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WELL CONTROL SCHOOL, IDT
The ‘Well Control School’ (WCS) is a part of the ‘Institute of Drilling Technology’, ONGC and
located in Dehradun, India. It is a premier training establishment, established in the year 1997,
with the aim to provide core knowledge and job related skills to rig crew for handling of well
control situations.
We integrate decades of experience with state-of-the-art training technology to deliver
fundamental principles that bridge old school learning with cutting-edge techniques and helps
minimize risk & maximize safety for workers and well sites alike.
LEARNING TOOLS
We use the latest drilling and well control simulators, including DrillSIM-5000 Cyber chair
Combo, DrillSIM-5000 and DrillSIM-50 systems. E-Board in the classroom helps expedite
learning by allowing instructors and students to engage interactively with well control
information and technology during sessions. These technologies combined provide a
comprehensive simulated learning experience for students at every level.
INSTRUCTORS
WCS has a team of seasoned professionals and young dynamic instructors who are committed
for delivering the highest possible standard of well control training. We know our way around a
well site and are well versed with the emergencies drillers and operators faces during well
control situations. Its serious business and we’re eager to use our expertise and the latest
teaching solutions to help you learn fundamental safety principles that could save your life and
the lives of others when wells slip into an uncontrolled situation.
Courses offered are:
IWCF
1. IWCF ROTARY DRILLING WELL CONTROL: Introductory(Level-2),Driller(Level-

3),Supervisor(Level-4)
2. IWCF WELL INTERVENTION PRESSURE CONTROL : Level-3 and Level-4
IADC
1. IADC WELLSHARP DRILLING WELL CONTROL : Introductory, Driller and Supervisor
2. IADC WELLSHARP DRILLING AND WORKOVER WELL CONTROL : Driller (Level 3) and
Supervisor (Level 4)
3. IADC WELLSHARP WORKOVER : Well Servicing (Equipment operator and Oil & Gas
operator representative)
INDEX
CHAPTER-1 RISK MANAGEMENT AND BASIC PRESSURE CONCEPTS

Topics Page
No.
 Risk Management 01
 Hydrostatic Pressure, Pressure gradient 05
 Bottom Hole Pressure, Formation Pressure, Fracture Pressure 06
 Kick, Blow out, Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Well Control 07
 Porosity, Permeability ,Overburden 08
 Normal and Abnormal formation Pressure 08
 Causes of Abnormal Pressure 09
 Hydrostatic Effects 13
 Causes of reduction in Hydrostatic Head 14
 U Tube concept 15
 Volume, Capacity and Displacement 16
 Leak Off Test 17
 MAASP 20
 Mud Weight Window during drilling 22
 Top Hole Drilling 23
 Shallow Gas Control Procedure 24
 Well Control in Shallow Holes V/S Deep Holes 25
 Gas Cutting 26
 Swab and Surge Effects 27
 Trip Margin 29
 Slow Circulation Rate 30
 Equivalent Mud Density in the Annulus 32
 Equivalent Circulating Density ( ECD ) 33
CHAPTER-2 KICK INDICATIONS & SHUT IN PROCEDURES

Topics Page No.
 Introduction to kicks , Causes of Kicks 36
 Kick Detection, Kick while Drilling , Early Warning Signs 39
 Positive Kick Signs 42
 Kicks while Tripping 43
 Line up for Shut –in 44
 Shut-in Procedures for Land & Jack up rigs 46
 Shut-in Pressure Interpretation 48
 Type of Influx 49
 Gas Influx behaviour in Open Well 51
 Gas influx behaviour in Closed Well 51
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 Behaviour of different types of influx 55
 Closed in Condition Circulation 56
CHAPTER 3: WELL KILLING METHODS

Topics Page No.
 Bringing the Pump to kill Speed 59
 Driller’s Method 60
 Wait & Weight Method 63
 Comparison of methods 65
 Pressure behavior of different points during Well Killing 65
 Volumetric Method 70
 Stripping & Snubbing 74
 Stripping with Annular Preventer 76
 Stripping Ram Preventer 78
 Maximum casing Pressure, Shoe Pressure & Pit Gain 78
 Well Control Considerations Horizontal Wells 79
 Well Control in Multilateral Wells 82
 Associated Problems Some Considerations 86
1. Higher Pressure than Surface Equipment Rating 86
2. Casing Burst 86
3. Under ground Blow Out 86
4. Volumetric Considerations for Wells With Long Liners 87
5. Checking for Trapped Shut In Pressures 88
6. Unusual Shut In Pressures 88
7. Kick In Uphill section ( Fish Hook Profile ) 88
8. Gas Kicks – Some Special Considerations 88
 Well Control In HPHT Wells 90
CHAPTER- 4 BARRIER CONCEPTS AND CONTINGENCIES

Topics Page No.
 Barrier Concept 94
 Inflow Test / Negative Pressure Test 96
 Well Control During Specific Situations 97
1. During lowering of casing 97
2. During cementation 98
3. During running of completion string 98
4. During wire-line / logging operations 98
 Plugged or Washed Bit Nozzles 99
 Pump Failure 100
 Plugged or Washed choke 100
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 String Wash Out 100
 Lost Circulation 101
 Barite Plug, Gunk Plug 103
 Low Choke Pressure Method 104
 Over Kill Method 105
 Reversing out of Influx through Drill Pipe 105
 Use of Pill ahead of Kill Mud 106
 Bull-heading 107
 Hydrate Formation 108
 Well Killing operational problems 109
 Problems and their remedial actions during Well Killing by
Driller’s method ( 1st Circulation ) 109
Driller’s method ( 2nd Circulation ) 110
Wait & Weight Method. 112
CHAPTER 5: BLOW OUT PREVENTER EQUIPMENT SURFACE/SUBSEA

Topics Page No.
 Annular Preventer 115
 Packing Element of Annular Preventer 121
 Hydraulic Operator Test of Annular Preventer 124
 Ram Type Preventer 125
 Blind Ram and Variable Bore Ram 126
 Blind Shear Ram 127
 Description & Visual Inspection of Ram Preventer 128
 Emergency Plastic Packing Seal ( Secondary Seal ) 130
 Cameron Wedge Lock 132
 Shaffer Poslock 133
 Shaffer Ultralock 134
 Koomy Auto Lock 135
 Hydril MPL 136
 Hydraulic Operator Test of Ram Preventer 136
 Changing of Ram block Seals 138
 Accumulator Bottles 141
 Inspection of BOP Control Unit 153
 Selector/Manipulator Valves 155
 By-Pass Valve 156
 Usable Fluid 157
 Sizing of Accumulator for Surface Unit/Accumulator Drawdown test 158
 Functional problems in bop control system during stack operations 159
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 Kelly Cock 160
 Safety Valve & Inside BOP 161
 Drop in Check Valve, Bit Float 164
 Choke Manifold 165
 Kill Manifold 168
 Diverters 169
 Selection of Well Control Equipment 172
 Classification of Well Control Equipment 173
 Control System for Surface BOP Stack 178
 Function & Pressure Test – Surface BOP Equipment 182
 Pressure Testing of inside BOP, Kelly Cock etc. 185
 Trip Tank 187
 Mud Gas Separator 189
 Vacuum Degasser 191
 Pit Volume Recorder 192
 Mud flow Indicator 192
 Mud flow Sensor 193
 BOP Drills 194
 Ring Gaskets & Connections 196
 Table for Annular Preventer 200
 Closing and Opening Ratio 202
 Table for Ram BOP 203
 Rotating Head 206
 Rotating BOP 206
CHAPTER-6 DEEPWATER WELL CONTROL

Topics Page No.
 Top hole drilling on floating rigs 208
 Top hole Drilling with Riser 209
 Effect of gas expansion in the riser 210
 Top Hole Drilling Without Riser 211
 Effect of riser margin on maintaining bottom hole pressure 212
 Choke line friction losses 212
 Kick prevention & Detection 213
 Well Shut –In Procedures 214
 Hang–off consideration 216
 Well Killing Techniques 217
 Choke & Kill Line Considerations 218
 Trapped Gas 220
 Sub-sea BOP Stack 222
 Hydraulic Fluid Mixing System 224
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 Marine Riser & Riser Dump Valve 227
 Hydraulic Latch, Low Pressure Connector 229
 SPM Valve & Shuttle Valve 230
 Sub-sea BOP Control System 231
 Operating Sequence of Indirect Hydraulic Control System 236
 Functional problems during operations of a subsea installed bop 239
 Multiplex BOP Control System 241
 Acoustic Backup Control System 242
 ROV Intervention 243
 Sub-sea Blowout Prevention Equipment 246
 Single Stack System Subsea BOP 246
 Two Stack System Subsea BOP 246
 Control System for Subsea BOP Stack 250
 Testing of Subsea BOP Stack 250
 Sizing of Accumulator for Sub-sea Unit 255
 Hydrates 257
 Inverted test ram in subsea BOP stack 259
 Emergency system 261
CHAPTER 7 FORMULAE, EXERCISES AND KILL SHEETS

Topics Page No.
 IWCF Formulae Sheet 264
 Exercises on IWCF Formulae Sheet 267
 Other related Formulae & Exercises 285
 Calculation of maximum Pressure at Shoe 289
 Exercises for Subsea 294
 Filling of Surface Vertical Well Kill Sheet 297
 Filling of Surface Highly Deviated Well Kill Sheet 301
 Filling of Subsea Vertical Well Kill Sheet 306
 Blank Surface BOP ( Vertical Well ) Kill Sheet 310
 Blank Surface BOP ( Deviated Well ) Kill Sheet 312
 Blank Subsea BOP ( Vertical Well ) Kill Sheet 314
 Blank Subsea BOP ( Deviated Well ) Kill Sheet 316
 Exercise on Casing Shoe failure 319
 Sizing of Mud Gas separator 320
 Hydraulic Control Schematic for BOP Control System 323
ANNEXURES
 Conversions 324
 Trip Sheet 326
 Interpretation of Trip Sheet 328
 List of API standard related to well control 329
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INDEX OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1
Figure Title Page No.
 Artesian Effect 09
 Faulting 10
 Abnormal Pressure due to Salt Dame 10
 Gas Cap Effect 11
 Abnormal Pressure due to charged Sand 12
 Hydrostatic Effect 13
 U – Tube Effect 16
 Leak off Test Graphs 18
 Mud weight Window 22
 Equivalent Circulation Density 33
CHAPTER 2
 Line Up for Soft Shut –in 45
 Line Up for Hard Shut –in 46
 Open Well Gas Migration 51
 Closed Well Gas Migration 52
CHAPTER 3
 Pressure Profile 1st cycle of Driller’s Method 61
 Pressure Profile 2nd cycle of Driller’s Method 62
 Pressure Profile Wait and Weight Method 64
 Pressure behaviour during Killing 67
 Casing Shoe Pressure Profile 70
 Volumetric method – Mud Bleeding Process 73
 Stripping & Snubbing 75
 Swabbed Gas Kick In Horizontal Well 80
 Gas Kick From High Pressure Zone In Horizontal Well 80
 Step Down Schedule For A Highly Deviated & Horizontal Well 81
 Junction Classification In Multilateral Wells 83
 Free Expansion Of Gas 89
 Ballooning Effect 91
Pressure and Volume Graph 92
CHAPTER 4
 Well Barriers Schematic 95
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CHAPTER 5
 Operating Pressure Graph of Hydril & Shaffer Annular Preventer 116
 Hydril GK Annular Preventer 117
 Closing sequence of Annular Preventer 117
 Cameron `D’ type Annular Preventer 118
 Shaffer Spherical Annular Preventer 118
 Hydril MSP /GK/GX Annular Preventer 119
 Hydril GL Annular Preventer 120
 Different hook Ups of GL Annular Preventer 120
 Piston Stroke Indicator 122
 Replacement of Packing Element 123
 Pipe Rams, Blind Rams 126
 Variable Bore Ram, Blind Shear Ram 127
 Cameron Ram Preventer and its fluid path 131
 Cameron Wedge Lock 132
 Shaffer Poslock 133
 Shaffer Ultralock 134
 Koomey Autolock 135
 Hydril MPL 136
 Hotline Assembly 137
 Hydril Ram Preventer 138
 Parts of Cameron U type Ram BOP 139
 BOP Control Unit with pneumatic Annular Regulator 142
 Accumulator Bottle with Charging & Gauging Assembly 144
 BOP Control Unit with Manual Annular Regulator 146
 BOP Control Unit showing Unit/Remote Switch 148
 Bypass Valve in Low Position 150
 Bypass Valve in High Position 151
 Ram BOP Operation from the Remote Panel 152
 Manipulator /Selector Valve in open Piston 155
 Manipulator Valve, Selector Valve 155
 Bypass Valve in Low & High Pressure Position 156
 Kelly Cock / FOSV 160
 Safety Valve in Top Drive System 162
 Inside BOP, Bit float 163/164
 Choke Manifold 165
 Remote & Manually Operated choke 166
 Gate valve & Fail Safe Valve 168
 Diverter with Low Pressure Annular Preventer 170
 Diverter with insert type Packer 171
 Hydraulic Schematic of Diverter System 172
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 Blow Out Preventer arrangement for 2M 175
 Blow Out Preventer arrangement for 3M and 5M 176
 Blow Out Preventer arrangement for 10M, 15M and 20M 177
 Surface BOP Remote Control Panel 178
 Electro-Pneumatic remote panel - Operating sequence Close 180
 Cup Tester,Test Plug & Pr.Testing with Cup Tester / Test Plug 184
 Trip Tank 188
 Mud Gas Separator 190
 Vacuum Degasser 191
 Mud Flow Sensor 193
 Different type of Connection 197
 Ring Gaskets, Type 6B Flanges & Type 6BX Flanges 198
 Rotating Head & BOP 207
CHAPTER 6
 Rise Pipe collapse 210
 Loss Of Buoyancy 211
 Choke Pressure Fluctuations 219
 Use Of Two Choke Lines As BOP Separator Effect 220
 LMRP & main Stack 223
 Subsea BOP Hook Ups and Controls 225
 Subsea BOP System and its components 226
 Marine Riser System and its components 228
 Lowering of Hydraulic Latch 229
 Shuttle Valve 230
 General arrangement Sub-sea Hydraulic System 233
 Operation of SPM valve 235
 Subsea BOP Operating Sequence Close Function 237
 Subsea BOP Operating Sequence Block Function 238
 Subsea BOP Operating Sequence Open Function 240
 Multiplex BOP Control System 244
 Acoustic BOP Control System 245
 Example of Subsea BOP Stack illustrating operational location 247
for Kill and Choke Line
 Example of BOP arrangement for 2M and 3M rated Working 248
Pressure Service Subsea installation
 Example of BOP arrangement for 5M, 10M rated Working 249
Pressure Service Subsea installation
 Subsea BOP Testing 252
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Well Control School, IDT-ONGC
CHAPTER-1 RISK MANAGEMENT AND BASIC PRESSURE CONCEPTS

__________________________________________________________
1.1 RISK MANAGEMENT
1.1.1 Impacts of Well Control Incident:

The successful detection and handling of threatened blowouts and kicks is a matter of utmost
importance to any company in the business of oil and gas exploration and production. Today's
oil and gas operator must be prepared to adequately manage a well control incident. Due to
increased liability of health, safety and environmental (HSE) issues, postponing the actions to
be taken in case of any unwanted incident is quickly becoming a non-option. Though
catastrophic blowouts happen less frequently, potential consequences for an unprepared
operator are higher than ever.
Recent events have shown that even blowout incidents that happen to other operators can by
causing implementation of restrictive and costly government regulations. If fatalities or oil
spills occur, the whole industry may be indirectly affected by negative public exposure, closing
of sensitive environmental areas to leasing and increased insurance premiums. Therefore, it is
in the interest of the industry as a whole, that all operators maintain acceptable levels of
preparedness and critical resources to effectively manage an incident.
A primary objective for all operators is to provide a working methodology to safely and
effectively manage, respond to and recover from a well control incident. The complexity of
this methodology will vary with operation size and operator as well as risk and vulnerability
associated with the area.
The reasons for promoting proper well control and blowout prevention are
overwhelming. An uncontrolled flowing well can cause any or all of the following:
 Personal injury and/or loss of life
 Damage and/or loss of contractor equipment
 Loss of operator investment
 Loss of future production due to formation damage
 Loss of reservoir pressures
 Damage to the environment through pollution
 Adverse publicity
 Negative governmental reaction, especially near populated areas
 Increased regulation from Government increasing the cost of operations
At times the cost of handling a blowout can wipe out the entire net worth of a drilling
company.
Through the Well control courses, it is ensured that the drillers and supervisors are having
requisite knowledge of procedures and equipment involved to handle all probable situations
of well control and also have the necessary skills to execute the well control operations.
Promotion of crew to next higher level cannot be ascertained unless crew is able to
demonstrate requisite knowledge and skills.
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Need for Well Control Training

The main objective of any company engaged in drilling of oil and gas wells is to drill the well
safely (Safe well in all aspects) to its planned target depth and put in production. The well
control with respect to drilling a safe well is very important aspect in oil industry operations.
It needs the years of rigorous experience and proper trainings to tackle the well control
problems in a safe manner. It includes the safety of rig crew, equipment and all stakeholders
associated with the drilling.
Through the introductory level well control training it is ensured that all the rig going
personnel is having the basic knowledge and understanding of how well control incidents can
occur, their consequences and prevention methods.
The main advantages of the well control training are as follows:
1. Know the consequences for well control problems.

2. Know how to control a well.
3. Client’s well drilled without well control problems.
4. Others rely on them.
5. Avoiding government over regulations.
6. Safety of crew and equipment.
1.1.2 The Concept of Systematic Risk Management

Risk management is the identification, assessment, and prioritization of risks followed by
coordinated and economical application of resources to minimize, monitor, and control the
probability and/or impact of unfortunate events or to maximize the realization of
opportunities.
Risks associated with control of well are no different from other risks. Once identified, risks and
their contributing factors can be effectively managed–reducing the chance of a well control
event from occurring, and being prepared to handle one if it does occur, in the most effective
and safest manner possible.
To develop a complete risk management plan, the organization first identify all risks relevant to
control of well. Once identified, companies must analyze each risk as to the level of risk that
may be incurred and the consequences of each risk. Following the analysis, an assessment is
made comparing each risk, and possible consequences, against the risk threshold that has been
predetermined. At this point, the organization can develop a total risk management plan to
properly manage those risks that cannot be avoided or transferred. In order for the plan to be
effective, it should also incorporate a process for the proper management associated with
control of well.
1.1.3 Principles of Risk Management Identifying Risks

The first step in development of risk management plan is the identification of the associated
risks and their contributing factors associated with control of well issues. When done properly,
it becomes apparent very quickly that there are many, many risks that can, and do, affect well
control issues.
Those risks identified particular to the well itself might include:
 Drilling target–oil versus gas;
 Formations to be drilled;
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 Well depth;
 Well location–onshore, inland waters, offshore, deep water;
 Casing string design; and
 Drilling technique employed–conventional, underbalanced, or drilling with casing.
A more thorough assessment is warranted due to the implementation of new drilling

techniques (i.e. underbalanced drilling, deep water drilling, drilling with casing, etc.), the
utilization of high specification rig equipment, the use of expensive, highly technical bottom-
hole assemblies, and extended drilling environments, etc.
1.1.4 Assessment and Analysis of Risks

Hazard and Operability Analysis is a method for analyzing hazards and operability problems
during operations.
This method requires an analysis team comprised of personnel with varying fields of
competence. This method is also related to the sequence of operations. It is important that the
analyst knows the operation well and receives input from the operational personnel as well. A
special worksheet with the following entries may be used:
• Procedural step number
• Operational details (briefly describes the operational details included in the procedural step)
• Primary barriers present
• Secondary barriers present
• Evaluation of hazards (typically searching for all incidents that may occur and ruin the
barriers)
The main objective of performing the dynamic barrier analyses is to identify steps of the
operation where two barriers are not present, or to identify combinations of unreliable
barriers.
Once all the risks associated with control of well issues are determined, then they can be
individually assessed, analyzed and compared to the organization’s predetermined risk
threshold which is the level of risk that the organization is willing to assume.
Proper risk management requires quantification of the associated risks and their respective
consequences. The assessment allows the organization to fully understand each risk and its
potential for loss. The analysis of the identified risks will compare the costs of the risks (and
their associated consequences) versus the costs to mitigate, transfer or manage the risks and
associated consequences. Once the assessment and analysis is completed, the organization will
have identified those risks that should be mitigated, transferred, managed, or avoided.
Risks can mitigated through self-imposed restrictions on drilling environments (onshore,
offshore, deep water) or taking a different position as an organization – i.e. shared working
interest; or, transferred through insurance and/or turnkey drilling plans.
Those identified risks that cannot be mitigated, transferred or avoided must be properly
managed in a proactive manner. This requires the development of a risk management plan to
ensure the protection of personnel, the environment, and the assets.
1.1.5 Plan Development

An effective risk management plan promotes continuous improvement to the organization’s
risk profile, thus assisting in future procurement of coverage. The plan should also be
quantitative in nature, so that results can be tracked and the plan modified over time to
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improve its effectiveness and the organization’s overall drilling efficiencies. A properly
developed risk management plan does not have to be complex; rather, it should be focused,
practical and cost effective in its implementation.
The development and implementation of an effective and comprehensive risk management
plan to address control of well issues is becoming a requirement for drilling oil and gas wells.
Implementation of such a plan requires the long-term commitment by the organization to be
effective and reduce the number and magnitude of well control events.
1.1.6 Management of Change

Major incidents have taken place for a simple lack of communication or incomplete information
sharing at the time of changeover of crew on rig.
This can be managed by having a management system in place at rig to ensure all activities
going on and related hazards are recorded by outgoing crew in-charge and understood by the
crew taking over before the process of crew change is over.
A check list should be made available to the driller and other key members for recording the
information about the observations made during the tour for the crew taking over.
All critical items related hazards identified should be recorded during the shift for the
knowledge of the coming shift crew.
The other aspect of change management is related to bringing in any change in the equipment
or process or role.
Proper information sharing through training procedure should be at place to make crew
understand the change of equipment or process. Also a proper successful induction program be
available for induction of new crew or change of role of the existing crew.
1.1.7 Pre-Operation Planning

An effective risk management plan promotes continuous improvement to the organization’s
risk profile, thus assisting in future procurement of coverage. The plan should also be
quantitative in nature, so that results can be tracked and the plan modified over time to
improve its effectiveness and the organization’s overall drilling efficiencies. A properly
developed risk management plan does not have to be complex; rather, it should be focused,
practical and cost effective in its implementation.
The development and implementation of an effective and comprehensive risk management
plan to address control of well issues is becoming a requirement for drilling oil and gas wells.
Implementation of such a plan requires the long-term commitment by the organization to be
effective and reduce the number and magnitude of well control events.
Risks can mitigated through self-imposed restrictions on drilling environments (onshore,
offshore, deep water) or taking a different position as an organization – i.e. shared working
interest; or, transferred through insurance and/or turnkey drilling plans.
Those identified risks that cannot be mitigated, transferred or avoided must be properly
managed in a proactive manner. This requires the development of a risk management plan to
ensure the protection of personnel, the environment, and the assets.
1.1.8 Pre-Job Meeting

Proper pre-job planning and preparation are important for the successful completion of any
service job.
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1.1.9 General Information:

Before any service operation can commence, a certain amount of information is required. This
information should be gathered by the Technical Advisor, Field Sales Representative, and
Service Coordinator, Dispatcher or other designated person. Many locations have established a
dispatch sheet, which prompts the information taker to gather the proper information.
1.2 PRESSURE
The term ‘pressure’ is defined as force exerted per unit area. The field unit for pressure is psi.
Thus Force = Pressure x Area
Various pressure terms used in well control are discussed below:
1.2.1 Hydrostatic Pressure

The primary well control available is hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid in the well.
Hydrostatic pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a static column of fluid by virtue of
its density or it can be termed as the pressure due to the static effect of a fluid column. It
depends on the vertical height (TVD) of the column and the density of the fluid.
Hydrostatic pressure (psi) = Depth (TVD-feet) x Mud density (ppg) x 0.052

(0.052 is a conversion constant)
A mud gradient can also be used to calculate hydrostatic pressures.
Hydrostatic pressure (psi) = Mud gradient x Depth
Drilling fluid density is one of the major factor in the calculation of hydrostatic pressure. Barite
is the most commonly used density control materials. Proper well planning requires that a
sufficient quantity of barite be maintained on the drilling location to kill the well.
The following equation can be used to calculate required barite volumes.
Pounds/barrel = 1490(W2 - W1)/ 35.4 - W2
Where W2 is the final mud density in ppg and W1 is the original mud density in ppg
1.2.2 Pressure Gradient

The pressure gradient (also called fluid gradient) is the hydrostatic pressure exerted by one
vertical foot of a fluid of a given weight.
For example, fresh water has a density of 8.33 ppg & one foot column of it shall exert a
pressure of:
8.33 x 1 x 0.052 =0.433 psi
Therefore pressure gradient of fresh water is 0.433 psi /ft. If this fluid is used in well bore of
10,000 feet depth, it will exert a hydrostatic pressure of:
0.433 ( psi /ft )  10,000 ( feet ) = 4330 ( psi )
Similarly salt water has a density of 8.92 ppg ( 1.07 gm /cc ) & one foot column of it shall exert
a pressure of :
8.92  1  0.052 = 0.465 psi
Therefore, pressure gradient of salt water is 0.465 psi/ft.
Normally accepted value of Overburden gradient is taken as 1 psi/ft.
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1.2.3 Bottom Hole Pressure ( BHP )

It is defined as sum total of all pressures i.e. static , surface as well as dynamic pressures that
are being exerted at the bottom of the hole :
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure + Surface Pressure  Dynamic Pressure
Dynamic pressures are exerted by either due to fluid movement (Annular pressure losses) or
pipe movement in the well bore ( Swab/ Surge pressure).
BHP in different well situations :

a) When not circulating
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure due to fluid column
b) While drilling
BHP = Total Hydrostatic Pressures + Annular Pressure Losses
c) Shutting the well after a kick
i) In Drill String
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of mud + Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure
ii) In Annulus
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of mud + Hydrostatic Pressure of kick fluid
+ Shut-in casing Pressure
d) While killing operation
i) For Surface BOP Stack
BHP = Sum of hydrostatic Pressure of various fluids in the annulus
+ Annular Pressure Losses + Casing Pressure
ii) For Subsea BOP Stack
BHP = Sum of hydrostatic Pressure of various fluids in the annulus
+ Annular Pressure Losses + Choke line friction Losses + Casing Pressure
Note: Usually annular pressure losses are not taken into account for calculation of BHP during
killing.
e) While tripping in
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of mud + Surge Pressure
f) While tripping out

BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of mud – Swab Pressure.
( Note: Terms surge & swab pressure are explained at 1.18 in details )
1.2.4 Formation Pressure

Formation pressure or pore pressure is the pressure exerted by the fluids trapped in the pores
of the formation. Formation pressure is categorised as normal or abnormal pressure depending
upon the formation pressure gradient.
1.2.5 Fracture Pressure

Fracture pressure is the pressure acting from the well bore side at which the formation will
break down. When the well bore pressure equals or exceeds the fracture pressure , the
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formation will break down followed by loss of fluid, loss of hydrostatic pressure, loss of BHP.
Fracture pressure will vary from area to area.
1.2.6 Circulating System Pressure

The pressure required to circulate fluid through the rig’s circulating system is a measurement of
friction losses in the system.
The factors that affect the pressure( friction) losses are :
 Dimension of the system
Length, ID of drill string, nozzles etc.
 Fluid properties
Mud of fluid density, rheological properties etc.
 Fluid flow rate
The pressure on the stand pipe gauge is the sum of the friction pressure losses that occur in the
circulating system. This pressure is the total system pressure losses.
The pressure losses occur in the following area:
 Surface equipment
 Drill pipe or work string
 Drill collars
 Bit nozzles or down hole tools
 Annulus
1.3 SOME BASIC TERMS

1.3.1 Kick
It is defined as unwanted flow of formation fluid into the well bore. Kick can be restricted by
closing the BOP available at the well mouth.
1.3.2 Blow-out
It is an uncontrolled flow of formation fluid from the well bore to surface or into low pressured
sub surface zones (underground blowout).A Blow-out is the result of failure of BOP to restrict
the flow of formation fluid after getting a kick.
Human error is a major, if not the most important , cause of blowouts. The industry rightly
allocates significant resources to prevent blowouts, including well control training, but the
human element will always be a factor.
1.3.3 Primary Well Control

During normal drilling operations the hydrostatic pressure of drilling fluid is greater than the
pressure of the fluids in the formation. The maintenance of sufficient hydrostatic head exerted
by drilling fluid to hold back the formation fluid pressure is termed as “Primary Well Control”.
1.3.4 Secondary Well Control

If due to any reason hydrostatic pressure in the well bore falls below the formation pressure,
formation fluid may enter into the well bore & if so happens, the primary control may be lost
and a proper use of blow out preventers will provide Secondary well control or in other words
secondary well control involves safe handling of kicks so as to re-establish primary well control.
7
1.3.5 Tertiary Well Control

It involves the techniques used to control a blow-out once the primary & Secondary controls
are lost. The following are examples of tertiary well control:
 Drill a relief well to hit an adjacent well that is flowing and kill the well with heavy mud
 Rapid pumping of heavy mud to control the well with equivalent circulating density
 Pump barite or heavy weighting agents to plug the wellbore in order to stop flowing
 Pump cement to plug the wellbore
1.3.6 Porosity
This indicates the “pore” spaces with in the rock matrix. It is measured in % by volume.
1.3.7 Permeability
Permeability is the capacity of a porous medium to transmit fluids. Pore spaces are connected
allowing pore fluids to flow through the rock. Permeability is measured in darcy.
1.3.8 Overburden
The pressure exerted on a formation at a given depth due to the total weight of the rock and
fluids above that depth.
1.4 NORMAL AND ABNORMAL PRESSURES
As the rock layers are deposited one upon another, formation water is squeezed out of the
pores due to the overburden. This process is called compaction. As long as the formation water
has escape avenues, the formation pressure bleeds down to the ‘normal value’. The generally
accepted normal value is ranging from 0.433 to 0.465 psi/ft. as determined from studies done
in the basins of Gulf Cost areas of United States. This is equivalent to hydrostatic pressure
gradient of a column of salt water.
When formation water, which is trying to escape due to overburden is trapped by impermeable
formations which does not allow its normal escape, abnormal formation pressure develops.
This is because the water now supports more of the overburden than in the normal case.
Basically, in any given situation the overburden is supported by both the formation fluid & the
matrix of the rock
or Overburden pressure = matrix stress + pore pressure
Matrix stress is the amount of overburden pressure that is supported by the rock itself & pore
pressure is the amount of overburden which is supported by the fluid in the pore spaces of the
rock. The sum of the two is necessary to support the overburden.
If the normal overburden gradient is taken as 1.0 psi/ft (assuming average rock density of
19.66 ppg, though it is somewhat less at shallow depths ) and the normal pore pressure
gradient as 0.465 psi/ft then the normal matrix stress gradient works out to be 0.535 psi/ft.
Abnormal pore pressure gradient ranges from 0.465 psi/ft to 1.0 psi/ft. Whereas, subnormal
pressure are pore pressure gradients less than 0.433 psi/ft, such pressure are usually found in
depleted reservoirs.
8
1.5 CAUSES OF ABNORMAL PRESSURES
1.5.1 Under Compaction

Compaction of sediments originally deposited as clay and loose sand is an ongoing process.
With the passage of time the excess water gets squeezed out from the sediments. If the process
is slow and gradual, excess water can escape to surrounding formations & full compaction
results. However, if rate of depositions is high, formation water may not be able to escape at a
proportionate high rate & shall then support more part of the overburden. Such formation
shall have abnormal pore pressure. Though with geological time such abnormal pore pressure
will dissipate into neighboring permeable formations, but deep inside the clay-body escape of
formation water becomes progressively inhibited due to reduction in porosity caused by the
compaction process. These shale in which pore fluid is trapped by this mechanism has a higher
fluid content then the similar shale which have been compacted slowly. These shale have
relatively high porosity and abnormal pore pressures. This phenomena is called ‘under
compaction’ since it results from lack of normal compaction process.
1.5.2 Artesian Effect

When an aquifer or water bearing permeable rock outcrops at the surface, high up in a
mountain area, then the formation fluids at any depth within the rock are under a hydrostatic
pressure which is equivalent to the height of the outcrop. Therefore, the formation fluid in the
valley below shall be abnormally pressured.
4000
feet
3000
feet
Aquifier
Figure 1.1 ARTESIAN EFFECT

As shown in figure 1.1 above, the permeable formation has outcropped at higher altitude.
While drilling in the valley below, at 3,000 ft the formation pressure shall be:
0.465 x 4,000 = 1,860 psi ( assuming normal formation pressure for depth of 4,000ft)
Formation pressure gradient at 3,000 ft well depth = 1,860 / 3,000 = 0.62 psi /ft
This is more than normal pressure gradient value of 0.465 psi/ft and hence abnormal.
9
1.5.3 Faulting
Faulting is up-thrusting of deep rocks. Most rocks are fractured during earth crust movement,
resulting in cracks called joints. If the rock layers on one side of a fracture have moved as shown
in figure 1.2 in relation to the other side, the fracture is called a fault. Displacement of
formations may range from only a few centimeters to kilometers. Since the formation pressure
normally increases with depth, when deep rocks get faulted up, they have higher than normal
pressure with respect to the new depth they now occupy. Therefore, when drilling across a
fault, there is a possibility of encountering abnormally high formation pressure.
Normal Pressure Abnormal Pressure
Figure 1.2 FAULTING
1.5.4 Salt Dome

Salt is totally impermeable to fluids, and unlike other rocks transforms physically under pseudo-
plastic movements, thereby exerting pressure equal to the overburden load in all directions.
Since salt has very little rock frame structure the properties of pressure transmission are more
like fluids than solids.
Figure 1.3 ABNORMAL PRESSURE DUE TO SALT DOME
10
Moreover as it has little strength and underlying formations have no fluid escape possibilities,
the water in the shale just below the salt bears the entire burden of the salt plus the burden of
sediments above, which together can approach 1 psi/ft. In the salt dome areas, movement of
salt upwards brings strata from deeper depth to shallower depth and causes abnormal
pressures.
1.5.5 Gas Cap Effect

Most of down hole formations are dipping or folded reservoirs. In a folded permeable
formation, formation pressure at various places across the fold, though in direct
communication to each other, varies depending upon the nature of the fluid trapped in the
pores. Difference in the density between the gas and water causes the abnormal pressures
where hydrocarbon occur above water. The magnitude of this pressure depends upon the
structural elevation of the top of the hydrocarbon reservoir. As shown in the figure 1.4 the
reservoir fluid being gas is lighter than water, an abnormal pressure gradient will be
encountered on drilling into the shallow section of the reservoir.
7000 ft
8000 ft
Gas gradient 0.1 psi/ft
Formation pressure gradient at 8,000 ft is 0.465 psi/ft
Figure 1.4 GAS CAP EFFECT
11
Formation pressure at 8,000 ft = 8,000  0.465 = 3,720 psi

Hydrostatic pressure of gas = 1,000  0.1 = 100 psi
Formation pressure at 7,000 ft = 3,720 - 100 = 3,620psi
Formation pressure gradient at 7,000 ft = 3,620  7,000 = 0.517 psi/ft
Hence the same formation which was normally pressurised at 8,000 ft is abnormally pressurised
at 7,000 ft.
1.5.6 Charged Sands

Upper sands can get charged with formation fluid much greater than normal for their depth
due to uncontrolled underground blow-out from a previous well. As shown in the figure 1.5 the
previous well that blew out underground was successfully abandoned , but the fluid from the
lower zone entered the wellbore & escaped to an upper sand. When the next well is drilled,
unexpected shallow high pressure sand is encountered.
Nearby well
-- --- ------ ---- - -------------

-- --- ------ ---- - -------------
-- --- ------ ---- - -------------
-- --- ------ ---- - -------------
------ ----------------------------------
------ ----------------------------------
------ ----------------------------------
------ ----------------------------------
------ ----------------------------------
------ ----------------------------------
------ ----------------------------------
------ ----------------------------------
OIL / GAS
Figure 1.5 ABNORMAL PRESSURE DUE TO CHARGED SAND
12
1.6 HYDROSTATIC EFFECTS
Hydrostatic effects due to different density of fluids in the bore hole can be realized by
following example:
Fluid column Density Hydrostatic pressure
1. 3,500 ft 10 ppg 3,500  10  0.052 = 1,820 psi
2. 4,000 ft 09 ppg 4,000  9  0.052 = 1,872 psi
3. 0500 ft 11 ppg 0500  11  0.052 = 286 psi
Hydrostatic Pressure at 7500 ft = 1820+1872 = 3692 psi
Hydrostatic pressure at bottom = 1,820 + 1,872 + 286 = 3,978 psi
0 ft
10 ppg mud
3,500 ft
9 ppg mud
7,500 ft
11 ppg mud
8,000 ft
Figure 1.6 a
Similarly in case wellbore contains different density fluids & also has some back pressure at
surface, pressure at various points in wellbore can be worked out:
500
psi
10 ppg mud
3,500 ft
9 ppg mud
7,500 ft
11 ppg mud
8,000 ft
Figure 1.6 b
Pressure at 3500 ft= Hydrostatic at 3500 ft + Surface pressure = 1820+500 = 2320 psi
Pressure at 7500 ft= Hydrostatic at 7500 ft + Surface pressure = 3692+500 = 4192 psi
Pressure at bottom= Hydrostatic at 8000 ft + Surface pressure = 3978+500 = 4478 psi
13
1.7 CAUSES OF REDUCTION IN HYDROSTATIC HEAD
Primary well control involves maintaining hydrostatic pressure equal or more than formation
pressure. If due to some reason hydrostatic pressure becomes less than formation pressure
,well becomes underbalanced and influx from formation may enter into the well bore.
The various causes of reduction in hydrostatic head are listed below.
1.7.1 Failure to fill the hole

