International Dental Journal 2011; 61: 287–296

REVIEW ARTICLE
doi: 10.1111/j.1875-595X.2011.00064.x

Herbs in dentistry
Jamile B. Taheri1, Somayyeh Azimi2, Nasrin Rafieian3 and Hosein Akhavan Zanjani4
1
Oral Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran; 2Oral Medicine, Qazvin University of Medical Science, Qazvin, Iran;
3
Oral Medicine, Hamedan University of Medical Science, Hamedan, Iran; 4Dentist, Tehran, Iran.

Herbs have been used for centuries to prevent and control disease. Herbal extracts are effective because they interact with
specific chemical receptors within the body and are in a pharmacodynamic sense, drugs themselves. By using herbal
medicines, patients have averted the many side effects that generally come with traditional medicines, but this does not mean
that side effects do not occur. Only knowledgeable practitioners can prescribe the right herb and its proper dosage. Herbal
medicines had been considered in every culture, however, pharmaceutical companies overturned this type of thinking. Now,
pharmaceuticals are called traditional and herbs are libeled as the ‘alternative’. The biggest challenge and problem is lack of
information about the effect of herbs in oral tissues, mechanism of effect, and side effects. Several popular conventional drugs
on the market are derived from herbs. These include aspirin (from white willow bark), digitalis (from foxglove), and sudafed
(modelled after a component in the plant ephedra). Herbal products can vary in their potency. Therefore, care must be taken
in selecting herbs, even so, herbal medicines have dramatically fewer side effects and are safer to use than conventional
medications. The herbs described in this article are Bloodroot, Caraway, Chamomile, Echinacea, Myrrh, Peppermint,
Rosemary, Sage, Thyme, Aloe Vera, Propolis, and a summary of other herbs that are useful in dentistry. Herbs may be good
alternatives to current treatments for oral health problems but it is clear that we need more research.
Key words: Oral health, oral health promotion

Practitioners and consumers of complementary and wraps are especially effective for sore, tense muscles
alternative medicine (CAM) are no longer at the such as those in the neck, shoulders, back, or jaw when
periphery of clinical practice1. Herbal medicine is a temporomandibular joint syndrome (TMJ) is pres-
popular form of CAM2. Herbs, botanically speaking, ent3,4.
are any plants that lack the woody tissue characteristic There is an urgent need for a use of Evidence Based
of shrubs or trees. More specifically, herbs are plants Herbal Medicine and the efficacy and safety of herbal
used medicinally or for their flavour or scent. Herbs remedies. The section on each herbal preparation
with medicinal properties are a useful and effective contains information on uses, pharmacology, evidence,
source of treatment for various disease processes. Many adverse effects, and interactions and cautions, along
drugs used in Western medical science called allopathic with dosages, and a summary of herbs that are useful in
medicine have their origin in medicinal plants3,4. dentistry. The evidence is associated with significant
Many who support herbal therapies, believe that adverse effects, interactions, or risks to certain popu-
extracting the chemical rather than using the whole lations with herbal medicine. The accumulation of
plant eliminates such active ingredients as minerals, evidence is a dynamic and rapid process with many new
volatile oils, bioflavonoids, and other substances that clinical trials of herbal remedies being undertaken and
support a particular herb’s medicinal properties3,4. published each year4. As a result, Evidence-Based
Herbs are used to cleanse the blood, warm and Herbal Medicine lacks the contribution of more recent
stimulate the body, increase surface circulation, trials on herbal products5–7. This article provides useful
increase elimination of wastes, reduce inflammation, information on use of herbs, especially in dentistry.
and calm and soothe irritation. Herbs may be used
internally as pills, syrups, and infusions, or externally
Bloodroot (Botanical name: Sanguinaria Canadensis)
as poultices, plasters, and liniments. A topical applica-
(Figure 1)
tion of clove oil, for instance, will stop the pain of
toothache. Moist herbal wraps, either hot or cold, can Alkaloids – principally sanguinarine – constitute the
be used on specific affected parts of the body. These primary active compounds in bloodroot. These are used
ª 2011 FDI World Dental Federation 287
Taheri et al.

Figure 1. Bloodroot (Botanical name: Sanguinaria Canadensis).

