids by specific conductance measurements. The major problems in the
analyses for solids are concerned with specific tests designed to gain information on the amounts
of various kinds of solids present, e.g., dissolved, suspended, volatile, and fixed.
DISSOLVED AND UNDISSOLVED SOLIDS
The amount and nature of dissolved and undissolved matter occurring in liquid materials vary
greatly. In potable waters, most of the matter is in dissolved from and consists mainly of
inorganic salts, small amounts of organic matter, and dissolved gases. The total solids content of
potable waters usually ranges from 20 to 1000 mg/1, and as a rule, hardness increases with total
solids. In all other liquid materials, the amounts of undissolved colloidal and suspended matter
increase with the degree of pollution. Sludges represent an extreme case in which most of the
solid matter is undissolved, and the dissolved fraction is of minor importance. Determination of
the amounts of dissolved and undissolved matter is accomplished by making tests upon filtered
and unfiltered portions of samples. The undissolved substances are usually referred to as
suspended matter or suspended solids.
VOLATILE AND FIXED SOLIDS
One of the major objectives of performing solids determinations upon domestic wastes, industrial
wastes, and sludge samples is to obtain a measure of the amount of organic matter present. This
test is accomplished by a combustion procedure in which organic matter is converted to carbon
dioxide and water, while the temperature is controlled to prevent decomposition and volatilization
of inorganic substances as much as is consistent with complete oxidation of the organic matter.
The loss in weight is interpreted in terms of organic matter.

The standard procedure is to conduct ignitions at 600 0C. It is about the lowest temperature
at which organic matter, particularly carbon residues resulting from pyrolysis of carbohydrates
and other organic matter can be oxidized at reasonable speed.

Cx(H2O)y == xC + yH2O
C + O2 == CO2

Also, at 6000C decomposition of inorganic salts is minimized. Any ammonium compounds not
released during drying are volatilized, but most other inorganic salts are relatively stable, with the
exception of magnesium carbonate, as shown in the equation.

MgCO3 == MgO + CO2

In the determination of the volatile content of suspended solids, dissolved inorganic salts
are not a consideration because they are removed during the filtration procedure. In sludge
analysis, the ammonium compounds exist mainly as ammonium bicarbonate, are completely
volatilized during the evaporation and drying procedures, and are not present to interfere in a
volatile solids determination.
NH4HCO3 == NO2+H2O+CO2

Other unstable inorganic salts present in sludge are normally in such small amounts in relation to
the amount of total solids that their influence is usually ignored.

Serious errors can be introduced in volatile-solids determinations by conducting ignitions at

uncontrolled temperatures. For this reason it is standard practice to conduct combustions in a
muffle furnace where the temperature can be accurately controlled. Calcium carbonate is
decomposed at temperatures above 8250C, and since it is a major component of the inorganic salts
normally present in samples subjected to volatile-solids analysis, its decomposition can introduce
significant errors.

Unless care is exercised in the initial stages, the determination of volatile solids in sludges
is often subject to serious error because of physical or mechanical losses due to decrepitation
during the procedure. Decrepitation may be eliminated by a preliminary controlled firing of
samples with a bunsen burner to destroy all flammable materials before placing the samples in the
muffle furnace. If ignitions are properly performed, the weight loss incurred is a reasonably
accurate measure of organic matter, and the residue remaining represents the ash or fixed solids.
SETTLEABLE SOLIDS
The term settleable solids is applied to solids in suspension that will settle, under quiescent
conditions, because of the influence of gravity. Only the coarser suspended solids with a specific
gravity greater than that of water will settle. Sludges are accumulations of settleable solids. Their
measurement is important in engineering practice to determine the need for sedimentation units
and the physical behavior of waste streams entering natural bodies of water
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SOLIDS