The failure to fill the hole during pulling out is one of the main causes of reduction in
hydrostatic head. Should the reduced hydrostatic head becomes less than the formation
pressure, an influx of formation fluid can enter the well, if a permeable formation is exposed in
the borehole.
Let us calculate the reduction in hydrostatic pressure due to failure to fill the hole.
Example:
A well has been drilled to 10,000 ft and pulling out was started for bit change. Mud density was
10 ppg and formation pressure at 10,000 ft was 5,000 psi. What shall be the effect on bottom
hole pressure after pulling out 10 stands (90 ft each) of 5”, 19.5 ppf, drill pipe, dry without
filling the hole.
Metal displacement of 5” drill pipe - 0.0080 bbl/ft
9 5/8” casing shoe - 1,000 ft
Drill pipe capacity - 0.0177 bbl/ft
Casing capacity - 0.0717 bbl/ft
Annular volume 5”  9 5/8” casing - 0.0475 bbl/ft
Solution:
Level drop in annulus and drill pipe due to failure of filling mud after pulling out 10 stands dry:
Metal Displacement (bbl/ft)  Length of pipe pulled out(ft)
= -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
{Casing Capacity(bbl/ft) - Metal Displacement(bbl/ft)}
0.0080  90  10 stands 7.20

= ------------------------------------- = ------------ = 113 ft
{0.0717 – 0.0080} 0.0637
Hydrostatic pressure of this column = 113  10  0.052 = 59 psi
Therefore, failure to fill hole after pulling out 10 stands of drill pipe dry shall cause a reduction of 59 psi
in hydrostatic pressure.
Example:
In the above example, if the string is pulled out wet without filling the hole then reduction of
hydrostatic head will be more .This can be calculated as follow:
Solution:
Level drop in annulus due to failure of filling mud after pulling out 10 stands wet
{Metal Displacement (bbl/ft) + d/p capacity(bbl/ft)}Length of pipe pulled out(ft)

= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Annulus Capacity(bbl/ft)
14
(0.0080+ 0.0177)  90  10 stands 23.13

= ----------------------------------------------- = ---------- = 487 ft
0.0475 0.0475
Hydrostatic pressure of this column = 487  10  0.052

= 253 psi
Therefore failure to fill hole after pulling out 10 stands of drill pipe wet shall cause a reduction
of 253 psi in hydrostatic pressure.
NOTE: Reduction in bottom hole pressure due to pulling out without filling hole will be much
higher for drill collars , if pulled out dry or wet without filling the hole.
1.7.2 Water dilution at surface (on rotary or at shale shaker)

Addition of water into mud system leads to reduction in mud density thereby reducing
hydrostatic head. It can be minimized by use of drill pipe wipers during pulling out and by use of
mud box during connections etc. Person working on shakers should ensure minimum addition
of water into mud during cleaning of shale shaker screens.
1.7.3 Removal of barite from the mud, by mud handling system, such as centrifuge etc.
Removal of some barite particles by centrifuge can be neutralized by checking mud density of
fluid after centrifuging and weighing up to the required value before pumping back to the well.
1.7.4 Cement Setting

Cement setting , in addition to other factors, is a function of formation temperature. Since
maximum circulating temperature occurs at about one third from bottom, it makes cement to
initially set on the upper zone. As the cement sets on upper zone it begins to partially support
the hydrostatic pressure. Moreover, the cement setting results in water loss from the slurry,
this may cause hydrostatic pressure to fall below the formation pressure thereby allowing a
kick. To prevent this to happen the fluid loss from the cement should be reduced as low as
possible.
1.7.5 Settling of Weighing Material

Settling of weighing material in drilling fluid is related to suspension characteristics which in
turns depends upon the thermal stability of the additives used. Whenever the bottom hole
temperature exceeds the thermal stability of the additives it causes the viscosity to decrease &
water loss to increase. As a result there is settling of weighing material & reduction in
hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore.
1.8 THE U TUBE CONCEPT
Drill string in a well bore can be compared to a U-tube, where drill string is one limb of the U-
tube & annulus is the other limb. The U–tube shown below describes the well system where
the bit is on bottom and it is possible to circulate from bottom. As illustrated in the figure 1.7
the left side of U–tube represents the drill pipe while the right side of the U–tube represents
the annulus. As per the U-tube principle the pressures in both the limbs balance each other. For
15
example, in the figure below if the density of the fluid in the two limbs is different & if the tube
is closed at the top, then the pressure gauge of that limb whose density is less shall show some
back pressure equivalent to the difference of fluid hydrostatic pressure of the two limbs.
Well TVD - 10,000 ft
Hydrostatic pressure left limb = 5200 psi, Back pressure = 520 psi, BHP = 5720 psi
Hydrostatic pressure right limb =5720 psi, Back pressure = 0 psi, BHP = 5720 psi
As a result the combined pressure ( surface back pressure & hydrostatic ) acting at the bottom
of the two limbs shall balance each other. This principle helps in comparing the shut-in drill pipe
& casing pressures and working out the density of influx when a well is closed on a kick.
520 psi 0 psi
Drill String 11 ppg Annulus

(Left limb) 10 ppg (Right limb)
BHP
Figure 1.7 U-TUBE EFFECT
If there are two different fluids between inside of string and annulus, fluids always flow from a
higher pressure area to a lower pressure. If the system is not closed, lighter fluid will be flown
out and it will be stopped when pressure is stabilized.
If a denser mud goes into the drill pipe, mud flows up the annulus, and vice versa. The practice
of putting a dense slug pill in the drill pipe for dry pull out makes use of the U-tube effect. The
volume of slug to be pumped depends upon the length of drill pipe to be kept dry. However
drop of level in drill string doesn’t affect bottom hole pressure .
1.9 VOLUMES, CAPACITIES AND DISPLACEMENTS

Nearly all well control operations require that hole, pipe and pipe displacement volumes be
calculated. The following formula is used to calculate the capacity.
Capacity (bbl./ft.) = ID 2 / 1029.4 ( for inside of a tube)
Capacity (bbl./ft) = ( Dh 2 -OD2 )/ 1029.4 ( for Annulus)
Displacement factor for a drill collar section(bbl/ft) = ( OD 2 -ID2 )/ 1029.4
Where Dh = The hole diameter, OD & ID = The outer and inner diameter of the tube.
Capacity (bbl. /ft.) x Cylinder length (ft.) = Volume (bbl.)
Note: Cylinder may be the hole being drilled, casing or drill pipe or tubing.
16
1.10 LEAK OFF TEST
A leak off test is conducted to determine the pressure at which formation begins to leak. Such a
test also establishes the integrity of cement at the casing shoe. Test is usually conducted after
drilling out the shoe and 10-15 ft of new hole. For a long open hole section whenever a weaker
formation has apparently been drilled, another test (formation competency or integrity test) is
made to determine whether the formation can support mud of higher density, which may be
required at some future time.
Necessity of a leak off test, therefore is :

a) To confirm the strength of cement bond around casing shoe, so as to ensure that no
communication shall occur outside the casing in the event of borehole pressure at casing
shoe approaching the formation strength.
b) To determine the potential of the exposed formation to withstand a pressure in excess of
mud hydrostatic. This in turn helps in assessing the severity of the kick that can be safely
controlled without fracturing the formation.
c) To determine maximum allowable surface pressure for controlling a kick without fracturing
the formation at the shoe.
1.10.1 Procedure and hook up for a leak off test

Equipment required for a leak off test is -
a) A cementing unit with connections to stand pipe.
b) Calibrated pressure gauges 0-1,000 psi up to about 3,000 ft depth & 0-1,500 or 0-3,000 psi
for deeper depths.
The test involves precise recording of pressure against volume pumped, that is why pumping is
done with a cementing unit (a low volume - high pressure unit). Since an accurate pressure and
volume measurement is essential, the gauges should be calibrated prior to the test.
Test procedure is as below:-

i) Drill out cement, shoe and 10-15 feet of new hole.
ii) Circulate out cement and drilled cuttings, with clean mud, line up cementing unit.
iii) Pull bit in the casing shoe, fill the hole and close preventer on drill pipe.
iv) Open annulus between casing strings.
v) Pump into the well with cementing unit in increments of 1/4 to 1/2 barrel , waiting each
time for 3-4 minutes or the time required for pressure to stabilize.
vi) Simultaneously plot stabilised pressure vs. total volume pumped for each increment.
vii) Continue pumping until the plotted curve begins to flatten or when first deviation away
from the straight line has been obtained i.e. when the pressure increases by a smaller
amount for same volume pumped, as shown in figure 1.8
Note : Another practice being followed in industry is to pump another increment after first
deviation has been obtained. This gives one more deviation away from straight line as shown in
figure 1.9. When the points corresponding to these two deviations are joined we get another
straight line which when extended intersects the straight line already plotted. The point of
intersection of these two lines is taken as surface leak-off pressure.
17
ix) Release pressure and measure the volume of fluid lost to the well so as to ensure whether
leak-off has occurred or not.
Pressure so recorded plus the hydrostatic pressure at casing shoe TVD is the sub surface leak-
off pressure
Or
Formation Leak-off pressure (Sub surface leak off pressure)
= Surface leak-off pressure + Hydrostatic pressure at casing shoe
Surface Leak Off Pressure
Fracture pressure
x
x
x Fracture propagation Bleed off
x pressure
x
x
x
x
x
Volume Pumped
Figure 1.8 LEAK OFF TEST GRAPH
Surface Leak Off Pressure x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Volume Pumped
Figure 1.9 LEAK OFF TEST GRAPH
18
Example:
Casing shoe depth - 8,000 ft (TVD)/ 8,250 ft (MD)
Mud weight - 10 ppg
LOT pressure - 1,200 psi
Find out Formation Leak - off pressure & LOT equivalent mud weight value.
Solution :
Formation leak-off pressure = 1,200 + (10  0.052  8,000) = 5,360 psi

LOT equivalent mud weight = 5,360  (8,000  0.052) = 12.88 ppg
1.10.2 Leak off Test Cautions

a) Leak off test is not carried out in lime stone, dolomite or fractured shales.
b) LOT shall be conducted preferably in the first permeable zone below casing shoe.
c) In general, formation becomes stronger with depth, but not always. In case it is suspected
from cuttings etc. that a weaker formation has been drilled, it is recommended to carry out
formation integrity test against the open hole.
d) The value of formation strength obtained from leak off tests in vertical wells may not be
directly applicable in deviated wells where the formation is drilled at an angle (and vice
versa).
e) The point on the curve at which stabilised pressure begins to deviate from the trend line,
indicates the point at which formation begins to take fluid, no permanent damage shall be
done to the formation at this stage, provided it is not subjected to further increase in
pressure. Further pumping shall cause a fracture & this would be indicated by a sharp
pressure drop at the surface. If so happens, the formation strength shall be impaired,
although it may ‘heal’ itself after some time.
1.10.3 Extended LOT

Extended LOT (ELOT or XLOT) procedures are used to estimate the magnitude of minimum in
situ horizontal stress, mainly for the practical purpose of determining borehole stability during
drilling operations.
In an XLOT, the pressure is increased until leak-off is achieved i.e. pumping continues beyond
the leak off point until the pressure peaks at formation breakdown pressure. The pumps are
then shut-off and the pressure decline is monitored. The break in the pressure decline curve
indicates shut-in. This gives a first pass estimate of the minimum stress magnitude. Two more
cycles are carried out to overcome the tensile strength of the formation and stress
concentration around the borehole. On the 2nd and 3rd cycles, a post-peak constant pressure is
recorded (fracture propagation pressure). The second and third shut-in pressures usually give
the best estimates of the minimum stress magnitude. The most important pressure parameter
is the fracture closure pressure, which occurs when the newly created fractures, closes again. It
is determined by the intersection of two tangents to the pressure versus mud volume curve.
The value of fracture closure pressure represents the minimum principal stress.
19
1st cycle 2nd cycle
Graph source: Petroleum Geosciences
1.11 MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE (MAASP)
MAASP is the maximum surface pressure that can be held on the casing with complete safety.
MAASP is the minimum of
a) The maximum surface pressure that the casing and/or well head will hold.
b) The maximum surface pressure that the shoe will hold.
(Since the selection of well head and the casing is based upon the maximum anticipated
surface pressure, the limiting factor usually is the pressure that the shoe will hold.)
MAASP is the maximum annular surface pressure which can be applied over and above the
hydrostatic pressure before the shoe gets fractured. At the time of LOT, MAASP is equal to the
surface leak-off pressure for the test fluid density. Therefore, subsequently while drilling when
ever the mud density changes the MAASP should be recalculated.
Example:
A leak-off test is conducted at 9,000 ft casing shoe TVD with mud density of 11ppg & surface leak-off
pressure is 1,500 psi. What is the MAASP for 11 ppg mud density?
Solution:
MAASP with 11 ppg mud density is 1,500 psi (surface leak-off pressure).
Note:- MAASP value must be known & posted on the rig at all times during drilling. As the mud weight is
changed or another LOT is conducted, MAASP must be recalculated accordingly.
Example:
For casing shoe at 9,000 ft. (TVD) MAASP with 11 ppg mud was 1,500 psi, what shall be the MAASP if
mud density is increased to 12 ppg, while drilling at 12,000 ft.
Solution:
MAASP with 11 ppg mud = 1,500 psi
Maximum. mud density that can be used without formation breakdown
= 11 + 1,500  ( 9,000  0.052) = 14.2 ppg
MAASP with 12 ppg mud = (14.2 - 12)  0.052  9,000 = 1,030 psi.
20
1.11.1 Maximum Influx Volume that can be safely shut in ( Kick Tolerance )
If the MAASP is known, the maximum influx volume that can be safely shut in, can be calculated
as below:
Example :
Influx Volume - 10 bbl
SIDPP - 600 psi
SICP - 750 psi
TVD - 9,000 ft
Mud Density - 11 ppg
Drill Collar - 500 ft
Annular Volume against drill pipe - 0.046 bbl/ft
Annular Volume against drill collar - 0.03 bbl/ft
MAASP - 1,200 psi with 11 ppg Mud
Calculate influx gradient & maximum influx volume that can be safely shut in.
Solution :
a ) Influx Gradient
Influx Volume (bbl)
Height of Influx = -----------------------
Annular Capacity (bbl/ft)
= 10  0.03 = 333.3 ft = 333 ft
As length of drill collar is 500 ft so Influx is around drill collar only.

Influx Gradient = Mud weight  0.052 - {(SICP - SIDPP)  Influx Height}
= 11  0.052 - {(750 - 600)  333}

= 0.572 - 0.450 = 0 .122 psi/ft
Once the value of the influx gradient is known, the maximum height of influx that can be safely closed in
can be calculated using the same formula :
Influx Gradient = Mud weight  0.052 - {(SICP - SIDPP)  Influx Height}
In the above equation maximum influx height can be calculated by substituting the value of MAASP in
place of SICP
0.122 = 11  0.052 – {(1200 – 600)  Influx height }
Influx height = (1200 – 600)  (11  0.052 - 0.122)
= 600  0.450 = 1333 ft
Now the height of influx can be converted into annular volume.
Drill collar length = 500 feet.

Annular Volume against drill collar = 500  0.03 = 15 bbl
Height of influx around drill pipe = 1333 - 500 = 833 ft
Annular Volume against drill pipe = 833  0.046 = 38.3 bbl
Total influx volume that can be safely closed before MAASP is reached :
= 15 + 38.3 = 53.3 bbl
21
1.12 MUD WEIGHT WINDOW DURING DRILLING
Mud weight or density, is the primary source of hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore. Drilling
mud with an excessively high mud weight exerts a hydrostatic pressure that may exceed the
fracture strength of the formation, forcing drilling fluid into natural fractures. This will result in
lost circulation into the wellbore. The fracture strength of any formation is measured by the
leak off tests conducted, immediately after a new casing string has run and cemented,
immediately after drilling out few feet below casing shoe. A drilling fluid of insufficient density
may contribute with a hydrostatic pressure that is lower than the pore pressure. This may lead
to an unplanned influx into the wellbore resulting in a kick. Drilling mud weight must be heavy
enough to counter the instability in the borehole that is created when rock is removed through
the drilling process. The drilling mud weight must be planned within the hydrostatic pressure
range that avoids a kick or a lost circulation situation.
Fig 10: Mud weight Window
The lower limit of the mud weight (with ECD effect) is determined by the formation pore
pressure or the wellbore collapse pressure, below which the uncontrolled flow of formation
fluids may be caused in the wellbore. The upper limit of the mud weight (with ECD effect) is
typically the margin for fracture gradient, the pressure that would cause the drilled formation
to fracture, creating potential loss of formation fluid in the wellbore.
22
1.13 TOP HOLE DRILLING
In upper part of the hole, drilling rate is normally too fast, hole sizes are large & porosity is very
high. Cutting carrying capacity of the drilling fluid is poor since hole is about 30% to 40% larger
than nominal size & high annular velocities cannot be obtained. This leads to concentration of
cuttings in the annulus thereby increasing the equivalent mud density in the annulus.
Formation strength in the top hole section is normally low, more so in a marine well since part
of the overburden there consists of seawater rather than formation. As such, while drilling a
top-hole section the chances of bulk mud losses are high, which if happens can lead to a
shallow formation flows. The various problems faced while drilling top hole section are as
below:
a) The formation being weak is vulnerable to bulk mud losses.

b) Soft, fast drilling formation generates large volumes of cuttings that tend to
accumulate in the bore hole.
c) Annular velocity is very low (due to large hole) and tophole mud has a poor cutting
carrying capacity.
d) Kicks occur quickly & since shallow reservoir can have high permeability, time for
action is very limited.
The shallow gas kicks are difficult to detect at an early stage because most of the standard flow
detection techniques fail. Flow checks on drilling breaks become impractical as drilling rates
generally are very fast & penetration rates vary tremendously. Mud volume is continuously
being added to active mud system therefore pit level indicator at times cannot be made use of.
The only reliable indicator is differential flow sensor. On the other hand reaction time is
minimal since gas expands almost immediately upon entering the well bore, which further
reduces the hydrostatic head and allows more and more influx to enter the well bore. As such
well cannot be closed because flow might broach to the outside of the shallow casing.
Shallow hazards are accumulations of gas or salt water which are abnormally pressured and
occurring at a sufficiently shallow depth that precludes having the BOPs yet installed. Shallow
hazards posed a severe threat since, when encountered , they can only be flowed to the surface
and diverted.
Shallow gas flows can be extremely prolific and flow of rock and sand can be severe to the point
of causing diverter failure. If shallow gas is encountered , preparations should begin
immediately to evacuate all non-essential personnel.
The major hazards of shallow gas influx

a) It can lead to blow-out.
b) It can cause serious damage to the personnel, rig & equipment.
c) It can broach through outside of shallow casing leading to instability of bottom
supported rigs.
d) Risk of crater , fire & loss of rig is very high.
A typical approach to a shallow gas kick is to allow the well to flow through a diverter. The
diverter system is designed to pack off around Kelly, casing or drill string. It does not shut in the
well, but allows the flow to be diverted through a vent line to a safe distance away from the rig.
23
Well is allowed to flow and simultaneously mud or water is pumped through the drill string at
maximum rate to keep as much fluid in the well as possible. Either the well shall flow till the
formation depletes (or annulus bridges) or the well is brought under control by increasing the
mud weight.
Shallow gas prevention consideration:

 Drill a pilot hole
 Drill riser less ( When applicable-subsea)
 Restrict ROPs and control drill
 Accurately monitor the well and drilling process.
1.14 SHALLOW GAS CONTROL PROCEDURE
Diverter system should be used to control shallow gas kicks as discussed below.
1.14.1 Diverting procedure:

1. Maintain maximum pump rate
2. Space out such that the lower safety valve is above the rotary.
3. Ensure that the downwind diverter line is open-close diverter element.
4. Shut down all non-essential equipment and machinery to minimize sources of ignition
-Deploy fire hose beneath rig floor.
5. Monitor for evidence of gas breaking through from outside the conductor.
6. Continue to monitor wind direction and continue to pump fluid/water.
7. Pump pre mixed heavy mud, if available.
1.14.2 During Drilling

a) At first sign of flow , immediately stop rotary, raise Kelly until tool joint is above rotary.
b) Open diverter overboard line valves depending upon wind direction.
c) Close diverter packer.
d) Circulate out with available drilling fluid at maximum possible pump rate.
e) Remove the non-essential personnel from the rig.
1.14.3 While Tripping

a) Set pipe on slips.
b) Install FOSV and close it.
c) Open diverter line valves depending upon wind direction.
d) Close diverter packer.
e) Connect Kelly or circulating head.
f) Open FOSV.
g) Circulate out with available drilling fluid at maximum possible pump rate.
( (Note : Step b and f are not required if string contains a float valve )
h) Remove the non-essential personnel from the rig.
24
1.14.4 Control of some critical drilling parameters

Since shallow gas kicks occur quickly and time for action is limited, it is useful to control some
critical drilling parameters to prevent shallow gas kicks.
a) Penetration Rate:- The rate of drilling is normally very fast in top holes, it adds tons of
drilled cuttings in the hole to create mud density much higher than what is required. It can
lead to fracture of formations & bulk mud losses & therefore result in shallow gas influx.
Thus there is need for limiting the actual penetration rates to a value less than that can be
achieved.
b) Mud Density:- Avoid mud density increase down hole by -

(i) Drilling large diameter holes in two stages (i.e. drilling a pilot hole)
(ii) Circulating out the cuttings with viscous mud sweeps.
c) Tripping:- Higher tripping speeds should be avoided, upper formations are usually sticky
(more so in offshore) & has more tendency to ball the bit thus enhancing the probability of
swabbing. If necessary the drill string should be pumped out of the hole to limit swabbing.
Whenever the pilot hole has been drilled, hole enlargement with under reamer should be
preferred as it can be collapsed before starting pulling out in order to reduce the swabbing
effect.
In addition to above, following measures are suggested.
1.14.4.1 Heavy Mud

A minimum of one reserve mud tank weighing about 2-3 ppg more than the drilling mud
should be kept reserve.
1.14.4.2 Mud Losses

Whenever losses are encountered, they should be sealed before drilling ahead. Bits should
have large nozzles to allow pumping of LCM material.
1.14.4.3 Active Mud System & Flow Checks

Mud pit volumes should be continuously monitored so as to detect any change in active
mud volumes. Periodic flow checks should be made while drilling in potential gas zones.
1.14.4.4 Float Valve

A float valve may be run in the string to prevent sudden flow through the drill pipe.
1.15 WELL CONTROL IN SHALLOW HOLE VS DEEP HOLE

In shallow well control, when only shallow casing has been set, shutting-in the well will cause
formation fluid to fracture to the surface and all control of the well will be lost. This can result
in a crater or loss of rig. The problem is more severe in offshore because of the reduced
fracture gradients. The only way to tackle the shallow kick is to divert the flow. The well will
flow until the formation depletes or the well is brought under control by increasing the
hydrostatic pressure in the well bore. Whereas in deep hole well control, the well is
immediately shut-in after recognizing the influx in the hole. Shut-in-pressures are monitored
and a killing procedure is chosen depending upon the volume & nature of influx taken, position
25
of the bit in the hole & closing pressures. Control over the well is not lost as long as the kick is
recognized at an early stage and an appropriate killing procedure is carried out.
1.15.1 Comparison
S. no Deep Kick Shallow Kick
1 Equipment BOP stack choke & kill manifold Annular BOP/Diverter and diverter lines
2 Kill pump rate 1/2 to 1/3rd of normal rate Increased to maximum possible
3 Kill Mud weight Based on shut in pressures Based on fracture pressure at casing
shoe/whatever light fluid available like
sea water
4 Closing Stop pump, close BOP Open Diverter line, close diverter,
sequence increase pump rates
5 Kick indications Reliable kick warning signals Kicks occur quickly and normal
indications of kicks difficult to recognize.
1.16 GAS CUTTING
Out coming mud can become gas cut due to following :
1.16.1 Drilling gas bearing sand

While drilling a gas bearing formation, the out coming mud will be gas cut due to the gas
breaking out of the pore spaces of the drilled cuttings. As long as the mud gradient is sufficient
to generate adequate overbalance, there is no risk of the well kicking. It so happens that when
drilled gas enters the wellbore at the bottom of the hole, it is under a pressure equal to the
bottom hole circulating pressure. But as the gas is circulated up to the surface, the pressure
reduces causing the gas to expand & this expansion causes the mud weight to reduce. With
deep reservoir at high pressure the effect of fully expanded gas on the mud weight at the
surface is substantial. But the effect is concentrated near the surface only & a large reduction in
surface mud density can normally be tolerated since the reduction in BHP due to gas cutting is
very little.
The degree of reduction in BHP due to surface gas cutting can be estimated as follows:-
(W1-W2) BHCP
Change in BHP (psi) = 32.72 -------------- log ----------
(W2) 14.22
Where W1 = In going mud density (ppg)

W2 = Gas cut mud density (ppg)
BHCP = Bottom hole circulating Pressure (psi)
Gas cutting alone does not indicate that the well is kicking unless it is associated with other kick
signals like flow rate etc. Nevertheless, the severity of the gas cutting depend upon the
penetration rate, permeability & is independent of mud weight. More the penetration rate,
porosity & permeability of the gas bearing formation, more severe shall be gas cutting.
While drilling tight formations i.e. formation with low permeability which contain gas at high
pressure, small quantities may enter the borehole and cause significant gas cutting at the
26
surface by expansion. As such gas cutting while drilling any gas bearing formation cannot be
prevented or reduced even by increasing the mud weight. Degassing is necessary to insure that
clean mud is being pumped back into the hole to prevent the percentage of gas from increasing
with each circulation. Not doing so shall cause greater and greater bottom hole pressure
reduction and a possible kick. Therefore it is advised to make regular flow checks and if the well
is not flowing, resume drilling. If flow is suspected, close the well and check the shut-in
pressure. Some casing pressure and zero drill pipe pressure indicates expanded gas in the
annulus.
Before pulling out in such conditions, it is advised to make a short trip and circulate bottoms up
to ensure that hole is gas free. At times when the drilled gas reaches the surface it causes
‘belching’ of drilling fluid through the bell nipple, if it continues for considerable time it may
cause reduction of hydrostatic head in the annulus. To prevent the expanding gas to cause
‘belching’ of the mud through bell nipple, annular preventer must be closed & drilling fluid be
circulated through full open choke.
1.16.2 Drilling through shale containing high pressure gas

Since shale is impermeable, gas is released only from the cuttings and the freshly exposed walls
of the hole. A self-flow test, normally will be negative. This gas is called shale gas or back
ground gas.
1.16.3 Connection/Trip gas

While drilling with minimal overbalance, small slug of gas can enter the well bore when string is
raised for connection with pumps off, provided a permeable formation is exposed. When the
circulation is started after the connection, this gas will result in gas cutting at the surface after
bottoms up. Such gas cutting normally does not cause much reduction in BHP. Nevertheless,
following precautions are recommended :
a) Continuously run the vacuum de-gasser
b) At no time there should be more than one slug of connection gas in the borehole
c) The connection time should be minimized
1.17 SWAB AND SURGE EFFECTS
Movement of drill string down hole creates pressure surges in the borehole. These pressure
surges could either add to the BHP (+ve surge) or reduce the BHP (-ve surge) depending upon
whether the pipe is being lowered or pulled out of the well. The +ve pressure surges commonly
known as ‘surge pressures’ if excessive can cause formation to fracture & lost circulation. The -
ve surge pressure known as ‘swab pressure’ may reduce the BHP sufficient to permit the flow of
formation fluid into the well.
Though accurate calculations of these swab & surge pressures are complicated, but since they
are caused mainly by friction while ‘moving the drill string through mud, they are function of
27
a) Pipe speed
b) Mud properties such as viscosity & gel strength.
c) Annular clearance (pipe/hole diameter)
d) BHA length & size etc.
An acceptable rough estimate of swab pressure or decrease in BHP while pulling the pipe can
be obtained by considering the friction effect values same as the circulating annular pressure
losses. Or we can say that the minimum BHP while pulling pipe could be static BHP minus the
circulating annular friction losses.
Though as the pipe is pulled up, some loss in BHP due to swabbing effect cannot be avoided,
however, adequate measures should be taken to check that the pressure reduction should not
exceed the overbalance pressure especially against permeable zones. Swabbing during trips
could be detected by filling the trip sheets. If the swabbing remains undetected during initial
stage, more and more formation fluid will reduce the BHP continuously and a stage will come
when the well will start kicking and unloading the mud from the well.
Swab pressure can be very low but are compounded if :-

i) Mud viscosity and gel strength is high
ii) Pipe movement is rapid
iii) Wall cake is thick
iv) Annular clearance against BHA is small
v) Bit or stabilizer is balled up.
The formation permeability & pulling out through horizontal reservoir sections can compound
the amount of formation fluid swabbed in.
High volume swabbing caused by piston effect of balled up bit, reamer or stabilizer associated
with thick filter cake is clearly indicated at the surface when there is
 Excessive over pull, drag or torque
 No drop in mud level in the annulus
 Rise in mud level in the annulus when the drill string is being pulled.
 High rheology mud properties
 Drilling in reactive formation(Like Gumbo shales)
Such swabbing effects are rather obvious.
Drill pipe rubber also may swell if gas has been in the mud, and this too can increase the
swabbing action. Therefore only drill pipe protectors which are highly resistant to swelling in
the presence of hydrocarbons should be used. The swabbing tendency is maximum at the bit
occurring proportionally alongside the whole drill string length. The greatest tendency to swab
occurs as the bit is lifted off bottom, therefore a careful watch on the mud level in the annulus
should be kept as the pipe is pulled. (The mud level should go down unless swabbing is taking
place). A short trip may be necessary in critical situations.
The greatest tendency to swab occurs just as the bit leaves bottom. At this time the most
careful checks need to be made to determine if formation fluids are being swabbed into the
hole.
28
While trip out monitor trip sheet carefully and if well takes less volume than pulled out volume,
it indicates swabbing and some influx has been sucked into the well. Make a flow check and if
flow check is positive, immediately shut in the well and then plan for strip-in. If flow check is
negative, the pipe must be run back to bottom monitoring the return rate on trip sheet. After
reaching bottom, the influx is to be circulated out with the same mud which was used at the
time of drilling.
The best method is based on checking the volume of mud needed to replace the volume of
steel removed. Pipe displacement can be read from tables or calculated by the formula:
Displacement (bbl./ft) = Weight per ft.(lb/ft) / 2730
The amount of mud used to fill the hole can be measured by counting the pump strokes needed
to fill the well or by using a trip tank. A trip tank allows the accurate measurement of relatively
small volumes of mud. Volume measurements in the mud pits are generally too inaccurate to
detect the small changes in volumes required. Companies use trip books to record the volumes
used on each hole fill and the running sum. The recorded volumes can be compared at intervals
with records of previous trips.
Keeping the hole full is most critical when drill collars are pulled from the well, because the
collars have more volume than drill pipe, the mud level will fall four to five times as far. To
prevent a reduction in well pressure greater than when pulling drill pipe , the hole should be
filled every stand when pulling collars.
Procedure to be followed:
 Monitor hole fill up on trips
 Limit pipe pulling and running speeds
 Add trip margin
 If swabbing is severe , consider pumping out of hole
 Trip sheet should be used to compare actual and calculated volume displaced.
 Trip tank must be accurately calibrated and monitored by crew members
 Plan the trip –have a set schedule of stands pulled between fill ups, have a sound
procedure for refilling trip tank and transferring surface mud volumes.
1.18 TRIP MARGIN
During pulling out, upward motion of the drill string in the borehole (which is assumed to be full
of mud) creates a swab pressure. This decreases BHP when pipe is in motion. One way of
minimising this is to use safe tripping speeds and having close monitoring of pipe volume pulled
out & mud volume pumped in to keep the hole full. Another practice to tackle the problem is to
keep mud weight gradient greater than the formation pressure gradient. The resulting
overbalance permits safe tripping and connection operations. This extra mud weight is called
trip margin. For normal drilling operation trip margin is kept 0.2 to 0.3 ppg . However, the swab
pressure being a function of yield point (yp) of mud, trip margin can be calculated as follows:-
Trip margin (ppg ) = 8.33Yp  98(dh-dp)
Where
Yp = Yield point of mud in lbs/100 sq.ft
dh = Hole diameter in inches
dp = Pipe outside diameter in inches
29
1.19 SLOW CIRCULATION RATE
During well control operations, to avoid further entry of formation fluid it is essential to keep
BHP at least equal to formation pressure. This is done by imposing certain calculated back
pressure in addition to system pressure losses on the well bore as long as old mud is in the well.
Kicks have to be circulated out at slow circulation rates to ensure that the sum of this back
pressure and system losses does not exceed the rating of high pressure lines and other rig
equipment. Various reasons for circulating out the kicks at slow circulation rates are :-
a. To ensure that the slow circulation pressure plus the shut in drill pipe pressure is total
pressure for the pump and does not exceed the surface line ratings.
b. To allow mud returns to be weighted up and re-circulated within the capabilities of
available mud mixing system.
c. To allow longer reaction time for choke adjustments.
d. To allow sufficient time for disposal of kick fluid /de-gassing at the surface.
e. To reduce the annular pressure losses.
f. To reduce the risk of pump breakdown and other mechanical problems.
g. ECD on open hole
h. Choke line friction pressure (floaters)
Equally important are the less tangible benefits which accrue from conducting a kill in a slow,
methodical manner. The supervisor has more time to analyze the pressures and what they may
be saying about the down hole conditions. Better judgment and wiser decisions invariably will
follow.
The common practice so far had been to select a rate which is about half the pump speed at the
time of drilling. This practice was fairly good with duplex mud pump earlier in use on drilling
rigs. Now with the use of triplex pumps this convention gives much higher speeds than the
actual requirements. Theoretically speaking the kill rate or slow circulation rate should be the
minimum possible pump speed at which pump can run smoothly without any knocking etc. But
since at minimum pump speeds more time will be required to kill the well, a compromise has to
be made which can meet all the requirements. Therefore slow circulation rate should be 1/2 to
1/3 of pump SPM at the time of drilling.
1.19.1 Recording of slow circulation rate
The slow circulation rate for each pump on the rig is selected before any well control problems
arise. Standard policy in drilling operations is to measure the pump pressure periodically noted
kill rate for each pump. Knowing the kill rate circulating pressure is a valuable and sometimes
necessary adjunct to the information used to plan and execute a kill procedure.
It should be recorded near to the bottom for each pump at regular intervals and / or when
drilling conditions change such as :-
30
i) At the beginning of each shift.

ii) After change in drilling fluid density.
iii) After change in bit nozzle size or BHA.
iv) After drilling a long section of hole (500 ft.) in a shift.
v) After pump fluid end repair.
vi) After any significant change in mud properties type.
On the rig there are a no. of places where drill pipe pressure gauges are installed such as stand
pipe, mud pumps, driller’s console, choke & kill manifold and remote choke panel. Slow
circulation pressure should be recorded from the gauge that is to be used for well killing
operation . So, it should be recorded at remote choke panel, if available on the rig.
1.20 CALCULATION OF APROXIMATE CIRCULATION PRESSURE CHANGES DUE TO PUMP

SPEED AND MUD DENSITY CHANGES
Circulating pressure are related to pump discharge by following equation :

P = KQn where P - Pressure Loss Q - discharge
‘K ‘ is a proportionality factor involving mud characteristics and system dimensions & ‘n’ has a
value of 2 for bit nozzle & approximate 1.73 for drill string. For determining combined losses
(Drill string, bit & annular) value of ‘n’ is taken as 1.86. Therefore above equation can be
modified as:-
P  Q1.86
For practical purposes it can be approximated as :
P  Q2
or P  (SPM)2,
Since Q  SPM
(SPM = Pump Strokes per minute)
Approximate pressure changes due to change in pump speed can be calculated by using this
equation. If P1 is slow circulation rate pressure recorded at pump rate SPM1, than P2 circulation
pressure at SPM2 can be calculated.
(SPM2)2
P2 = P1  ---------
(SPM1)2
Friction pressure increases exponentially to the circulating rate. This means that if the
circulating rate doubles, there would be a fourfold increase in the corresponding circulating
pressure.
31
Example:-
A pump pressure of 1,000 psi was recorded at pump speed of 40 SPM. What is the new pump pressure
at a speed of 30 SPM.
Solution :-
(SPM2)2
P2 = P1  --------
(SPM1)2
(30) 2
= 1,000  ------ = 562 psi
(40) 2
Similarly, if the mud density has been changed and slow circulation pressure has not been
recorded after mud density change, the same can be approximately calculated
New Mud density