for gingivitis and periodontal disease and sometimes

used in toothpaste or other oral hygiene products
because they inhibit the growth of oral bacteria8,9.
Bloodroot tincture is sometimes included in cough- Figure 2. Caraway (Botanical name: Carum carvi).
relieving formulas, and 10 drops or less may be taken
three times per day10. irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)18,19. People using this
combination reported experiencing less pain and noted an
overall improvement in their bowel symptoms compared
Side effects
to those who took a comparable placebo. A combination
Although previous studies have suggested the long-term of caraway with the other carminative herbs (anise and
use of dental products containing sanguinarine is safe, a fennel) has shown to be helpful in flatulence and mild
recent report suggests that use of dental preparations abdominal cramping, especially in children. Some prop-
containing blood root may be associated with leukopla- erties of caraway include: antihistaminic, antimicrobial,
kia – a condition characterised by white spots or patches antiseptic, diuretic, expectorant, spasmolytic, caraway
in the mouth that is thought to be precancerous11,12. has been used as a flavour component in toothpaste,
Only small amounts of bloodroot should be taken, since mouthwash products, cosmetics and perfumes, and as a
amounts as small as 1 ml of tincture or 1 g can cause flavouring in foods. It is also a traditional remedy for
nausea and vomiting10,13. Long-term use or overdose of dyspepsia, intestinal colic, menstrual cramps, poor appe-
bloodroot can also cause stomach pain, diarrhoea, visual tite, laryngitis, and bronchitis20.
changes, paralysis, fainting, and collapse14. Long-term
oral intake of sanguinarine-contaminated cooking oils
Side effects
has been linked in India to glaucoma, oedema, heart
disease, miscarriage, and diarrhoea15. The plant is Caraway is generally safe for use. However, the purified
unsafe for use in children and should not be used by volatile oil should not be used by children under 2 years
pregnant or lactating women. Recently the practice of of age, as oil from caraway and other herbs in the
applying ointments containing bloodroot, such as the so- Umbelliferae family can be irritating to the skin and
called ‘black salve’, has been promoted for treatment of mucous membranes20,21.
skin and other types of cancer16.
Chamomile (Botanical name: Matricaria recutita)
Caraway (Botanical name: Carum carvi) (Figure 2) (Figure 3)
Caraway contains 3–7% volatile oil, with the main The flowers of chamomile contain 1–2% volatile oils22.
components divided into carvone (50–60%) and limo- Other active constituents include the flavonoids, apige-
nene (40%)10. Caraway may help in gingivitis or peri- nin, luteolin, and quercetin. These active ingredients
odontal disease (as a mouth wash) and to alleviate bowel contribute to chamomile’s anti-inflammatory, antispas-
spasm17. It has been used with success in combination modic, and smooth-muscle relaxing action, particularly
with enteric-coated peppermint oil in the treatment of in the gastrointestinal tract23–27.
288 ª 2011 FDI World Dental Federation
 Herbs in dentistry

Figure 3. Chamomile (Botanical name: Matricaria recutita).

It also is used for gingivitis and periodontal disease as

Figure 4. Echinacea (Common name: Purple coneflower).
a mouth wash. Topical applications of chamomile have
been shown to be moderately effective in the treatment
of eczema22. One double-blind trial found it to be about constituents may work together to increase the produc-
60% as effective as 0.25% hydrocortisone cream28. tion and activity of white blood cells (lymphocytes and
Topical use of chamomile ointment was also found to macrophages), including alkylamides ⁄ polyacetylenes,
successfully treat mild stasis ulcers bed sores in elderly caffeic acid derivatives, and polysaccharides The mouth
bedridden patients29. In dentistry chamomile is used as wash of Echinacea is effective in gingivitis and peri-
mouthwash to prevent periodontal disease. Chamomile odontal disease in combination with sage, peppermint
is often taken three to four times daily between meals as oil, menthol and chamomile36.
a tea. Common alternatives are to use 2–3 g of the herb
in tablet or capsule form or 4–6 ml of tincture three
Side effects
times per day between meals. One to two capsules
containing 300–400 mg may be taken three times daily. No acute or chronic toxicity reactions have ever been
Topical creams or ointments can be applied to the reported in the long history of use of echinacea.
affected area 3–4 times daily30. Chronic administration of echinacea to rats at doses
many times the human therapeutic dose produced no
toxic effects37.
Side effects
Several double-blind studies have confirmed the
Allergic reactions to chamomile have been reported31. benefit of echinacea for treating colds and flu38–40. In
These reactions have included bronchial constriction terms of other types of infections; research in Germany
with systemic use and allergic skin reactions with using injectable forms or an oral preparation of the
topical use32. While reports of such side effects are herb along with a medicated cream (econazole nitrate)
uncommon, people with allergies to plants of the reduced the recurrence of vaginal yeast infections as
Asteraceae family (ragweed, aster, and chrysanthe- compared to women given the cream alone41.
mums), as well as mugwort pollen should avoid using
chamomile33. Chamomile is usually considered to be
Myrrh (Botanical name: Commiphora molm) (Figure 5)
safe during pregnancy or breast-feeding. However,
there is one case report in which a pregnant woman The three main constituents of myrrh are the resin, the
who took chamomile as an enema had an allergic gum, and the volatile oil. The resin has reportedly been
reaction that led to the death of her newborn34. shown to kill various microbes and to stimulate macro-
phages42. Myrrh also has astringent properties and has a
soothing effect on inflamed tissues in the mouth and
Echinacea (Common name: Purple coneflower)
throat. Studies continue on the potential anticancer and
(Figure 4)
pain-relieving actions of myrrh resin43,44.
Echinacea is thought to support the immune system by In a preliminary trial, patients with a parasitic
activating white blood cells35. Three major groups of infection were treated with a combination of resin
ª 2011 FDI World Dental Federation 289
Taheri et al.

Figure 6. Peppermint (Botanical name: Mentha piperita).