DETERMINATIONS

The amount of dissolved solids present in water is a consideration in its suitability for domestic
use. In general, waters with a total solids content of less than 500 mg/1 are most desirable for
such purposes. Waters with higher solids content often have a laxative and sometimes the reverse
effect upon people whose bodies are not adjusted to them. This is important to people who travel
and to the transportation companies who are interested in the welfare of their passengers. In
many areas, it is impossible to find natural waters with a solids content under 500 mg/1;
consequently it is impossible to meet this desired level without some form of treatment. In many
instances, treatment to reduce the solids content is not practiced, and residents who regularly use
such waters appear to suffer no ill effects. Standards generally recommend an upper limit of 1000
mg/1 on potable waters.
DETERMINATIONS OF SOLIDS IN WATER SUPPLIES
Because of the wide variety of materials subjected to solids determinations, the tests applied vary
somewhat, and it is best to discuss them in terms of water, polluted waters, and sludges.
Dissolved solids are the major concern in water supplies; therefore the total-solids determination
and the specific conductance measurement are of greatest interest. Suspended-solids tests are
seldom made because of the small amounts present. They are more easily evaluated by
measurement of turbidity.
TOTAL SOLIDS OR RESIDUE ON EVAPORATION
The determination of total solids is easily made by evaporation and drying of a measured sample
in a tarred container. The use of platinum dishes is highly recommended because of the ease with
which they can be brought to constant weight before use. Vycor ware is a good substitute. The
use of porcelain dishes is to be avoided because of their tendency to change weight.

The determination of volatile solids (organic content) is ordinarily not a consideration in

waters intended for domestic use. The results obtained cannot be interpreted in terms of organic
matter with any degree of reliability. In cases in which the organic content of a water is
important, it is usually best to obtain such information by means of a COD, BOD, or organic
carbon determination.
SPECIFIC CONDUCTANCE
A rapid estimation of the dissolved-solids content of a water supply can be obtained by specific-
conductance measurements. Such measurements indicate the capacity of a sample to carry an
electrical current, which in turn is related to the concentration of ionized substances in the water.
Most dissolved inorganic substances in water supplies are in the ionized form and so contribute to
the specific conductance. Although this measurement is affected by the nature of the various ions,
their relative concentrations, and the ionic strength of the water, such measurements can give a
practical estimate of the variations in dissolved mineral content of a given water supply. Also, by
the use of an empirical factor, specific conductance can allow a rough estimate to be made of the
dissolved mineral content of water samples.
DISSOLVED AND SUSPENDED MATTER
In cases in which turbidity measurements are not deemed adequate to provide the necessary
information, the suspended solids may be determined by filtration through a Gooch crucible in the
usual manner. Because of the small amounts of suspended solids usually present in water
supplies, the determination is subject to considerable error unless an abnormally large sample is
filtered. The preferred technique is to filter a sample of water through filter paper and determine
total solids in the filtrate. The difference between total solids in unfiltered and filtered samples is
a measure of the suspended solids present.
SETTLEABLE SOLIDS
The determination of settleable solids is of particular importance in the analysis of wastewaters.
The test is ordinarily conducted in an 1mhoff cone allowing 1 h settling time under quiescent
conditions. Samples should be adjusted to near room temperature and the test conducted in a
location where direct sunlight does not interfere with normal settlement of the solids. Results are
measured and reported in terms of milliliters per liter.
TOTAL SOLIDS OR RESIDUE ON EVAPORATION
Total-solids determinations are ordinarily of little value in the analysis of polluted waters and
domestic wastewaters because they are difficult to interpret with any degree of accuracy. In most
instances the dissolved solids present in the original water represent such a large and variable
percentage of the total amount found in the polluted wastewaters that it is impossible to evaluate
data, unless the amount of solids, originally present in the carriage water is known. The test was
originally devised as a means of evaluating the amount of polluting matter present in waste
waters. Since the BOD and COD tests are capable of evaluating the strength of such materials
much more exactly, there is little justification for running total-solids tests for such purposes.

Some waste treatment processes, particularly those involving sedimentation, are adversely
affected by radical changes in the density of wastewater. In coastal cities, seawater often gains
access to sewer systems at times of high tife, and in industrial cities, intermittent discharge of
highly mineralized wastes may occur. Both can cause significant changes in density. The total-
solids test can be used to good advantage to detect such changes, although such contamination can
be detected more easily by the chloride determination or by specific conductance measurements.
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
The suspended-solids determination is extremely valuable in the analysis of polluted waters. It is
one of the major parameters used to evaluate the strength of domestic wastewaters and to
determine the efficiency of treatment units. In stream-pollution-control work, all suspended solids
are considered to be settleable solids, as time is not a limiting factor. Deposition is expected to
occur through biological and chemical flocculation; therefore measurement of suspended solids is
considered fully as significant as BOD.