New circulating Pressure = Old circulating pressure  -----------------------
Old Mud density
Friction pressure changes directly with change in the fluid weight. This means that if the weight
of the fluid being circulated increases by 20%, there would be a likewise 20% increase in the
corresponding circulating pressure.
Example:
A pump pressure of 1,000 psi was recorded with a mud density of 11 ppg at 40 SPM. what shall be pump
pressure at 40 SPM if the mud density is increased to 13ppg.
Solution:
13
New pump pressure = 1,000  ----- = 1,182 psi
11
1.21 EQUIVALENT MUD DENSITY IN THE ANNULUS
During drilling, due to suspension of cuttings, equivalent mud density in the annulus happens to
be more than that of drill string. Though in deep hole sections the effect is not much
pronounced but in top holes where the cuttings accumulation is enormous this increase may at
times lead to total loss situation.
32
1.22 EQUIVALENT CIRCULATION DENSITY (ECD)
Pump pressure is a measurement of total friction pressure of the circulating system, but only
the annular pressure loss is applied against the well bore. This a pressure in addition to that of
hydrostatic pressure. Converting the annular pressure loss to ppg and adding this value to
mud/fluid weight yields the equivalent circulating density.
Bottom hole pressure during circulation is more than that of static condition by an amount
equal to annular pressure losses. As soon as the pumps are shut off, the APL component of BHP
becomes zero & ECD effect is lost. Thus before tripping out a flow check should be conducted
on every well.
Mud in use 10 ppg Friction Losses in the annulus

120 psi
10,000ft
Figure 1.11 EQUIVALENT CIRCULATION DENSITY
ECD(ppg) = Original Mud Density(ppg) + Annular losses(psi) { 0.052  Well TVD(ft)}
a) Hydrostatic Pressure when static = 10,000  10  0.052 = 5,200 psi

b) Hydrostatic Pressure when circulating = 10,000  10  0.052+120 = 5,320 psi
c) Equivalent circulating density = 5,320  {0.052  10,000} = 10.23 ppg
Hence while circulating the effective mud weight is 10.23 ppg
33
Exercises of mud gradient, hydrostatic & formation pressure, BHP & MAASP
Exercise : 1
Consider following Well Data :
Well Measured Depth - 9,800 ft
Well TVD - 8,200 ft
Mud Density - 11.5 ppg
Calculate :
a) Mud Gradient
b) Hydrostatic Pressure
c) Hydrostatic Pressure if 11.5 ppg mud in the well is replaced as below :
0 – 7,000 ft TVD - 11.5 ppg
7,000 – 8,200 ft TVD - 12.0 ppg
Solution :
Exercise : 2
Consider following Well Data :
Well Measured Depth - 11, 900 ft
Well TVD - 9, 600 ft
Formation Pressure Gradient - 0.65 psi / ft
Mud Density - 12.4 ppg
Annular pressure Loss @ 90 SPM - 90 psi
Minimum Swab Pressure( while lifting string ) - 80 psi
Calculate :
a) Formation Pressure.
b) Bottom Hole Pressure while making a connection ( string is idle)
c) Bottom Hole Pressure during circulation @ 90 SPM.
d) Bottom Hole Pressure during lifting the string with pump off.
Solution :
34
Exercise : 3
A Casing is lowered to a depth of 9,500 ft, shoe TVD is 8,700 ft. After drilling shoe & 15 ft of formation ,
leak-off test was conducted with 11.6 ppg mud.
Calculate :
a) MAASP if sub-surface formation leak-off pressure is 6,500 psi.
b) MAASP if formation fracture gradient is 0.75 psi/ft.
Solution :
Exercise : 4
Consider Following Well Data :
Well MD - 13, 500 ft Well TVD -12, 400 ft
Casing Shoe MD - 10, 400 ft Casing Shoe TVD - 9, 300 ft
Leak – off Mud Density -10 .6 ppg Surface Leak –off pressure- 2, 200 psi
Calculate :
a) Casing shoe strength in psi
b) New MASSP if mud density is increased to 12.6 ppg
c) New MASSP if mud density is increased to 13.5 ppg
Solution :
35
CHAPTER-2 KICK INDICATIONS & SHUT IN PROCEDURES

__________________________________________________________
2.1 INTRODUCTION TO KICKS
A kick can be defined as a well control problem in which the pressure found within the drilled
rock is greater than the mud hydrostatic pressure acting on the borehole . When this occurs,
the greater formation pressure has a tendency to force formation fluids into the well bore. This
fluid flow is called a kick. If the flow is successfully controlled, the kick has been killed. A blow
out is the result of an uncontrolled kick.
The severity of kick depends upon permeability and porosity of the rock. A rock with high
permeability and porosity has a greater potential for a severe kick than a rock with low
permeability and porosity. Another controlling variable for kick severity is the amount of
pressure differential involved. Pressure differential is the difference between the formation
fluid pressure and the mud hydrostatic pressure. If the formation pressure is much greater than
the hydrostatic pressure , a large negative differential pressure exists. If the negative
differential pressure is coupled with high permeability and porosity in a rock, a severe kick can
occur.
The pressure differential between the formation and well bore i.e the degree of underbalance,
is proportional to the influx flow rate and kick volume for a given flow period. The situation can
only deteriorate with time because less dense formation fluid volume further reduces well bore
pressure and thereby serves to increase flow rate into the well. Permeability is another
significant factor as are exposed thickness and fluid viscosity. We cannot control permeability
or reservoir fluid properties, but the amount of exposed kick is governed by how long we
continue to drill with kick entry.
2.2 CAUSES OF KICKS
Kicks occur as a result of formation pressure being greater than mud hydrostatic pressure which
causes fluid to flow from the formation into the wellbore. The main factors which can lead to
this condition can be classified as :
a) Improper hole fill up on trips.

b) Swabbing.
c) Abnormal formation pressure.
d) Insufficient mud density.
e) Lost circulation.
f) Gas cut mud
More than 50% of the kicks occur due to first two of the causes listed above.
2.2.1 Improper hole fill up on trips

When the drill string is pulled out of the hole dry, the mud level decreases by a volume
equivalent to the steel volume. If the hole does not take the calculated volume of mud, it is
assumed a formation fluid has entered the wellbore. Even though gas or salt water entered the
36
hole, the well may not flow until enough fluid has entered to reduce the hydrostatic pressure
below the formation pressure.
Therefore, while pulling out the well should be filled continuously by using trip tank and
differences of calculated and actual mud volume be recorded at regular interval. Similarly while
running in drill string, trip tank should be used to monitor displacement volume correctly at
regular intervals.
If the hole is not filled to replace the calculated volume, the fluid column in the wellbore shall
go down and reduce the hydrostatic pressure. At the same time the pulling out of drill string
causes a reduction in BHP due to swabbing effect. Therefore to avoid the possibility of any
formation fluid entering the bore hole due to combination of above two factors the hole should
be properly / regularly filled during tripping out. Displacement factors representing the pipe
volume per unit length are used to determine the mud volume. Metal displacement of a pipe
can be calculated using the following formula:
Metal displacement (bbl /ft) = (D2 -d2) /1029.4

Where “D” is the outside diameter and “d” is the inside diameter of the pipe in inches.
In the field normally the practice is to fill up the hole either on a regular fill up schedule or to fill
up continuously with a re-circulating trip tank. Irrespective of the practice being used an
accurate method of measuring the amount of fluid actually being taken by hole should be
monitored and an accurate record of actual volume v/s theoretical volume should be kept. If at
any stage during pulling-out it is observed that the actual filled in volume is significantly less
than volume of steel that has been removed, it means that some formation fluids must have
entered the well bore.
To Maintain Hydrostatic Control in Tripping:
Prior to Tripping:
 Circulate the hole clean prior to the trip.
 Limit pipe speed to minimize surge/swab pressure
 Line up and use a trip tank
 Maintain hole fill /displacement data on trip sheets
Hole fill up = Displacement factor x Stand length x No of stands
 Discuss with driller the purpose of a trip.
 Prepare the drill floor.
Tripping Procedure:
 Flow check the well prior to tripping
 Pump a slug so that pipe can be pulled dry.
V slug = {MW (ppg) x planned length of dry pipe (ft) x Pipe capacity(bbl/ft) }/ (SlugWt(ppg) - MWt(ppg))
37
As a rule of thumb , the slug should be mixed to maintain a minimum of 2 stands of dry
pipe. Accurate displacement is necessary so that the depth and height of the slug is
known at all times during the trip.
 Ensure the level in the annulus is falling by monitoring the hole through the rotary for
the first 5-10 stands pulled off from bottom. After confirming that there is no swabbing
then install the pipe wiper.
 Circulate the hole across the trip tank and continue the trip out, check correct hole fill
via trip tank and trip sheets.
 Conduct a flow check when BHA is first pulled into casing and prior to pulling the BHA
into the BOP stack.
Trip sheet: Trip sheet should be used to record hole fill up volumes for all trips. The trip
sheet allows for comparison of actual vs calculated fluid volumes so that any
discrepancies can be easily detected.
A trip tank should also be used during all trips to assist with accurate hole fill up
requirement.
Note: A sample trip sheet is attached in annexures for reference.
2.2.2 Swabbing
Swab pressures are created by pulling out the drill string from the borehole. It reduces the
bottom hole pressure. If the reduced bottom hole pressure becomes less than the formation
pressure, a potential kick may enter the wellbore. Various factors conducive to swab pressures
are pipe pulling speed, mud properties, filtration cake, annular clearance, hole configuration
and effect of balling up of BHA & bit.
Pulling speed is the only variable that can be controlled during the drilling process when a trip is
made. In order to reduce the swab pressure , the pulling speed must be reduced.
It is important to remember that swab pressure aggravates the pressure reduction resulting
from not keeping the hole full as pipe is pulled. Also the swab pressure is exerted at every point
throughout the open hole below the bit, even though the drill string may be inside the casing
string.
2.2.3 Abnormal pressure

In case of wild cat or exploratory drilling, most often the formation pressures are not known
accurately. While drilling, sometimes the bit suddenly penetrates an abnormal pressure
formation. As a result the mud hydrostatic pressure becomes less than the formation pressure
and may cause a well kick. There are various geological reasons for abnormal pressures, some
of these are discussed in 1.8 of this book.
2.2.4 Insufficient mud density

If a formation is drilled using a mud density that exerts less hydrostatic pressure than the pore
pressure, the formation fluid may begin to flow into the well bore. Kicks caused by insufficient
mud density seem to have the obvious solution of drilling with high mud density. The best
solution is to maintain the mud density slightly greater than that required to balance the
formation pressure in order to avoid mud loss.
38
2.2.5 Lost Circulation

Lost circulation is another factor which reduces the hydrostatic pressure. When a kick occurs
due to lost circulation, the problem may become more severe. A large volume of kick fluid may
enter the hole before the mud level increase is observed at the surface. It is a recommended
practice to keep the annulus always topped to avoid considerable reduction in BHP when lost
circulation is encountered.
Severe lost circulation is one of the more difficult problems. Drilling into a depleted formation ,
pore pressure reversal or vugular rock can lead to a case where the bottoms falls out and a
subsequent loss of hydrostatic head sufficient to permit entry from a shallower formation.
Alternatively increasing the mud weight or annular friction may result in shallower losses and a
kick from a deeper horizon. Serious well control problems resulting from lost circulation
generally can be avoided by adequate planning and supervision. Failure to prevent such kicks
often leads to an underground blow outs.
2.2.6 Gas cut mud

Gas contaminated mud will occasionally cause a kick. As the gas is circulated to the surface, it
expands and reduces the hydrostatic pressure sufficient to allow a kick to enter. Although the
mud density is reduced considerably at the surface, the hydrostatic pressure is not reduced
significantly since the most gas expansion occurs near surface & not at the bottom.
2.3 KICK DETECTION
Detecting a kick early and limiting its volume by shutting in the well is critical to secondary
control, and may make the difference between a manageable situation and one that leads to a
loss of control. Thus it is important to have appropriate kick detection equipment in working
order and to have crews alert to the warning signs and trained in the shut in procedure.
When a kick occurs, the surface pressure required to contain it will largely depend upon closing
in quickly and retaining as much mud as possible in the well. The more mud unloaded , the
higher the back pressure needed.
2.4 KICKS WHILE DRILLING
Following are the early warning signs & positive indications for kicks while drilling.
2.4.1 Early warning signs

The detection of increasing formation or pore pressure is very essential in maintaining primary
control of a well and preventing a kick. The early warning signs are indications of approaching
higher formation pressure which means that the well may go under-balance if no appropriate
action is taken. Correct action taken after review in consultation with Geologist and Mud
person can help to avoid occurrence of kick while drilling further.
Early warning signs are listed below :
2.4.1.1 Rate of Penetration Trends

When abnormal pressure formations are encountered, differential pressure & shale density are
decreased causing a gradual increase in ROP. An increase in drilling rate can be masked by an
increase in mud weight. Similarly bit weight changes can also mask the increase in drilling rate,
39
but careful observation of drilling rate or some such related parameter as “d” exponent can
provide a timely warning of increasing pressure.
2.4.1.2 Drilling Break

The first indication of a possible well kick is a drilling break. For reservoir fluid to enter the well
bore there must be a permeable section of reservoir rock. This will cause a change in drilling
rate. In soft formation, a sand section usually causes a sudden increase in drilling rate. The
increase in drilling rate varies. A 200% to 300% increase in drilling rate is not unusual. In hard
formations a reverse drilling break to a slower drilling rate occurs in the reservoir like sandstone
that are harder than the shale body.
The driller should be specially alert to signals when a positive drilling break is encountered . In
fact company policy is to stop drilling and to conduct a flow check before proceeding vary far
into any drilling break, especially when drilling in a known transition interval.
2.4.1.3 Increase in Torque & Drag

As the difference between the mud hydrostatic pressure and formation pressure decreases (as
a result of increasing formation pressure), the bit makes larger cuttings and the cuttings pile up
around the collars and increase the rotary torque. Closing up of the hole may also increase
torque. Increase in rotary torque is a good indication of increasing pressure and a potential well
kick. Drag & fill up on connections and trips increase when high pressure formations are drilled.
2.4.1.4 Decrease in Shale Density

Shale density usually increases with depth but decreases in abnormal pressure zones due to
under compaction. The density of cuttings collected can be determined at surface and plotted
against depth. A normal trend line is established and any deviation should theoretically indicate
changes in pore pressure.
2.4.1.5 Change in Cutting Size and Shapes

Cuttings from normal pressure shale are small in size with rounded edges and are generally flat.
Cuttings drilled from abnormal pressured formation often become long and splintery with
angular edges. As differential pressure is reduced due to increase in formation pressure, the
cuttings have a tendency to explode off bottom. A change in cutting shape will be observed
along with an increase in the amount of cuttings recovered at the surface and this could
indicate that formation pressure in the well is increasing.
2.4.1.6 Change in Mud Property

As the pressure in the formation increases faster than the pressure of the mud column, more
cuttings & caving will dissolve into the mud and increase the viscosity of the mud.
2.4.1.7 Increase in Chloride Content in Mud Filtrate

Drilling through high pressure formations having higher porosity results in contamination of
drilling fluid with considerable volume of saline water from pores. This increases chloride
content of the drilling fluid and its filtrate. A higher chloride trend can warn about increasing
pore pressure.
40
2.4.1.8 Increase in Flow Line Temperature

The temperature gradient in abnormal pressure formation is usually higher than normal
pressure formation. The continuous measurement of the mud temperature at the flow line
gives an indication of change in temperature gradient associated with abnormally pressured
formation. The temperature may take a sharp increase (5-7oF/100 ft.) in transition zones.
2.4.1.9 Increase in Trip, Connection and Back-ground Gas

An increase in trip and / or connection gas should be considered as an indication that pore
pressure is increasing. Gas readings are arbitrary and are not proportional to actual gas
concentration in the mud. These vary considerably from one mud logging unit to another.
Therefore absolute values of gas readings do not have much significance in detecting abnormal
pressures. Increase in back ground gas is not very reliable in detecting pore pressure increase.
This is because gas concentrations can change drastically in the formation being drilled without
any increase in pore pressure.
Gas analysers are used to establish trend line which is called background gas. A gas feed in from
a permeable zone will change this trend line. The amount of feed in will determine the intensity
of the trend change. Connection gas will normally occur on bottoms-up (calculated lag time)
and if not re-circulated will not change the overall trend line except for short interval of time.
The most common error with gas cutting is the tendency to maintain the mud weight at its
original value with addition of barite and without removing all the gas. Since moderate gas
cutting contributes so little to bottom hole pressure reduction, additional barite may increase
the mud weight enough to cause lost circulation.
2.4.1.10 Change in ‘d’-exponent

Jordan and Shirley developed an equation for normalised penetration rate in which it was
defined as a function of measured drilling rate, weight on bit, bit size and rotary speed in the
equation as below :
d = log (R/60N)/log (12W/103 Db)

where,
R = rate of penetration in ft/hr
N = rotary speed rpm
W = weight on bit in 1000 lbs
Db = bit diameter in inches
Since the d-exponent tends to indicate the pressure differential between formation pressure
and well bore pressure, mud weight will effect d -exponent. The original calculation should be
corrected as follows :
dc = d  (MW1  MW2 )
where,
dc = modified d-exponent
MW1 = mud density equivalent of formation fluid at normal pressure condition
MW2 = mud density being used in well
41
dc values are plotted on a semi log graph paper at every 15 or 30 ft. interval depth to give
normal trend line. Abnormal pressure transition zone top is detected at the depth where dc
exponent values against shale tends to decrease in comparison to normal values.
2.4.1.11 String weight change

With entry of lighter influx in annulus, there is slight change in buoyancy and hence minor string
weight increase may be observed.
2.4.2 Positive Kick Sign

Positive kick indicators are different from kick warning signs. They indicate that the kick has
already entered the well bore. Any of them indicate regular flow checks.
2.4.2.1 Increase in return flow (Pumps On)

After the early warning signs the first positive kick sign is increase in flow rate at the flow line
with pumps on. The entrance of any fluid into the well bore causes the flow rate to increase.
2.4.2.2 Flow from well (Pumps Off)

Stopping the pump causes a reduction in bottom hole pressure equivalent to the annular
pressure drop, so flow check is a reliable method of checking for a well kick. If the well does not
flow when the pump is shut off and remains static for two or three minutes, then no well kick is
entering.
2.4.2.3 Pit Volume Increase

An increase in pit volume is obvious & positive indication of flow into the well bore & can be
easily verified. If an increase in pit volume is seen, shut off the pump and make a flow check. If
the well does not flow, no kick is entering.
2.4.2.4 Decrease in Pump Pressure and Increase in Pump Stroke

In case of kick there is under balanced condition between the fluid in the drill pipe and the
mixed column of mud and influx in the annulus. Therefore circulating pressure gradually
decreases and unless the pump throttle is changed, pump speed slowly increases. This is not a
confirmatory indicator as same indications may come due to pumping of light mud slug while
circulation.
To determine kicks early while drilling , the driller should have instantaneous readouts or charts
of average pit volume of the active pits, mud gained or lost and return flow rate. Preferably the
pit volume and return flow rate will be recorded on the floor to establish trends. The driller
should learn to monitor this outputs closely and insist that he be informed prior to any change
in operating status of the mud equipment. As soon as an unexpected change in the monitors
occurs, he should pick up and check for flow.
When the fast rise in pit volume /increase in flow rate is noted, pick up the string, stop the
pumps, and check for flow. If the well is flowing, shut in or divert the well. Proceed to kill the
well. When an unexpected , slow rise in pit volume occurs in areas or intervals not known to be
tight formation , same action as stated above is taken.
42
2.5 KICKS WHILE TRIPPING
When the pump is switched off, a reduction in BHP equal to annular pressure losses occurs.
Hence the beneficial aspects of the ECD will be lost during a trip and a flow check should be
conducted on every well before starting pulling out. It is common in most areas to slug the drill
pipe while preparing for a trip. Slugging refers to the procedure wherein a quantity of mud is
densified relative to the mud in the hole and pumped down the drill pipe. The mud in the drill
pipe fall to a stable level which allows the string to be pulled in dry condition. Kick detection will
be more definitive and any subsequent well control procedures will be less complicated if the
pipe is slugged after rather than before the flow check. To prevent kick while tripping, basic
requirement is that hole must be kept full of mud and the volume of mud required to fill the
hole must be equal to the steel displacement of drill string pulled out.
The sequence of events to a kick while making a trip-out of hole is :
 Hole remains full or does not take proper amount of mud. Whenever such situation is
noticed the pipe should be run back to bottom and mud be circulated to clear the hole.
 Flow from the flow line
 Increase in pit volume.
The sequence of events leading to a kick while tripping-in the hole is :

 The hole does not stop flowing during making connection between the stands
 Increase in pit volume
In order to avoid well kicks while tripping, trip schedule must be made and trip tank must be
used to monitor the hole fill up (in case of tripping-out) and mud displacement (in case of
tripping-in).
A kick occurring while coming out of the hole will be indicated first by failure of the well to take
a volume of mud equal to the pipe volume removed. When going in the hole, the pit level will
increase more than the volume of pipe run. The Driller should know the volume of 10 stands of
pipe and check the volume of pit gain at intervals when recorders are in use to make certain
that the pits are not gaining too much mud. When a drill pipe in the hole and flow is noted
during tripping, a safety valve is stabbed immediately and the well closed in observing pressure
restriction.
Management of Non Shearable and Non Sealable tubulars: The drill string constitutes of Kelly,
drill pipes and bottom hole assembly commonly known as BHA. The drill pipe section includes
conventional drill pipe and heavy weight drill pipe. The BHA section includes drill collars,
stabilizers, jars, reamers, directional drilling tools etc.
The heavy weight drill pipe and most of the BHA tools are thick walled tools. These tools and
tubulars cannot be sheared in emergency with the pressure available from the BOP control unit
and are categorised as non shearable tubulars.
The downhole tools like bit, stabilizers, casing scrappers, under reamers etc. are having
irregular shapes and some have also got cutting structures on the outer body. In the event
when these tools are positioned against the BOP and with some activity in the well it becomes
to shut-in the well against these tools. The cutting structure will damage the rubber sealing
43
elements of the preventers and will not seal properly on shut-in. These tools are categorized as
non-sealable tools.
The following precautions must be taken while tripping out or tripping in of these non-sealable
and non shearable tools and tubulars.
 Proper flow check should be done prior to pulling out the last stand of drill pipe
connected with the BHA.
 The safety valve (FOSV) should be made up with the proper size of the cross over as per
the connection of the BHA prior to pulling out.
 Since RAM BOP will not close and seal on the BHA tubulars it becomes necessary to
close the annular preventer for shut-in of the well.
 Attempts should be made to trip in one stand of conventional drill pipe stand so the well
can be shut-in properly on the drill pipe.
 If situation does not permits to shut-in the well on the BHA tubulars or tools then
arrangements should be made with all precautions to drop the string in the wellbore
and shut-in the well on Shear/Blind ram.
If the flow is detected with the bit out of hole, blind rams should be closed immediately
observing pressure restriction.
2.6 WHEN KICK OCCURS WHILE OUT OF THE HOLE
When crews are busy changing bits, breaking down core barrels etc. , they sometimes forget to
observe the flow line and hole. Before sufficient mud flow shows on a pit level device, a small
flow will begin at the flow line. If this noticed there will be time to take control measures before
serious difficulties develop. If it is detected after the rate has built, control is more difficult.
There is also a danger of the fluid level dropping when pipe is out of the hole, due to seepage or
static losses. Therefore the well must be monitored while pipe is out of hole.
2.7 LINE UP FOR SHUT IN
When one or more positive kick signs are observed, flow check is made. In case of self-flow well
can be shut-in in two ways:
a) Soft shut-in: Choke is open during the shut in procedure and is closed after the BOP
b) Hard shut-in: Choke is closed during the shut in process so that the well bore is
contained upon BOP closure.
44
2.7.1 Line up for soft shut-in
Mud Vent To
tanks line MGS
Pressure Gauge
Remote Manual
choke choke
Annular BOP
Blind/Shear
OPEN
Pipe ram HCR
CLOSE
Pipe ram
Manual
Valve
Wellhead
Figure 2.1 LINE-UP FOR SOFT SHUT-IN
Choke line manual valve : Open

HCR : Close
Line between HCR & Choke : Open
Remote choke : Open (partially)
Line from choke to MGS : Open
45
2.7.2 Line up for hard shut-in
Mud Vent To
tanks line MGS
Pressure Gauge
Remote Manual
choke choke
Annular BOP
Blind/Shear
ram OPEN
Pipe ram HCR
CLOSE
Pipe ram
Manual
Valve
Wellhead
Figure 2.2 LINE-UP FOR HARD SHUT-IN
Choke line manual valve : Open

HCR : Close
Line between HCR & Choke : Open
Remote choke : Close
Line from choke to MGS : Open
2.8 SHUT IN PROCEDURES (As per API RP 59)
As per API following are the shut-in procedures for land/jack-up rigs.
2.8.1 While drilling on land and jack up rigs

a) Stop rotary.
b) Pick up kelly to clear tool joint above rotary table.
c) Stop mud pump, check for self-flow. If yes, close the well as follows:
46
Sl.No. Soft Shut in Hard Shut In

i) Open hydraulic control valve (HCR Close Blow Out Preventer (Preferably
valve) / manual valve on choke line.Annular Preventer)
ii) Close Blow Out Preventer (PreferablyOpen HCR / manual valve on choke
Annular Preventer) line when choke is in fully closed
position.
iii) Gradually close adjustable choke, Allow pressure to stabilize and record
monitoring casing pressure. SIDPP, SICP and Pit Gain.
iv) Allow the pressure to stabilize and
record SIDPP, SICP and Pit gain.
2.8.2 While tripping on land and jack up rig
a) Position tool joint above rotary table and set pipe on slips.
b) Install full opening safety valve (FOSV) in open position & close it. Following methods
are recommended for shut in the well.
Sl.No. Soft Shut In Hard Shut In

i) Open HCR Valve / Manual valve on Close Blow Out preventer (Preferably
choke line. Annular Preventer)
ii) Close Blow Out Preventer (Preferably Open choke line HCR valve with
Annular Preventer) choke is fully closed position.
iii) Gradually close adjustable choke, Make up kelly and open FOSV
monitoring casing pressure.
iv) Make up kelly and open FOSV Allow pressure to stabilise and record
SIDPP, SICP and Pit gain.
v) Allow the pressure to stabilise and
record SIDPP, SICP and Gain.
2.8.3 While string is out of hole on land and jack up rig ( Soft Shut in)
a. Open HCR valve on choke line.
b. Close shear or blind ram.
c. Close choke.
d. Record SICP and pit gain.
Note : In case of hard shut-in the sequence at a) & b) above shall be interchanged
2.9 CHECKING FOR TRAPPED SHUT IN PRESSURE
a) Open choke slightly and bleed ¼ bbl (or less) of mud from well.
b) Close choke and record shut in pressures.
c) If casing and drill pipe shut in pressures are reduced, repeat first step.
d) If casing and drill pipe pressure remains the same- record these values as the correct shut
in pressures.
47
2.10 SHUT IN PRESSURE INTERPRETATION
2.10.1 Shut -in Drill Pipe Pressure (SIDPP)

The shut in pressure on the drill string side is the difference between the hydrostatic pressure
of drilling fluid and the formation fluid pressure. When a kick enters during drilling, the drill
string remains uncontaminated whereas annulus becomes contaminated with influx. If SIDPP is
added to hydrostatic pressure of drilling fluid, the resultant pressure will be the pressure of the
formation .
SIDPP is used to determine the kill mud weight required to balance the formation pressure by
using the equation given below –
SIDPP(psi)
Kill Mud Density (ppg) = ---------------------------- + Original Mud Density(ppg)
0.052  Well TVD( ft)
The shut in drill pipe pressure should be read & recorded from the gauge on the choke control
panel. Since true SIDPP is determined for the calculation of kill mud density, it is recommended
to read and record the SIDPP immediately after the closure and subsequently after every 3-5
minutes. The recorded values of SIDPP should be tabulated/plotted to ascertain the true value
of SIDPP . Once the well is closed initially, the SIDPP starts increasing till the BHP becomes
equal to the formation pressure. The time taken for stabilization depends upon the
permeability of the formation. SIDPP may further increase but at a slower rate if the influx is
gas/gas mixture.
2.10.2 Shut -in Casing Pressure (SICP)

The shut in pressure on the annulus side is the difference between the combined fluid
hydrostatic pressures and formation fluid pressure. Since annulus is contaminated with
formation fluid (Oil, gas, salt water or combinations) therefore SICP cannot be used to calculate
kill mud density, however it is used to determine kind of influx which has entered the well bore.
During kill operation casing pressure will allow us to determine the pressure being exerted at
various points in the well bore and also pressures on the BOP equipment and choke lines.
For well control procedures it is required to record a “stabilized” SIDP and SICP after closing in a
well. One suggested procedure is to record the SIDPP and SICP every minute and plot the data.
Regardless of the permeability , the pore pressure build up in the early time period will
dominate the migration build up and a reasonable guess is to select a SIDPP somewhere near
where the plot makes a major change in curvature.
A float presents a problem in obtaining the SIDPP because flow into the drill string is
obstructed. The most accurate way to obtain the SIDPP is to pump down the drill pipe at a low
rate while monitoring the drill pipe and annulus pressures. A subtle break in the drill pipe
pressure should be detected when the valve opens. The SIDPP to use in the kill mud calculation
and displacement procedure is the pressure at which the valve opens.
48
2.11 TYPE OF INFLUX
The type of influx can be determined provided the amount of the pit gain and shut-in
pressures are correctly recorded. Having closed a well after a kick, stabilized pressures are read
and recorded and the volume of influx is calculated from the amount of increase in the surface
active system volume.
Note:
a) Kick fluid weight less than 3 ppg indicates the fluid is gas.
b) Kick fluid weight between 3 to 9 ppg indicates the fluid is mixture of gas, water or oil.
c) Kick fluid weight between 9 to 10 ppg indicates the fluid is salt water.
Example:
A well was shut in after a kick, given below are the tabulated values of SIDPP and SICP. Find out
the stabilised value of SIDPP .
Time SIDPP(psi) SICP(psi)
0600 100 150
0605 200 270
0610 275 370
0615 340 450
0620 400 520
0625 405 525
0630 415 535
0635 430 550
0640 450 570
Solution:
As evident from tabulated values, SICP is increasing faster than SIDPP up-to 0620 hrs but later
both the pressures are rising by same amount. This shows that the pressures have stabilized at
0620 hrs and subsequently due to close well gas migration both the pressures are rising by same
amount. Therefore the value recorded at 0620 hrs i.e. 400 psi is the true SIDPP. The proper
recognition of stabilized value of SIDPP is very important as this value is used for the calculation
of kill mud weight and formation pressure.
Example:
A well was shut in after a kick, given below are the tabulated values of SIDPP and SICP. Find out
the stabilized value of SIDPP .
Time SIDPP(psi) SICP(psi)

0800 150 200
0815 250 320
0830 340 420
0845 420 510
0900 500 600
0915 500 600
1000 500 600
49
1100 500 600

1115 505 605
1130 510 610
1145 520 620
Solution: As is evident from tabulated values, SIDPP and SICP were increasing considerably up
to 0900 hrs & later there is no change in the pressures up to 1100 hrs Therefore the value
recorded at 0900 hrs i.e. 500 psi is the stabilized value of SIDPP. Further increase in both the
pressures is due to closed well gas migration.
2.11.1 Calculation Of Influx Height & Gradient
Example:
SIDPP = 500 psi SICP = 610 psi

Kick Volume = 10 bbl Hole size = 8 ½"
Open Hole  Drill Pipe = 0.0459 bbl/ft TVD = 10,000 ft
Open Hole  Drill Collar = 0.03 bbl/ft Mud Weigh = 10 ppg
Drill Collar Length = 600 ft
Find out Influx height, gradient & nature of influx.
Solution:
For calculating height of influx the position of top of the influx must be ascertained. If annulus against
the drill collar is full with influx, it would occupy volume as calculated below.
Volume Of influx = Height Of Drill Collar  Annular Volume Against Drill Collar
= 600  0.03 = 18 bbl
As the volume of kick is only 10 bbl the entire kick will remain in the drill collar. Hence in the following
formula for influx height the annular capacity around drill collar should be used for calculating the height
of influx.
Influx volume ( bbl) 10

Height of influx = ------------------------------- = -------------- = 333 ft
Annulus capacity (bbl/ft) 0.03
(SICP – SIDPP)
Influx Gradient = (Mud weight x 0.052)  -------------------------
Height of influx
(610 – 500)
= (10 x 0.052)  --------------------- = 0.189 psi/ft.
333
0.189
Kick fluid weight = ------------- = 3.6 ppg
0.052
Nature of influx : Mixture of gas, oil & water.
50
2.12 GAS INFLUX BEHAVIOUR
2.12.1 Open Well Migration

In open well situation, gas influx after entering the well bore will start migrating & expanding to
the surface. The influx will start expanding. This will reduce bottom hole pressure and a point
will be reached when the overbalance on the bottom of the hole is lost. The effect of gas
migration in an open well will be as below:
a) Bottom hole pressure reduces.
b) Gas bubble pressure reduces.
c) Pressure below the bubble reduces.
d) Pressure above the bubble remains constant
0 16 bbl
(288ft)
8 bbl
(144ft)
2500 ft 4 bbl
(72ft)
5000 ft 2 bbl
(36ft)
7500 ft
10000 ft 1 bbl
(18ft)
BHP (psi) 5200 5181 5163 5125 5050
EMW(ppg) 10.0 9.96 9.92 9.85 9.71
Figure 2.3 OPEN WELL GAS MIGRATION
2.12.2 Closed Well Gas Migration

If gas is allowed to migrate in a wellbore that is closed in, there will be no room for expansion.
The gas will carry its original pressure with it while moving up in the wellbore. As a result there
shall be a pressure rise on both SICP and SIDPP gauges. This causes the well to pressure up in all
51
directions creating extra pressure at the shoe and on the bottom of the hole, whilst the gas
bubble pressure remains unchanged.
The effect is summarized as below :
a) Gas influx pressure remains same.

b) Bottom hole pressure increases.
c) Pressure at any point below or above the influx increases.
500 psi 3100 psi 4400 psi 5050 psi 5700 psi
0 5700psi
)
5700psi
)
2500 ft 5700psi
)
5000 ft 5700psi
7500 ft
10000 ft 5700psi
BHP (psi) 5700 8300 9600 10250 10900
Figure 2.4 CLOSED WELL GAS MIGRATION
Example:
Gas migration without expansion ( When gas is at bottom).
T.D. = 9,000 ft Mud density = 12 ppg
Well Bore = 8 1/2” Formation Pressure = 6,000 psi
Influx volume = 40 bbl Influx height = 570 ft
Influx gradient = 0.12 psi/ft
52
Pressure at bottom of bubble = 6,000 psi

Pressure at top of bubble = 6,000 - (570’  0.12)= 5,931 psi
SIDPP = Formation Pressure – Hydrostatic Pressure in string
= 6000 - 0.052900012 = 384 psi
SICP = Formation Pressure – Hydrostatic Pressure in annulus =
6000 - ( 5700.12 +.052  8,430  12) = 671 psi
BHP = Formation Pressure = 6,000 psi
Gas percolation without expansion ( when gas top is at 4,000 ft )
As per Boyle’s Law, P1 V1 = P2 V2 = Constant

Therefore, during migration as the gas is not allowed to expand its volume & pressure will remain same.
Gas Pressure = 6,000 psi

SICP = Pressure at top of bubble - Hydrostatic Pressure above bubble
= 5,931- (0.052  4,000  12) = 3,435 psi
Increase in SICP due to migration = 3435 – 675 = 2,764 psi
BHP = SICP + Hydrostatic Pressure in annulus

= 3,435 + ( 5700.12 +.052  8,430  12)
= 8,764 psi
Increase in BHP due to migration = 8764 – 6000 = 2,764 psi

SIDPP = BHP – Hydrostatic Pressure in string
= 8,760 – ( 0.052 9,000  12 ) = 3,148 psi
Increase in SIDPP due to migration = 3,148 – 384 = 2,764 psi
From the above example the following can be concluded :

 Gas influx pressure remains constant during closed well gas migration.
 SICP, SIDPP, BHP & pressure at any point above or below the influx increases by
same amount.
2.12.3 Percolation Rate

As stated above, in case of close well gas migration the gas bubble pressure remains constant
whereas all other pressures keep on increasing. This increase in the pressures is related to the
height by which gas percolates up in the well bore. The Percolation rate of the gas can be
calculated by the following formula.
Increase in drill pipe pressure ( psi / hr )

Percolation Rate =
Drill fluid density ( ppg )  0.052
53
Example :
TVD = 10, 000 ft MW = 12.0 ppg

SIDPP = 700 psi Pit Gain = 14 bbl
After pressure stabilisation, due to close well migration the rise in drill pipe pressure is 100 psi
per 20 minute. Calculate the percolation rate.
Solution :
Increase in drill pipe pressure ( psi/hr. )
Percolation Rate =
Drill fluid density ( ppg )  0.052
Increase in drill pipe pressure per hour = 100  3 = 300 psi/hr
300
Percolation rate = = 480.8 ft/hr
0.052  12.0
In case the rise in drill pipe pressure due to closed well gas migration is known in psi, the above
equation can still be used ( without time factor ) and it will give the percolation height not the
percolation rate.
2.12.4 Volume To Bleed To Keep BHP Constant