Figure 5. Myrrh (Botanical name: Commiphora molm).

decreased tension55. Topical peppermint oil alone

and volatile oil of myrrh, Myrrh is used for topical reduced pain in people with tension headaches as well.
treatment of mild inflammations of the oral and Peppermint may interfere with iron absorption. Pepper-
pharyngeal mucosa45. It is also used as a gargle to treat mint oil can be used for toothache by soaking a cotton
pharyngitis and tonsillitis and as a mouthwash for ball in the oil and placing it in the cavity or rubbing it on
gingivitis and ulcers46. Topical use is approved for the the tooth. Peppermint leaf tablets and capsules, 3–6 g per
treatment of small wounds, for nasal congestion from day, can be used as a mouthwash to relieve gum
the common cold, and for local application as an inflammation. For headaches, a combination of pepper-
anodyne to treat infections of the buccal cavity and ⁄ or mint oil and eucalyptus oil diluted with base oil can be
the oropharynx46,47. Myrrh tincture is used for inflam- applied to the temples at the onset of the headache and
mations of the gums and oral mucosa such as gingivitis every hour after that or until symptom relief is noted56.
and stomatitis48.
For making mouthwash, add 30–60 drops of tincture
Side effects
to a glass of warm water.
Apply the undiluted tincture to the affected areas on Peppermint tea is generally considered safe for regular
the gums or the mucous membranes of the mouth and consumption. Peppermint oil can cause burning and
paint with a brush or swab, 2–3 times daily. gastrointestinal upset in some people57. It should be
avoided by people with chronic heartburn, severe liver
damage, inflammation of the gallbladder, or obstruc-
Side effects
tion of bile ducts58. People with gallstones should
None known49. consult a physician before using peppermint leaf or
peppermint oil. Some people using enteric-coated
peppermint capsules may experience a burning sensa-
Peppermint (Botanical name: Mentha piperita)
tion in the rectum. Rare allergic reactions have been
(Figure 6)
reported with topical use of peppermint oil. Peppermint
Peppermint leaves yield approximately 0.1–1.0% vol- oil should not be applied to the face – in particular, the
atile oil which is composed primarily of Menthol (29– nose – of children and infants59.
48%) and menthone (20–31%)50. Peppermint oil is
classified as a carminative (prevents and relieves
Rosemary (Botanical name: Rosmarinus officinalisy)
intestinal gas)51. Peppermint oil or peppermint tea is
(Figure 7)
often used to treat gas and indigestion.
Three double-blind trials found that enteric-coated This volatile oil, including eucalyptol (cineole), is
peppermint oil reduced the pain associated with intesti- considered a potent antibacterial agent, it is effective
nal spasms, commonly experienced in irritable bowel in chronic candidiasis60 and to relax smooth muscles in
syndrome (IBS)51–53. Peppermint oil’s relaxing action the lungs61.
also extends to topical use. When applied topically, it Rosmarinic acid has antioxidant activity62 and
acts as an analgesic and reduces pain54. A trial of topical another ingredient of rosemary, known as carnosol,
peppermint oil applied to the temples of healthy has been shown to inhibit cancer formation in animal
volunteers (with or without eucalyptus oil) found that studies63. No human studies have confirmed rosemary’s
peppermint oil had a muscle-relaxing action and it use for these conditions. The oil possesses antibacterial
290 ª 2011 FDI World Dental Federation
 Herbs in dentistry

Figure 8. Sage (Botanical name: Salvia officinalis).

Figure 7. Rosemary (Botanical name: Rosmarinus officinalisy).

Sage is used to remedy inflammation of the mouth,
throat and tonsils68. For treatment, 3 g of the chopped
leaf can be added to 150 ml of boiling water and
and antifungal properties, and antimicrobial activity strained after 10 minutes69. This is then used as a
has been documented towards moulds, Gram-positive mouthwash or gargle several times daily. Alternatively,
and Gram-negative bacteria including Staphylococcus one may use 5 ml of fluid extract (1:1) diluted in one
aureus, Staphylococcus albus, Vibrio cholerae and glass of water, several times daily. For systemic use, the
Escherichia coli. Carnosol and ursolic acid inhibit a same tea preparation described above may be taken
range of food spoilage bacteria64. three times per day or as an infusion by pouring a cup
Tea can be prepared by adding two teaspoons (10 g) of boiling water onto 1–2 teaspoonfuls of the leaves
of herb to one cup (250 ml) of boiling water and and let infuse for 10 minutes. This should be drunk
allowing it to steep in a covered container for 10– three times a day. As a mouthwash: put two teaspoon-
15 minutes. This tea can be taken several times per day. fuls of the leaves in half a litre (one pint) of water,
Rosemary tincture, 1 ⁄ 2 to one teaspoon (2–5 ml) three bring to the boil and let stand, covered, for l5 minutes.
times per day, may also be used. The concentrated Gargle deeply with the hot tea for 5–10 minutes
volatile oil should not be taken systemically65. several times a day69.