The suspended-solids determination is subject to considerable error if proper precautions are not
taken. Usually the sample size is limited to 50 ml or less because of difficulties encountered in
filtration of larger samples. The weight of solids removed seldom exceeds 20 mg and is often less
than 10 mg. Small errors in weighing or losses of filter mat can be quite significant. It is
extremely important that the Gooch crucibles be carefully prepared and brought to constant weight
before use. Sufficient sample should be filtered, if possible, to yield an increase in weight of
about 10 mg. This often requires the filtration of 500 ml or more of samples of biologically
treated wastewaters or lightly polluted waters.

The volatile content of suspended solids can be determined by direct ignition in the muffle
furnace because the amount of solids involved is too small for decrepitation to occur. Suspended
solids often contain as much as 80 percent of volatile matter. The fixed solids remaining
frequently weigh less than 2 mg. This illustrates why it is so very important to use Gooch
crucibles that have been brought to constant weight. It often happens that a crucible plus fixed
solids weighs less than the original tare weight. This indicates that the crucible used had not been
brought to constant weight or that loss of filter mat occurred during the filtration process. A
similar error can be caused by weighing crucibles before they have returned to room temperature.

An alternate procedure for measurement of suspended solids makes use of a glass-fiber

filter instead of a Gooch crucible. This results in a considerable saving in time, because prior
filter preparation is not required, and both filtration and weighing can be more rapidly performed.
Most important, experience has shown that students can learn to conduct the analysis much more
rapidly, and the results of their analyses are quite consistent compared with results obtained by
using Gooch crucibles. The volatile content of suspended solids can be determined by placing the
glass-fiber filter in a muffle furnace. The filter is not destroyed by this procedure, provided that
certain precautions are taken. A temperature of 600 0C is near the melting point of the filter, and
for this reason it should not be left in the furnace for more than 5 to 10 minutes. This problem can
be minimized by using a combustion temperature of 5800C. A slight weight loss occurs in the
filter during drying and combustion, and for this reason a blank filter should be subjected to the
same treatment as the sample filter so that an appropriate correction can be made.

Suspended solids are reported in terms of milligrams per liter, and volatile suspended solids are
normally reported in terms of percent of the suspended solids.
APPLICATION OF SOLIDS DATA IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING PRACTICE.
In the realm of public and industrial water supplies, the total-solids determination is the only one
of importance. It is used to determine the suitability of potential supplies for development. In
cases in which water softening is needed, the type of softening procedure used may be dictated by
the total-solids content, since precipitation methods decrease, and exchange methods increase, the
solids. Corrosion control is frequently accomplished by the production of stabilized waters
through pH adjustment. The pH at stabilization depends to some extent upon the total solids
present as well as the alkalinity and temperature.

The settleable-solids determination has two very important applications. First, it is used
extensively in the analysis of industrial wastes to determine the need for the design of primary
settling tanks in plants employing biological treatment processes. The test is also widely used in
waste-treatment-plant operation to determine the efficiency of sedimentation units. It is fully as
important in the operation of large treatment plants as in the smaller.

The suspended-and volatile-suspended-solids determinations are used to evaluate the

strength of domestic and industrial wastes. The tests are particularly valuable in determining the
amount of suspended solids remaining after settleable solids have been removed in primacy
settling units, for the purpose of determining the loading of remaining materials on secondary
biological treatment units. In the leading of remaining materials on secondary biological
treatment units. In the larger treatment plants, suspended-solids determinations are used routinely
as a measure of the effectiveness of treatment units. From the viewpoint of stream pollution
control, the removal of suspended solids is usually as important as BOD removal. Both suspended
and suspended solids determinations are used to control the aeration solids in the activated sludge
process.

The total and volatile-solids tests are the only solids determinations normally applied to
sludges. They are indispensable in the design and operation of sludge-digestion, vacuum-filter,
and incineration units.

OIL
The hazardous crude petroleum is a complex mixture of paraffines (25%) , cycloparaffines(20%), aromatic (5%)
and several toxic organic compounds.