During the period when closed well gas migration is taking place, pressure at every point in the
well bore keeps on increasing . In order to keep the BHP constant, we must allow the gas to
expand by bleeding certain amount of mud through the choke.
The volume of the mud to be bled, in order to keep bottom hole pressure constant while closed
well gas migration, can be calculated by the following formula:
Increase in drill pipe pressure ( psi/hr.)  Pit gain ( bbl )

Volume to Bleed (bbl/hr) =
Formation pressure ( psi )  Increase in pressure ( psi /hr )
Example :
TVD = 9, 500 ft MD = 12, 100 ft
MW = 11.5 ppg Pit gain = 9.5 bbl
SIDPP = 600 psi
After pressure stabilisation, due to close well gas migration the drill pipe pressure rise is 50 psi
per 15 minutes. Calculate volume to bleed to keep the bottom hole pressure constant.
Solution :
In order to use the above formula for finding the volume of mud to bleed to keep BHP constant,
formation pressure has to be calculated.
54
Formation pressure = SIDPP + Hydrostatic pressure of mud in drill string

= 600 + 0.052  TVD  MW
= 600 + 0.052  9,500  11.5
= 600 + 5,681 = 6,281 psi
Increase in pressure ( psi/hr )  Pit gain ( bbl )

Volume to Bleed =
( bbl / hr) Formation pressure (psi) Increase in pressure ( psi/hr)
200  9.5
= = 0.31 bbl/hr
6281 – 200
2.12.5 Behavior Of Different Types Of Influx
2.12.5.1 Gas influx

i) Highly compressible fluid
ii) If not allowed to expand, will bring formation pressure to the top and create
excessive pressures at all points in the well bore.
2.12.5.2 Oil influx

It acts essentially the same as liquid influx.
2.12.5.3 Salt water influx

Pure salt water is incompressible so does not expand to any appreciable extent as the pressure
is reduced. Mostly water influx contains some gas so surface pressure has the same pattern as
seen during a gas kick but to a lesser degree.
2.12.6 Behaviour Of Hydrocarbon Influx In Oil Base Mud

It is very difficult to detect gas kick while drilling with oil based mud due to gas solubility in
mud. Gas may dissolve completely in oil base mud instead of migrating upwards as happens in
water base mud. Pit gain may not be significant unless the well becomes considerably under
balance. In this case when the gas saturated mud reaches a location where hydrostatic pressure
falls below the bubble point, the gas will suddenly start coming out of solution causing a rapid
increase in flow. This may result in quick unloading the annulus thereby causing large pit
gains. Therefore, it is essential to detect the kicks when they occur and not when the bubble
reaches the surface.
2.12.6.1 Solubilty Limits and Bubble Point Pressure

The solubility of gas/liquid mixture is generally expressed as the amount of free gas in scf/bbl
that can go into solution at a given temperature and pressure. The solubility of gas in liquids is a
function of the gas and liquid composition, pressure and temperatures. Generally solubility will
55
increase as pressure increases, as temperature decreases and as the molecular similarity

between the gas liquid components increases.
Closely related to solubility is the bubble point pressure , which is defined as the pressure at
which the first bubble of free gas breaks out of solution at a given solution gas /liquid ratio and
temperature . At the bubble point depth all of the mud above this point would likely have been
ejected from the hole when gas broke out of the mud. Disregarding the loss of hydrostatic
pressure, such an event would cause a mess and create a hazard to the crews if mud and gas
were allowed to be blown onto the floor.
2.12.6.2 Close In Procedures While Drilling With Oil Base Mud

Subsequent to a kick indication such as drill break, increase in return flow, pit gain or decrease
in pump pressure and increase in strokes etc., consideration may be given to closing the well
even if flow check is inconclusive. Because, no indication of flow does not necessarily mean that
a kick has not taken place. Therefore, it is recommended that after the well has been closed &
no appreciable shut-in pressures are recorded a bottom's up circulation through a fully open
choke at a selected slow circulation rate may be carried out.
Precautions While Drilling With Oil Base Mud

 Gas sensors must be installed.
 Any changes in background gas or connection gas should be critically analysed.
 At no time, anything such as oil, oil base mud or diesel oil be transferred directly from or to
the active pits while drilling operations are in progress.
 Flow checks, subsequent to a kick indication, should be extended to 15-30 minutes and flow
checks should be more frequent. In the interest of minimizing the potential kick volume, an
operator may instead choose to shut the well in and use the drill pipe pressure gauge as the
kick confirmation tool.
 The mud gas separator and related equipment must be sized and designed properly for the
potential mud and gas rates during a well control procedure .
 Pit level alarms should be set at a lower level or use of one of the more advanced kick
detection systems should be considered.
 Crew should be educated on the basics of gas solubility and how the gas behave differently
in an oil mud.
2.12.6.3 Precautions While Tripping

While circulation when back on bottom, if flow rate or pit gain indicate a kick, consider
completing the bottoms up circulating through the choke as it could indicate trip gas rather
than an on bottom influx, and circulation of required kill mud using the ordinary well control
formulae at the time could result in excessive formation overbalance.
2.12.7 Closed-in Condition Circulation

As gas influx is circulated up the annulus, the pressure of the influx reduces due to decreasing
hydrostatic head of fluid above it. Since bottom hole pressure is maintained constant, surface
pressure on the annulus side increases to compensate for this loss of mud hydrostatic. This
increase in surface casing pressure causes additional strain on the BOP equipment, the casing
and casing shoe.
56
The maximum pressure at the casing shoe reaches when top of the influx is at the shoe and not
when the influx is at the surface. This is because once the influx is past the shoe, hydrostatic
pressure below the influx becomes constant provided bottom hole pressure is constant.
Therefore closed-in well circulation leads to :
a) Decrease in Gas influx pressure.
b) Increase in pressure above the influx.
c) Pressure at any point below the influx will initially remain constant till kill mud starts
entering the annulus, thereafter it decreases & again becomes constant once kill mud
reaches that point.
d) Increase in surface casing pressure.
Exercises on Influx Height , Gradient & Type
Exercise 1 :
Calculate the vertical height of influx with the following data:
Hole Size : 8 ½” Sin 10º : 0.1736
Well depth : 11460 ft Cos 10º : 0.984
Hole inclination at the bottom : 10º tan 10º : 0.1763
Drill Collars : 6 ½” , 2 5/8” ID, 360 ft
Open Hole x D/C capacity : 0.0289 bbls/ft
Open Hole x D/P capacity : 0.0451 bbls/ft
Pit Gain : 28 bbls
Exercise 2 :
Calculate the influx gradient and find type of influx with the following data:
Mud weight - 12.3 ppg
SIDPP - 350 psi
SICP - 700 psi
Influx height - 963 ft
57
Exercises on Percolation Rate & Volume to bleed
Exercise 3 :
Well is shut in on a gas kick. After pressure stabilization, both the pressures are found to be rising
100 psi in every 10 min. Calculate the gas migration rate.
TVD - 11,000 ft
SIDPP - 350 psi
Gas gradient - 0.115 psi/ft
Exercise 4 :
After observing self flow the well is shut in. Killing could not be resumed
due to power failure. The following data have been recorded:
TVD - 11,000 ft
Kick size - 25 bbls
SIDPP - 350 psi
Gas gradient - 0.115 psi/ft
It is observed that after 1 hour the drill pipe pressure has risen to 550 psi due to closed well
migration. Calculate volume to bleed to keep the BHP constant.
58
CHAPTER-3 WELL KILLING METHODS

_________________________________________________________
3.1 WELL KILLING METHODS
The main principle involved in all well killing methods is to keep bottom hole pressure constant.
The various kill methods are as follows:
a) Driller’s Method
b) Wait and Weight Method
c) Concurrent Method
d) Volumetric Method
In the first three methods the influx is circulated out and the heavy mud is pumped in the well
keeping the bottom hole pressure constant. The fourth method i.e. Volumetric method is a
non-circulating method in which the influx is brought out & heavy mud is placed in the well
bore without circulation.
The Drillers method of killing may be preferred when sufficient barites or weighing materials
are not readily available and MAASP is not critical. As this method can be started immediately,
it has an advantage in case of salt water kicks as sand settling around BHA is minimum and in
cases where gas migration may create problems.
Wait and Weight method of killing has advantage of lower annulus pressures and can be used
when casing shoe strength is weak and MAASP is critical. The maximum shoe pressure will be
lower if kill weight fluid starts up the annulus before the top of the influx is displaced to the
shoe. If sufficient weighing materials are available at the site, the well can be killed in one
circulation thereby saving time. Concurrent method is used when mud density cannot be
increased to kill weight during the initial circulation, at least two complete circulations are
required.
3.2 BRINGING THE PUMP TO KILL SPEED ON SURFACE / JACK UP RIG
It is important to understand the startup procedure, irrespective of kill method, for bringing the
pump up to kill speed .
Pump should be brought to kill speed patiently. During this period if the casing pressure is
allowed to increase it can cause formation breakdown or if the casing pressure is allowed to
decrease it can cause entry of more influx into wellbore. To prevent this, following procedure is
suggested.
a) Bring the pump to kill speed holding casing pressure constant by manipulating choke.
Record drill pipe pressure as the correct initial circulating pressure (ICP). Compare it to the
pre calculated ICP value.
b) When the pump is at the desired kill speed follow the pressure schedule according to the
kill method being used.
Note : While bringing the pump to kill speed keeping casing pressure constant , there might be
slight reduction in bottom hole pressure due to expansion of gas but this is compensated by
the annular pressure losses.
59
If actual ICP is greater than the calculated ICP, use the actual ICP and correct same on the kill
sheet. If the actual ICP is less than the calculated ICP, stop the pumps, close in the well and
determine if a problem exists in the circulating system. Then retry bringing the pump on line.
3.3 DRILLER'S METHOD
Formulae required :
SIDPP (psi)
a) Kill Mud Weight (ppg) = Old Mud Weight + -----------------------------
(ppg) 0.052  TVD (ft)
Drill string volume( bbl)
b) Surface to bit Strokes = -----------------------------------
Pump output (bbl/stroke)
Open hole annulus volume (bbl)

c) Bit to shoe Strokes = --------------------------------------
Annulus Volume (bbl)

d) Bit to surface Strokes = ------------------------------------
In Driller's method the killing of a well is accomplished in two circulations

 In first circulation the influx is removed from the well bore using original mud density.
 In second circulation the kill mud replaces the original mud and restores the primary control
of the well.
Killing Procedure( Drillers Method )

In this method the well is killed in two circulations.
 First Circulation
a) Bring the pump up to kill speed in steps of 5 SPM, gradually opening the choke holding
casing pressure constant.
b) When the pump is up to kill speed, maintain drill pipe pressure constant .
c) Circulate out the influx from the well maintaining drill pipe pressure constant.
d) When the influx is out, stop the pump reducing the pump speed in steps of 5 SPM ,
gradually closing the choke, maintaining casing pressure constant. Record pressure,
SIDPP and SICP should be equal to original SIDPP.
Note : In case recorded SIDPP & SICP are equal but more than original SIDPP value, it indicates
trapped pressure in wellbore. Whereas if SICP is more than original SIDPP, it indicates that
some influx is still in the wellbore.
60
Original Mud Influx

D
I Drill pipe pressure J
B
A C
Casing pressure
Figure 3.1 PRESSURE PROFILE- 1st CYCLE OF DRILLER’S METHOD
 Second Circulation
a) Line up suction with kill mud.
b) Bring the pump up to kill speed in steps of 5 SPM, gradually opening the choke, holding
c) When the pump is at kill speed, pump kill mud from surface to bit, maintaining casing
pressure constant.
d) Pump kill mud from bit to surface, maintaining drill pipe pressure constant equal to
FCP.
e) When the kill mud reaches surface, stop the pump reducing the pump in steps of 5 SPM ,
gradually closing the choke maintaining casing pressure constant. Record pressures,
SIDPP and SICP both should be equal to zero.
Open & observe the well. Add trip margin before resuming normal operation .
61
Casing Pressure Graph

A-B Casing pressure rises as influx expands in drill collar annulus.
B-C Casing pressure decreases as influx crosses over from drill collar annulus to drill pipe
annulus & losses height.
C-D Casing pressure again rises as influx now expands in drill pipe annulus and it
becomes maximum when influx reaches surface at point ‘D’ on the graph.
D-E Casing pressure reduces sharply as influx is removed from the wellbore.
Original Mud Kill Mud
P
R L Drill pipe pressure
E
S
S
U M N
R
E
F G Casing pressure
Surface to bit Bit to surface

STROKES
Figure 3.2 PRESSURE PROFILE- 2nd CYCLE OF DRILLER’S METHOD
Drill Pipe Pressure Graph

I-J Drill pipe pressure is held constant till the influx is removed from the wellbore.
F-G Casing pressure is held constant till kill mud is pumped from surface to bit.
G-H Casing pressure reduces to zero as kill mud is pumped from bit to surface.
62
Drill Pipe Graph
L-M Drill pipe pressure reduces as kill mud is pumped from surface to bit. During this
period SIDPP drops & becomes zero whereas KRP increases to FCP value. On the whole
drill pipe pressure reduces from ICP to FCP.
M-N Drill pipe pressure is held constant as the kill mud is pumped from bit to surface.
3.4 WAIT AND WEIGHT METHOD
 In Wait and Weight method well is killed in one circulation using kill mud.
 In this method operations are delayed (wait) once the well is shut in, while a sufficient
volume of kill (weight) mud has been prepared. As the kill mud is pumped to the bit the
hydrostatic pressure in the Drill Pipe increases, this causes the drill pipe pressure to fall. At
the same time, influx which is on its way up the annulus expands continuously and gains
volume / height, thereby causing the hydrostatic pressure in annulus to fall and casing
pressure to rise. Because of this , for maintaining BHP constant a calculated step down plan
for the drill pipe pressure must be used while pumping the kill mud from surface to the bit .
Formulae required :
SIDPP (psi)
a) Kill Mud Weight (ppg) = Old Mud Weight + -----------------------------
(ppg) 0.052  TVD (ft)
b) Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP) = SIDPP(psi) + KRP (psi)
Kill mud weight (ppg)

c) Final Circulating Pressure (FCP) = ----------------------------------  KRP(psi)
Original mud weight (ppg)
Drill string volume( bbl)

d) Surface to bit Strokes = -----------------------------------
Open hole annulus volume (bbl)

e) Bit to shoe Strokes = --------------------------------------
Annulus Volume (bbl)

f) Bit to surface Strokes = ------------------------------------
ICP – FCP
g) Pressure drop / 100 strokes = -------------------------  100
Surface to bit strokes
63
3.4.1 Killing Procedure ( Wait and Weight Method )
a) Line up suction with kill mud.

b) Bring the pump up to kill speed in steps of 5 SPM, gradually opening the choke, holding
c) When the pump is at kill speed, pump kill mud from surface to bit, maintaining drill pipe
pressure as per step down schedule( during this step drill pipe pressure will fall from ICP
to FCP ).
d) Pump kill mud from bit to surface, maintaining drill pipe pressure constant equal to
FCP.
e) When the kill mud reaches surface, stop the pump reducing the pump speed in steps of
5 SPM , gradually closing the choke maintaining casing pressure constant. Record
pressures, SIDPP and SICP both should be equal to zero.
Open & observe the well. Add trip margin before resuming normal operation .
Original Mud
Kill Mud E
Influx
H
Drill pipe pressure
B D
A
C Casing pressure
J
I
F
G
Surface to Bit Bit to Surface

Strokes
Figure 3.3 PRESSURE PROFILE- WAIT & WEIGHT METHOD
64

A-B Casing pressure rises as influx expands in drill collar annulus.
B-C Casing pressure decreases as influx crosses over from drill collar annulus to drill pipe
annulus & losses height.
C-D Casing pressure again rises as influx now expands in drill pipe annulus.
D-E Casing pressure continues to increase but initially at a slower rate as at this stage kill
mud starts entering the annulus, later on casing pressure increases at a faster due to
rapid expansion of gas.
E-F Casing pressure reduces sharply as influx is removed from the wellbore.
F-G Casing pressure further reduces as original mud is replaced by kill mud.
Drill Pipe Pressure Graph

H-I Drill pipe reduces from ICP to FCP as kill mud is pumped from surface to bit.
I-J Drill pipe pressure is held constant at FCP as kill mud is pumped from bit to surface.
3.5 COMPARISON OF METHODS
Driller's Method
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Simple to understand Higher annulus pressure
2. Minimum calculations Higher casing shoe pressure in gas kick.
3. In case of salt water kick, sand settling Minimum two circulations are required. More
around BHA is minimum. time on choke operation.
Wait and Weight Method
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Lower annulus pressure. High non circulating time.
2. Lower casing shoe pressure when open In case of salt water kick, sand settling around
hole volume is more than string volume. BHA is maximum.
3. Well can be killed in one circulation. Calculations are more.
4. Less time on choke operation. More chances of gas migration.
3.6 PRESSURE BEHAVIOUR AT DIFFERENT POINTS DURING WELL KILLING
Pressure behaviour at different points of annulus during the process of well killing can be
analysed by an example discussed below. For the purpose of understanding, the annular
hydrostatic has been divided in two parts i.e hydrostatic pressure below & above the casing
shoe. The well is shut-in & the killing has started with influx at bottom, it is assumed that while
65
killing the well the BHP has been kept constant equal to formation pressure i.e 1200 psi. (Refer
figure 3.4)
Stage A: Well is shut – in

BHP =Hydrostatic Pressure below shoe Hydrostatic Pressure above shoe+SICP
BHP = 400 + 600 + 200 = 1200 psi
Pressure at shoe = 600+200 = 800 psi
Stage B : Well killing in progress

As there will be expansion of gas so hydrostatic pressure below the shoe reduces
(suppose now it is 350 psi).
BHP = Hydrostatic Pr. below shoe + Hydrostatic Pr. above shoe + Casing Pr
= 350 + 600 + Casing Pressure = 1200 psi
Therefore, Casing pressure = 1200-(350+600) = 250 psi
Pressure at shoe=250 +600 = 850 psi
Stage C : Top of Influx at Shoe

As there will be further expansion of gas so hydrostatic pressure below shoe will reduce
further ( suppose now it is 300 psi).
BHP = Hydrostatic Pr. below shoe + Hydrostatic Pr. above shoe + Casing Pr.
Therefore, Casing pressure = 1200-(300+600) = 300 psi
Pressure at shoe=300 +600 = 900 psi ( maximum pressure at casing shoe)
Now let us compare Driller’s Method ( First circulation ) with Wait & Weight Method. If we are
killing the well by W& W method then there will be some kill mud in annulus, provided open
hole volume is more than drill string volume. In that case hydrostatic pressure below shoe will
be more than 300 psi ( suppose now it is 325 psi).
BHP = Hydrostatic Pr. below shoe + Hydrostatic Pr. above shoe + Casing Pr
Therefore, Casing pressure for Wait & Weight Method = 1200-(325+600) = 275psi
Pressure at shoe for wait & weight method =275 +600 = 875 psi ( maximum pressure at
casing shoe)
66
200psi 250psi 300psi 275psi
A B C (Drillers) C(W&W )
D( Drillers) D( W&W) E( Drillers) E( W&W)
Figure 3.4 PRESSURE BEHAVIOUR DURING KILLING

67
Stage D : Influx in casing

In case of Driller’s Method now annulus below shoe is full of original mud. If we refer to
first condition when influx was at stage A, the hydrostatic pressure below shoe was 400
psi when it comprised of original mud and influx. So now hydrostatic pressure below
shoe will be more than 400 psi since influx has been displaced inside the casing (
suppose now it is 450 psi).
Hydrostatic pressure above shoe = 300 psi

(since, now the influx has entered the casing the hydrostatic above shoe has reduced
considerably to 300 psi)
BHP = 450 + 300 + Casing Pressure = 1200 psi
Therefore, Casing pressure for drillers method = 1200-(450+300) = 450 psi
Pressure at shoe for driller’s method =300 +450 = 750 psi
In case of wait & weight method annulus below shoe is now full of kill mud, whereas in case of
driller’s method at this stage annulus below shoe was full of original mud. Because for driller’s
method the pressure below shoe was 450 psi, so in case of wait & weight method pressure
below shoe will be more than 450 psi( suppose it is 500 psi).

Therefore, Casing pressure for wait & weight method = 1200-(500+300) = 400 psi
Pressure at shoe for wait & weight method =300 +400 = 700 psi
Stage E : Influx at surface

Due to further expansion of gas there will be further reduction of hydrostatic head
above shoe(Suppose it has reduced to 150psi for drillers method).
i) drillers method
Therefore, Casing pressure for drillers method = 1200-(450+150) = 600psi
Pressure at shoe for drillers method =150 +600 = 750 psi
ii) wait & weight method

BHP = 500+ 200 + Casing Pressure = 1200 psi
In this case the hydrostatic pressure above the shoe will be more as compared to that of
driller’s method, because of entry of kill mud in this section ( say 200 psi )
Therefore, Casing pressure for w & w method = 1200-(500+200) = 500psi
Pressure at shoe for wait & weight method =200 +500 = 700 psi
68
Above information is tabulated below:
Stage Method Hyd. Hyd. Casing BHP Pressure

Pressure Pressure Pressure at shoe
Below above
shoe shoe
A Both Methods 400 600 200 1200 800
B Both Methods 350 600 250 1200 850
C Driller’s Method 300 600 300 1200 900
W& W Method 325 600 275 1200 875
D Driller’s Method 450 300 450 1200 750
W& W Method 500 300 400 1200 700
E Driller’s Method 450 150 600 1200 750
W& W Method 500 200 500 1200 700
Following conclusions are drawn from the above example:
a) Pressure at surface is increasing and it will be maximum when top of influx is

at surface.
b) Maximum pressure at surface is more in case of driller’s method as compared to
wait & weight method.
c) Maximum pressure at shoe is less in case of wait & weight method if open hole
volume is more than drill string volume.
d) Pressure at any points above the bubble increases.
e) Pressure at any point below the bubble is constant for drillers method. For wait &
weight method pressure at any point below bubble remains constant so long
there is no kill mud in annulus. Once kill mud starts entering in to the annulus the
pressure at any point below the bubble starts falling and it will continue to fall till
the kill mud reaches that point. There after pressure at that point become
constant.
f) Pressure of influx decreases due to expansion of gas.
g) Pressure at shoe increases as influx rises up in the annulus, becomes maximum
when top of influx is at shoe thereafter as influx enters the shoe the pressure at
shoe decreases & becomes constant once hydrostatic pressure below the shoe
becomes constant. After the influx has entered the shoe & hydrostatic below the
shoe has become constant, the pressure at shoe will be less as compared to the
shoe pressure at the time of initial shut-in.
69
Driller’s Method
S
H Wait & Weight Method
O
E
Top of influx at shoe
P
R
E 900 psi (Driller’s)
S Kill mud enters annulus 875 psi ( W& W)
S
U
R 850 psi Influx crosses shoe
E 800 Kill mud at shoe
750
p
s 700
i
Bit to Shoe String Vol.
STROKES
Figure3.5 CASING SHOE PRESSURE PROFILE
3.7 VOLUMETRIC METHOD OF WELL CONTROL
The volumetric method is a non-circulating killing method used for removing gas influx when
there is little or no drill pipe in the hole, a wash out in the string or when the hole cannot be
circulated. It works equally well for a situation where the well is closed-in and waiting on
orders or equipment or for stripping in or out of hole. In this method the influx is brought up to
the surface by means of migration & controlled expansion. This process involves bleeding of
calculated volume of mud at the surface till the influx reaches the surface, thereby allowing the
casing pressure to increase to maintain BHP constant. After the gas influx is brought to the
surface in this manner of controlled expansion, the calculated volume of mud is pumped in to
the well & gas influx is bled thereby allowing the casing pressure to decrease while maintaining
BHP constant.
The basis of the volumetric method is that each barrel of mud contributes a certain pressure to
the bottom of the hole. This may be measured as psi/bbl. This term of psi/bbl must be co-
ordinated with pit volume or trip tank volume so that the number of barrels can be read
directly.
70
A record of casing pressure is kept, if the casing pressure rises mud can be bled from the well
according to the psi/bbl value calculated to maintain a constant bottom hole pressure.
The volumetric method works by bleeding off (or adding) mud because the BHP is the sum of
the casing pressure & the pressure exerted by the mud column.
The Volumetric method of well control should not be equated with classic well killing methods .
Volumetric method is used to control BHP within limits by co-ordinating the increase (
because of gas migration ) or decrease ( because of bleeding of gas ) in annulus surface
pressure with the corresponding decrease or increase in annular hydrostatic pressure ( by
decreasing or increasing height / weight of mud column in the annulus ).
Volumetric method is implemented mainly in two steps namely the “bleeding” and
“lubrication” process. In the bleeding process the gas influx is allowed to migrate in the
annulus and thereby causing an increase in the annular surface pressure as well as the BHP.
The goal of maintaining the BHP constant is achieved through corresponding reduction in
annular hydrostatic pressure by bleeding calculated volume of mud which in turns reduces the
mud column height in the annulus and allows the gas to expand. The bleeding process has to be
repeated several times till the gas reaches the surface.
Once the gas is at the surface the process of lubrication starts. In lubrication process annular
hydrostatic pressure is increased by injecting a calculated volume of same or heavy mud
through kill line while the BHP is maintained constant by bleeding gas through choke and
reducing surface pressure by the same amount. The process may be repeated several times till
all the gas influx is fully removed from the annulus and the annular surface pressure is brought
down to zero or at a level wherein tripping / stripping of the bit to the bottom or removing/
replacing of choked or damaged string becomes feasible . Once the bit is at the bottom, the
well can be killed / circulated with appropriate kill weight mud .
3.7.1 Volumetric Kill Calculations
Example:
Well TVD = 10,000 ft
Influx = 20 bbl
Mud weight = 10.0 ppg
Annular volume = 0.047 bbl/ft (8 1/2”  5”)
SICP = 500 psi
SIDPP = 0 psi
As indicated by SIDPP value ( 0 psi ) the bit nozzles are plugged, therefore the well has to be
killed by Volumetric method.
Calculations :
a) For Bleeding process

Let the incremental increase in casing pressure would be 100 psi
Mud Gradient = 0.052  10 = 0.52 psi/ft
Height of mud column for 1 psi of Hydrostatic pressure = 1 /0.52 ft
71
Height of mud column for 100 psi of Hydrostatic pressure = 100 / 0.52 ft
= 194ft
Volume of Mud for 100 psi hydrostatic pressure = 194  0.047
= 9.04 bbl
b) For Lubrication process
Calculation of kill mud weight for lubrication
SIDPP
KMW = OMW +
0.052  TVD
As the SIDPP may not be known SICP may be taken in place of SIDPP. If the value of SICP is very
high then SIDPP can be calculated by assuming some gas gradient by the following formula :-
SICP – SIDPP
Influx gradient = Mud Weight  0.052 – -------------------
Height of influx
Since kill mud is to be placed only in the top section of the well which is being occupied by gas,
the height of gas column is to be calculated.
Total pit gain = Initial pit gain + Total amount of mud bled
= 20 bbl + 100 bbl (say) = 120 bbl
120
Height of gas column when gas is at the surface = ------- = 2553 ft
0.047
500
KMW = 10 + = 13.76 ppg
0.052  2553
Kill mud gradient = 13.76  0.052 = 0.715psi/ft
Height of kill mud column for 1 psi of Hydrostatic pressure = 1 / 0.715 ft

Height of kill mud column for 100 psi of Hydrostatic pressure = 100 / 0.7155 ft
= 139.76ft
Volume of kill Mud for 100 psi hydrostatic pressure = 139.76 0.047
= 6.57 bbl
3.7.2 Killing Procedure ( Volumetric Method )
Volumetric killing is accomplished in two steps, namely ‘Bleeding’ & ‘Lubrication’.
3.7.2.1 Bleeding
a) Allow the casing pressure to increase to 650 psi ,this causes the BHP to increase by 150
psi , don’t start bleeding now ( this 150 psi may be kept as safety margin).
b) Allow the Casing pressure to increase by another 100 psi to 750 psi , this causes the
BHP to increase by 250psi. Since it is planned to keep only 150 psi extra pressure at the
bottom as safety margin, we can now reduce 100 psi of BHP by bleeding 9.04 bbl of
mud. While bleeding mud the surface casing pressure should not be allowed to reduce
more than 100 psi which may require the bleeding to be completed in number of steps.
72
c) Allow the pressure to increase by another 100 psi to 850 psi and bleed 9.04 bbl of mud
in the same way.
d) This procedure should be repeated until gas reaches surface . Thereafter, Lubrication
technique is to be used for reducing the casing pressure.
C 1100
A
S 1000
I Bleeding is continued until gas is at top
N 900
G
800
P
R 700
E
S 600 Safety margin 150 psi
S Initial SICP 500 psi
500
9.04 18.08 27.12 36.16 45.20 54.24 63.28
Volume of mud bled off from annulus (bbl)
Figure 3.6 MUD BLEEDING PROCESS
3.7.2.2 Lubrication
The lubrication technique is used to Kill the well / reduce the casing pressure when gas is at the
surface so that other operation such as tripping / stripping can be performed.
1. Slowly pump the calculated volume of mud(6.57 bbl ) which shall give 100 psi equivalent
hydrostatic pressure into the annulus. Allow the mud to fall through the gas. This is a slow
process, but can be speeded up by using a low yield point mud.
2. Bleed gas from the annulus until the surface pressure is reduced by 100 psi or the amount
equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the mud pumped in. In no case mud is to be bled off.
3. Repeat the process until all of the gas has been bled off and the well is killed or the desired
surface pressure is reached.
Note: During the pumping and gas bleeding process, it will usually be necessary to decrease the
volume of mud pumped before gas is bled off particularly near the end of the operation. This is
because the annular volume occupied by the gas decreases with each pump & bleed sequence.
Watch the pumping pressure closely and when it reaches 50-100 psi above the shut in casing
pressure, stop pumping. Measure the volume of mud pumped, calculate the hydrostatic
pressure of that volume in the annulus and bleed sufficient gas to drop the casing pressure by
the amount of hydrostatic pressure plus any increment of trapped pressure because of
pumping operation.
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Table of volume and Pressures during Top Kill

(Assuming maximum surface pressure of 1900 psi at the end of bleeding operation)
Volume to lubricate, Pressure to Bleed Remaining casing pressure

bbl (psi) (psi)
(cumulative)
0 0 1900
6.57 100 1800
13.14 100 1700
19.71 100 1600
26.28 100 1500
32.85 100 1400
39.42 100 1300
45.99 100 1200
52.56 100 1100
59.13 100 1000
65.70 100 900
72.27 100 800
78.84 100 700
85.41 100 600
91.98 100 500
98.55 100 400
105.12 100 300
111.69 100 200
118.26 100 100
124.83 100 0
3.8 CONCURRENT METHOD
Start circulating immediately and simultaneously start increasing mud density as soon as
possible. Build mud to kill weight while circulating. It allows circulation to begin immediately
after Well closure, but requires coordination of drill pipe pressure with increasing mud density
in order to maintain a constant bottom hole pressure. Casing and casing seat pressure are
between the Wait and Weight and Driller’s method.
3.9 STRIPPING AND SNUBBING OPERATIONS
The operation is termed as stripping when the resultant of upward and downward forces is
acting downward, thus forcing the string into the well. Stripping is a technique for moving the
string through BOP stack when the well is shut in under pressure. In most cases, stripping is
required to return the drill string to bottom after shutting in on a kick with the bit off bottom.
Stripping requires a high level of coordination among crew members.
The operation is termed as snubbing when the resultant of upward and down forces is acting
upward, thus forcing the string out of the well. Additional force will be required in this case to
force the string into the well. The snubbing operations require the use of a snubbing unit. An
external force is applied by snubbing unit to counteract this force and the work string is pushed
74
into the hole. The state is designated commonly in the industry as a ‘pipe light’ condition. Pipe
is stripped when the string enters the well because of its weight, hence stripping refers to a
‘pipe heavy’ condition. Either one or both of the techniques may be used in a given job.
Snubbing Force
String Weight
Frictional Force
Force due to well pressure

Figure 3.7 STRIPPING Figure3.8 SNUBBING
When string weight is When string weight is
more than Well force less than Well force
3.9.1 Contingency Planning

 How to move the tool joint through the BOP
 The wear on BOP elements
 Level of redundancy in the BOP control system.
 High stripping pressures ( near MAASP)
 Monitoring of pressure and fluid volumes
 Organization and supervision of crew
 Gas migration
 Possibility of stuck pipe
 Manufacturer’s information regarding BOP equipment
3.9.2 Factors affecting well pressures when stripping:

Compression: Fluids are compressed as pipe is lowered.
Under-bleeding: Not bleeding correct volume equal to closed end displacement.
Influx penetration: Pipe penetrating the influx causes the influx to elongate, resulting in
additional hydrostatic pressure loss.
Gas Migration: Must be controlled properly.
Artificial Migration: Once pipe has penetrated the influx, additional pipe stripped will “pump”
the influx up the hole.
Restored overbalance: Occurs when last few stands are stripped to bottom and the hole is
filled.
75
3.9.3 Selection of BOP for Stripping

S.N. Well pressure Length for stripping Preventer required
1. 1000 psi or less Any length Annular preventer
2. 1000 – 1500 psi 1000 ft Annular preventer
3. 1000 – 1500 psi More than 1000 ft Annular preventer +Ram preventer
4, 1500 psi or above Any length Ram preventer +Ram preventer
While stripping in the hole to maintain bottom hole pressure constant, mud is to be bled off at
regular interval. The amount of mud which is to be bled off should be equal to the closed end
volume of the pipe striped in. If more mud is bled off than the calculated volume the
hydrostatic pressure in the annulus decreases causing the bottom hole pressure to reduce. The
string is also to be kept full by filling mud at regular intervals. Care should be taken when the bit
starts entering into the influx, as the increase in height of the influx shall increase the surface
casing pressure.
Example:
A well started flowing after pulling out 20 stand of drill pipe. It was shut in and after analysing
the pressures it was decided to strip the pipe back in to the hole and circulate out the influx
using Driller’s method . Well data is as follow:
Well depth : 10000 ft Mud in use : 12 ppg

5”d/p capacity : 0.0178 bbl/ft d/p Steel Displacement : 0.0082 bbl/ft
Average stand length : 92 ft
Calculate : a) The amount of mud to be bled off after stripping-in one stand.
b) The amount of mud to be filled in the pipe after stripping-in one
stand.
Solution:
Closed end volume of the pipe = 0.0178 bbl/ft + 0.0082 bbl/ft
= 0.026 bbl/ft
Length of one stand = 92 ft
Amount of mud to be bled off after one stand = 0.026 bbl/ft  92 ft
= 2.39 bbls
Amount of mud to be filled in the pipe after one stand = 0.0178 bbl/ft  92 ft
= 1.63 bbls
3.9.4 Stripping using the Annular Preventer

Stripping into the hole using the annular preventer is a common practice but it is limited to a
surface pressure of 1500 psi and a maximum length to be stripped as 1000 ft. Following points
shall be kept in mind while stripping into the hole using annular preventer.
a) Drill pipe rubber i.e. bettis protectors should be removed while stripping through
annular preventer.
76
b) The pressure regulating valve of the annular preventer allows the hydraulic fluid from
the annular to pass back through it when a tool joint passes through the annular
preventer as the annular preventer has to open slightly. This valve must be in good
condition. The lines from the valve to the annular preventer also have to be large
enough to let the fluid come back. On some rigs with subsea BOP stacks, there is an
annular preventer accumulator bottle for this purpose.
c) Use closing pressure as low as possible. The operating pressure should be reduced until
the annular weeps when the pipe is being stripped in. Low pressure on the annular
preventer will prevent the packer from early wear or destruction.
d) If the closed in annular pressure is too high, the pressure will push the pipe out of the
hole or prevent it from stripping-in without a push down. To strip-in the hole with an
annular preventer, the weight of the drill pipe and collars must be greater than the
force acting upwards. If drill string does not strip-in on its own weight, additional
downward force will be needed to push the string in the well. For an early estimate of
possible conditions, the following equation can be used.