Side effects Side effects

There is no evidence to indicate that intermittent intake Small amounts of sage for long periods of time may
of moderate amounts of rosemary poses any threat cause increased heart rate and mental confusion. Very
during breast-feeding. However, internal intake of the high amounts (several times greater than one receives if
herb and oil should be avoided during pregnancy taking sage as instructed above), may lead to convul-
because the oil may act as an agent that may induce sions.
abortion. Frequent use of rosemary could, in theory, Extracts of sage made with alcohol are likely to be
promote the development of iron deficiency in suscep- higher in thujone than those made with water. Sage oil
tible individuals66. should never be consumed without being first diluted in
water. Sage should not be used systemically during
pregnancy. These concerns do not extend to the use of
Sage (Botanical name: Salvia officinalis) (Figure 8)
sage as a gargle or mouthrinse. Sage should be avoided
The volatile oil of sage contains the constituent alpha- when fever is present68.
and beta-thujone, camphor, and cineole67. It also
contains rosmarinic acid, tannins and flavonoids. In
Thyme (Botanical name: Thymus vulgaris) (Figure 9)
modern European herbal medicine, a gargle of sage tea
is commonly recommended to treat a sore throat, The primary constituents are the volatile oils, which
inflammations in the mouth, and gingivitis68. Sage oil include the phenols, thymol and carvacol70. These are
has antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activity complemented by the actions of flavonoids. Thyme,
which may partially explain the effectiveness of sage either alone or in combination with herbs such as
for these indications68. sundew, continues to be one of the most commonly
ª 2011 FDI World Dental Federation 291
Taheri et al.

Figure 10. Aloe Vera.

Figure 9. Thyme (Botanical name: Thymus vulgaris).

recommended herbs in Europe for the treatment of dry, mercury amalgams acts as a scavenging agent for
spasmodic coughs as well as whooping cough71. mercury, a neuro-sedative and immune enhancer.
Use a salve made of thyme, myrrh, and goldenseal to Because of the many properties and functions of aloe,
treat oral herpes. Also use thyme to treat chronic it is a powerful nutritional supplement and anti-
candidiasis and halitosis71. oxidant. It protects and promotes healing. The gel has
A fluid extract, 1 ⁄ 4–3 ⁄ 4 teaspoon (1–4 ml) three been shown to be bactericidal and fungicidal against
times per day, can also be used72. Candida albicans (the cause of moniliasis or ‘denture
sore mouth76.
The aloe vera gel formula was found to be virucidal
Side effects
against Herpes simplex and Herpes zoster viruses and
Thyme herbal preparations are generally safe. How- to be just as effective as Prednisolone and Indometh-
ever, a spasmodic cough, particularly in a young child, acin, without having the long term toxicity of either
may be dangerous and a healthcare professional should drug77.
be consulted before deciding on the proper course of Aloe vera gel formula is nontoxic, bactericidal,
treatment. The use of thyme by pregnant or breast- veridical, and fungicidal against a broad range of
feeding women is considered to be safe. Thyme oil micro-organisms, and a stimulator of cellular life-
should be reserved for topical use, as when ingested it extension.
may lead to dizziness, vomiting, and breathing difficul- There are eight main uses of Aloe Vera in dental
ties73. Some people may be sensitive to use of thyme oil practice:
topically on the skin or as a mouthrinse73. • Applications directly to the the sites of periodontal
surgery
• Applications to the gum tissues when they have been
Aloe vera (Figure 10)
traumatised or scratched by toothbrush dentifrice
The components of aloe vera include: vitamins, abrasion, sharp foods, dental floss, and toothpick
enzymes, minerals, sugars, fatty acids, amino acids injuries
and salicylic74. Aloe vera (in the form of a gel) improves • Relief of chemical burns are relieved quickly from
healing and so can be used for burns, insect bites and accidents with aspirin
many other skin lesions. Aloe and propolis hand cream • Extraction sites respond more comfortably and dry
prevents skin damage resulting from frequent hand sockets do not develop when aloe vera is applied
washing and the wearing of latex gloves; the aloe • Acute mouth lesions are improved by direct applica-
activator spray is excellent for throat infections, tion such as on herpetic viral lesions, aphthous ulcers,
painfully erupting wisdom teeth and joint pains; aloe canker sores, and cracks occuring at the corners of lips.
juice can also be taken as a drink. This is used in Gum abscesses are also soothed by the applications
conjunction with any topical treatment for skin lesions, • Other oral diseases, chronic in nature, respond to
joint lesions and, in itself, as amelioration in irritable applications such as lichen planus and benign pem-
bowel syndrome75. phigus and gingival problems associated with AIDS
The juice is also a strong detoxifying agent and if and leukaemia. Migratory glossititis, geographic
used in conjunction with the planned removal of tongue and burning mouth syndrome are improved
292 ª 2011 FDI World Dental Federation
 Herbs in dentistry