Oil is also a potential hazard take for example, the Torrey canyon disaster. This oil tanker ran aground in the
English channel in March 18, 1967, spilling 95000 tonnes of its cargo of 117000 tonnes of crude oil into the sea.
Many efforts were made to destroy the oil . the Royal air force even dropped the incendiary bombs in order to burn
the split oil, but failed . we know that oil is highly inflammable and crude oil is a mixture of hundreds of different
chemicals, ranging from the highly volatile petrol with a low flash point to the viscous , tarry , high boiling point
components. The volatile petrol quickly evaporates from the sea water leaving other hydrocarbons difficult to
burn.

Counter majors
We can get rid of the oil leaks by emulsifying the oil with detergents. These are not related to the domestic variety
but consist of three fractions – the active ingredient, a solvent which gives them a characteristic smell, and a
surfactant which facilitates the penetration of the active ingredient in to the oil. Detergents emulsify the oil, which
breaks up into smaller drops.
It should be noted that oil broken into small droplets will mix with sea water, there by increasing the poisonous
effect of the oil. As a result, mass mortality of marine life takes place. Detergent should also be used in a proper
manner. On land their application should be followed by hosing water, otherwise the emulsified oil is expected to
sink deeper into the sand or mud. Moreover, the detergents only disperse the oil, they do not remove it. Thus the
oil will come out of its emulsified state and affect the areas again.
Some other majors to reduce the oil hazards are as follows:
1) The oil can also be removed from sight by using pulverized chalk and sodium stearate or by sand plus fuel ash
coated with a silicon compound to make it sink. But this harms the sea creatures living at the sea bottom.
2) A safer method is to spray stream on land. It also do not make use of poisonous chemicals. during spraying ,
the rocks can be hosed down with teepol or a soapy solution.
3) A more eco-friendly method is to use bacteria which are capable of eating up the oil(use of supergerm ).

Sources of oil pollutants in sea water

Major sources of oil pollution in sea water are as follows:
1) Cargo tanker washings at sea : A recent estimate indicates that about three million tonnes of oil are added
annually to the sea water by using sea water as ballast for empty tankers.
2) Import oil losses : Collisions in port contribute one million tonne of oil annually.
3) Bilge pumping at sea : The dumping of bilge contents by ships adds nearly 500000 tonnes of oil per year in sea
water, while total influx of oil into ocean has been 5 to 10 million tonnes annually.
4) Recent oil based technology and vessel accidents near sea shore add to extensive marine oil pollution.
5) It is estimated that two million tonnes of used lubricating oil are added every year to coastal waters.
6) Oil leakage from 20,000 miles of pipelines which cross waterways may undergo corrosion, cracks or punctures
and would lead to oil pollution in sea water.

Impacts
According to a report by department of ocean development, there are 40 heavily polluted areas along the Indian
coast . most of the metropolitan coast cities and thickly populated coastal towns are facing severe marine pollution
problems. Untreated domestic and industrial wastes are a serious problem off
Porbandar, Mumbai, Thiruvanantpuram , Tuticorin, Chennai, Kakinada, Kolkata and Vishakhapattanum.
Pollutants get accumulated in marine sediments, as, e.g. in Kochi back waters and Ennore (Chennai) estuary. It is
feared that heavy pollution from the expanding population may severely affect the marine organism.