2
String weight = [(T.J.D)  ----  Annular Pressure] + 1000 lbs
4
T.J.D. = Tool Joint Diameter

String weight = Lightest weight string that will strip in without
snubbing unit.
1000 lbs is added to compensate for frictional force between pipe and packer
element.
Procedure
a) Adjust the pressure on the annular preventer until it weeps when the pipe is going in
the hole. On rigs with subsea stacks, use the value from the operating characteristics
table.
b) Run the pipe not faster than one foot per second and slower when passing the tool joint
through the annular preventer. On rigs with subsea stacks, a measurement will have to
be made to check this area. If the vessel is heaving, it may be better to go ahead and not
slow down when going through the annular to avoid reversing the direction of the tool
joint when in the preventer.
c) Maintain the annulus pressure constant with a choke as the pipe goes in the hole. The
mud displaced out of the hole can be measured and corrections made to get the exact
annulus pressure changes as stripping in the hole continues. For most stripping jobs,
holding the casing pressure constant should be adequate.
d) Every stand of pipe should displace mud. If the stands do not displace mud, circulation
has been lost.
e) If the pressure starts rising between stands it means gas migration is taking place,
use the volumetric correction.
77
3.9.5 Stripping Using the Ram Blow out Preventers

Normally, the rams would be used in place of the annular preventer for stripping if the annulus
pressure is more than 1500 psi & stripping length of over 1000 ft or if there are drill pipe
rubbers on the pipe that could not be taken off.
For an estimate of maximum stripping pressure without a snubbing unit, earlier equation can
be used.
Procedure
a) Select the two rams to be used and measure the distance from the rotary table to the
top of the upper ram and to the top of lower ram.
b) Reduce the closing pressure on the ram to 500 psi, or less.
c) With the upper ram closed, lower pipe slowly measuring it until the tool joint is two feet
above the upper ram. (On floating rigs the distance would include an allowance for
vessel heave).
d) Stop lowering, close the lower pipe ram.
e) Bleed off the pressure between the rams and open the upper ram.
f) Lower the pipe, measuring it until the tool joint is between the two rams.
g) Stop lowering & close the top ram.
h) Pressurize up to well pressure between the rams with the test pump. Open the bottom
ram.
i) Continue by going back to step no. 3.
While doing this, maintain the casing pressure constant by bleeding mud from the
choke. For most stripping jobs, if gas migration is not taking place holding the casing
pressure constant should be adequate. If the pressure starts rising between stands it
means gas migration is taking place, use the volumetric correction.
Note : While stripping Ram to Ram, the hydraulic pressure required to open ram with
wellbore pressure acting below depends on opening ratio of ram. e.g. if the opening
ratio for the preventer being used for stripping is 2.3 and manifold pressure is 1500 psi,
then the maximum well pressure at which ram preventer can be opened would
be:
2.3  1500 = 3450 psi
With manifold pressure kept at 1500 psi , rams with high differential pressure across it
will not open. Generally , rams are not opened with differential pressure across it and
it is safe practice to equalize the pressure before opening.
3.10 MAXIMUM CASING PRESSURE, SHOE PRESSURE AND PIT VOLUME
If the gas is not allowed to expand in a controlled manner, the surface pressures will become
too great and it might lead to:
- Formation failure at shoe
- Casing failure
- Well head failure
- BOP failure etc.
Since the casing pressure and pit level must be allowed to increase as a gas kick is circulated
out, the maximum of these values can be calculated as below :-
78
Pcsg maximum = 200   ( P  V  W )  C

Where P - Formation pressure in thousands of psi
( Pressure of gas at bottom of hole )
V - Pit gain, bbl
W - Kill mud weight ppg
C - Annular capacity at surface, bbl / 1000 ft
Vgain maximum = 4   ( P  V  C )  W
Where Vgain maximum is the total of the original gain and the pit gain due to gas expansion. So,
the gain due to expansion is
Vexpansion = Vgain maximum - V
These are not exact equations, but are as close as can be estimated.
3.11 WELL CONTROL CONSIDERATIONS IN HORIZONTAL WELLS
The basic well control parameters/procedures such as causes of kick, warning signs, well shut-in
& well killing etc. are same for both vertical & horizontal wells. But due to non-vertical section
of horizontal wells there exist following differences from well control point of view.
 Influx Volumes
For the same difference between formation pressure & mud hydrostatic & for the same
duration during which the well remains under-balance, the influx volume can be greater for
horizontal wells as compared to vertical wells. This is due to the fact that the horizontal wells
expose more productive formation to the well-bore & therefore the rate at which the influx
enters the well-bore is considerably higher.
This shall result in high pressures at the casing shoe which may lead to an underground blow
out.
 Shut-in Pressures
In a well kick situation during drilling, if the influx is in the horizontal section then the stabilized
SIDPP & SICP shall be same for a horizontal well whereas for a vertical well there shall be
difference in the two shut-in pressures. In case of a swabbed-in kick in a horizontal well, both
SIDPP & SICP shall be zero as long as the influx is in horizontal section whereas in case of a
vertical well under similar condition both the above pressures shall be equal & more than zero.
Therefore, a swabbed-in kick situation ( i.e influx below the bit) in a vertical well having both
SIDPP & SICP equal does not require the mud density to be increased to kill the well. Whereas,
in horizontal wells even with a kick entering during drilling shall result in stabilized SIDPP &
SICP being equal & will require an increase in mud density in order to kill the well.
 Well Killing Procedures

While using wait & weight method in a vertical well the drill pipe pressure drops linearly as kill
mud goes down the bit. Whereas, in case of a horizontal well the drill pipe pressure schedule
will be different as the build & horizontal section shall not have same linear pressure decrease
as in vertical well. Lost circulation may occur due to overbalance situation if a linear drill pipe
pressure schedule is followed in a horizontal well.
79
It is prudent to note that during killing in horizontal wells, the gas removal is not very effective
as the gas has a tendency to get segregated to top side of the hole especially due to annular
velocities while killing at slow pump rates. Due to this reason, more circulation time may be
required than calculated. This problem can also be dealt by killing the horizontal wells at
comparatively higher pump rates in cases where the possibility of loss circulation due to
increased annular pressure losses is not anticipated.
While drilling a horizontal well there is a possibility to come across several faults which may not
be having same pore pressures hence lost circulation often occurs in faults where the pore
pressure are less than the BHP.
0
0
Swabbed Influx
10ppg
Pore Pressure= 9.8ppg EMW

FIG 3.9 SWABBED GAS KICK
400
PSI 400
PSI
10ppg
Poremud
Pressure=9.8
ppg
Faul
Pore Pressure = 10.3ppg

FIG 3.10 GAS KICK FROM HIGHER PRESSURED ZONE
80
Drill
Pipe
Pr.
KOP
FCP
EOB
STB stks.
FIG 3.11 STEP DOWN SCHEDULE FOR A HIGHLY DEVIATED WELL
Drill
Pipe
Pr.
FCP
KOP
EOB
STB stks.
FIG 3.12 STEP DOWN SCHEDULE FOR A HORIZONTAL WELL
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3.12 WELL CONTROL IN MULTILATERAL WELLS
In recent years many multilateral wells have been drilled both on-shore & off-shore for the
purpose of cost reduction in development of the field & improved oil recovery. Drilling of these
wells has application in the following areas :
1. Reservoirs consisting of several isolated zones

2. Reservoirs having low permeability & therefore requiring high well density
Multilateral wells basically are off-shoot of horizontal wells where a mother well has two or
more branches below the junction point called laterals. Depending upon the multi-lateral
junction techniques multi-laterals can be divided in to following six principle categories & one
sub category.
Level 1
 Wells having open or unsupported junction.
 They can also be described as standard “open hole” sidetracks
Level 2
 Wells having mother bore cased & cemented with open lateral
 In these wells whip stock & milling technology is used to exit the existing casing string.
Level 3
 Wells having mother bore cased & cemented with lateral cased but not cemented.
 These wells require special equipment & techniques so as to attach the lateral liner with
main casing without any cement support.
Level 4
 Wells having mother bore and lateral cased & cemented.
 In these wells the lateral liner is attached to the main casing & cemented.
Level 5
 Wells having pressure sealed multilateral junction which is achieved with the completion &
cement is not considered as the sealing mechanism. The junction pressure seal capability
has significant increase in the cost of the well
Level 6
 Wells having pressure integrity at the junction which is achieved with the casing & cement is
not considered as the sealing mechanism.
Level 6S ( sub category)

 Wells having junction pressure seal & down hole splitter i.e large main hole with two
smaller laterals of equal sizes.
82
JUNCTION CLASSIFICATION
Level 1 2 3
Definition Open Unsupported Junction Parent Bore Parent Bore

Cased & Cemented Cased &
Lateral Open Cemented
Lateral cased
not cemented
4 5 6 6S
Parent - Bore cased Junction Pressure Integral junction Pressure Integrity by Casing
& cemented Lateral integrity by completion
cased & Cemented
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3.12.1 Well Control aspects in Multilateral Wells

Important aspects of well control in case of multilateral wells vis- a- vis conventional wells are
discussed below:
 Kick Prevention
Though practically all the measures considered for preventing kicks in conventional wells hold
true for multi-laterals as well, some of the additional considerations on account of high angles,
longer lateral bore holes & small hole sizes are as follows:
i) High kick intensity
ii) Relatively higher ECD effects, which requires flow checks between connections.
iii) Relatively higher swab pressures during pulling out, which require mud conditioning
prior to pulling out & controlled tripping speeds.
 Kick detection
Although all the conventional well kick indications are valid for multi-lateral wells too, but since
a multilateral has more than one bore holes, the specific indications need to be evaluated in
order to know that whether it’s the static or the active bore hole which is kicking. Following
points may help in making the judgement.
a) Indications of a kick from active well bore(containing drill string):
i) A drill break or an increase in drilling rate followed by a kick

ii) When the kick has entered the active bore hole which is non-horizontal, the shut- in
casing & drill pipe pressures shall be different
b) Indications of a kick from static well bore:
i) When the active borehole is non-horizontal & if both shut-in casing & drill pipe
pressures are equal subsequent to a kick, it clearly indicates a kick in the static well
bore.
ii) During initial shut-in both SICP and SIDPP shall be same & thereafter during gas
migration both shall increase by same amount till the gas reaches the junction point. As
the gas shall move past the junction point, the SICP shall become more than SIDPP
(though as gas continue migrating beyond junction the rate of increase in both the shut-
in pressures shall be same).
In case of multilaterals where there is a tendency of losses in one of the well bore, this may
create a situation where mud is being lost in one well bore while influx is taken from another.
Such a situation may mask both the basic kick indications e.g. pit gain and increase in return
flow. In such cases well should be monitored closely for any change in normal trends of pit
levels, loss rate etc.
84
 MAASP Consideration
Maximum Allowable Annular Surface Pressure (MAASP ) is the maximum pressure that can be
held on the annulus surface pressure gauge during well killing with complete safety. Even
during planning of conventional wells the casing seat design is based on MAASP, for example
during drilling operations if at any stage the difference between max. mud density & current
drilling fluid density nears 0.5 ppg most of the operators plan to lower a casing string rather
than continue drilling. Similar consideration applies for multilateral wells with slight
modification in case the static well bore is not isolated , e.g.
i) MAASP should be calculated for both active & static well bores considering the weakest
formation & respective mud densities in two holes.
ii) Smaller of the two MAASP values should be taken as the final MAASP.
 Shut In Procedure & Shut -In Pressure Interpretation

Since the multi-lateral wells are mostly horizontal or highly deviated wells following
considerations should be noted.
I. On detecting a kick, preferably use hard shut-in method so as to minimise the influx
volume.
II. After shutting-in the well with definite pit gain during trips ( i.e swabbed in influx) if it is
found that both SIDPP & SICP read zero, it does not mean that there is no kick rather it
implies that the kick is in horizontal or highly deviated section of the borehole.
III. On detecting a kick during drilling, if after shutting-in the well it is found that both SIDPP
& SICP are nearly equal, it means that the kick is in horizontal or highly deviated section
of the borehole.
IV. When the kick is taken from highly deviated section during drilling, as the SIDPP & SICP
are almost equal, it becomes difficult to analyse that whether the influx is gas or liquid.
However the continuous increase in shut-in surface pressures indicates that the kick is
gas & has started migrating.
 Kill Procedures
a) Kick from active well bore
When the kick is taken from the active well bore the standard well killing methods i.e Driller’s &
W & W method may be used in the similar fashion as these methods are used in case of kicks in
single well bore. However, as stated earlier due consideration should be given to the MAASP of
static well bore.
b) Kick from static well bore

In case the kick is taken from static well bore the standard well killing methods with certain
modifications can be used due to following reasons :
i) The part of the static well bore from junction point to zone of influx cannot be circulated
if the standard killing method is followed with string in active well bore.
ii) Due to above reason after the kill there shall be some remaining surface pressure.
85
Hence, the alternative would be to calculate the kill mud weight based on the depth of the
junction point ( due consideration should be given to MAASP) & circulate the active well bore
with this mud. After the well is circulated with this mud there would not be any remaining
surface pressures. Now the string can be pulled out from active well bore & tripped in to static
well bore monitoring the returns closely . After the influx is above bit, it would be required to
close the well again & circulate. After which the BOP can be opened & tripping continued again
monitoring the returns. (It may be noted that while tripping below junction point it might be
required to close the well & circulate at more than one occasion). When the bit is at bottom in
the static well bore, the well should be circulated with required mud density (to be calculated
considering the initial SIDPP & TVD of static well bore ).
After adding the trip margin, the string can be tripped out from the static well bore up to
junction point & tripped in to active well bore. When the bit is at bottom of active well bore, it
would be required to circulate with the same density mud as was finally used in static well bore.
3.13 ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS – SOME CONSIDERATIONS
 Higher Pressures Than Surface Equipment Rating

When such a situation arises during a well killing operation, consideration should be given to
low choke pressure method which is explained in chapter on “Unusual Situations”.
 Casing Burst
In deep holes, where the liner is set below a long string of casing, it is possible that during killing
the surface pressure may approach the burst rating without inducing a fracture at shoe.
Therefore, while planning such a liner job this aspect should be given due consideration. In the
event of surface casing pressure approaching casing burst value, low choke pressure method
may be considered.
In cases where casing string is set relatively at shallow depth, it is difficult that surface pressure
build up can approach the casing burst rating since the shoe shall fracture first.
 Under Ground Blow Out

This involves significant down hole flow of formation fluid from a zone of higher pressure to a
zone of lower pressure. The direction of the flow may be from a lower kick zone to upper weak
zone, which is the case most of the times or it may be to a lower weak zone from an upper kick
zone & is an important criteria for deciding the control procedure. When the underground
blow-out occurs after the BOP has been closed on a kick while drilling, the flow will normally be
from the kick zone to some shallow weak zone. In the second scenario, it is the occurrence of
loss circulation at bit while drilling a naturally fractured or weak zone which causes the
hydrostatic pressure to fall considerably against an upper zone & allows this zone to start
kicking. In a drilling well the indications of a underground blow out are as below :
a) Initial build up in SIDP, SICP & then decrease as the fracture is induced.
The drill pipe pressure may drop down to zero.
b) After the fracture is induced & under-ground blow-out is initiated, the
casing pressure may not change much initially but will steadily increase
with time.
86
c) No direct communication between drill pipe & casing pressure.
In some cases the drill pipe pressure may be found to be higher than the casing pressure, which
usually is the result of formation fluid entering the drill string after the underground blow out
has been initiated.
Consequences of underground blow out
a) Loss of reservoir
b) Contamination of fresh water zones
c) Loss of rig if surface broaching occurs
Control methods of underground blow out

Though there are no set kill procedures for handling underground blowouts. Some control
methods are discussed in next chapter. The adequate knowledge of loss zone vis-à-vis the kick
zone helps using these methods more effectively. Some of the loss zone detection techniques
are given below :
a) Temperature Log :
This is the most common tool used to detect the loss zone. The tool when lowered in
the drill string shall show thermal anomalies on temperature log depending upon
position of loss zone vis-à-vis kick zone if the underground blow-out is in progress, e.g.
Case 1. If loss zone is above the kick zone then there shall be higher temperature then
normal temperature gradient across loss zone.
Case 2. If kick zone is above the loss zone then there shall be lower temperature then
normal temperature gradient across loss zone.
b) Noise Log
This is a sonic tool that records the sounds created by fluid movement down-hole.
Indications on Noise log can delineate the static fluid column above the loss zone from
the dynamic fluid column below it.
c) Radioactive tracer
A radioactive tracer tool is a logging tool, usually a gamma ray detector. A radioactive
material is pumped in the well, the depth at which high radioactive concentration is
found is assumed to be the loss zone.
 Volumetric Considerations for Wells with Long liners

It is a common practice to consider upper annular capacity when calculating the volume of
mud to bleed as influx is brought to surface during killing by volumetric method. This may
result in the well becoming under balance if the influx is in the smaller annular section
associated with long liner. This can be corrected by implementing one of the following
procedures:
a) Use the smaller annular section to calculate the volume to bleed for first
cycle only & then use the upper annular capacity for remaining bleed
cycles.
87
b) Use a larger value for the safety margin( 200 to 300 psi) & use the upper
annular capacity for calculating the volume to bleed each cycle.
 Checking for trapped shut in pressures

Though it is not always recommended to check for trapped pressures after the well is initially
shut-in, however, if the pumps are still running when the well is shut-in, pressure may be
trapped in the well. In such a case the check for trapped pressures can be made as below :
a) Open choke slowly and bleed about ¼ bbl of mud from the well.
b) Close choke and record shut-in pressures.
c) If casing & drill pipe pressures are reduced then repeat step ‘a’.
d) If casing and drill pipe pressures remain constant then accept these
values as correct shut-in pressures.
 Unusual shut-in pressures

Sometimes after the well has been shut in & surface pressures have stabilized, it may be
observed that the SIDPP is more than SICP. Though this could be quite confusing, however the
possibility of such a scenario could be evaluated in context of following :
a) Annulus loaded with cuttings

b) Influx in drill string
c) Density of influx greater than drilling fluid
d) Blockage down-hole
e) Gauge inaccuracies
 Kick in Uphill Section ( Fish hook profile)

In the recent past there has been instances of drilling uphill holes (i.e hole angle more than 90 degrees)
for exploratory purposes. One such well data where a kick has been taken when the hole angle was 130
degrees is given below .
95/8” Casing shoe - 8136 ft MD/TVD

Lowest Point of the well - 12989 ft MD/12070 ft TVD
Kick Taken at - 15283 ft MD/11231 ft MD/TVD
Hole Angle at 15283 ft MD - 130 degrees
Mud Weight - 10.7 ppg
Pit Gain - 7.3 bbl
SIDPP - 1849 psi
SICP - 1956 psi
Here kill mud shall be calculated with well TVD of 11231 ft & not 12070 ft.
 Gas Kicks – Some special considerations

Influx in a well-bore consists of either water, oil or gas, or combinations of these three. Since
gases are compressible, they behave differently as compared to oil or water kicks. The volume
occupied by gas depends upon both pressure & temperature. Gases also exert same pressure in
all directions. Therefore as a gas kick is circulated out of the well-bore, it must be allowed to
expand so as to decrease its pressure in order to keep the bottom hole pressure constant.
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Gas Expansion:
As per the Gas law, ignoring gas compressibility, the gas expansion follows following equation :
PV P1 V1 P2 V2
= Constant or = ___________ = _____________
T T1 T2
Assuming a Gas kick of one barrel at a depth of 10000 ft & bottom hole temperature of 200 o F
in a well having mud density of 10 ppg, shall expand to 179 bbls ( assuming surface atmospheric
pressure of 14.2 psi & temperature of 98 o F) if the well is not shut-in & gas is allowed to
expand freely. During well killing, the gas is not allowed to expand freely as it shall result in
unloading the well mud at the surface & shall result in considerable reduction in bottom hole
pressure. The diagram below shows the relationship between the free expansion of gas v/s well
depth.
SURFACE Gas Volume
( Pressure)
RAPID GAS EXPANSION

NEAR THE SURFACE
10000 FT
Well Depth
GAS IN MUD COLOUMN
FIG 3.13 FREE EXPANSION OF GAS AS IT RISES TO THE SURFACE
Gas Migration :
After the well has been shut-in on a gas kick, the gas being lighter fluid can start migrating or
percolating up in the hole as the well remains shut-in. The average migration speed accepted by
the industry world-wide is about 1000 ft/hr, though in some cases it could be more or less than
this value since the migration speed depends upon several factors which are listed below ;
a) Degree of mixing : The rate of migration depends upon the degree of mixing of
gas with well-bore fluid as it enters the well. For example, a swabbed in gas kick
being largely in continuous phase shall migrate faster as compared to a gas kick
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taken during drilling as in this case the gas gets dispersed in the drilling fluid till
the time the pumps are stopped.
b) Density difference: The rate of migration also depends upon the difference in
densities of drilling fluid & gas influx, the larger the difference the faster shall the
gas migrate.
c) Viscosity of drilling fluid : The higher the viscosity the lower shall be the gas
migration rate.
d) Annular Clearance : The gas percolates in the annulus on one side whereas
the drilling fluid falls below the gas on the other side. The smaller the annular
clearance the lower shall be the migration rate.
It may also be noted that during well killing too the gas percolation occurs & therefore
the gas reaches the surface earlier than the estimated time lag. The higher the annular
velocity of mud the faster shall the gas migrate during killing.
3.14 WELL CONTROL IN HPHT WELLS
Exploration and appraisal wells where the undisturbed bottom hole temperature is greater
than 300F (150C) and where either the maximum anticipated pore pressure gradient of any
formation exceeds 0.8 psi/ft, (18.1 kPa/m, 15.4ppg)
Or
Where RWP requirement of pressure control equipment exceeds 10000 psi (69,000kPa), such a
well can be termed as High Pressure, High Bottom Hole Temperature wells, or HPHT.
The following should be kept in mind during operations on this type of well.
• In HPHT wells, usually the margin between fracture gradient and pore pressure gradient is
small. Formation breakdown is always a possibility.
• HPHT wells also have a tendency towards problems due to hydrate formation.
• Temperature effect on fluid density: Mud expansion due to heating is a very common
phenomenon in HPHT wells. The expansion rate will depend on the initial temperature
differential between the bottom of the hole and the mud. It may take days for the fluid column
to achieve equilibrium with the geothermal gradient but in general most expansion takes place
in the first few hours. Expansion leads to an effective well bore fluid density which is lower than
the one measured at surface mud tanks. As a result hydrostatic pressure is reduced if corrective
measures are not taken.
3.14.1 Flow Checks in HPHT wells

• The importance of accurate flow checks cannot be overstated. These should be performed
- On bottom prior to POOH.
- At the casing shoe
- At a point half way between the shoe and the BOP
- Prior to pulling the BHA through the BOP
- And at any time the hole fill deviates from the expected
• In short, the string should not be pulled if there is any doubt that the hole is in a instable
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condition. Remember, a negative flow check means that the permeable zones in the well are
apparently balanced by the mud column. It does not mean that there is NOT an influx in the
hole.
3.14.2 Ballooning
Hydrocarbon bearing source rocks when subject to high temperature and high mud weights
approaching the fracture gradient exhibit a behavior described as ‘wellbore breathing’
(Supercharging or Ballooning) leading to a Loss / Gain situation.
Well ballooning is a common phenomenon in which the formation absorbs drilling mud while
the rig’s pumps are activated and then releases the mud back into the well when the pumps are
off. This creates a situation where the borehole returns more or less drilling mud than what
would be expected compared to the normal rigid wellbore volume. This can be misinterpreted
as a kick. Rig crews can therefore miss critical kick indicators if they mistakenly believe that
ballooning is occurring in the well.
Figure 3.14: Ballooning Effect

Usually any flow during drilling is interpreted as an influx of the formation fluid and the
common solution is to increase the mud weight and ensure an adequate overbalance. But if the
mud weight is increased and the influx is only mud return, the situation will get progressively
worse with a rise in equivalent circulating density (ECD). Mud losses will continue (initially
dynamic mud loss) and the fracture propagation pressure may even be exceeded, resulting in
total losses (static loss).
Indications:
• Partial mud losses during circulation /drilling followed by an influx when the pumps are off
AFTER flow check:
• Mud returns are observed.
• Tendency of the return rate to decrease with time (flow back signature)
How to Identify Well Ballooning

To recognize Ballooning phenomenon in HPHT well, Fingerprinting of well is one of the method
to identify whether well is flowing due to ballooning or normal kick.
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Fingerprinting: The principal objective of fingerprinting is to identify influx by comparing real-

time data to previously recorded data. Fingerprinting is done to calculate flow back volume and
shut in pressures before drilling out of casing and immediately after drilling through the shoe
establishes a base line profile for stable flow back. Tracking and comparing subsequent flow
back volume to the base line provides an important means to help identify wellbore breathing
or ballooning and distinguish it from an actual kick.
3.14.3 Fingerprinting or Profiling Well Behaviour to differentiate Ballooning or actual kick

Steps for Finger printing prior to drill shoe
 Create a profile for thermal expansion using competent cased hole before drilling the
shoe track.
 Run a profile check after displacing to SOBM.
o Monitor well on trip tank during connections (trip tank pump off).
o Determine the expected volumes from connections before running in below
casing.
o Conduct dummy connection in the cased hole prior to drilling ahead.
 Measure drain back volume (pit gain in trip tank after stopping pump) for different
circulation rate in use, time for pits to stabilize, shut in pressure if any etc.
 Measure volumes taken for all mixing and transfer pumps, mud cooler, degasser.
Determine the possible combinations that may happen and name the assignments so
that an accurate volume is available.
Pressure build up following a kick Kick1

Kick 2
Shut in pressure
Additional Mud
Volume
weight requirement
Ballooning
Fingerprinting pressure build up
Stable
Time Time
Figure 3.15 : Pressure and Volume graph
During finger-printing of well, when the well is closed in (shut in) on the BOP, the formation is
charged up to some degree and there will be some temperature effect. So there will be a
pressure build up & volume gain after stopping pump due to ballooning or formation charging
as shown in figure 3.17.
A check trip on bottom is a technique often used on HPHT wells. The well is flow checked on
the trip tank for 15 minutes with the kelly cock shut. The string is then pulled back by the length
of a stand (or as high as possible if using a kelly) and run back down to TD, say five times, to
simulate the pulling of five stands. The well is then flow checked on the trip tank for 15 minutes
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and then circulated bottoms up. After bottoms up, check shakers for cavings and confirm for
any swabbed gas peak with the mud loggers. Flow check again, and if the well is stable, pump a
slug and POOH.
How to differentiate kick due to Ballooning effect or Normal Kick

If the kick occurs due to normal kick, after opening the remote or manual choke more influx
comes inside the wellbore results in increase in surface casing pressure (SICP) after shut in
while there is no change or very little drop in SIDPP. If the kick occurs due to ballooning effect,
after opening choke SICP remains same or little drop while SIDP drops as the well is allowed to
relax.
Effect of Bleeding off shut in pressures (OPENING CHOKE)

Normal kick Ballooning
SICP Increase Same or drop
(more influx taken) when choke closed again
SIDP Remain same Drop little
(ballooning effect is allowed to relax when well shut in)
PIT Rises No change or decreasing trend
GAIN
3.14.4 Secondary Well Control

The Driller's method is usually the chosen technique for secondary well control after an
apparent well flow. The reason being that often it is very difficult to determine an accurate
stabilized shut-in drill-pipe pressure. The Driller's method can be employed to remove the influx
first, then determine the required kill mud density.
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CHAPTER- 4 BARRIER CONCEPTS AND CONTINGENCIES

__________________________________________________________
4.1 BARRIER CONCEPT
A barrier or barrier element is defined as any device, fluid or substance that prevents the flow
from a well. They are envelopes of one or more independent barrier elements to prevent fluids
or gasses from flowing unintentionally from a formation, into another formation or back to
surface. The type and number of barriers that must be in place depends upon the operation,
company policy, local legislation and commonly accepted industrial practices.
Well barrier should be clearly defined prior to commencement of any operation by description
of the required well barrier elements to be in place and the specific acceptance criteria. Well
barrier acceptance criteria are technical and operational requirement that need to be fulfilled
in order to qualify the well barrier for its intended use.
The numbers and type of barriers recommended for a given job depend on the well’s general
risk classification. Generally, TWO independent and tested barriers must be in place in a flow
path for any given operations.
Barriers are classified into three categories:
Primary barrier : The barrier which provides first line of defense during normal
operating conditions. Generally, a fluid or a closed barrier.
Secondary barrier : Second line of defense in case the primary barrier fails.
Generally, a closable barrier e.g. BOPs
Tertiary barrier : The last and final means of pressure control. Generally, a shear
seal BOP.
The barriers may be fluid or mechanical barriers. A fluid is considered a barrier only when the
hydrostatic pressure of the fluid is more than the formation pressure. Combination of one or
more well barrier elements which surround or enclose the area to prevent flow of fluids are
known as “barrier envelope’’.
For example in a flowing oil or gas well, the tubing and packer isolate well pressure from the
casing and the casing gives secondary pressure containment if the tubing or packer leaks. Some
of the elements that form barrier envelope (at the time of drilling /tripping) are:
Casing/Cement/Safety valves/Choke and kill line valves /well head/Rams/BOPs/Drill
string.
In a drilling operation:
Primary Barrier - Drilling muds
Secondary Barrier - Rams / annular BOP
Tertiary Barrier - Shear Blind Ram (SBR)
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Fig 4.1 : Well Barriers schematic

Mechanical barriers are of two types - Closed and Closeable. In managed pressure drilling the
Rotating BOP’s, Stuffing Box, grease control heads (In wireline units) are closed type of
mechanical barriers. All BOP’s, FOSV, IBOP are closeable mechanical barriers. Closeable type
barriers are normally kept open for operations and they prevent the flow when closed on the
direction of flow.
Barriers are also categorized as Active and Potential barriers.

An active barrier actively prevents unplanned escape of fluid from the well, e.g. overbalanced
drilling – a hole full of the correct weight fluid;
Underbalanced wireline logging– the stuffing box;
Producing wells- the Xmas tree; or
Managed pressure drilling–the rotating control device.
A potential barrier does not actively control flow from the well but is activated if required. The
main potential barrier during drilling is the rig BOP which is open during normal operations but
can be closed quickly when needed.
All the mechanical barriers should be tested from the direction of anticipated flow. Most
pressure tests performed on well bore seals, cement, pipe, valves, blowout preventers, etc. are
either "positive pressure" tests or "negative pressure" tests. The term positive or negative
describes in which direction you are testing the device. If it is not possible (e.g. in case of plug)
to apply pressure from below the barrier (i.e. direction of flow) then “inflow test” or negative
test must be performed. All the cement and bridge plugs should be tested by this method.
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All barrier / well integrity tests should be documented and signed by an authorized
person. The authorized person can be driller, tool pusher, drilling supervisor or the equipment /
service provider’s representative. The chart and test documentation should contain details
regarding the type of test, test pressure, test fluid and system or components tested.
4.2 INFLOW TEST / NEGATIVE PRESSURE TEST

An inflow test involves assessing integrity of a barrier system in the direction of anticipated
flow. This is performed by reducing the hydrostatic head above the item to be tested by
providing a drawdown or by circulating & displacing to a lighter fluid. This creates a managed
net pressure load against the physical barrier. In addition, the method by which the
hydrostatic barrier will be re- established at the conclusion of the inflow test, or in case
an anomaly is detected during the inflow test, should be considered. A contingency plan for
re- establishing appropriate barriers should be prepared in case the barrier being tested does
not pass the inflow test.
Sometimes it may not be possible to test a barrier from the direction of flow, and in that case
the only option is to pressure test the devise from above provided the barrier is constructed to
seal from both directions.
4.2.1 Function and Pressure Integrity Test of Well Barrier Elements: All the well barrier
elements should be function and pressure integrity tested as per guidelines mentioned in API-
STD 53. The frequency of test should also be maintained as per the guidelines.
Corrective Action: The following table shows the corrective action to be taken in case any of
the following mentioned barrier element fails during the routine test.
Sl. No. Barrier Element Action to be taken if Fails the test.

1. Annular Preventer Repair Immediately.
2. Shear/Blind RAM If Well Barrier Element, Repair Immediately.
3. Pipe RAM (Upper, If Well Barrier Element, Repair Immediately if no other
Middle, Lower) Pipe Rams available of that size.
Any Additional Rams of same size fails to test may be
repaired at convenient time.
4. Choke / Kill Valves If both valves in series have failed, Repair Immediately.
(Inner/Outer) If one valve has failed, Repair after setting casing.
5. Marine Riser Choke and If one has failed Repair Immediately.

Kill Line
6. Yellow and Blue Pod If both failed Repair Immediately.
If one has failed Repair at a convenient time.
7. Acoustic Shear/Blind If Well Barrier Element, Repair Immediately.
Ram
8. Acoustic Pipe Ram If Well Barrier Element, Repair Immediately if no other
Pipe Rams available of that size.
Any Additional Rams of same size fails to test may be
repaired at convenient time after having casing set.
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4.3 WELL CONTROL DURING SPECIFIC SITUATIONS
4.3.1 During lowering of casing:

Casing or Liner lowering requires some precautions to be taken in view of possibility of well kick
during these operations. Probable factors for inducing a kick in this phase are
1. Swabbing while P/O casing/Liner
2. Loss induced by excessive lowering speed reduces the level in annulus which causes Kick
Closable barriers for annulus in this case are Annular BOP, Ram BOP matching to the casing size
or Variable Ram BOP used at the time of drilling with size limit of more than casing. Generally
minimum one ram is dressed with the Casing/Liner size packer before starting the casing/liner
operation. NRV in the shoe and float collar act as two temporary internal barriers. An
arrangement of stabbing of FOSV with X-Over to match the casing thread should be kept ready
on derrick floor.
While lowering casing/liner, every joint should be filled with mud to maintain sufficient
hydrostatic pressure in the casing. If the casing is lowered without filling, differential across
the shoe may break the NRV in shoe / float collar resulting in the annulus mud rushing into the
casing to fill the empty casing. This will lead to decrease in the mud level in annulus and reduce
the BHP of well and may cause kick if BHP reduces below formation pressure.
Sometimes operators prefer Auto Fill Float Shoe or self-fill float assembly which permits the
casing to fill automatically while being into the hole. It is in the open position while running in
allowing maximum filling of the casing as it is lowered into the well bore. The circulation may be
established at any time during or after casing is run. The flapper type back pressure valve does
not become operative until the drop ball is dropped or pumped down. From this point onwards
like Differential Fill-up Shoe, Auto Fill Float Shoe acts as conventional Floating Equipment. Self-
fill float assembly are PDC drillable and minimizes trip time while also reducing surge pressures.
Trip tank monitoring should be done while lowering or P/O of casing to check for any loss or
swabbing. In case the well is not taking proper volume then string be run in to bottom on drill
pipe monitoring the returns for safe removal of swabbed fluid by circulation by Drillers’ method
first cycle.
While lowering casing, the clearance between the casing and well walls is less for the entire
length of string and this condition is very conducive for surging or swabbing if string is to be
pulled out for some reason. If the casing lowering speeds are not checked, it may induce losses.
If the losses are minor, stop lowering and monitor the well. If well is static, circulate to correct
the mud properties and then resume lowering with reduced speed.
If the loss is major or total loss is observed, then stop lowering the casing and start filling the
annulus with lightest possible fluid available at site to maintain hydrostatic pressure in the
annulus. If well permits, try to place LCM pill and check the losses later. The volume
displacement for casing should be the closed end volume for lowering the casing.
SHUT-IN procedures while running casing if NRV is holding

a) Close annular BOP or casing rams
b) Stab FOSV on casing joint using necessary x-over or swage.
c) Make up Kelly or top drive
d) Open HCR on choke line.
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e) Open FOSV
f) Record shut in pressures.
4.3.2 During cementation:

There is a high probability for well activity during and after the cementation jobs. Many worst
well control incidents happened in the industry are having the cementation job connection.
During cementation, as the heavy cement slurry comes out in the annulus, the BHP starts
increasing till the end of the cementation job. However as the settling of cement starts, the
hydrostatic of this column tends to become equivalent to water and there is a reduction in the
BHP. As the slurry thickens and sets, it creates a barrier blocking the entry of formation fluid in
the well bore. However, the barrier success depends on integrity of the cement, and there is a
possibility of micro channeling if the well starts to flow during the setting phase. This further
spoils the cement bonding and may cause well activity.
For ensuring the perfect cementation job, pressure profile of pumping and returns at shakers
should be monitored. Recording of correct plug bump pressure will also check for casing joints
integrity.
In case the well starts to flow during displacement keep circulating through choke with required
back pressure as per drillers method first cycle till the influx is out. Thereafter, shut the well and
evaluate the condition.
If the well flows while waiting on cement, shut the well and go for volumetric method. Record
CBL-VDL logs for checking the cement bond. If well permits, plan for creating a path through
casing to the free annulus for conventional killing.
4.3.3 During running of completion string:

Where the formation is exposed, completion fluid and casing will act as the primary barrier.
BOP is the secondary barrier. A stab in valve must be kept on drill floor at all times for
installation on top of the tubing string in case of any well activity. In later stages of running in,
the DHSV can act as a barrier. During removal of BOP and installation of X- mas tree, the
packer/tubing and the tubing hanger will act as a barrier for the annulus. Fluid in the tubing is
the only barrier during this time and installation of mechanical tubing plugs is recommended.
4.3.4 During wire-line / logging operations:

During wire line jobs, if the viscosity of mud and P/O speed is high, it can create appreciable
swabbing in the well leading to reduction in BHP and may cause formation fluid to enter into
the well. In similar fashion, surging may also occur. For monitoring of well it is advised to
maintain watch on well by filling the hole continuously through trip tank. Mud properties
should also be maintained to the required level prior to handing over the well for logging. In
case of activity while logging overbalanced well, shut the annular BOP on cable. If not holding
then cut the wire line by hydraulic cable cutter, drop the line and close the SBR. In just balanced
conditions, install a shooting nipple with lubricator on top and change the ram seals
corresponding to the size of the shooting nipple.
4.4 UNUSUAL SITUATIONS IN WELL CONTROL
Following are some of the unusual situations normally faced during well killing operations.
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4.4.1 Plugged or washed bit nozzles