• Denture patients with sore ridges and ill-fitting Propolis is available in several different preparations,
dentures can benefit as fungal and bacterial contam- including lozenges, tablets, creams, gels, mouth rinses,
ination is reduced as is the irritation from inflamma- toothpastes and cough syrups81.
tion
• Aloe vera can also be used around dental implants to
Summary of other herbs that are useful in dentistry82
control inflammation from bacteria contamination
Other oral disorders such as candidiasis, desquama- Alfalfa
tive gingivitis, vesiculobullous diseases, acute mono- • Useful in cases of haemorrhaging and fungal
cytic leukemia, hematological disorders and nutritional infections
problems all respond to aloe vera use as can diabetes Anises
mellitus, Sjorgen’s syndrome, menopausal patients and • An anti-inflammatory herb, anise is commonly used
those on medications which can cause xerostomia or in tea form to soothe the gums
dry mouth. Aloe vera has an unlimited future in new Annatto
applications, and in dentistry we are just on the cutting • Apply after tooth extraction or gum surgery
edge of promising uses for these anti-inflammatory, Black cohosh
antiviral, and immunological benefits74,75,78. • Use to relieve cramps in the jaw or neck
Burdock
• Burdock poultices are excellent for the relief of
Propolis
muscle tension and headaches associated with
A list of possible actions of propolis includes: antibac- temporomandibular joint disorders (TMJ)
terial, antifungal, antiviral (including anti HIV-1 activ- Catnip
ity), antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antithrombotic and • Drink catnip tea or take in capsules to help
immunomodulatory79. The mechanism of the possible relaxation before dental treatment
actions of propolis may be understood by reviewing Cayenne
research findings on some of the individual compounds • Saturate cotton with oil of cayenne and place it on
found in it. It is difficult to study the mechanism of an aching tooth for emergency relief
actions of more than one compound at a time. Chickweed
Therefore, the following descriptions apply only to • Chickweed mouthwash soothes inflamed, irritated
single compounds. The contribution of any single mouth tissues associated with oral cancer; it also
compound to the possible action of such a complex helps to relieve pain from canker sores and other
substance as propolis is difficult to establish80. Caffeic mouth sores
acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) inhibits the lipoxygenase Cloves
pathway of arachidonic acid, resulting in anti-inflam- • Rub oil of cloves on sore gums and teeth to ease
matory activity. CAPE is also known to have anticar- pain
cinogenic, antimitogenic and immunomodulatory prop- Comfrey
erties. CAPE has been found to completely inhibit the • Use as a compress to ease jaw tension and relieve
activation of the nuclear transcription factor NF-Kappa the pain of jaw and tooth fractures or adjustments
B by tumour necrosis factor (TNF), as well as by other to braces
pro-inflammatory agents. The inhibition of NF-Kappa Dandelion
B activation may provide the molecular basis for its • Dandelion is useful for treating abscesses in the
immunomodulatory, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflamma- mouth
tory and antiviral activities. It is possible that CAPE Elderberry
exerts its effects by inhibiting reactive oxygen species • Prepare mouthwash after gum surgery or after
(ROS) production. ROS are known to play a major role sutures have been placed
in the activation of NF-Kappa B. Compounds in Evening primrose
propolis found to have antibacterial activity include a • Rub evening primrose oil on sore, inflamed gums
polyisoprenylated benzophenone, galangin, pinobank- for temporary relief
sin and pinocembrin. The exact mechanism of antimi- Ginseng
crobial action of these compounds is not known. • Use in a tonic to promote circulation and to help
There is evidence that propolis has some broad repair irritated gum tissue
antimicrobial activity and that it may have anti- Goldenseal
inflammatory effects that could make it useful in the • When used as a toothpaste or mouthwash,
treatment of some forms of arthritis, among other goldenseal is excellent for soothing inflamed
disorders. There is also some evidence of anti-cancer gums
activity.

ª 2011 FDI World Dental Federation 293

Taheri et al.