Recent oil spills in marine water

1) Torry canyon accident –The world’s first disastrous consequences of an oil spill occurred in 18 March 1967
when a Liberian tanker, Torry canyon ran aground on the southwest coast of Great Britain, near the entrance
to the English channel , spilling 60,000 tonnes of crude oil into the sea. Oil splattered on to 160km coastline
killing countless number of fishes, birds and aquatic fauna.
2) In Jan 1969 occurred the second major oil spill off the coast of Santa Barbara in the United States when an
offshore oil blew out resulting in discharge of oil at the rate of1,000 gallons per hour spreading 10,000 tonnes
of oil over the water surface. It caused extensive destruction of the coastal marine fauna.
3) In 18 July 1973 , M.V.Cosmos Pioneer broke into two near Porbandar due to rough weather releasing
18,000 tonnes of light diesel oil. It caused considerable deterioration to the pelagic fisheries of the Gujrat coast.
4) In July 1976 , a Greek tanker disappeared in rough sea off Verval. Large slicks of oil were observed for
several days floating on the surface close to the Indian coast.
5) The leakage of 100,000 tonnes crude oil from the wreckage of tanker vessel Urquila near the Spanish coats
la coruna on 12 May 1976.
6) Bombay High oil slick : on 17 May ,1993 the Uran pipeline ruptured at an off-shore platform causing a 4 km
long and 400 m wide massive oil spill in Bombay. ONGC estimated that 3,000 cubic meters of oil was
spilled.
7) Earth summit polluted RIO’S beaches (3 to 14 June 1992): Brazilian scientists and environmentalists are
blaming the poor sewage treatment at Rio center , the main conference venue 30 miles outside the city center,
for a dramatic rise in pollution level in water bodies.
8) Disastrous gulf oil slick: The massive oil slick in the Gulf happened on Feb 1990 due to Iran-Iraq war .
The oil slick stretches over an area of 80 km long and 20 km wide. Moving towards south at a speed of 20 km
a day , the oil spill hit the shores of Bahrain , Qatar , Kuwait and UAE.

Counter measures against oil spills :

Several methods have been devised to deal with oil floating on the sea. These methods are as follows –
Physical methods-
1) Skimming the oil off the surface with a suction device .
 2) The floating oil can be absorbed using a suitable absorbing material like polyurethane foam. Choppered straw
and sawdust can also be used .
3) Chemicals can also be used to coagulate the oil.
4) By spreading a powder of high density over the oil patch by which oil can be sunk to bottom.
5) Chalk treated with stearate and 10% sand in water slurry removes the oil considerably.
Chemical methods –
1) Dispersion – A dispersant contains a surfactant, a solvent and a stabilizer which cause the oil to spread farther
and disperse. The solvent enables the surface-active agents to mix with it and penetrate into the oil slick
forming the emulsion. The stabilizer fixes the emulsion and prevents it from coalescing once it is formed.
2) Evaporation – evaporation removes about 50% of oil during an oil slick’s lifetime.
3) Emulsification – it is an effective weathering process in which water is incorporated into the floating oil
forming a water-in-oil emulsion. Such emulsion, containing 20 to 80 % water are often viscous and are called
“mousse”. Once mousse formation starts, cleanup operation becomes difficult , as it is almost impossible to
pump.
4) Absorbents- on applying to the oil slick , they absorb the oil and prevent it from spreading. Some absorbents
are peat moss, saw dust, straw, pine bark etc. synthetic absorbents are polystyrene, polyethylene,
polypropylene, and polyurethane.
5) Burning the oil slick – this method is comparatively less successful.
6) Using chemical additives - chemical additives can be used to solidify oil from water surface.
7) Floating booms – now floating booms are in common use in harbors and in areas where transfer of petroleum
products occur.

QUALITY STANDARDS FOR MUNICIPAL AND DOMESTIC SUPPLIES:

Municipal water required for domestic uses, particularly the water required for drinking, must be colorless,
odorless and tasteless. It should be free from turbidity and excessive or toxic chemical compounds. Harmful
microorganisms and radioactivity must be absent. The quality of water required for municipal supplies is, therefore
generally controlled throughout the world, and even W.H.O. has laid down its standards for potable waters.
In India, the standards for public water supplies are basically laid down by the recommendations of the
Environmental hygiene committee(1949) .These standard recommendations have further been utilized by the
Bureau Of Indian Standards in formulating the Indian Standard Drinking Water Specifications(1991), which
today stands as our national drinking water standards. These standards are given in table shown below :

INDIAN STANDARDS :
Permissible
Substance
Undesirable effect limits in the
or Requirement
S.N characteristi (desirable limits)
Outside the desirable absence of Remarks
limit alternate
cs
source
1. Color, Hazen Above 5 consumer Extended to 25
units, Max acceptance decreases only if toxic
5
25 substances are not
suspended,
2. a) test cold and
___ ___ when heated
Odor Unobjectionable
b) test at several
dilutions
3. Taste to be
___ conducted only
Taste Agreeable
after safety has
been established
4. Turbidity, Above 5 consumer
 NTU, Max 5 acceptance decreases 10 ___
5. Beyond this range, the
water will affect the
pH value 6.5 to 8.5 mucous membrane No relaxation ___
and/or water supply
system.