During well killing operations the bit nozzles may get plugged or washed out. Plugging could be
partial or total. Large amount of barite without addition of sufficient quantity of
suspension agent ( i.e gel or bentonite ) or stirring of suction pits can cause nozzle
plugging while circulating with kill mud.
A plugged bit nozzle shall be indicated at surface by sudden increase in circulating drill pipe
pressure with no corresponding increase in casing pressure. Normal reaction in such situations
would be to open the choke to maintain drill pipe pressure and doing so shall result in a
decrease in casing pressure and bottom hole pressure, which may allow additional influx. If
unchecked, it will make well control more difficult.
4.4.1.1 Partial Plugging

Partial plugging does not affect the U-tube communication and only the circulating pressure as
kill rate increases due to additional friction losses caused by plugging. Therefore, it might be
necessary to reduce the kill SPM to avoid excessive drill pipe pressure. In such situations, well
should be shut-in keeping casing pressure constant and new SIDPP& SICP should be recorded.
The new SIDPP should be compared & adjusted with respect to calculated/ original SIDPP. The
pump should now be brought to kill rate keeping casing pressure constant, thereafter new drill
pressure should be kept constant if kill mud has passed the bit. If heavy mud has still not
reached the bit, new drill pipe pressure schedule should be computed and followed. There can
be sudden fall in drill pipe pressure in case the nozzle becomes unplugged. If this happens, the
original pressure schedule has to be followed.
4.4.1.2 Total Plugging

When total plugging takes place, circulation through drill pipe will not be possible. In such a
situation the drill string may have to be perforated nearest to the bit to circulate out maximum
volume of influx, and the new reduced circulating pressure should be determined at regular
intervals. While waiting for perforation, the casing pressure should be monitored. Increasing
casing pressure while the well is shut-in shall indicate gas migration. Volumetric method should
be used to keep bottom hole pressure constant by bleeding calculated volume of mud.
Sometimes, the bit may get plugged even before start of the well killing operation. In case of a
gas kick this will be indicated by rise in casing pressure, with no corresponding increase in drill
pipe pressure. In this case too, perforation may be necessary above bit to start circulation.
During waiting for perforation, volumetric method should be tried to keep the bottom hole
pressure constant.
4.4.1.3 Washed out bit nozzle

It is indicated by sudden drop in drill pipe circulating pressure without a corresponding change
in casing pressure. Since a washed out drill string shall also give similar indications, the amount
of pressure drop should be noted to substantiate the loss of bit nozzle . In such situations,
pump should be stopped keeping casing pressure constant, the well be shut in and new SIDPP&
SICP should be recorded. The new SIDPP should be compared & adjusted with respect to
calculated/ original SIDPP. The pump should now be brought to kill rate keeping casing pressure
constant, thereafter new drill pressure should be kept constant if kill mud has passed the bit. If
heavy mud has still not reached the bit, new drill pipe pressure schedule should be followed.
(The probability of washing out of nozzle at slow circulating kill rate is usually less than that of
choke washing out.)
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4.4.2 Pump failure

Pump failures are indicated by erratic or decreasing drill pipe circulating pressure & erratic
movement of rotary hose etc. In case of problem with pump during killing operation, shut in the
well and switch over to the second pump. Record new SIDPP & SICP. Check & tally the new
SIDPP with calculated/ normal value of SIDPP. Adjust the casing pressure (pressure at the time
of switch over) constant till the second pump attains kill speed. Now if the kill mud has not
reached the bit or if KRP of second pump is different, new drill pipe pressure schedule should
be followed. If the heavy mud has passed the bit, keep this d/p pressure constant. Often, pump
may not completely fail there may be change in efficiency due to a bad valve or some other
problem. This can be detected by erratic or decreasing drill pipe pressure. (if this situation is not
detected, the normal reaction for choke operator would be to go on reducing the choke size to
keep up the drill pipe pressure, creating a higher bottom hole pressure). If partial pump failure
is detected and no stand by pump is available, a new reduced circulating pressure with partially
effective pump may be determined, by bringing the pump to kill rate while maintaining the
In case of complete failure of pumps, constant bottom hole pressure may be maintained by
bleeding through choke (if the influx is gas) and keeping shut-in drill pipe pressure constant
until the pump is repaired or replaced.
4.4.3 Plugged or Washed Chokes

4.4.3.1 Plugged Choke
During killing operations chokes are liable to get plugged with sloughing shale and annulus
cuttings. This condition is indicated by rapid rise in drill pipe and casing pressures and it may be
accompanied with audible effects. One reason for killing at reduced circulation rates is to
reduce the risk of hole damage in the event of choke getting plugged. The best corrective
method would be to stop the pump immediately and release the trapped pressure through the
standby choke by bleeding small volumes at intervals till shut in drill pipe pressure comes back
to normal/ calculated value. Now the well control operations can be resumed in conventional
manner through the alternate choke.
4.4.3.2 Washed out choke or choke manifold

Abrasive sand particles can washout choke and is indicated by decrease in drill pipe & casing
pressure which cannot be corrected by choke manipulations. In such situations stop the pump,
isolate the defective choke line /valve. Record new SIDPP & SICP. Check & tally the new SIDPP
with calculated/ normal value of SIDPP and resume kill operations with the alternate choke. If a
leak occurs in the choke manifold, that cannot be bypassed, the well can remain shut-in till the
problem is corrected. During such time keep a watch on the shut-in pressure, if found
increasing due to gas migration, release the pressure through the kill line / auxiliary choke line
keeping SIDPP constant.
4.4.4 String washout

A drill string washout is indicated by (a) decrease in pump pressure with no corresponding
effect on casing pressure and (b) increase in pump strokes. Temperature of the return mud will
decrease when most of the circulation is established through the leak point at shallow depth.
Approximate location of leak can be evaluated in terms of decrease in circulating pressure.
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In case of first circulation of Driller's method if the well is shut-in the SIDPP and SICP shall be
equal when the influx is below the communication & in this case it will not be possible to
circulate out the kick with constant bottom hole pressure techniques. In case of gas influx one
alternative is to allow the influx to migrate above the leak point by volumetric method and to
circulate out thereafter by conventional well control techniques. Another alternative, if depth
and pressures are not too high & washout is at shallow depth, is to strip out, replace the
leaking joint, strip back to bottom and kill the well. Yet another alternative is to run a smaller
string or tubing inside the drill pipe with a packer at the end and circulate with smaller string
with new KRP and pressure schedule.
If the well is shut-in and the influx is above the leak point, the shut-in drill pipe pressure shall be
less than shut in casing pressure. Since the influx is in U-tube the well can be killed in
conventional way. A new circulating pressure will have to be established keeping the casing
pressure constant while bringing the pump to kill speed. Thereafter keep the drill pipe constant
till influx is circulated out.
In case wait and weight method was being used, the analysis becomes little complicated. Since
kill mud has been pumped in, the new shut in drill pipe pressure now shall depend on how far
the kill mud has gone inside drill pipe or if it has gone past the bit. Thereafter the difference
between the mud hydrostatic in drill string and annulus has to be taken into account to
determine the relationship between shut-in drill pipe and shut in casing pressure. Once the
relationship is established the alternatives are the same as in case of killing by Driller's method.
However, it must be remembered that while circulating with a hole in drill string, hole
enlargement will occur which will continuously change the circulating pressure. Therefore, it is
required to re-establish the circulating pressure periodically during well killing.
4.4.5 LOST CIRCULATION

Lost circulation can be caused by poor cementation , formation fracture due to pressure surges,
heavy mud weight, or excessive back pressure due to large kick volumes or mishandled kicks.
While killing a well, where there is a chance of lost returns, pit gain trends should be precisely
monitored & if any deviation is noticed, the choke size should be increased or decreased and it
should be checked whether drill pipe and casing pressure, both, ( for response on drill pipe
gauge lag time should be accounted for ) respond to it or not. If these pressures do not respond
uniformly to choke operation, it indicates that mud is being lost downhole and well may not be
killed in normal way. However lost returns often involve only a percentage of the mud being
lost downhole. It might be possible to kill the well by conventional methods provided the well
maintains 50-75% returns, because the pressure at the loss zone shall become less when the
gas bubble gets past this zone. Pressure can be reduced at the weak zone by
a) Using as slow a circulating rate as possible

b) Using the 'wait and weight' method.
(Add some LCM material in the circulating mud if bit is run without nozzles)
In case of partial loss during kick control operation, several techniques can be tried in following
order :-
I. If the loss is not substantial and mud volume can be kept up by mixing, continue with
'Wait and Weight' method.
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II. Reduce the drill pipe circulating pressure by a small amount (in any case drill pipe
pressure should not be reduced more than the amount of annular frictional loss, so as to
avoid additional influx) and wait to see, if it increases the return. Continue to do this
until lost returns are reduced enough so that the mixing of new mud can make up for
the loss
III. Stop and shut in the well. Wait for 1 to 4 hours to cure itself. During this time keep
SIDPP constant by bleeding through choke/filling through kill line.
IV. Pump heavy slug of mud at the bottom of the hole if loss is taking place above kick
zone. Thereafter solve the loss problem.
Note : In simultaneous loss & kick situations , generally the complication which is at the
bottom is handled first.
V. If none of the above work, use a barite or gunk or cement plug to seal off the kick zone,
then solve the loss problem.
4.4.5.1 Total loss situations

In case of total loss situation in a kicking well following actions are required :
4.4.5.1.1 Attempts should be made to keep the hole full by -
a) Pumping lighter density fluid that can be supported by the fractured formation and
keep the annulus topped up(add lost circulation material to seal the fractured
formation, continue with water if mud is exhausted.)
b) Pumping intermittently down the string to keep string full and bit nozzles clear.
4.4.5.1.2 Control operations

a) Control with Heavy Mud :
Pump and place heavy mud in between bottom of the hole and loss zone. In order to decide
the mud weight, it is necessary to take into account the true vertical distance between the
bottom and loss zone & the maximum recorded SIDPP value. It is desirable that a volume of
heavy mud 2-3 times the capacity of the annular volume between bottom and loss zone is
displaced in the annulus at high rate.
Volume of heavy mud to be pumped at the bottom when thief zone is above the kick zone:
Pump heavy mud about 2-3 times the capacity of the annulus below the loss zone . The excess
volume is to allow for severe contamination of the kill mud by the influx from the formation.
Example:
A well was shut-in after kick indications. The closed-in pressure initially built up and subsequently
decreased. Maximum built up SIDPP was recorded as 500 psi. Other well data is as below.
Well depth - 10,000 ft Casing depth - 7,000 ft
Mud density - 10 ppg Drill collar - 450 ft
Annular volume drill pipe  open hole - 0.0447 bbl/ft
Annular volume drill collar open hole - 0.03 bbl/ft
Find out the volume of heavy slug to be pumped at bottom.
Solution:
Maximum SIDPP = 500 psi
In loss situation though SIDPP is not a true indicator of formation pressure, still maximum value of SIDPP
can be considered for calculating the density of heavy mud to be placed at bottom. In this case minimum
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500 psi increase in hydrostatic is required in the annulus below the loss zone & assuming the loss zone is
in the vicinity of the shoe.
Additional 500 psi of head can be obtained by either 14, 15 or 16 ppg mud as per calculations given
below :
Height of 16 ppg mud = 500  {(16-10)  0.052} = 1,600 ft
Selecting 15 ppg mud of 1,923 ft height, annular vol. can be calculated as:
Annular Volume against drill collar = 0.03  450 = 13.5 bbl
Annular Volume against drill pipe = 0.0447 (1,923-450) = 65.8 bbl
Total volume of 1,923 ft annular column = 13.5 + 65.8 = 79.3 bbl
Volume of slug of 15 ppg to be pumped = 3 79.3 = 238 bbl
Note : The above method of gaining control is basically a hit & trial method, therefore if 15 ppg
mud column of 1,923 ft does not work than the next higher mud density ( say 16 ppg mud,
1,600 ft column ) may be used.
b) Barite Plug
In case repeated placement of heavy mud as described above does not solve the problem, it
may become necessary to attempt a barite plug. A barite plug bridges the hole due to high
water loss and rapid setting when pumping is stopped. Subsequent to placement barite settles
and stops flow without contaminating the drilling fluid system. The use of a barite plug has
several advantages over the use of cement e.g. barite has a higher density & has more
tendency to set without any channeling and contamination to the drilling fluid. Some back
pressure either by means of hydrostatic or casing pressure helps barite to settle without
channeling/ honey combing. The plug volume depends upon hole size, depth and kick severity.
Normally, 450-500 ft of open hole is covered with barite plug. To avoid contamination and
abrupt settling, pumping should be done continuously & at higher rate.
Barite Required
Slurry Density Pressure Grad. Water vol. Barite Slurry volume

lb/gal psi/ft gal/sacks sacks bbl
18.0 0.935 5.00 200 37.1
20.0 1.039 3.70 200 31.1
22.0 1.142 2.71 200 26.4
Note: 1 sack = 100 lb

The quantity of phosphate and caustic soda used for above slurry volume is 25 lb/bbl. For high
well temperature conditions, other thinners i.e. lignosulfonate up to 8 lb/bbl may also be used.
c) Gunk Plug
The gunk plug is very quick setting plug that is especially effective with water flows. It is mixture
of bentonite and diesel oil. The mixture does not set until it comes in contact with water. An oil
spacer should be run ahead and behind it, to avoid mixing and setting in the drill pipe. When
the plug is pumped down the hole, the oil is washed away from the gel which sets in the
presence of water. The plug volume should be enough to cover 200-250 feet of hole. When
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the plug is in place, pumping mud down the annulus at about 1 bbl/ min. helps to hold it down
and facilitates setting.
Gunk Mixture for a 250 feet column
Hole size Diesel oil Bentonite Total volume

(in) (bbl) (Sacks) (bbl)
6 8 24 10.5
8½ 12 42 17.0
12 ¼ 28 85 37.5
17 ½ 55 167 73.5
After placing the plug, strip out above the plug. Once the plug is set, thick slurry or coarse lost
circulation material might be used to bridge and plug off the upper zone. This can be pumped
down the annulus.
4.4.6 EXCESSIVE CASING PRESSURE

Excessive casing pressures can cause surface equipment failure or formation break down during
initial closure or while circulating out a kick. This can lead to lost circulation, an underground
blow-out or flow broaching to the surface from outside the casing. If the casing pressure
threatens to exceed the maximum allowable annular surface pressure(MAASP) either during
initial closure or while killing before the influx reaches the shoe, one of the following options
has to be considered:-
a) Low choke pressure method
b) Use of Overkill method
c) Reversing out the influx through drill pipe
d) Use of heavy pill ahead of kill mud
e) Bull heading
With shallow casing the fracture pressure at casing shoe is small (much smaller in case of
offshore). Maximum allowable surface pressure therefore is very less and it is impossible to
stop the flow immediately without risking formation breakdown and a possible broaching to
surface. There is risk of underground blowout surfacing around the well in onshore operations
and collapse of seabed and other serious problems in offshore. It is for such contingencies that
the diverters are used.
4.4.6.1 Low choke pressure method

The low choke pressure method consists of circulating and weighing up the drilling fluid at the
maximum rates while holding the maximum allowable casing pressure on the choke. In other
words the method includes killing procedure that uses less choke pressure than what would be
necessary to prevent formation fluid to flow. Chances and severity of second inflow depends
mainly upon the permeability of the reservoir being controlled. In high permeability formations
this method should not be used unless absolutely necessary - since it results in bottom hole
pressure reduction which can cause high inflow rates and may lead to a blow-out.
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4.4.6.1.1 Low choke pressure procedure (using initial mud)

This involves circulation to be carried out with initial mud density holding the choke at
maximum allowable surface pressure. Since BHP shall be less than the formation pressure,
additional continuous influx will keep entering the well. Pump speed is increased to maximum
possible to reduce the time during which the well will remain under balanced. This will reduce
the size of the secondary kick. During circulation at low choke pressure, if at any stage the
pressure returns to or exceeds the normal pump pressure corresponding to the pump rate and
density being used, this is an indication that further entry of influx has stopped. Once the influx
is out, attempts should be made to shut the well. If stabilised shut-in casing pressure remains
less than MAASP, normal procedure can be used to finally control the well.
4.4.6.1.2 Low choke pressure method (using heavy mud)

After closing the well & monitoring shut-in pressures, if the shut-in casing pressure threatens to
exceed the MAASP before stabilisation, it becomes necessary to pump down heavy mud as in
wait and weight method. This helps in bringing down the casing pressure when the kill mud
enters the annulus. In this case since the well could not be closed for sufficient time required
for SIDPP to stabilize, exact kill mud weight cannot be ascertained. However an approximate
estimate can be made at any kill rate used, taking the drill pipe pressure in excess of the kill rate
pressure (measured or calculated) as the amount of formation pressure in excess of hydrostatic
pressure. This pressure can be converted to find out equivalent mud weight increase required.
After weighing up to the estimated required fluid density, (during this time mud is bled from
choke to keep casing pressure less than MAASP) the circulation is started holding maximum
allowable pressure on the choke. Influx is circulated out till a reduction in choke size is
necessary to maintain maximum allowable casing pressure. At this stage the well is shut-in to
record SIDPP. Normal well control procedure can now be used to finally kill the well.
4.4.6.2 Overkill method

In over kill method a mud density higher than the calculated kill mud weight is used for killing
the well. This method is used when it is anticipated that surface casing pressure may exceed
MAASP ( with influx still below the shoe ). In this method ICP and FCP are calculated &
hydrostatic pressure because of extra mud weight increase is subtracted from FCP so that there
is no extra pressure because of additional density.
Whenever the killing is stopped in between due to any reason, the casing pressure should be
reduced by an amount which is equal to extra hydrostatic pressure being exerted by additional
mud density. If the extra pressure exerted by additional mud density is not taken in to the
consideration than it may lead to further complication. As this method requires precise
calculation and experience so this method is rarely used.
4.4.6.3 Reverse Out The Influx Through The Drill Pipe

This involves pumping through the annulus & taking returns through the drill string. In this
method drill pipe is connected with choke manifold before starting reverse circulation.
Therefore, when the influx is reversed out, the pressure profiles for drill pipe & annulus are
reversed, resulting in reduction in annulus pressure when the wait and weight is used and a
constant casing pressure when Driller’s method is used. This technique has been found to be
useful especially when a large kick has been taken & MAASP is critical. It has been seen that
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reversing out the kick normally does not cause drill string plugging, bit plugging or bridging in
the annulus as apprehended by some people in the industry.
Example :
Well depth - 10,000 ft Normal circulation rate - 6 bpm
Hole size - 8 ½” Slow circulating kill rate - 500 psi @ 3 bpm
Drill pipe size - 5” Fracture Gradient - 0.70 psi/ft
9 5/8” shoe - 4,000 ft Mud Gradient - 0.52 psi/f t
Annulus Pressure - 300 psi Drill pipe Pressure - 200 psi
Pit Level Increase - 10 bbl
Solution:
1. Maximum Allowable Annulus Surface Pressure
= (Fracture Gradient - Mud Gradient)  shoe depth
= (0.70 - 0.52)  4000 = 720 psi
MAASP ( 720 psi ) should not be exceeded to avoid fracturing at casing shoe.
2. Flow rate can be determined by using equation Pc=KQ1.78

where,
Pc = Pressure losses in the circulating system
K = Constant
Q = Flow rate bpm
K = Pc  Q1.78 = 500  31.78 = 70.74
Since the shut in annulus pressure is 300 psi, the maximum circulating pressure losses can be calculated
Pc = 720 - 300 = 420 psi
Flow rate encountering 420 psi circulating pressure loss can be calculated as:
1 1
/1.78 /1.78
Q = (Pc  K ) = (420  70.74) = 2.78 bpm
Therefore, influx must be reversed at rates less than 2.7 bpm to prevent fracturing the shoe as
follows :
 Pump the influx up the annulus 100 or 200 strokes keeping drill pipe pressure
constant.
 Start reverse circulation by keeping the drill pipe pressure constant at 200 psi while
bringing the pump to approximately 2 bpm with the annulus pressure not to exceed
720 psi.
 Once the rate is established, read the annulus pressure & keep that constant until
the influx is completely displaced.
 When the influx is out, drill pipe pressure and the annulus pressure should read 200
psi after stopping the pump.
 Circulate conventionally the kill mud to the bit keeping the annulus pressure equal
to 200 psi
 With the kill mud at the bit, read the drill pipe pressure and circulate kill mud to the
surface keeping the drill pipe pressure constant.
 Circulate & weigh-up to provide trip margin.
4.4.6.4 Use of Pill Ahead of Kill Mud

This method is based on the fact that the use of kill weight mud to displace the gas influx
reduces the pressure in the annulus in wait & weight method. Therefore, further increase in
mud weight would further reduce the pressure at the casing seat. This technique is useful only
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if open hole volume is more than string volume. However maximum density of pill should be
less than fracture value and amount should be less or equal to the open hole volume.
Ref. last example -

Mud gradient = 0.52 psi/ft
Fracture Gradient = 0.70 psi/ft.
Maximum pill density = 0.70  0.052 = 13.46 ppg
Casing Annulus Capacity = 270 bbl
Open Hole Capacity = 180 bbl (approximately)
In this case the open hole volume is approximately 180 bbl. Therefore pill volume should be less
than 180 bbl i.e. less than open hole volume as to have positive effect in reducing annulus
pressure.
Note :Heavy pill method is difficult to handle if the drill pipe goes on a vacuum which happens
in most cases.
4.4.6.5 Bull heading

This is a method of forcing the kick back into the formation (it does not necessarily mean that
influx will go back from where it originally entered the well). The well is killed by pumping
continuously into the annulus. Bull heading is considered in following situations:-
a) When kick calculations show that the casing pressure during conventional killing will
exceed the MAASP.
b) When normal circulation is not possible because
i) Pipe has been sheared or no pipe in the hole
ii) String is off bottom.
iii) String or bit is plugged.
c) When a combined loss and kick situation is experienced.
d) H2S or high pressure gas influx which cannot be handled safely by rig personnel and
equipment.
Bull heading is not a routine operation. Often well bore fluids will be pumped into the weakest
zone exposed in the open hole which may not be the formation that originally kicked. Therefore
bull heading is more successful if a casing is set deep and the open hole section is relatively
short.
If gas influx is suspected, pumping rate for bull heading should be fast enough to exceed the
rate of gas migration. If the pump pressure increases instead of decreasing, it is an indication
that pumping rate is too slow to be successful. This can be a problem in large diameter holes.
4.4.7 Blockage In Annulus

When the mud’s suspension capabilities are reduced, there is a chance of annulus getting
packed off. The increase in drill pipe pressure is usually more gradual and erratic due to hole
pack off around annulus and no response is seen in D/P gauges due to choke operation at the
time of killing. This problem can be identified conclusively by an increase in torque and/or drag
if the drill string is being moved during the kill procedure. The pipe is probably stuck at this
point. No generic solution can be offered as every situation is unique. But normal consideration
will involve first volumetrically controlling any gas above the pack off depth followed by
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regaining the ability of circulate from as deep as possible. Fishing the stuck drill string should be
postponed until pressure control has been ensured.
4.4.8 Hydrates Formation

Hydrates are compounds of water and hydrocarbon gas. They are solid substances with ice like
characteristics. Formation of hydrates can cause blocking of flow lines and BOP stacks, thereby
preventing fluid circulation and normal functioning of BOP stacks. Most favorable situations for
hydrate formation are during well killing (when gas is in the well) and well testing.
Various conditions conducive to formation of hydrates are:
a) Motionless Time
b) Temperature near 0oC
c) High pressure
4.4.8.1 Prevention and removal of hydrates

I. Motionless time should be avoided when gas is near the surface (In offshore stopping of
kick operations when gas is within 200-500 ft of BOP stack should be avoided ).
II. Pumping of methanol/glycol through kill line should be considered for deep water
operations. It can be used to both prevent the hydrate formation and to dissolve or
thaw after they have formed. In deep water well killing operation, it can be injected at
the time when the gas is near the BOP stack. Since location of the gas in the well bore
cannot be evaluated with sufficient accuracy and moreover if the gas enters slowly in
the well, it gets uniformly distributed in small bubbles therefore a continuous injection
of methanol through kill line should be preferred.
III. Oil base mud is most suitable for minimising the hydrate formation. Oil base mud
minimises the available free water, also some quantity of hydrocarbon gas gets
dissolved in the oil mud.
IV. Where oil base mud is not practical, salt mud should be used.
V. For removal of hydrates, the only reliable way is to increase the temperature by
circulating warm fluid around or near the hydrate plug which will help the plug to melt
slowly.
(In offshore operations coil tubing can be run down the riser, near the plug and warm
fluid can be circulated.)
VI. Since high pressure may exist below the hydrate plug, use of snubbing unit may be
considered while melting / drilling the plug.
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WELL KILLING OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS
INDICATIONS PROBABLE ACTION RECOMMENDED

CAUSE
DRILL PIPE CASING
PRESSURE PRESSURE 1 2
Stop pump keeping

______ Nozzle Plugging Casing pressure
constant & close choke.
Stop pump
Choke Plugging immediately Record
& close HCR. SIDPP
Line up alternate &
Choke & open HCR set it at
calculated
value
Choke Washout
---- do ----
Close choke & bring

Total Pump pump throttle to zero
Failure
4.5 WELL KILLING BY DRILLERS METHOD (First Circulation)
Well Depth : 5,579 ft SIDPP : 450 psi KRP @ 30 SPM : 250 psi
Drill Pipe Strokes : 900 SICP : 600 psi Mud Weight : 10.4 ppg
Annulus strokes : 2,700
4.5.1 Partial Nozzle Plugging

After pumping 350 strokes of mud increase in Drill pipe pressure is observed but the casing
pressure remained constant. This is the problem of partial nozzle plugging. The following
procedure must be followed .
a) Keeping Casing Pressure constant stop pump & close choke.
b) The value of SIDPP will remain constant at 450 psi. If the drill pipe pressure is more ,
bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is less, pump and bring the pressure to
calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed. Keep new drill pipe
pressure constant for remaining strokes of first circulation.
4.5.2 Choke Plugging

After pumping 500 strokes of mud, increase in both Drill pipe and Casing pressure is observed.
This is the problem of choke plugging. The following procedure must be followed .
a) Stop pump immediately , close HCR. Line up alternate choke and open HCR.
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calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed. Keep original drill pipe
4.5.3 Choke Wash out
After pumping 600 strokes of mud, decrease in both Drill pipe and Casing pressure is observed.
Drop in the drill pipe pressure is gradual. This is the problem of choke washout. The following
calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed. Keep original drill pipe
4.5.4 Pump Failure

Drop in the drill pipe pressure is sudden. This is the problem of total pump failure. The
following procedure must be followed .
a) Close choke and bring pump throttle to zero. Line up alternate pump.
calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed. Keep new drill pipe
4.6 WELL KILLING BY DRILLERS METHOD (Second Circulation)
Well Depth : 5,579 ft SIDPP : 450 psi KRP @ 30 SPM : 250 psi
Drill Pipe Strokes : 900 SICP : 450 psi Kill Mud Weight : 11.95 ppg
Annulus strokes : 2,700 Original Mud weight : 10.4 ppg

a) Keeping Casing Pressure constant stop pump & close choke.
b) Calculate the remaining value of SIDPP and set it at calculated value.
Remaining value of SIDPP = 450 – 450  (350/900)= 275 psi
If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is
less, pump and bring the pressure to calculated value.
c) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed.
d) Keep the Casing Pressure constant (450 psi) till kill mud reaches bit.
e) Once the kill mud is at bit, keep the new drill pipe pressure constant for remaining
part of circulation.
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In case problem occurs after kill mud enters the annulus, follow the steps from a to b. In this
case the remaining value of SIDPP would be zero. Bring pump to kill speed keeping casing
pressure constant & keep new drill pipe pressure constant till kill mud reaches the surface.

This is the problem of choke plugging. The following procedure must be followed
Remaining value of SIDPP = 450 – 450  (500/900)= 200psi
e) Once the kill mud is at bit, keep the drill pipe pressure constant for remaining part of
circulation.
pressure constant then keep drill pipe pressure constant till kill mud reaches the surface.

Drop in the drill pipe pressure is gradual. This is the problem of choke Washout. The following
If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is less,
pump and bring the pressure to calculated value.
circulation.
4.6.4 Pump Failure

Drop in the drill pipe pressure is sudden. This is the problem of Pump Failure. The following
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circulation.
4.7 WELL KILLING BY WAIT & WEIGHT METHOD
Well Depth : 5579 ft SIDPP : 450 psi KRP @ 30 SPM : 250 psi
Drill Pipe Strokes : 900 SICP : 600 psi Mud Weight : 10.4 ppg
Strokes Pressure
0 700
ICP = 700 psi 100 655
KMW = 11.95 ppg 200 610
FCP = 287 psi 300 565
Pressure drop = (700-287)100 900 = 45 psi 400 520
per 100 stroke 500 475
600 430
700 385
800 340
900 287

a. Keeping Casing Pressure constant stop pump & close choke.
b. Calculate the remaining value of SIDPP and set it at calculated value.
Remaining value of SIDPP = 450 – 450  (350/900)= 275 psi
c. Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed. Note down the drill
pipe pressure at this stage. Let us assume the pressure is 1,000 psi.
d. Draw new Pressure schedule as per following:
Drill pipe pressure at 350 strokes (As per original schedule) = 545 psi
Increase in pressure losses = 1,000-545 = 455 psi
To draw new pressure schedule this increase in pressure losses should be added to all the
values of drill pipe pressure in the earlier schedule.
e) Follow the new pressure schedule.
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Strokes Old Pressure New Pressure

0 700
100 655
200 610
300 565
350 545 1,000
400 520 520+455 = 975
500 475 475+455 = 930
600 430 430+455 = 885
700 385 385+455 = 840
800 340 340+455 = 795
900 287 287+455 = 742
pressure constant then keep drill pipe pressure (New FCP) constant till kill mud reaches the
surface.

This is the problem of choke plugging. The following procedure must be followed
d) Follow original Pressure schedule.
pressure constant then keep drill pipe pressure (Original FCP) constant till kill mud reaches the
surface.

Drop in the drill pipe pressure is gradual. This is the problem of choke Washout. The following
a. Stop pump immediately , close HCR. Line up alternate choke and open HCR.
b. Calculate the remaining value of SIDPP and set it at calculated value.
c. Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed.
d. Follow original Pressure schedule.
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surface.
4.7.4 Pump Failure

Drop in the drill pipe pressure is sudden. This is the problem of pump failure. The following
c) Remaining value of SIDPP = 450 – 450  (700/900)= 100psi
d) If the drill pipe pressure is more , bleed the excess pressure through choke. If it is
e) Keeping Casing Pressure constant bring pump to kill speed.
f) If KRP of second pump is different draw new pressure schedule otherwise follow
original Pressure schedule.
surface. If KRP of second pump is different follow the new FCP accordingly.
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CHAPTER- 5 BLOW OUT PREVENTION EQUIPMENT

SURFACE / SUB SEA
BLOWOUT PREVENTION EQUIPMENT

Blowout prevention equipment is composed of various components required to operate the
blowout preventers under varying rig and well conditions. The system consists of blowout
preventers, kill line, choke manifold, BOP control unit, diverter, marine riser and auxiliary
equipment. The primary function of this system is to confine well fluid to the well bore,
provide means to add fluid to the well bore, allow controlled volumes to be withdrawn, means
to hang off string, shearing of pipe if necessary, disconnection of risers from sub sea well head
and re-entry of temporary abandoned well. The underwater blowout prevention equipment is
designed to have 100% redundancy in equipment in the event of any one function failing.
5.1 BLOWOUT PREVENTERS

When primary well control has been lost, it becomes necessary to seal the well to prevent an
uncontrolled flow of formation fluid. The equipment consist of inside blowout preventers also
known as drill pipe blowout preventers,drill pipe safety valve designed to stop the flow through
drill pipe and annular preventer or ram type preventer designed to stop flow from the annulus.
5.2 ANNULAR PREVENTER

The first preventer normally closed when shut-in procedure is initiated is the annular preventer.
The four basic segments of annular preventer are the head, body, piston and steel ribbed
packing element. When the preventer’s closing mechanism is actuated, hydraulic pressure is
applied to the piston, causing it to move upward. This forces the packing element towards the
well bore and it closes around the object in the well bore. The preventer element is opened by
applying hydraulic pressure to the piston in opposite direction which slides the piston
downward, and allows the packing element to return to its original position.
Annular preventer can be closed on drill pipe, drill collar, casing pipes, square & hexagonal
Kelly, tapered pipe, tool joint, logging tool, wire line and on an open hole in case of any
emergency. When annular preventer is closed on open hole, the rubber packing element is
subjected to high stress and the overall life of the element is reduced. Therefore, the annular
preventer should be closed on open hole only if there is an emergency & the condition of the
packing element is good. However the operating pressure required to close in open hole will be
more than normal operating pressure.
115
C
CL
lO
oS
sI
iN
nG
g
P
pR
rE
eS
sS
U
s
R
u
E
r
e
Figure5.1 OPERATING PRESSURE GRAPH OF 13-5/8'', 5,000 PSI HYDRIL ANNULAR PREVENTER
Figure5.2 OPERATING PRESSURE GRAPH OF 13-5/8'', 5000 PSI SHAFFER ANNULAR PREVENTER
Under certain conditions, hydraulic pressure has to be reduced so as to minimize any wear to
rubber of the packing element and to avoid any possible damage to large diameter tubular.
Manufacturers recommended closing pressures that depend on shut-in casing pressure, for
stripping operations should be followed. A special design feature of annular preventer is that it
allows stripping operation to be carried out while maintaining seal as pipe/tool joint passes
through it. When sub-sea stripping is done, surge bottle(s) have to be used for faster closure of
annular preventer’s element after tool joint passes.
116
Piston Indicator Hole
Wear Plate
Element Segment
Packing Element
Latched Head
Opening Chamber
Piston
Closing Chamber
Piston Seals
Figure 5.3 HYDRIL GK ANNULAR PREVENTER
Figure 5.4 CLOSING SEQUENCE OF ANNULAR PREVENTER
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Quick Release
Top
Donut
Packer
Access Flaps
Outer cylinder
Locking Groove Lock down
Packer Insert Vent
Operating
Piston
Pusher Plate
Closing Port
Opening Port
Vent
Figure 5.5 CAMERON ‘D’ TYPE ANNULAR PREVENTER
Head
Packing Element
Adapter Ring
Opening Chamber
Piston
Closing Chamber
Figure 5.6 SHAFFER SPHERICAL ANNULAR PREVENTER
118
119
In sub sea operations, annular preventer requires different operating pressures due to
hydrostatic head of drilling fluid in riser, which tries to force open the annular preventer when
it is in closed position.
M/s Hydril is manufacturing different models of annular preventers for surface and sub sea
services. MSP model is low pressure annular normally used as diverter, GK models are used on
surface BOP, GL model is used on sub sea BOP and GX models are of higher rated working
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pressure used in both surface & sub sea BOP. The only difference in the GL & other models is
that it has secondary chamber in addition to opening and closing chambers. This secondary
chamber can be connected to closing line or to the riser pipe with a separator in between when
used in sub sea to compensate for riser mud hydrostatic head. If GL model is to be used on
surface than secondary chamber should be connected to opening chamber so as to minimise
packing element’s wear.
5.3 VISUAL INSPECTION PROCEDURE OF ANNULAR PREVENTER
The control hoses from the BOP control unit should be isolated before starting visual
inspection.
5.3.1 Packing Element

Packing element consists of a rounded elastomer, reinforced with steel segments that control
rubber flow and extrusion. When closing pressure is transmitted to packer, it displaces and de-
forms the rubber radially inwards. This forms a seal around the object in the BOP bore,
providing an effective barrier from well bore pressure. The packing element rubber material
should be suited for the mud system in use and weather conditions like temperature.
Recommended Packing Element :
Type of Mud Temperature Range Elastomer

0 0
Water Base -30 F to 225 F Natural Rubber
Oil Base 200 F to 190 0 F Nitrile Rubber
Oil Base -300 F to 170 0 F Neoprene Rubber
Following checks and precautions for packing elements are suggested:
a) Cracked rubber surfaces and excessive wear like a section of rubber missing or worn
away.
b) Ensure none of the steel segments are cracked protruding or missing.
c) Check the packing element is relaxing to its full opening diameter since due to age factor
hardness of rubber increases and it hinders the flow of rubber.
d) Inspection of slots between the packing element steel segments and void area above
the packing element is necessary in certain models. These are common locations where
cement and other solids become lodged, which can hamper or even prevent the packer
from closing fully. Flushing with the jetting tool or high pressure gun cures the problem.
e) Check for blistering or swelling which can be attributed to previous exposures to carbon-
dioxide or oil based mud environments.
f) Packing element should be stored in a cool, dry and dark place. This helps in maintaining
rubber integrity as heat, atmosphere & light can accelerate deterioration.
g) Some annular preventers are equipped with piston indicator hole as shown in figure
5.12 that permits the measurement of piston travel. Once the packing element is closed,
the remaining piston stroke is used to indicate the remaining life of the packing element.
Subsequent measurements help in establishing a wear trend.
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h) In emergency situations, packing element can be replaced with the string inside the well
bore as shown in figure 5.13, this involves splitting of the packer, cutting one side of the
element between two of the steel segments using a sharp knife. A hacksaw is not to be
used to cut because it removes the part of rubber, possibly affecting the performance.
As the packing elements are manufactured with the rubber in compression, placing the
rubber surface in tension by spreading the steel segments with a bar will help to make
an easier cut. Once the packing is split it can be stretched apart and slipped around the
pipe. Instances have been recorded where split packers have prevented entry of
bits/tools from BOP on subsequent trips, to avoid this the cut packing element should
be replaced with unsplit packing element as soon as possible.
5.3.2 Bore
a) The bore of the annular should be inspected for key seating and gauging. Key seating occurs
where rotating or stripping pipe wears away at the bore in a localised area. This is easily
recognised at the top of the bore, where the varying wall thickness of remaining steel can be
observed by using the stainless steel ring groove as a reference. If wear has increased the
bore diameter by more than 3/16 of an inch, it should be repaired as per the manufacturer
recommendations.
b) Metal burrs and rolled edges resulting from key seating or gauging can be carefully removed
using an emery cloth or fine file.
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5.3.3 Ring Grooves

a) Ring grooves on a flanged connection gives metal to metal seal when bolted together with
compatible ring gasket between them. The primary sealing area is the outer surface of the
ring groove. Minor blemishing and light rust here can be removed by polishing with a very
fine emery cloth of 300+ grit. A more abrasive cloth can scar the groove, causing the flange
connection to leak.
b) Outer diameter having pitting, scratches and cracks requiring the ring groove to be welded,
machined and stress relieved.
c) Ring groove inspection should not be limited to the bottom flange only. The top ring
groove should also be inspected as this has to provide an effective seal, as & when
situations arise e.g. when additional BOPs, snubbing unit, lubricator etc are installed on the
top of annular preventer which require pressure integrity.
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5.3.4 Bolt Holes