Hops REFERENCES
• Prepare hop tea and drink as a remedy for 1. Marshall RJ, Gee R, Israel M et al. The use of alternative therapies
toothache by Auckland general practitioners. NZMJ 1990 103: 213–215.
Horsetail 2. Ministry of Health. NZ Food: NZ People. Key Results of the 1997
• Use a horsetail mouthwash to relieve mouth and National Nutrition Survey. Wellington: Ministry of Health; 1999.
gum infections 3. Duke JA. CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs. Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press; 1985, 424–425.
Kelp
4. Rotblatt M, Ziment I. Evidence based Herbal Medicine 2002.
• Kelp taken daily will help ensure healthy gums and Chap 1, 1–5.
bones 5. Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group. Effect of Hypericum
Lobelia perforatum (St John’ Wort) in major depressive disorder. JAMA
• Drink to ease jaw pain 2002 287: 1807–1814.
Marigold 6. Taylor JA, Weber W, Standish L et al. Efficacy and safety of
• Use marigold as a mouthwash to help relieve ulcers, Echinacea in treating upper respiratory tract infections in chil-
dren. JAMA 2003 290: 2824–2830.
and to relax muscles associated with tension in the
7. Shekelle PG, Hardy ML, Morton SC et al. Efficacy and safety of
jaw joint and pressure from braces ephedra and ephedrine for weight loss and athletic performance:
Marjoram a meta-analysis. JAMA 2003 289: 1568–1570.
• Prepare marjoram as tea. Drink hot to ease 8. Dzink JL, Socransky SS. Comparative in vitro activity of san-
headaches and relieve toothache pain guinarine against oral microbial isolates. Antimicrob Agents
Chemother 1985 27: 663–665.
Prickly ash
9. Hannah JJ, Johnson JD, Kuftinec MM. Long-term clinical eval-
• Use to increase the flow of saliva uation of toothpaste and oral rinse containing sanguinaria extract
Rockrose in controlling plaque, gingival inflammation, and sulcular bleed-
• Use rockrose mouthwash to soothe and heal canker ing during orthodontic treatment. Am J Orthod Dentofacial
Orthop 1989 96: 199–207.
sores and mouth ulcers
10. British Herbal Medicine Association Scientific Committee. British
Shepherd’s purse Herbal Pharmacopoeia. West Yorks, UK: British Herbal Medi-
• Use the fresh tops of shepherd’s purse to help stop cine Association; 1983.
bleeding after tooth extraction 11. Frankos VH, Brusick DJ, Johnson EM et al. Safety of Sanguinaria
Skullcap extract as used in commercial toothpaste and oral rinse products.
J Can Dent Assoc 1990 56(Suppl 7): 41–47.
• Drink skullcap tea to relieve anxiety before a dental
12. Eversole LR, Eversole GM, Kopick J. Sanguinaria-associated oral
appointment leukoplakia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod
Summer savory 2000 89: 455–464.
• Soak a cotton ball with summer savory oil and place 13. McGuffin M, Hobbs C, Upton R et al.(editors). American Herbal
it on a sore tooth or rub it on inflamed gums for Products Association’s Botanical Safety Handbook. Boca Raton,
temporary relief FL: CRC Press; 1997.
Violet 14. Felter HW, Lloyd JU. King’s American Dispensatory, 18th ed.
Sandy, OR: Eclectic Medical Publications; 1898, reprinted
• Mouthwash made from violets helps relieve the 1983.
pain and tenderness from sores caused by oral 15. Hakim SA. Sanguinarine – a carcinogenic contaminant in Indian
cancer edible oils. Indian J Cancer 1968 5: 183–197.
Wintergreen 16. Naiman I. Cancer Salves: A Botanical Approach to Treatment.
• The leaves have long been used to treat wounds and Santa Fe: Seventh Ray Press; 1999.
stop haemorrhages 17. Wichtl M. Herbal Drugs and Phytopharmaceuticals. Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press; 1994, 128–129.
• Wintergreen mouthwash is an excellent astringent
18. Schulz V, Hänsel R, Tyler VE. Rational Phytotherapy, 3rd ed.
and antiseptic Berlin, Germany: Springer Verlag; 1998, 180.
Wood betony 19. Freise J, Köhler S. Peppermint oil ⁄ caraway oil – fixed combina-
• Drink wood betony tea to promote relaxation tion in non-ulcer dyspepsia: equivalent efficacy of the drug
before a dental appointment combination in an enteric coated or enteric soluble formula.
Pharmazie 1999 54: 210.
Yarrow
20. Seo SM, Kim J, Lee SG et al. Fumigant antitermitic activity of
• Use yarrow mouthwash to promote healing of cuts in plant essential oils and components from Ajowan (Trachy-
the mouth due to surgery, tooth cleaning, and braces spermum ammi), Allspice (Pimenta dioica), caraway (Carum
carvi), dill (Anethum graveolens), Geranium (Pelargonium
Acknowledgements graveolens), and Litsea (Litsea cubeba) oils against Japanese ter-
mite (Reticulitermes speratus Kolbe). J Agric Food Chem 2009
57: 6596–6602.
This article was based on a undergraduate thesis by Dr
Zanjani, which was successfully completed with the 21. Schilcher H. Phytotherapy in Paediatrics, 2nd ed. Stuttgart,
Germany: Medpharm Scientific Publishers; 1997, 49.
close cooperation of the Oral Medicine Department of
22. Nissen HP, Blitz H, Kreyel HW. Prolifometrie, eine methode zur
the Dental School of Shahid Beheshti, University of beurteilung der therapeutischen wirsamkeit kon Kamillosan-
Medical Sciences. Salbe. Z Hautkr 1988 63: 184–190.

294 ª 2011 FDI World Dental Federation

 Herbs in dentistry

23. Wichtl M. Herbal Drugs and Phytopharmaceuticals. Boca Raton, 43. Al-Harbi MM, Qureshi S, Raza M et al. Anticarcinogenic effect
FL: CRC Press; 1994, 322–325. of Commiphora molmol on solid tumors induced by Ehrlich
24. Jakolev V, Isaac O, Thiemer K et al. Pharmacological investiga- carcinoma cells in mice. Chemotherapy 1994 40: 337–347.
tions with compounds of chamomile. II. New investigations on 44. Dolara P, Luceri C, Ghelardini C et al. Analgesic effects of myrrh.
the antiphlogistic effects of (-)-alpha-bisabolol and bisabolol Nature 1996 376: 29.
oxides. Planta Med 1979 35: 125–140. 45. Sheir Z, Nasr AA, Massoud A et al. A safe, effective, herbal an-
25. Jakolev V, Isaac O, Flaskamp E. Pharmacological investigations tischistosomal therapy derived from myrrh. Am J Trop Med Hyg
with compounds of chamomile. VI. Investigations on the anti- 2001 65: 700–704.
phlogistic effects of chamazulene and matricine. Planta Med 1983 46. Bradley PR (editor). British Herbal Compendium, Vol. 1.
49: 67–73. Bournemouth: British Herbal Medicine Association; 1992.
26. Della Loggia R, Tubaro A, Dri P et al. The role of flavonoids in 47. Bruneton J. Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry, Medicinal Plants.
the antiinflammatory activity of Chamomilla recutita. In: Cody Paris: Lavoisier Publishing; 1995.
V, Middleton E, Harbone JB, editors. Plant Flavonoids in Biology
and Medicine: Biochemical, Pharmacological, and Structure- 48. Braun R et al. Standardzulassungen f r Fertigarzneimittel – Text
Activity Relationships. New York: Alan R. Liss; 1986. p. 481– and Kommentar. Stuttgart: Deutscher Apotheker Verlag; 1997.
484. 49. Abdul-Ghani RA, Loutfy N, Hassan A. Myrrh and trematodoses
27. Achterrath-Tuckermann U, Kunde R, Flaskamp E et al. Phar- in Egypt: an overview of safety, efficacy and effectiveness profiles.
macological investigations with compounds of chamomile. V. Parasitol Int 2009 58: 210–214. Epub 2009 May 13.
Investigations on the spasmolytic effect of compounds of cham- 50. Bradley PR (editor). British Herbal Compendium, vol 1.
omile and Kamillosan on the isolated guinea pig ileum. Planta Bournemouth, Dorset UK: British Herbal Medicine Association;
Med 1980 39: 38–50. 1992, 174–176.
28. Aergeerts P, Albring M, Klaschka F et al. Vergleichende prüfung 51. Tyler VE. Herbs of Choice: The Therapeutic Use of Phytomed-
von Kamillosan-creme gegenüber seroidalen (0.25% hydro- icinals. Binghamton, NY: Pharmaceutical Products Press; 1994,
cortison, 0.75% flucotinbutylester) and nichseroidaseln (5% 56–57.
bufexamac) externa in der erhaltungsterpaie von ekzemerkrank-
52. Dew MJ, Evans BK, Rhodes J. Peppermint oil for the irritable
ungen. Z Hautkr 1985 60: 270–277.
bowel syndrome: a multicenter trial. Br J Clin Pract 1984 38:
29. Glowania HJ, Raulin C, Swoboda M. The effect of chamomile on 394–398.
wound healing - a controlled, clinical, experimental double-blind
53. Liu J-H, Chen G-H, Yeh H-Z et al. Enteric-coated peppermint-
trial. Z Hautkr 1987 62: 1262–1271.
oil capsules in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: a
30. Srivastava JK, Pandey M, Gupta S. Chamomile, a novel and prospective, randomized trial. J Gastroenterol 1997 32: 765–
selective COX-2 inhibitor with anti-inflammatory activity. Life 768.
Sci 2009 85: 663–669.
54. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A et al. (editors). The
31. Brown DJ. Herbal Prescriptions for Better Health. Rocklin, CA: Complete Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to
Prima Publishing; 1996, 49–56. Herbal Medicines. Boston, MA: Integrative Medicine Commu-
32. Foti C, Nettis E, Panebianco R et al. Contact urticaria from nications; 1998, 180–182.
Matricaria chemomilla. Contact Derm 2000 42: 360–361. 55. Göbel H, Schmidt G, Dwoshak M et al. Essential plant oils and
33. Reider N, Sepp N, Fritsch P et al. Anaphylaxis to chamomile: headache mechanisms. Phytomedicine 1995 2: 93–102.
clinical features and allergen cross-reactivity. Clin Exp Allergy 56. Göbel H, Schmidt G, Soyka DS. Effect of peppermint and euca-
2000 30: 1436–1443. lyptus oil preparations on neurophysiological and experimental
34. Jensen-Jarolim E, Reider N, Fritsch R et al. Fatal outcome of algesimetric headache parameters. Cephalalgia 1994 14: 228–
anaphylaxis to chamomile-containing enema during labor: a case 234.
study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998 102: 1041–1042. 57. Wichtl M. Herbal Drugs and Phytopharmaceuticals. Boca Raton,
35. See DM, Broumand N, Sahl L et al. In vitro effects of echinacea FL: CRC Press; 1994, 336–338.
and ginseng on natural killer and antibody-dependent cell cyto- 58. Sigmund DJ, McNally EF. The action of a carminative on the
toxicity in healthy subjects and chronic fatigue syndrome or ac- lower esophageal sphincter. Gastroent 1969 56: 13–18.
quired immunodeficiency syndrome patients. Immunpharmacol
59. Kligler B, Chaudhary S. Peppermint oil. Am Fam Physician 2007
1997 35: 229–235.
75: 1027–1030.
36. Modarai M, Silva E, Suter A et al. Safety of herbal medicinal
60. Huhtanen C. Inhibition of Clostridium botulinum by spice
products: Echinacea and selected alkylamides do not induce
extract and aliphatic alcohols. J Food Protect 1980 43: 195–196.
CYP3A4 mRNA expression. Evid Based Complement Alternat
Med 2009 Nov 11. [Epub ahead of print] 61. Aqel MB. Relaxant effect of the volatile oil of Rosmarinus offi-
cinalis on tracheal smooth muscle. J Ethnopharmacol 1991 33:
37. Della Loggia R, Tubaro A, Redaelli C. Evaluation of the activity
57–62.
on the mouse CNS of several plant extracts and a combination of
them. [Article in Italian]. Riv Neurol 1981 51: 297–310. 62. Leung AY, Foster S. Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredi-
ents Used in Foods, Drugs, and Cosmetics, 2nd ed. New York:
38. Carabin IG, Flamm WG. Evaluation of safety of inulin and oli-
John Wiley & Sons; 1996, 446–448.
gofructose as dietary fiber. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 1999 30:
268–282. 63. Singletary K, MacDonald C, Wallig M. Inhibition by rosemary
and carnosol of 7,12-dimethyl-benz [a]anthracene (DMBA)-in-
39. Coussement PA. Inulin and oligofructose: safe intakes and legal
duced rat mammary tumorigenesis and in vivo DMBA-DNA
status. J Nutr 1999 129: 1412S–1417S.
adduct formation. Cancer Lett 1996 104: 43–48.
40. Gay-Crosier F, Schreiber G, Hauser C. Anaphylaxis from inulin
64. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A et al. editors. The Com-
in vegetables and processed food. N Engl J Med 2000 342:
plete Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Guide to Herbal
1372.
Medicines. Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications; 1998,
41. Montgomery R , Dryer RL, Conway TW et al. Biochemistry, 4th 197.
ed. St. Louis: CV Mosby Company; 1993, 370–371.
65. Rakover Y, Ben-Arye E, Goldstein LH. The treatment of respi-
42. Mills SY. Out of the Earth: The Essential Book of Herbal Med- ratory ailments with essential oils of some aromatic medicinal
icine. Middlesex, UK: Viking Arkana; 1991, 500–502. plants. Harefuah 2008 147: 783–788.