The bolt holes surrounding the upper ring groove must be free of debris and allow studs to
be fully screwed in. Damaged threads of bolt holes may prevent proper equipment make up to
the top of the annular preventer, leading to a faulty seal between the connections. To
maintain the integrity of the bolt holes and the ring groove, all bolts should be used when
installing a bell nipple.
5.3.5 Hydraulic Control Line Connections

a) Inspect condition of threads, ensure there are no galled threads that could result in a line
disconnect or leak under pressure.
b) Length of connecting nipple should be as short as possible so as to protect it from falling
objects
5.3.6 Wear Sleeve

Some annular preventers have a wear sleeve installed to protect the piston. Ensure this is firmly
attached to the annular body and inspect the drainage slot for mud and cement. Debris trapped
in the slot can scar the piston and restrict piston movement.
5.3.7 Wear Plate

When the element moves it will try to wear the head of the annular, to avoid the wear of head
some manufacturers provide a wear plate which can be easily replaced in the field if worn out.
5.4 HYDRAULIC OPERATOR TEST
The hydraulic operator test determines the integrity of hydraulic chamber and associated seals.
This test identifies the leaks that go undetected during routine well site BOP pressure tests. To
ensure that any leak that is identified is in the annular preventer and not in the control unit, a
hot line assembly should be used to isolate the pressure between annular preventer and the
control unit. The procedure is as follows:
a) Close the annular preventer on the pipe size to be used, with 1500 psi closing pressure.
b) Allow the element to stabilise. Due to large amount of rubber in the element it will take
couple of minutes for element to creep in.
c) Close the isolation valve on the hot line assembly and monitor the pressure.
d) Carefully remove the opening line and monitor the fluid draining out. Ensure the fluid is not
contaminated by mud & and is free from sand and other abrasives.
e) If there is no pressure drop in 10 minutes, the seals are holding.
f) If there is any pressure drop then there are two possible leak paths.
i) Closing chamber to opening chamber.
ii) Closing chamber to the well bore.
g) If fluid is continuously flowing out of the opening chamber, then the seal between the
closing chamber and opening chamber needs replacement.
h) If fluid stops flowing out of opening chamber, then the leak is into the well bore and seal
between piston and well bore needs replacement.
i) To test the opening chamber side, remove the hot line connection from the close side and
connect it to the open side and open the annular with 1500 psi pressure. Close the isolation
valve of hot line and monitor the pressure.
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j) Monitor the fluid draining out of the closing chamber and inspect the hydraulic fluid.
k) If the pressure remains constant for 10 minutes, seals are holding & test complete.
l) If there is any pressure drop then there are two possible leak paths.
i) Opening chamber to the closing chamber.
ii) Opening chamber to the well bore.
m) If the fluid is continuously flowing out of the closing chamber then the seal between the
opening chamber and closing chamber needs replacement.
n) If the fluid stops flowing out of the closing chamber the leak is into the well bore, and the
seal between the opening chamber and well bore needs replacement.
5.5 RAM TYPE PREVENTER

Ram type preventers are designed to seal the annulus by forcing two front packing elements
which make contact with each other and seal around the object in the well bore. The two top
seals seal the annulus area. The packing elements have rubber packing seals that affect the
complete closure. Other than the sealing mechanism, ram type preventers differs greatly from
annular preventers because each type and size of ram has a particular function and cannot be
used for a variety of applications, the exception is the variable bore ram.
For example, ram preventer bodies with a set of 5” pipe ram will seal on 5” pipe only and will
not seal on any other size of pipe, nor will it seal without pipe in the well bore. Ram type
preventers are generally considered to be more reliable in high pressure situations & are easily
serviceable.
Ram preventers are manufactured with self-feeding action for the rubber sealing. As the rubber
wears, the small extrusion plates are forced into the increased area, which allows additional
rubber to extend past the ram face and aid in securing a seal. If the rams are not used properly,
the self-feeding action will cause the rubber seal to extend an excessive distance into the well
bore, which will cause over stressing and rapid deterioration of element. Because of this the
pipe ram should not be closed if there is no pipe in the hole.
Pipe rams are designed to seal the well bore around the fixed size of pipe for which it is
designed. The front packer (ram packer) of pipe rams has a groove in front to seal around the
pipe in the well bore. The front packer is enclosed between two steel plates because of the
following reasons:
 To push extra rubber for sealing around the pipe in case the face of the front packer
wears out.
 To prevent the extruding of rubber from top and bottom due to wellbore and closing
pressure.
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Blind rams are designed to seal the well if there is no pipe in the well bore. The front packers of
blind rams are flat faced and contain a rubber section. When the ram is closed both the flat
faced rubber sections make contact with each other and seal the annulus.
Variable bore rams (VBR) have the capability to seal on several pipe sizes depending on the
range of variable bore ram. For example 3 1/2” - 5” variable bore ram can be closed on any
pipe size from 3 1/2” to 5” i.e. 3 1/2 “, 4”, 4 1/2” and 5” etc. The front packer of VBR have
small steel segments embedded in the rubber and will take the shape of the pipe around which
it is closed.
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Shear blind rams (SBR) are designed to shear the pipe in the well and seal the wellbore
simultaneously. It has steel blades to shear the pipe and seals to seal the annulus after shearing
the pipe. Shearing capability varies with size of pipe & its weight. The shearing force will also
vary with type and size of BOP. When shear blind rams are closed, both upper and lower blade
assembly moves closer and shear the pipe in the wellbore, after shearing the upper blade
moves over the lower blade. The blade packer seals between the blades and top seals seal the
annulus area. Some of the manufacturers use side packer along with the top seals.
Shearing operation should be done on no load condition which can be achieved by hanging the
pipe/ string on the lower pipe ram to avoid any accident. Whenever the pipe is hanged the
rams should be locked properly.
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Dual rams are used when two production tubing strings are lowered for two separate zones.
These type of rams have front packers with two grooves which will seal around both the tubing
strings when ram is closed.
Stripper rams has special PTFE (Poly Tetra Fluro Ethylene) seal in front packer, which enables
the string to be reciprocated when stripper rams are closed and well is under pressure. When
the stripper rams are to be used for both reciprocation as well as rotation than the PTFE seals
with anti rotation edges are used in front packers. These rams are normally used in a snubbing
unit BOP & not in the normal drilling BOP stack.
Slip rams are used to hold the string weight and not to seal the well bore. These types of rams
have a front packer made-up of steel with dies which will hold the pipe body when it is closed
and will not allow the pipe to move up or down. Such rams are used in snubbing units and
sometimes in capping stack in combination with inverted rams.
5.6 DESCRIPTION & VISUAL INSPECTION OF RAM PREVENTER
Ram type preventer consist of two ram blocks that have front packers and top seals, and are
mounted on independently operating piston rods that have a common hydraulic supply.
Closing pressure forces the ram blocks across the BOP bore into one another thereby
providing the seal.
5.6.1 Bore
The bore of the ram preventer should be inspected for key seating and gauging. Key seating
occurs when rotating or tripping pipe wears away at a localized area in the bore. This is easily
recognised at the top of the bore, where varying wall thickness of the remaining steel can be
observed by using the stainless steel ring groove as a reference. If wear increases the bore
diameter by more than 3 /16" of an inch, repair should be done as recommended by BOP
manufacturer. Metal burrs and rolled edges resulting from key seating or gauging can be
carefully removed using an emery cloth or fine file.
5.6.2 Ring Grooves

All ring grooves should be inspected including those on the side outlets. The primary sealing
area of 6B and 6BX flanges is the outer surface of the ring groove, which must be free from pits
and scratches. Minor blemishes and light rust can be removed by polishing the damaged areas
using very fine emery cloth.
It is important to know that an abrasive cloth can scar the groove, thereby resulting into a
leaking connection. Ensure that ring grooves are clean and free of debris prior to installing a
new ring gasket.
5.6.3 Flange Bolts & Nuts

BOP stack vibrations during drilling operations can actually stretch flange bolts. These bolts and
nuts should be inspected using a thread profile and the ones with galled or pulled threads
should be replaced. Ensure that the flange bolts are long enough, so that at least one full
thread extends past the made up nut.
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5.6.4 Bonnet Doors

Ram blocks should be removed after opening the bonnet doors. The bonnet doors, body face
and ram cavities should be washed thoroughly. Rams have an elastomer gasket that seal
between the bonnet door and the BOP body face. The gasket fits in the groove machined into
the bonnet door. The groove should be clean and free of severe scars or pitting.
Two types of gaskets are the most commonly used, one having only an elastomer and another
having an elastomer reinforced with steel. Both types of gaskets seal between the bonnet door
and BOP body. Minor groove pitting or scratches can be repaired using an emery cloth.
Scarring or pitting on the outside of the groove area will not affect the bonnet door seal.
Ensure that there should not be any such damage on the bonnet door which may prevent the
bonnet door from closing completely. Note that the gaskets which are not reinforced with steel
should be replaced each time the bonnet door is opened.
5.6.5 Body Face

This area is often scarred or dented due to ram block contact during ram changes or mis-
aligned bonnet door steel gasket or debris trapped during bonnet door closure. Localised
pitting is very common which should be repaired by polishing with fine emery cloth. A long scar
or pitting across the entire sealing area or any washout due to leakage should be repaired as
per the recommendations of BOP manufacturer. The surface outside the gasket sealing area
should be free of anything that may prevent the bonnet door from closing completely. Raised
surfaces can be removed using a fine long flat file or fine emery cloth.
5.6.6 Ram Cavities

As ram preventers are designed to hold pressure only from below i.e. well bore side, the
effective sealing area where top seal is sealing is top half of the ram cavity.
To ensure the top seal sealing area, inspection of the ram cavity is necessary. In some of the
preventers top seat is provided which can be replaced if worn out or damaged. In preventers
which have in-built top sealing seat area, light rust or pitting should be removed by fine buffing
wheel.
Raised surfaces can damage the ram block top seal and should be removed using fine file or
emery cloth. For major scars or washouts, the ram body is to be sent for repair if it has in-built
top sealing area.
5.6.7 Ram Blocks

Ram blocks mainly have two seals, one is front packer and other is top seal. Both the seals
should be inspected for cracking, blistering, cutting or missing rubber. The pipe ram block also
should be inspected for cracking and damage to centralising ribs. Damaged seals should be
replaced. Shear ram blocks, blades, top seals and blade packers should be inspected for any
damage. Damaged seals and blades should be replaced. Any deformation in ram block should
be taken seriously as sometimes it may prevent the rams from fully opening or requiring
excessive pressure for opening. Such blocks should be repaired or replaced.
5.6.8 Bonnet Bolts

The condition of the bonnet bolts greatly affects the seal between the bonnet door and ram
preventer’s body. Galled or pulled threads hinder proper make up torque. Threads on the
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bolts and the preventer body should be checked with a thread profile gauge. The surface
where the bolt head sets against the bonnet door should be inspected for galling. Galling
indicates that much of the bolt make-up torque is lost at this surface, rather than being
transferred to the threads. Insufficient make up torque may result in leaks between the bonnet
door and body. Minor galling can be repaired using a file or emery cloth. Lubrication of the
bonnet bolts will reduce galling and distribute the proper make up torque throughout the bolt.
The threads and the surface under the bolts head should be coated with recommended
lubricant. Never apply excessive lubricant as it can cause a hydraulic lock within the threaded
bolt hole.
5.6.9 Ram Operating Piston Rod

The operating piston rod should be inspected for scratches or pitting which could result in a
hydraulic fluid leak. Operating piston rod leaks are associated with “primary seal" from the well
bore side (also called as piston rod mud seal) and 'O' ring (bonnet to piston rod seal) from
operating fluid side. A weep hole is located on the bottom half of the bonnet door and in
between both the seals mentioned above, if operating fluid is dripping out of the weep hole, it
indicates the failure of 'O' ring (bonnet to piston rod seal) and if well bore fluid is dripping out
of the weep hole, it indicates the failure of primary seal (piston rod mud seal). The weep hole
also prevents the well bore fluid to go to the operating side & vice versa. The weep hole should
never be plugged and should be checked for any blockage before installing the ram preventer.
5.6.10 Emergency Plastic Packing Seal (Secondary Seal)

Emergency plastic packing provides an emergency seal on piston rod in the event of primary
seal leakage at the time when repair cannot be immediately done.
When well bore fluid is dripping out of the weep hole it indicates that the primary seal is
leaking. If this occurs during a well control operation a plastic packing is forced through a small
check valve which energizes the secondary seals & arrests the leakage from well bore side.
Plastic packing should be soft enough to allow easy insertion. Once the well control operation is
over and well is safe the leaking seals must be changed before resuming further operation. This
is an emergency seal only and should not be energized during pressure testing of BOP. If a leak
occurs during testing, the operating piston rod primary seal should be replaced.
5.6.11 Control Hose Connection

Inspect the condition of the threads used for the hydraulic control hose connections. Ensure
that there are no galled threads that can result in a line disconnection or leak when under
pressure. A minimised length of connecting nipples to closing & opening ports aids in
protecting these lines from falling objects.
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5.6.12 Locking Devices
Locking devices are designed to hold the rams in the closed position when the string is hanged
on the ram, and if accumulator operating pressure is lost or removed. Manual locking system
are commonly used for surface BOP stacks. Depending upon the type, manual locks hold the
rams closed by either screwing the locking screw or unscrewing it. In either case, the threads on
the locking shaft should be in a condition that allows the locks to be easily closed. Since each
manual locking system works independently both sides must be locked.
BOP stack with auto-lock system in ram preventer is also used now days. The preventers
equipped with automatic locking system remain locked in closed position even if the closing
pressure is lost or removed, and hydraulic opening pressure is required to unlock the locking
device.
There are different kinds of locking mechanisms for different makes of ram preventers & are
described below.
5.6.12.1 Cameron Wedge Lock
It is a hydraulically operated lock in which a wedge is energised hydraulically when the rams
are closed. Two hydraulic lines are required to open or close the wedge locks. A wedge lock is
interchangeable with manual locking screws. When opening pressure is applied first the wedge
moves back & unlocks the piston allowing the piston rod to open the rams.
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5.6.12.2 Shaffer Poslock
It has locking segments which lock at the locking shoulder on the cylinder wall. To energise the
locking segments, a locking cone is provided in the main operating piston. When the closing
pressure is applied locking cone moves and the pushes the locking segments out to get locked
at locking shoulder. The locking cone blocks the segments from retracting and keeps the ram in
closed position. When the opening pressure is applied first the locking cone moves back which
in turn allows the locking segments to move radially inwards, unlocking the ram and allowing
the main piston to open the ram. This locking system locks the ram in a unique position. No
special operating pressure or lines are required in this locking system.
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5.6.12.3 Shaffer Ultra-lock
It has locking dogs which locks on the locking rod provided inside the cylinder. To energise the
locking dogs there is locking dog retainer on the back of the main piston. When the closing
pressure is applied the locking dog retainer moves along-with main piston and pushes the
locking dogs out to get locked on locking rod which keeps the ram in closed position. When the
opening pressure is applied first the locking dog retainer moves back which in turn unlock the
locking dogs from the locking rod and allows the main piston to get opened. This feature locks
the rams in closed position regardless of packer wear. No special operating pressure or lines are
required in this locking system. The preventers with poslock can be upgraded to ultralock
system.
Secondary Unlocking
Piston
Locking
Plate
Locking
Locking
Retaining Screw Rod Dog Spring Ultra LockRam Shaft
Locking
LockingDog
Dog Piston
Locking Rod Plate
Retainer
Retainer
Figure 5.21 SHAFFER ULTRALOCK
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5.6.12.4 Koomey Auto lock
It has got locking dogs which move in to the groove when the rams are closed. The groove is at
the end of the liner. When the rams come together the locking piston holds the dogs in-place. It
has a self adjusting feature which locks the rams in closed position regardless of packer wear.
The rams remain locked until opening pressure pushes the piston back. When opening pressure
is applied, first the locking piston moves back allowing the dogs to unlock and then moves the
piston rod to open the rams. No special operating pressure or lines are required in this locking
system.
Piston Liner
Locking Dog
Figure 5.22 KOOMEY AUTO LOCK
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5.6.12.5 Hydril Multiple Position Lock (MPL)

It has a unidirectional clutch mechanism and a lock nut. When the closing pressure is applied
the unidirectional clutch mechanism, which has a lock nut fitted on the threaded tail rod,
permits the piston to move freely in ram closing direction. Once the ram is closed the piston
gets mechanically locked and clutch mechanism & lock nut prevents ram to move in opening
direction. When the opening force is applied, it acts on the cylinder liner which moves the
transfer ring to disengage the rear clutch plate from the front clutch plate and holds them
separated as long as opening pressure is maintained. Continued application of opening pressure
moves the ram to the open position as the lock nut and the front clutch plate rotate freely. This
feature locks the rams in closed position regardless of packer wear. No special operating
pressure or lines are required in this locking system.
Fig: 5.23 HYDRIL MPL
5.7 HYDRAULIC OPERATOR TEST OF RAM PREVENTER
To check the integrity of the seals of the ram preventer a hydraulic test should be done. With
this test, damaged seal of the ram preventer can be found out without opening the ram
preventer. The rams should be closed on the proper pipe size and no pipe should be used for
blind/shear rams.
A hot line assembly is to be used to isolate the ram preventers with the BOP control unit
(accumulator unit) and test the seals. Hot line assembly will have an isolation valve, bleeder
valve, a gauge & hydraulic supply of 3,000 psi from the accumulator unit.
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Isolation valve Pressure gauge
Supply line BOP
Bleeder valve
Figure 5.24 HOTLINE ASSEMBLY

a) Open the chicksen/hose connection from the closing port and connect hot line assembly in
between the closing port and chicksen/hose line.
b) Close the ram with 3000 psi.
c) Close isolation valve on the hot line assembly and monitor the pressure.
d) Carefully open the chicksen/hose connection from the opening port and inspect whether
any fluid is draining out from the opening port or not.
e) If there is no pressure drop in 10 minutes the seals are holding.
f) If pressure drops, there are four possible leak paths
I. From closing chamber to the opening chamber. If continuous flow of operating fluid is
there from the opening port, this indicates the piston seal between closing chamber
and opening chamber is leaking and needs replacement.
II. From the locking mechanism side piston rod (tail rod). If the operating fluid is coming
out between the locking mechanism side piston rod and the bonnet (cylinder head),
this indicates the seal between the cylinder head and locking mechanism is leaking and
needs replacement.
III. In case fluid hinge is leaking, seals on closing chamber side need replacement.
IV. Leakage between the bonnet and the cylinder head indicates that 'O' ring between the
bonnet and cylinder head is leaking and needs replacement.
g) Put the by-pass valve in neutral (Block) position & remove the hot line assembly from the
closing port & connect it to the opening port, connect back the closing line.
h) Put the by-pass valve in the high pressure mode and open the ram with 3000 psi.
i) Close isolation valve on hot line assembly and monitor the pressure.
j) Carefully remove the closing line & inspect the closing port for fluid draining out of it.
k) If the pressure remains constant for 10 min. the seals are in good condition and the test is
completed.
l) If the pressure drops there are three possible leak paths:-
I. From opening chamber to the closing chamber. If continuous fluid is draining out of
the closing chamber port, this indicates the piston seal between the opening
chamber and closing chamber or the linear seals (if applicable) is leaking and needs
replacement.
II. Operating fluid dripping out of weep hole indicates the seals between the operating
piston rod and the bonnet is leaking and needs replacement.
III. Leakage around the hinge (if applicable). The seals on the opening chamber side path
is leaking and need replacement.
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5.8 CHANGING OF RAMS BLOCK SEALS
Ram block seals are changed when they are not holding pressure or sometimes prior to specific
operations like casing lowering etc. Steps to change ram block seals are as below:
a) Open bonnet bolts and check that all are loose.
b) Open the bonnet by swinging it to one side on hinge or applying closing pressure to the
ram, depending on the type of BOP in use.
c) Screw the ram lifting eye bolt on top of ram block, position the ram block and take out the
block either picking it straight up or sliding it.
d) Place the block on floor/work bench. Remove lifting eye.
e) Take out the top seal with the help of screw driver and a small hammer and than remove
front packer.
Note: i) Front packer will not come out first because it is locked by the pin of top seal.
ii) Some of the ram blocks are in two pieces. One is holder and other is seal block, both
are kept together with the help of two screws. To remove the seals, first screws are
opened and holder is removed and then seals are taken out with the help of screw
driver and a light hammer.
f) After cleaning it properly and checking the centralizer ribs for any damage first install front
packer and then the top seal. Now the ram block is ready for installation.
g) Lift the ram block and install it.
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h) After checking the bonnet door seal and threads of bonnet bolts close bonnet and tighten
the bonnet bolts.
5.9 CASING PIPE RAM INSTALLATION
Before lowering casing in a well it is recommended to install suitable casing rams in the
preventer so as to meet any eventuality either during casing running in or during waiting on
cement.
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Item Item
No. Description No. Description
1. Body 23. Pin, Ram Guide
2. Intermediate Flange 24. O – Ring, Operating Cylinder
3. Bonnet 25. O – Ring, Operating Piston Rod to

Intermediate Flange.
4. Ram Assembly 26. Lip Seal, Operating Piston
5. Piston, Operating 27. Seal Ring, Tail Rod
6. Cylinder, Operating 28. O – Ring, Wiping
7. Housing, Locking Screw 29. O – Ring, Ram Change Piston to Body
8. Locking Screw 30. O – Ring, Ram Change Piston to

Intermediate Flange
9. Ram Change Piston, Òpen’ 31. O–Ring, Ram Change Cylinder to
Intermediate Flange
10. Ram Change Piston, `Close’ 32. O – Ring, Ram Change Cylinder to
Bonnet
11. Cylinder, Ram Change 33. O- Ring, Ram change Piston
12. Bolt, Bonnet 34. O – Ring, Bonnet Bolt Retainer
13. Stud, Locking Screw Housing 35. Cap Screw, Intermediate Flange to
Bonnet
14. Nut, Locking Screw Housing 36. Gland, Bleeder
15. Check Valve, Plastic Packing 37. Plug, Bleeder
16. Screw, Plastic Packing 38. Lifting Eye
17. Pipe Plug, Plastic Packing 39. Packing, Plastic
18. Ring, Plastic Packing 40. Washer
19. Ring, Plastic Energizing 41. Ring, Retainer
20. Seal Ring, Connecting Rod 42. Wear Ring, Operating Piston
21. Ring, Back – Up 43. Spacer, Shear
22. Seal, Bonnet
PART LIST OF CAMERON RAM PREVENTER
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5.10 DESCRIPTION AND INSPECTION PROCEDURE OF BOP CONTROL UNIT IN FIELD
BOP control unit consists of accumulator bottles, a reservoir tank, charging system to pump
hydraulic fluid into accumulator bottles, pressure regulating valves, an operating manifold,
pressure relief valve, pneumatic pressure transmitters and air junction boxes. The purpose of
BOP control unit is to provide pressurised hydraulic fluid that will promptly operate the
blowout preventers.
Inspection Prior to Pressurising The BOP Control Unit
5.10.1 Accumulator Bottles

Accumulator bottles store pressurised hydraulic fluid to facilitate operation of a BOP in the
event of power failure and also to reduce the closing time of a BOP. The bottles are mounted in
multiple banks (rows) and vary in number, depending on the hydraulic fluid volume required to
operate the preventers and HCR valves of the BOP stack. Each bank should have an isolation
valve and a bleeder valve.
To isolate one of the banks, the bank isolation valve can be closed and servicing of accumulator
bottles can be taken up by opening bleeder valve provided on each bank & discharging the
fluid. Some of the units are provided with the individual isolation valve which should be kept
in open position.
Bank isolation valves and individual isolation valves should be in open position and bleeder
valves should be in closed position when unit is in operational mode.
Accumulator bottles are either float or bladder type. A float or bladder separates pre-charged
nitrogen from the pressurised hydraulic fluid. Each accumulator bottle should be checked for
pre-charge pressure of nitrogen before putting the bottles in operation. If bottles are in use, to
check the pre-charge pressure make sure that the hydraulic fluid of accumulator bottle has
been drained off.
On top of each accumulator bottle a Schrader valve is located to check the pre-charge and to
charge or discharge the nitrogen pre-charge pressure. Note that the subsequent tests will
indicate if there is any communications between the nitrogen and the hydraulic fluid. In a
3000 psi system the pre-charge nitrogen pressure should be 1000 psi as per API but practically
it can be 1000 + 100 psi. There is one accumulator isolation valve in discharge line of pump
which isolates the accumulator bottles, relief valve & electrical pump. In case more pressure is
required for shearing operation the accumulator bottles should be isolated and air pumps
should be used directly for higher pressures.
5.10.2 Reservoir Tank

The capacity of the reservoir tanks should be such that when the system is not pressurised the
level should be about one inch below the inspection port and when the accumulator bottles are
fully charged at 3000 psi, the level of the tank should be about an inch above the suction valves
of the pumps used in the unit. As per API recommendation the tank capacity should be at least
two times the usable fluid. The hydraulic fluid used in the tank should comply with the intended
operating environment (e. g. extreme cold, sub sea BOP system).
141
142
BOP CONTROL UNIT PARTS LIST

1. ACCUMULATORS 16. ELECTRIC MOTOR 28. MANIFOLD BLEEDER
Pre- charged with Nitrogen VALVE
at 1000 psi. 17. HYDRO ELECTRIC PRESS. To bleed off the manifold
SWITCH pressure.
2. ACCUMULATOR BANK Set at 3000 psi cut off & starts
ISOLATION VALVE electrical pump at 2700 psi. 29. ACCUMULATOR
To isolate the Accumulator PRESSURE GAUGE
banks. 18. ELECTRIC STARTER Pressure - 3000 psi.
Should be kept in Auto
3. ACCUMULATOR RELIEF 30. ANNULAR UNIT/ REMOTE
VALVE 19. SUCTION VALVE OF SELECTOR VALVE
Set at 3300 psi. ELECTRIC PUMP Selects mode of annular
regulation from the unit or
4. AIR FILTER 20. SUCTION FILTER OF Driller’s air operated
ELECTRIC PUMP remote control panel.
5. AIR LUBRICATOR Should be cleaned every 30
Use SAE -10 oil. days. 31. AIR REGULATOR,
ANNULAR PILOT
6. AIR PRESSURE GAUGE 21. DISCHARGE CHECK PRESSURE
Rig Air pressure -125 psi. VALVE Regulates air pilot signal
to the annular regulator.
7. HYDRO PNEUMATIC 22. ACCUMULATOR
PRESSURE SWITCH ISOLATION VALVE 32. MANIFOLD PRESSURE
Set at 2900 psi cut off and Used to isolate the GAUGE
starts air pumps at 2500 accumulators and electric
psi. pump when higher 33. ANNULAR REGULATOR
pressures are required Used to regulate ann.
8. AIR BYPASS VALVE on the manifold. operating pressure.
Should be kept close.
23. HIGH PRESSURE FILTER 34. ANNULAR PRESSURE
9. AIR SUPPLY VALVE Should be cleaned every 30 GAUGE
Should be kept open days.
35. ANNULAR PRESSURE
10. SUCTION VALVE FOR 24. MANIFOLD REGULATOR TRANSMITTER
AIR PUMPS Used to regulate manifold
pressure. 36.ACCUMULATOR PRESSURE
11. SUCTION FILTER FOR 25. BY PASS VALVE TRANSMITTER
AIR PUMPS Normally should be kept at
Clean every 30 days. low pressure position. 37. MANIFOLD PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER
12. AIR PUMPS 26. THREE POSITION FOUR- Transmitters converts
WAY VALVE hydraulic pressure into
13. CHECK VALVE Normally should be kept at low air pressure and send
open or closed position. signals to drillers remote
14. ELECTRICAL PUMP panel.
27. MANIFOLD PROTECTOR
15. CHAINGUARD VALVE 38. AIR JUNCTION BOXES
Set at 5500 psi. Check the gasket in use
143
Gas fluid
separation
Bladder
Vessel
Shock
Dampner
Puppet
Spring
Safety
Relief Port
Assembly
Flow Port
Fig 5.28 ACCUMULATOR BOTTLE WITH CHARGING & GAUGIING ASSEMBLY
144
5.10.3 Charging System

The BOP control unit consist of at least one electric pump and two or three air pumps. Its
purpose is to pump hydraulic fluid into the accumulator bottles. Sizing of the pumps depends
on the volume required to be pumped into the accumulator bottles. With the number of pumps
available in the unit, system should be charged within 15 minutes. As per API, with
accumulators are isolated, each pump system should be capable of closing annular preventer ,
opening one HCR and provide the operating pressure level recommended by the annular BOP
manufacturer to effect a seal within 2 minutes. Before commencing visual inspection, ensure
power to the electric pump and air supply to the air pump is turned off.
5.10.4 Electric Pumps

The guard which covers the chain or belt & connects the motor to the pump, sometimes
vibrates & becomes loose and should be secured. Routine maintenance includes checking of oil
level in pump & crank case, chain guard and cleaning of filters. A hydro-electric pressure switch
is connected to the electric pump which starts the pump automatically when pressure drops
below 90% of unit rated working pressure & stops the pump when the rated working pressure
is reached. The cut-off limit of the pump can be increased or decreased by adjusting the screw
provided in the pressure switch. In normal operation the starter switch should be in Auto
mode.
5.10.5 Air Pumps

Check the condition of the air filter and lubricant. Ensure that the lubricator contains sufficient
amount of oil. Inspect the condition of the air line running into the pumps, and ensure that the
high pressure discharge lines are secured to the control unit. Suction filter should be cleaned
periodically. This provides an opportunity to assess the condition of hydraulic fluid by exposing
the type of contaminant present. A hydro-pneumatic pressure switch is connected in the air
line to automatically shutoff the air pump when desired accumulator pressure is reached. The
cut-off limit of the air pump can be increased or decreased by adjusting the spring compression
by tightening or loosening the adjusting nut provided in the pressure switch.
5.10.6 Pressure Regulating Valve (Regulators)

The BOP control unit consists of two regulators; one is manifold regulator which regulates the
accumulator pressure from zero to 1500 psi and in some of the unit from zero to 3000 psi. The
down stream of the manifold regulator is connected to a bypass valve and from there to a
operating manifold. Manifold pressure operates all the functions except annular preventer in
BOP stack. Another regulator is for annular preventer which regulates accumulator pressure to
operating pressure of the annular preventer from zero to 3000 psi.
There are two types of annular regulators, manual regulator with air motor and air operated
regulator. The annular regulator should be operative from rig floor remote panel. In case of
stripping operation or when there is leakage in the annular preventer the regulated pressure
can be decreased or increased from the remote panel at rig floor. The units equipped with air
operated regulators have a unit/remote switch. When unit is selected , annular operating
pressure can only be regulated from the unit & when remote is selected the annular operating
pressure can be regulated from the remote panel and also from unit. However annular
preventer can be operated from either unit or remote irrespective of the selection.
145
Maximum pressure limit for the manifold regulator is 1500 psi to operate any ram preventer
except shear ram. The manifold pressure should not be less than the calculated value on the
basis of expected surface pressure and closing ratio of the ram preventer and in any case it
should not be less than 1200 psi when BOP is in operational mode.
146
5.10.7 Operating Manifold

The operating manifold consists of several 3-position 4-way manipulator or selector valves,
three pressure gauges (for manifold, accumulator and annular pressure), and a bypass valve
which has low/ high pressure selection. When low pressure is selected the manifold gets
regulated supply and when high pressure is selected the manifold gets full accumulator supply
i.e. 3000 psi.
All the 3-position 4-way manipulator or selector valves should be attached with labels,
indicating their respective functions. In addition, the blind ram or blind-shear ram valves
should be guarded by a protective device such as glass cover or fork hinge that has to be lifted
or moved before the blind or blind-shear ram valve is to be operated. The intent of this is to
discourage accidental use of the blind-shear rams. All the manipulator or selector valves should
be kept in neutral position when the unit is not charged & should be kept in either open or
closed position after charging the unit.
5.10.8 Pressure Relief Valve

The purpose of the pressure relief valves is to prevent overcharging of the accumulator bottles.
These valves are spring loaded type & vent hydraulic fluid back to the reservoir tank in the
event of pump pressure switch failing to stop the pump. Continuous flow from bleed line to the
reservoir tank indicates that the valve needs servicing or replacement.
5.10.9 Pneumatic Pressure Transmitters/Transducers

The BOP control unit consists of three pneumatic pressure transmitters, one each for annular,
accumulator and manifold. The transmitter converts hydraulic pressure into air pressure and
sends the regulated air to the corresponding air receiver gauges which are calibrated and
located on the air operated remote control panel. The air output is 3-15 psi & it should be
ensured that the air input to the transmitter should not be more than 18 psi, if this pressure is
more than 18 psi it will rupture the diaphragm of the transmitter.
147
148
Item Item
No. Description No. Description
1. Air Connection 24. Manifold Protector Valve
2. Air Lubricator 25. Bleeder Valve
3. Air by Pass Valve 26. Unit / Remote Switch
4. Hydro Pneumatic Pressure Switch 27. Annular Regulator
5. Air Pump Isolation Valve 28. Accumulator Pressure Gauge
6. Air Pump 29. Manifold Pressure Gauge
7. Air Pump Suction Valve 30. Annular Pressure Gauge
8. Suction Strainer for Air Pump 31. Pneumatic Transmitter for
Accumulator
9. Check Valve 32. Pneumatic Transmitter for
Manifold
10. Electric Pump 33. Pneumatic Transmitter for
Annular
11. Hydro-electric Pressure Switch 34. Air Filter
12. Starter for Electric Pump 35. Housing for Unit /Remote Switch
13. Suction Valve for Electrical Pump 36. Air Regulator
14. Strainer for Electrical Pump 37. Air Junction Box
15. Check Valve for Electrical Pump 38. Level Indicator of Reservoir
16. Accumulator Isolation Valve 39. Fill Up Cap
17. Accumulator Bottles 40. Four Way Valve for External
Supply
18. Accumulator Relief Valve 41. Check Valve
19. Discharge Filter 42. Relief Valve for Outside Supply
20. Manifold Regulator 43. External Supply Line
21. Manifold 44. External Supply Line
22. Three Position Four Way Valve 45 1’’ Port
23. Manifold By Pass Valve 46. Inspection Port
PART LIST OF BOP CONTROL UNIT WITH UNIT/ REMOTE SWITCH
149
BOP OPERATING FLUID PATH
Accumulators
Annular
Regulator
Isolation
Valve Low High
Bypass Valve
Manifold Regulator Pressure Gauges
MANIFOLD
open close
Rams HCR Annular

Four-way Valves
Tail Rod Ram Assembly
Piston Ram Shaft
Figure 5.31 BYPASS VALVE IN LOW POSITION
150
BOP OPERATING FLUID PATH
Accumulators
Annular
Regulator
Isolation
Valve Low High
Bypass Valve
MANIFOLD
open close
Rams HCR Annular

Four-way Valves
Tail Rod Ram Assembly
Piston Ram Shaft
Figure 5.32 BYPASS VALVE IN HIGH POSITION
151
Accumulators
Annular
Regulator
Isolation
Valve Low High
Bypass Valve
Activating Switches
MANIFOLD
o c open close
Rams HCR Annular
Accumulator Air line

Manifold
2 3
Driller’s
Air Remote Panel
Air Annular
1 Annular 4
O C
Inc. Dec
Pipe Ram
O C
Valve 
O C
Electrical signals Master
O C
Figure 5.33 RAM BOP OPERATION FROM THE

REMOTE PANEL
152
5.10.10 Air Junction Boxes

The unit consists of two air junction boxes which are used for connecting the air cable from the
air operated remote control panels at rig floor and near Tool pusher / DIC office i. e. auxiliary
panel. The junction boxes should be checked for any air leakage and also for the condition of
the connected air hoses. There should be distinguishing marks on each air line to ensure that
the lines are connected to the corresponding valve's function.
5.10.11 Control Lines

The control lines are the high pressure lines that carry hydraulic fluid from the accumulator to
the BOP. As accumulator is required to deliver considerable fluid volume over a short time
frame, it is vital that the control lines be free of any damage like reduction in the flow area
that may slow down the fluid delivery. The control lines can be steel pipes or high pressure
flexible heat resistant rubber hoses. The control lines should be inspected for any leakage and
the leaking lines should be repaired or replaced. These lines should be protected from falling
objects and vehicles. While installation make sure that the lines are installed to the proper BOP
components.
5.11 INSPECTION OF BOP CONTROL UNIT
To check the integrity of the seals and seal seats in 3-position 4--way valves, pressure
regulators, check valves and to check the pressure control lines for any leakage, unit is to be
pressurised to its working pressure.
5.11.1 Monitor the accumulator pressure gauge, if there is no pressure drop the high pressure
system up to the manifold and annular regulator is in good condition. If the pressure drops,
there are several possibilities of leaks as described below.
a. Leakage in the high pressure discharge line connections.
Any leakage found in the line should be rectified, caution should be taken while doing
any repair / maintenance job on the high pressure line. Make sure that line should not
have any pressure at the time of repair.
b. Leaking in accumulator bank bleeder valve
Open the inspection ports and watch the return line from bleeder valve, if fluid is
draining out from the line it indicates that the valve is leaking & needs repair or
replacement.
c. Leakage in the pump's check valve.
d. Leakage in the pressure regulators.
If fluid is dripping out of the drain line of the pressure regulators this indicates that the
seat of the regulator is worn out and it needs servicing.
e. Leakage from the pressure relief valve.
This is also called safety valve, if the fluid is dripping out of the vent line of safety valve,
this indicates that either the spring of the valve is broken or seats are worn out; needs
replacement.
f. Leakage from by-pass valve.
The fluid dripping out of the drain line or the pressure building up in manifold indicates
that the seat of the rotor or shear seals are worn out, valve needs servicing.
153
5.11.2 Put the bypass valve in the high pressure mode and monitor the manifold pressure
gauge. If there is no pressure drop it indicates that there is no leakage in the manifold
connections and different valves connected to it. If pressure drops there are several leak points
as described below.
a. Leakage in the manifold connections.
Any leakage found should be repaired when lines are not under pressure.
b. Leaking in manifold bleeder valve.
The fluid dripping out of drain line of the valve indicates that valve is leaking and
needs servicing or replacement.
c. Leakage through the 3-position 4--way manipulator or selector valve.
The fluid dripping out of the drain line of the valve indicates that there is leakage in
the valve and valve needs servicing.
d. Leakage in the manifold protector relief valve (if applicable).
This valve is set at 5500 psi. If the fluid is dripping out in the tank from its vent
line, this indicates that either the spring of the valve is broken or seats are worn out
& valve needs repair or replacement.
5.11.3 Operate each 3-position 4-way manipulator or selector valve to open & close side one
by one and check the control lines for any leakage, if any leakage is found it should be repaired
when line is not under pressure. Care should be taken when closing blind or shear blind ram
that there should not be any pipe in the BOP. Never close pipe ram when there is no pipe in
the BOP.
5.11.4 If leakage is not found in the control line and accumulator pressure is dropping there can
be two possibilities.
i) BOP seals leaking.