ª 2011 FDI World Dental Federation 295

Taheri et al.

66. Newall CA, Anderson LA, Phillipson JD. Herbal Medicine: A 77. Choonhakarn C, Busaracome P, Sripanidkulchai B et al. The
Guide for Health-Care Professionals. London: Pharmaceutical efficacy of aloe vera gel in the treatment of oral lichen planus: a
Press; 1996, 229–230. randomized controlled trial. Br J Dermatol 2008 158: 573–577.
67. Wichtl M. Herbal Drugs and Phytopharmaceuticals. Boca Raton, Epub 2007 Dec 17.
FL: CRC Press; 1994, 440–443. 78. Ulbricht C, Armstrong J, Basch E et al. An evidence-based sys-
68. ESCOP 1996. Salviae folium (Sage leaf). Monographs on the tematic review of Aloe vera by the natural standard research
Medicinal Use of Plant Drugs. Exeter, UK: European Scientific collaboration. J Herb Pharmacother 2007 7: 279–323. review.
Cooperative on Phytotherapy; 1997. 79. Koo H, Cury JA, Rosalen PL et al. Effect of a mouthrinse
69. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A et al. (editors). The containing selected propolis on 3-day dental plaque accumu-
Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic lation and polysaccharide formation. Caries Res 2002 36: 445–
Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council 448.
and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications; 1998, 198. 80. Murray MC, Worthington HV, Blinkhorn AS. A study to inves-
70. Gruenwald J, Brendler T, Jaenicke C, editors. PDR for Herbal tigate the effect of a propolis-containing mouthrinse on the
Medicines. Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics; 1998, 1184–1185. inhibition of de novo plaque formation. J Clin Periodontol 1997
24: 796–798.
71. Weiss RF. Herbal Medicine. Gothenburg, Sweden: Ab Arcanum
and Beaconsfield, UK: Beaconsfield Publishers Ltd.; 1988, 208– 81. Steinberg D, Kaine G, Gadalia I. Antibacterial effect of propolis
209. and honey on oral bacteria. Am J Dent 1996 9: 236–239.
72. Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A et al. (editors). The 82. Stay FP. (Excerpted with permission from The Complete Book of
Complete German Commission E Monographs: Therapeutic Dental Remedies, Avery Publishing Group, 1996). (online site:
Guide to Herbal Medicines. Austin: American Botanical Council http://www.healthy.net/scr/Article.asp?Id=1472)
and Boston: Integrative Medicine Communications; 1998, 219–
220.
73. Newall CA, Anderson LA, Phillipson JD. Herbal Medicines: A Correspondence to:
Guide for Health-Care Professionals. London: The Pharmaceu- Somayyeh Azimi,
tical Press; 1996, 256–257.
Oral Medicine,
74. Danhof IE, McAnally BH. Stabilized aloe vera: effect on human
Qazvin University of Medical Science,
skin cells. Drug Cosmet Ind 1983 133: 52–106.
Qazvin, Iran.
75. Winters WD, Benavides R, Clouse WJ. Effects of aloe extracts on
human normal and tumor cells in vitro. Eco Bot 1981 35: 89–95. Email: somayyeh_azimi@yahoo.com
76. Blitz JJ, Smith JW, Gerard JR. Aloe vera gel in peptic ulcer
therapy: preliminary report. J Am Osteopath Assoc 1963 62:
731–735.

296 ª 2011 FDI World Dental Federation