This is already discussed in ram preventer hydraulic operator test.
ii) 3-position 4--way valve leaking.
The fluid dripping out of the drain line of the valve indicates leakage in the valve and
it needs servicing.
5.11.5 Put the bypass valve in low pressure position . Keep all the 4--way valves of ram
prevents in open position and HCR in close position.
5.11.6 Regulate the annular regulator to 1500 psi, operate the 4-way valve to open and close
side and check the control line for leakage.
Note : While closing annular, make sure that there is pipe in the BOP stack. Any leakage found
in the control line should be repaired when lines are not under pressure. After testing
keep the 4--way valve in open position.
154
5.12 MANIPULATOR AND SELECTOR VALVES
All these valves are 3-position 4-way valves. When a manipulator or selector valve is kept in
open position, the pressure port gets connected to open port and drain port gets connected to
close port. When these valves are kept in close position the pressure port gets connected to
close port, and drain port gets connected to open port. When a manipulator valve is kept in
Block(neutral) position the open and close ports get connected to drain. When a selector valve
is kept in Block(neutral) position all the ports except drain get isolated.
Pressure port
Open Close
CYL1 (Close port) CYL 2 ( Open port)
Drain port
Figure 5.34 MANIPULATOR / SELECTOR VALVE IN OPEN POSITION
When in block position open and close When in block position all the
ports will be connected to drain ports except drain will be isolated
Figure 5.35 MANIPULATOR VALVE Figure 5.36 SELECTOR VALVE
155
5.13 BYPASS VALVE

When a Bypass valve is kept in low pressure position the pressure port gets connected to
regulated supply port whereas drain port & accumulator supply port gets blocked. When this
valve is kept in high pressure position then the pressure port gets connected to accumulator
supply port, and drain port & regulated supply port gets blocked. When Bypass valve is kept in
block (neutral) position all the four ports get isolated.
Connected to Manifold
Pressure port
Low High
Regulated Accumulator
Supply port Supply port
Drain port
Figure 5.37 BYPASS VALVE IN LOW PRESSURE POSITION
Pressure port
Low High
Regulated Accumulator
Supply port Supply port
Drain port
Figure 5.38 BYPASS VALVE IN HIGH PRESSURE POSITION
156
5.14 ACCUMULATOR CAPACITY CALCULATIONS
5.14.1 Usable Fluid

The usable fluid is defined as the recoverable fluid from accumulator bottles between
accumulator operating pressure and 1200 psi or 200 psi above pre-charge pressure or based on
C/R of RAM whichever is maximum. The operating pressure is the rated working pressure of
accumulator bottles of BOP control unit.
Example:
A bladder type accumulator bottle of 11 gallons capacity was pre-charged with nitrogen at a
pressure of 1,000 psi. The hydraulic fluid is pumped to it's rated working pressure of 3,000 psi.
The hydraulic fluid of bottle was used to operate the BOP function. The pressure of the bottle
has dropped to 1,200 psi. The volume of bladder and puppet assembly in the accumulator
bottle is one gallon. Calculate how much fluid has been used to operate the BOP functions.
Solution:
Actual capacity of accumulator = 11 - 1 = 10 gallons.
Pre charge Pressure of Nitrogen (P1) = 1,000 psi
Volume occupied by Nitrogen (V1) = 10 gallons.
Pressure of Nitrogen when fully charged (P2) = 3,000 psi
Volume of the Nitrogen at 3000 psi (V2) can be worked as follows :
P1V1 1,000  10
V2 = -------- = --------------- = 3. 33 gal
P2 3,000
Pressure of Nitrogen after BOP function is operated (P3) = 1,200 psi
Volume of Nitrogen at 1200 psi (V3) can be calculated as follows :
P1V1 1,000  10
V3 = --------------- = ----------------- = 8. 33 gal
P3 1200
Volume of fluid used to operate BOP function will be equal to the amount of fluid
pushed out of the accumulator bottle by expansion of nitrogen gas from 3000 psi to
1200 psi.
Usable fluid = (Volume of Nitrogen at 1,200 psi -Volume of Nitrogen at 3,000 psi)
= V3 - V2
= 8. 33 - 3. 33 = 5 gallons
157
5.15 SIZING OF ACCUMULATOR
5.15.1 Surface BOP Control Unit
The accumulator bottles in the surface BOP control unit should be designed to have usable fluid
equal to the volume required to close all the blow out preventers(only one annular) and to
open one HCR valve in BOP stack. Accumulator bottles also should maintain a minimum
operating pressure based on Closing pressure for ram, annular BOP & HCR, which ever
pressure is maximum, when all the above functions are operated with pumps off (Both
pneumatic and electric).
Accumulator Drawdown Test
The purpose of the drawdown test is to verify that the accumulator system is able to support
the fluid volume and pressure requirements of the BOPs in use, to be capable of securing the
well in the event of total loss of power. This test shall be performed after the initial nipple-up of
the BOPs, after any repairs that required isolation/partial isolation of the system, or every 6
months from previous test.
Procedure:
a) Position a properly sized joint of drill pipe or a test mandrel in the BOPs.
b) Turn off the power supply to all accumulator charging pumps (air, electric, etc.).
c) Record the initial accumulator pressure. Manifold and annular regulators shall be set at the
Manufacturer’s recommended operating pressure for the BOP stack.
d) Individually close a maximum of four pipe rams with the smallest operating volumes (except
blind or Blind shear ram BOPs) and record the closing times. To simulate closure of the blind
or blind shear rams, open one set of the pipe rams. Closing times shall meet the response
times in 6.3.8.
NOTE: Volumes associated with substituting a pipe ram for a BSR may be different, but closing
the same ram combination confirms consistent operation.
e) Open the hydraulic operated valve(s) and record the time.
f) Close the (largest volume) annular BOP and record the closing time.
g) Record the final accumulator pressure. The final accumulator pressure shall be equal to or
greater than 200 psi (1.38 MPa) above precharge pressure.
NOTE: 1. when performing the accumulator drawdown test, wait a minimum of 1 hour from the
time you initially charged the accumulator system from precharge pressure to operating
pressure. Failure to wait sufficient time may result in a false positive test.
NOTE: 2. because it takes time for the gas in the accumulator to warm up after performing all of
the drawdown test functions, you should wait 15 minutes after recording the pressure, if the
pressure was less than 200 psi (1.38MPa) above the precharge pressure. If there is an increase
in pressure, indications are that the gases are warming and there is still sufficient volume in the
accumulators. If the 200 psi (1.38 MPa) above precharge pressure has not been reached after 15
minutes you may have to wait an additional 15 minutes due to ambient temperatures
negatively affecting the gas properties. After 30 minutes from the time the final pressure was
158
recorded, if the 200 psi (1.38 MPa) above precharge has not been reached, bleed down the
system and verify precharge pressures and volume requirements for the system.
5.16 FUNCTIONAL PROBLEMS IN BOP CONTROL SYSTEM DURING STACK OPERATIONS

When BOP stack is being operated from remote panel the instrumentation will confirm whether
the operation was successfully carried out or if a malfunction has occurred.
Symptoms Analysis
1 Manifold and accumulator pressure dropped & Bulb has blown / Electric
manifold recovered to regulated value. Green circuit failure
light went out & red light does not illuminate.
2 Manifold pressure and accumulator pressure did Blocked hydraulic line
not drop. Green light went out and red light between BOP control
comes on. system and the BOP
3 Manifold and accumulator pressure both Leaking hydraulic line

dropped and do not rise back. Green light went between BOP control
out and pumps kept running. system and the BOP
4. Manifold pressure and accumulator pressure did 3-position /4-way valve in
not drop. Green light stayed on and red light control unit is stuck.
stayed off.
5 While pressing "Master" & "Bypass': push The bypass valve is
buttons simultaneously, the manifold pressure stuck.
should increase to the full accumulator pressure.
But no response was seen in manifold pressure.
6. While closing ram BOP, manifold pressure Manifold regulator
suddenly comes to zero. malfunctioning.( Shift the
bypass button to high
position & close the BOP)
Identify the problem from gauge readings observed on the remote panel. The manifold,
annular and accumulator settings are 1500, 1000 & 3000 respectively.
Indications Analysis
Accumulator Pr. Manifold Pr. Annular Pr.
1 2900 and steady 1500 Steady 1000 Steady All OK
2 3000 and steady 1800 Increasing 1000 Steady Malfunction in manifold
regulator valve
3 2400 and falling 1300 steady 1000 Steady Leakage in Hydraulic
circuit
4 3200 and 1500 Steady 1000 steady Malfunction in
increasing Hydroelectric pressure
switch.
5 2900 and steady 1500 steady 900 and Malfunction in Annular
decreasing regulator
159
5.17 DRILL STRING BLOWOUT PREVENTERS

The prevention of blowouts through the drill pipe is an important aspect of well control.
Several tools are available to contain drill pipe pressure during kicks. The primary tool is the
kelly cock. When kelly is not in use, drill string valves are necessary to control the pressure.
These valves may be automatic or manually controlled valves, and they may be a part of the
drill string or installed when kick occurs.
5.17.1 Kelly Cock

The kelly through which rotary motion is applied to the drill string is the tubular connection
between the drill string and the surface drilling equipment, valves are placed above and below
the kelly to provide pressure protection for the kelly and all surface equipment. These valves
are high pressure ball valves.
The upper kelly cock is used to isolate the rotary hose, swivel or stand pipe from drill string
when the drill pipe pressure exceeds the rotary hose pressure rating or if there is any leakage
developed in swivel rotary hose or stand pipe at the time of well activities / operations.
Lower kelly cock is used when upper kelly cock is damaged, not easily accessible or any damage
in kelly. In well control operations when kill pressure is nearing to rotary hose rated pressure or
string is to be hanged off on the rams in case of well kick - the lower kelly cock is closed and
kelly to be disconnected and set back and circulating head with a high pressure hose is
connected and operations to be resumed after opening lower kelly cock.
160
Recommendation
a) The pressure rating of the kelly cock should be equal to or greater than the blowout
preventer stack in use.
b) The inside opening should be equal to the inside diameter of the kelly in use.
c) The key/ wrench required to operate the kelly cock should be kept on rig floor at an
accessible place and should be known to crew working on rig floor.
5.17.2 Safety Valve

A full opening safety valve (FOSV) is usually installed on a drill pipe after a kick occurs when the
kelly is not in use. The advantage of the safety valve is that it can be in open position when
stabbed on the drill pipe to minimise the effect of upward moving flow leaving the valve, the
flow will pass - through the valve during the stabbing and make up, then the valve can be
closed. This type of safety valve facilitates wire line operations in case of any problem in the
string, like drill pipe plug etc. or if circulation from the bottom of the string is not possible due
to well complications.
A lubricator can be installed on the top of the valve and with wire line BOP on top ,logging
tool can be run down in the string and logs can be recorded. Accordingly if any perforation is
required to be done, perforation tool can be lowered and string can be perforated at desired
depth interval to control the well kick situations. This FOSV is a ball valve like kelly cock and
should be always kept on rig floor in open position during tripping operations. If a
combination string is in use, then crossover of different connection compatible with FOSV
and pipes in use should also be kept ready on drill floor, so in case of any kick situation at the
time of trip, valve can be installed as fast as possible. Key /Wrench for this valve should be
kept at an accessible place. On top drive system upper and lower safety valves are used, both
the valves are ball type and connected together. The upper safety valve is normally remote
operated so in case of kick while drilling valve can be operated remotely. During trips with top
drive system, the swivel and safety valves are not set back but rather are hoisted with the
drill string. If a kick occurs during the trip, the safety valves are immediately connected to
drill string and upper valve is remotely closed. All the safety valves should be pressure
tested, when BOP is tested and the pressure should be applied in the direction, in which it
will be subjected to well pressure at the time of well kick situation.
5.17.3 Inside BOP

At the time of tripping if well kicks, a non return valve known as check valve also is kept on rig
floor ready in open position to be installed on drill pipe and is normally called "INSIDE
BOP". Once it is installed it can be closed quickly by releasing a rod on top of it which keeps the
valve in open position at the time of stabbing it on the drill pipe for its easy installation at the
time of well kick situation. Generally inside BOPs” are more difficult to stab on drill pipe
because of flow restriction in it whereas FOSV has full bore opening and no flow
restriction when installed in well kick situation. When it is installed , it will not show any
shut-in drill pipe pressure & to record this pressure an exercise is to be done which is
explained in earlier chapter. With check valve installed no logging operations can be
carried out. Therefore in kick situation while tripping, first FOSV should be installed & if
drill pipe stripping is to be done in that case the inside BOP should be installed on top of
FOSV and before stripping down in the well FOSV should be opened.
161
162
Lock Screw
Release tool body
Release Rod
Upper body
Upper Body
eat
Seat
Seal
Seal
Spring
Lower body
Figure 5.41 INSIDE BOP
163
5.17.4 Drop In Check Valve
It is a type of inside BOP, it is also known as pump in check valve. This type of valve needs a
special type of sub which is to be run along with Bottom hole assembly. In any kick
situation a drop in assembly or simply a rod depending on the type of sub run in BHA is
pumped down and now this sub will act as an inside BOP i. e. check valve. This type of valves
are used where stripping operations are expected, particularly stripping out operations.
Some of the valves are wire line retrieval type, when the well is controlled and pressures
are zero, the drop in assembly can be pulled out by lowering a special tool with wire line and
picking it up.
5.17.5 Bit Float
This is also an inside BOP. It is installed just on top of bit along with bit sub to prevent back
flow during connection. This type of preventer normally gets damaged by the solids
present in the drilling mud which can cause wash outs and wear in the seat of the check valve.
These check valves are either flapper type or puppet type. In flapper type valves, slotted
flapper is commonly used, because this reduces the back flow to a minimum and
allows to read and record shut in drill pipe pressure when well is shut- in at the time of kick.
These valves can be used in top hole drilling where back flow during connections due to
imbalance annular mud density is more likely.
Figure 5.42 BIT FLOAT
164
5.18 CHOKE MANIFOLD
The choke manifold is an arrangement of valves, lines and chokes to control the flow of mud
and kick fluids from the annulus during the killing process. The chokes are used to create
pressure loss/ hold back pressure in kick control circuit while killing a well. Design of choke
manifold depends on variety of factors such as type of fluids (mud, oil, water or gas),
pressure, up-stream flow rates, down-stream velocities and solids in the fluid flowing out of the
well ( sand, shale and pipe protector rubbers etc). In sour gas applications the choke manifold
should be H2S trim.
MGS
Manual choke
B
U
F
F
Distribution Block E
R
Drilling T
Spool A
N
HCR Manual HCR K
valve
Remote choke
Shale shaker
Figure 5.43 CHOKE MANIFOLD
5.18.1 Manually Adjustable Choke

This type of choke creates a back pressure with a stem and bevelled mechanism. Fluid is
allowed to flow through the seat or orifice. As some alteration in the amount of back pressure
is required, the stem is positioned in the seat to create a greater or lesser resistance to flow.
Back pressure control is attained by the degree to which the stem is forced into the bevelled
seat or extracted from it.
165
Fig 5.44 Manually operated Choke
5.18.2 Remote Control, Adjustable Chokes
Remote control choke consists of two tungsten carbide plates with half-moon orifice that
control fluid flow depending on the relative position of the orifices. The orifices are offset in
closed position and as one plate is rotated with respect to the other, the orifices beome aligned
which allow fluid flow through choke.
Remote choke control panel
The control panel is normally used to operate the Hydraulic Choke from a remote location. The
panel is portable and may be located at any safe location to satisfy specific needs or
requirements. The control panel is a completely self-contained unit with the exception of an air
supply. There are no electrical requirements for the panel or choke.
Air operates the hydraulic pump which pressurizes the oil and moves the choke. If the air
operated hydraulic pump fail, the choke may still be operated by using the manual hydraulic
pump located on the control panel base. This method of operation will work only if the
remaining hydraulic systems are intact. If air pressure is lost the position indicator gauge will
not work.
Fig 5.45 Remote operated Choke
166
5.18.3 Recommendations For Choke Manifold
Recommended practices for installation and selection of choke manifold should be as follows:
a) All the connections and valves in the upstream of choke, should have a working
pressure at least equal to the rated working pressure of blowout preventer in use.
b) For working pressure of 3000 psi and above flanged, welded or clamped
connections should be used on the component subjected to well pressure.
c) Line size of upstream of chokes should be minimum 3 inches nominal diameter.
d) Line size of downstream of chokes should be of min. 3 inches nominal diameter.
e) For high volumes and air or gas drilling operations, 4 inches nominal diameter lines are
recommended.
f) In down stream of choke line alternate flow and flare routes should be provided so that
eroded / plugged or malfunctioning parts can be isolated for repair without interrupting
flow.
g) The bleed line should be at least equal in diameter to the choke line.
h) When buffer tanks are employed in down stream of chokes, provision should be made
to isolate a failure or malfunctioning without interrupting flow.
i) The choke manifold should be placed in a readily accessible location preferably outside
of the rig structure.
j) The lines in the manifold should be as straight as practicable and be firmly anchored to
prevent excessive whip or vibration.
k) All the choke manifold valves should be full opening and designed to operate in high
pressure gas and drilling fluid service.
l) For installation up to 3,000 & 5,000 psi rated working pressure the following are the
recommendations:
a. Use two manually operated adjustable choke (use of one remotely operated
choke is optional).
b. At-least one valve should be installed in upstream of each choke.
c. When buffer tank is used one valve should be installed down stream of each
choke.
d. Bleed line should be provided with one valve.
m) For installations of 10,000 psi rated working pressure and above, the following are
the recommendations:
i. One manually operated adjustable choke and at-least one remotely operated
choke should be installed. If prolonged use of this choke is anticipated, a second
remotely operated choke should be used.
ii. Two gate valves should be installed in upstream of each choke.
iii. When buffer tank is used, one valve of same rating should be installed in down
stream of each choke.
iv. Bleed line should be provided with at least one valve.
n) Choke manifold should be pressure tested .
o) The spare parts for equipment subjected to wear or damage should be readily
available.
167
5.19 KILL MANIFOLD

The kill manifold is an arrangement of gate valves, lines and check valve. The kill line provides
a means of pumping into the well bore when the normal method of circulating down through
the kelly or drill pipe can not be employed.
5.19.1 Gate Valves

In gate valve a blank plate is positioned across the flow path to halt fluid flow. When the valve
is opened, the plate containing an orifice is positioned across the flow path to allow fluid
movement through the orifice.
5.19.2 Check Valves

The valve is spring loaded and allows fluid movement in one direction only. Mud can be
pumped into the annulus through the valve but it cannot flow in reverse direction.
5.19.3 Recommendations For Kill Manifold

i) Line size should be minimum 2 inches nominal diameter.
ii) Use of check valve is optional up to 3000 psi pressure rating manifold.
iii) One check valve should be used in kill line in 5000 psi and above pressure
rating manifold.
iv) Use of check valve is optional in drilling pump line.
Fig 5.46 Gate Valve & Fail safe valve
168
5.20 DIVERTERS
When drilling at shallow depth with only conductor pipe set, often well cannot be shut-in after
a kick, because of low fracture gradient of formations near surface. Diverter system is not
designed to shut in the well. Shut –in can cause flow around the surface casing resulting in
surface blowout. If a kick occurs, the well is permitted to flow, with the flow being diverted
according to the prevailing wind conditions.
On surface and offshore jack up installations a low pressure annular preventer with large
diameter vent lines is mostly used as diverter. Normally after lowering surface casing, a drilling
spool with one or two outlets is installed on conductor casing having diverter assembly on top
of it. The outlet of spool is connected to diverter lines containing ball valves. These valves can
be pneumatic, manual or hydraulically operated. But the system should be such that when the
diverter closes the ball valve fitted in the diverter line should get opened up simultaneously.
There are diverters which are insert type, mostly used on the floating drilling rigs. This type of
diverter has insert assembly, with a diverter packer. This type of diverter can also be used on
onshore and fixed drilling installations of offshore by installing it below rotary beams and
securing it. In floating drilling rigs this type of diverter is connected to the telescoping joint and
lowered in the rotary opening. Once the diverter is landed it is latched by hydraulic pressure.
The hydraulic fluid will push the locking dogs out and will lock with diverter assembly below
rotary table, the outlet in the diverter is connected to flow line in normal drilling conditions.
When any shallow gas is encountered the diverter is closed, this closes the flow line valve and
opens the diverter line valve simultaneously.(for diverting the flow depending on the prevailing
wind direction the diverting line to the port or starboard side has to be selected)
5.20.1 Diverter Equipment Specifications.

Flow restrictions in diverter system should be avoided wherever possible, because it may lead
to formation break down and cratering of well in case of shallow gas blowout.
i) The minimum nominal internal diameter of the diverter outlets / line should not be less
than 6".
ii) The equipment should be selected to withstand the maximum anticipated surface
pressure.
iii) The diverter lines should be straight as far as possible & properly anchored at the end of
the lines and sloping down to avoid blockage of the lines with cuttings etc.
iv) The diverter and mud return lines should be separate.
v) Diverter valves shall be full opening valves with an actuator (pneumatic or hydraulic).
vi) The diverter control system should preferably be self contained or may be an integral part
of the BOP accumulator unit and control system. It shall be located in a safe area.
vii) When a surface diverter system and a sub sea BOP stack are employed, two separate
control / accumulator systems are required. This will allow to operate the BOPs and to
disconnect the riser in case the diverter control system gets damaged and loose pressure.
The diverter control system should be capable of operating the diverter system from two
or more locations, one to be located near the driller's console.
viii) At least 1 inch hydraulic line should be used for operating diverter systems.
169
ix) All spare operating lines of the control system and connections which are not used should
be properly plugged off.
x) Control systems of diverters should be capable of closing the diverter within 30 seconds
and simultaneously opening the valve in the diverter lines.
xi) In case of floating rigs telescopic/slip joints should be incorporated with double seals to
improve the sealing capabilities when gas has to be circulated out of the marine riser.
Flow Line
Packing Element
Head
Piston
Opening
Port
Closing
Port Annular
Preventer
Diverter Flow
Path
Figure 5.47 DIVERTER WITH LOW PRESSURE ANNULAR PREVENTER
170
Drill Pipe
Insert Packer Lock Down Dogs
Closing Port
Diverter Lock
Down Dogs
Standard
Packer
Flow line Seals
Insert
Packer
Flow line
Support
Housing
Figure 5.48 DIVERTER WITH INSERT TYPE PACKER
Diverter Control System
The diverter control system shall be operated such that the well will not be shut-in with the
diverter system. For installations with the annular sealing device below the flow line,
equipment should be designed and installed such that the desired vent valve(s) is opened
before the annulus is closed. On installations with more than one vent valve, both valves should
remain open during this operation with the upwind valve being subsequently closed, if so
desired. For non-integral valve installations where the flow line is below the annular sealing
device, the desired vent valve(s) should be opened (if not already open) while simultaneously
closing the shale shaker (flow line) valve and the diverter. Regardless of the vent valve
sequencing, to maintain the fail-safe objective, at least one vent valve shall remain open at all
times to prevent a complete shut-in of the well if there is a partial failure of the control system
and/or vent controls system pressure.
The sequencing action is executed by the vent line valve opening & then closing the flow line
valve and then subsequently closing annular sealing device.
171
When in primary diverter service (no BOP installed), function tests should be performed daily
using the driller’s panel to verify that functions are operable; i.e., valve(s) fully open or closed.
Fluid should be pumped through each diverter line at appropriate times during operations to
ensure that line(s) are not plugged.
Fig 5.49 : Hydraulic schematic of diverter system
5.21 SELECTION OF WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT
The following considerations should be made when selecting well control equipment:
a) All the equipment shall be selected to withstand the maximum anticipated surface
pressures.
172
b) The blow out preventer stack shall consist of remotely operated equipment capable of
closing in the well with or without the pipe in the hole.
c) Only welded, flanged or hub connections are recommended on all pressure systems
above 2000 psi.
d) In sour gas areas H2S trim equipment should be used.
e) Kill lines must be of minimum 2 inch nominal size and choke line must be of minimum 3
inch nominal size.
f) During drilling and work over operations, blind / shear rams shall be provided in the BOP
stack. The shear rams shall always be capable of shearing the drill pipe, tubing, wire
cable in use under no-load conditions and subsequently provide a proper seal.
g) Closing systems of surface BOPs should be capable of closing each ram preventer and
annular preventer smaller than 18 ¾” size within 30 seconds and annular preventers of 18
¾” or bigger size within 45 seconds.
h) Closing systems of sub sea BOPs should be capable of closing each ram preventer and
annular preventer smaller than 18 ¾” size within 45 seconds and annular preventers of 18
¾” or bigger size within 60 seconds.
i) All 4 way valves should be either in the fully closed or open position as required, they
should not be left in the blocked or neutral position.
j) All spare operating lines and connections which are not used in the system should be
properly blocked off with blind plugs at the hydraulic operating unit.
k) All master and remote operating panel handles should, at all times, either be in the full
open or closed position, and be free to move into either position.
l) The shear ram operating handles should be properly protected.
CLASSIFICATION OF WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT

Well control equipment falls into five basic working pressure classifications :
2,000 psi Working pressure
5.22 SURFACE BLOW OUT PREVENTION EQUIPMENT
Surface blow out prevention equipment is used on land operations and operations where the
well head is above the water level. Given below are the minimum requirements for each
working pressure classification.
5.22.1 2,000 psi Working pressure Classification (figure5.59)

Where equipment of this classification is required, the BOP stack shall consist of :
a) One annular preventer or a double ram type preventer (one equipped with correct size
pipe rams, the other with blind rams) or one annular preventer and a ram type preventer (
while drilling for surface casing).
b) One full opening drilling spool with minimum two, 3" bore side outlets.
173
c) The BOP stack should have kill and choke lines. Each line should have minimum one gate
valve.
d) When the BOP stack consists of a double ram type preventer with proper size of side
outsets, the kill and choke lines may be connected to the side outlets of the lower
preventer. In this case the drilling spool may be dispensed with.
5.22.2 3,000 psi & 5,000 psi Working pressure Classification (figure5.60)
The BOP stack for above classification should consist of the following:
a) One annular preventer.
b) One double, or two single ram type preventers one of which must be equipped with correct
size pipe rams the other with blind or blind shear ram.
c) One full opening drilling spool with minimum two, 3" bore side outlets.
d) The BOP stack should have kill & choke lines.
e) Kill line should have two gate valves.
f) Choke line should have two gate valve. In 5000 psi stack preferably one valve should be
hydraulically operated.
g) When the bottom ram type preventer is equipped with proper size outlets, the kill and
choke lines may be connected to the side outlets of the bottom preventer. In that case the
drilling spool may be dispensed with.
5.22.3 10,000 psi Working pressure Classification (figure5.61)

Where equipment of this classification is required the BOP stack shall consist of the following:
a) One annular preventer with a working pressure of 5,000 / 10,000 psi.

b) Three single or one double & one single ram type preventers, one of which must be
equipped with blind/shear rams and the other two with correct size pipe rams. Variable
ram can also be used in one of the ram preventer.
c) One full opening drilling spool with minimum two, 3 inch bore side outlets.
d) When the pipe ram type preventer are equipped with outlets of the proper size, the kill and
choke lines may be connected to these side outlets and in that case the drilling spool may be
dispensed with.
e) The BOP stack should have kill and choke lines.
f) Kill line should have two gate valves.
g) Choke line should have two gate valves one of which should be hydraulically
Operated
5.22.4 15,000 & 20,000 psi Working pressure Classification (figure5.61)

Where equipment of this classification is required, the BOP stack should consist of the
following:
a) One annular preventer with a working pressure of 15,000 psi or a 10,000 psi working
pressure.
b) Three single, or one double and one single, ram type preventers, one of which must be
equipped with blind shear ram and the other two with the correct size pipe rams. Variable
ram can also be used in one of the ram blowout preventer.
c) One full opening drilling spool with minimum two, 3 inch bore side outlets.
174
d) When the pipe ram type preventer are equipped with side outlets of the proper size, the kill
and choke lines may be connected to these side outlets and in that case drilling spool may
be dispensed with.
e) The BOP stack should have kill and choke lines.
f) Kill line should have two gate valves.
g) Choke line should have two gate valve one of which should be hydraulically operated.
ANNULAR RAM PREVENTER

PREVENTE
RAM PREVENTER
DRILLING
SPOO
DRILLING
SPOOL
ANNULAR
PREVENTER
RAM PREVENTER
RAM PREVENTER DRILLING

SPOO
DRILLING
SPOOL
RAM PREVENTER
EXAMPLE OF BLOWOUT PREVENTER ARRANGEMENTS FOR 2M RATED

WORKING PRESSURE SERVICE-SURFACE INSTALLATION
NOTE :
1. DRILLING SPOOL & ITS LOCATION IN THE STACK ARRANGEMENT IS OPTIONAL.
2. USE OF DOUBLE RAM TYPE PREVENTER IS OPTIONAL.
Figure 5.50
175
ANNULAR ANNULAR
PREVENTER PREVENTER
RAM PREVENTER RAM PREVENTER
RAM PREVENTER DRILLING

SPOOL
DRILLING
RAM PREVENTER
SPOOL
EXAMPLE OF BLOWOUT PREVENTER ARRANGEMENTS FOR 3M & 5M RATED

WORKING PRESSURE SERVICE-SURFACE INSTALLATION
NOTE :
1. DRILLING SPOOL & ITS LOCATION IN THE STACK ARRANGEMENT IS OPTIONAL.
Figure 5.51
176
ANNULAR ANNULAR
PREVENTER PREVENTER
DRILLING RAM PREVENTER

SPOO
L
DRILLING
SPOO
RAM PREVENTER L
EXAMPLE OF BLOWOUT PREVENTERS ARRANGEMENTS FOR 10M, 15M & 20M

RATED WORKING PRESSURE SERVICE SURFACE INSTALLATION
NOTE :
1. DRILLING SPOOL AND ITS LOCATION IN THE STACK ARRANGEMENT IS OPTIONAL.
Figure5.52
177
5.23 CONTROL SYSTEM FOR SURFACE BOP STACKS
Control systems for surface BOP stacks shall consist of the following:
a) One independent automatic accumulator unit rated for 3,000 psi working pressure with a
control manifold, clearly showing open and closed positions for preventer(s) and the
hydraulic operated kill / choke line valves. It is essential that BOP operating unit be
equipped with two regulator valves, one for manifold and another for annular. The
accumulator capacity shall be adequate for closing all preventers and opening HCR valves
without recharging accumulators. The unit shall have minimum two power sources i.e. duel
power source as per API which include minimum one electrically driven pump and two or
three air driven pumps for charging the accumulators.
b) The unit shall be located at a safe area minimum 100 feet away from well centre.
c) All BOP stack installations should have two remote control panels, each one clearly showing
open and closed positions for each preventer and the remote operated choke line valves.
Each of these panels should include a master shut off valve. One panel should be located
near to the driller's console, the other panel to be located near the rig supervisor's office.
d) Minimum 1 inch high pressure steel lines / fire resistant control hoses having a working
pressure of 3,000 psi should be used.
Figure 5.53 SURFACE BOP REMOTE PANEL
178
5.23.1 Electro Pneumatic BOP Control System
Electro pneumatic BOP control system is similar to pneumatic control system except that the
signal from remote panels in this type of system is electrical instead of an air signal. The main
advantages of electro pneumatic system are :-
1. Only electrical cable connects remote panels to the main accumulator unit without the
need of separate pneumatic hose bundle.
2. More rugged
3. Faster response time as compared to full pneumatic system
4. Problems associated with choking of air lines are eliminated
5. Pressures readings on the remote panels are more accurate due to use of electrical
transducers
However due to additional solenoid junction box consisting of pneumatic solenoids associated
piping etc the price of the system is marginally higher.
Operation :-
In the electro pneumatic panels only electrical switches are provided. Similar to the air master
valve on a pneumatic panel, a master push button switch is provided to safe guard against
accidental activation of any function. When this master push button switch is pressed, electrical
supply is made available to all the function switches. For operating any function, the
corresponding function push button switch ( e.g. open /close) is pressed along with master
push button switch enabling the electrical signal to be sent to solenoid valve on the junction
box installed at accumulator unit.
When this signal energies the solenoid valve, air is sent to the air cylinder attached to the 4 way
selector valve moving it to the desired position directing the hydraulic fluid to the BOP to
perform the function.
The indicator lights on the remote panels are activated similar to the pneumatic remote panels.
Action Sequence
ACTION RESULT
1. Press master push button Electrical supply made available to all the function
switch switches
2. Press the desired function Electrical signal sent to corresponding air solenoid on
switch the main accumulator unit
Air solenoid operates and directs the air to air cylinder
attached to the 4 way valve
4 way valve position is changed and hydraulic fluid is
sent to the BOP function and simultaneously to
corresponding pressure switch
The pressure switch is activated and sends electrical
signal back to the remote panel indicator light
The light is switched on confirming shifting of 4 way
valve.
179
Accumulators
Annular
1500 Psi Regulator
3000 Psi
Isolation Valve Low High
Solenoid Bypass Valve 600-1500 Psi

Valve- O
Pressure Gauges
Manifold Regulator
1500 Psi
MANIFOLD
Open Close
Solenoid
Valve - C
RAM HC Annular
S R
Driller’s Remote Pannel
Rig
Accumulator
Air Manifold
2 3
Pressure
Switch Air
Electrical Signal to Ram close Lamp 1

Annular
Annular
4
O C
Electrical Signal to actuate solenoid valve-close Pipe Ram

O C
Master Blind Ram

O C
Push
Pipe Ram
Button O C
FIG :5.54 ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC REMOTE PANEL -OPERATING SEQUENCE CLOSE
5.23.2 PLC based BOP control systems

BOP control systems have undergone the most significant changes and advances. The systems
have evolved from purely pneumatic to electro pneumatic to latest generation PLC based
systems. The main advancments in these dystems are in the area of mode of actuation of a
BOP function. In PLC based system, a prgrammable logic controller ( i.e a small computer) takes
over the function of sending signals to the main accumulator unit to activate the desired
function. The signal can be sent in many ways e.g wireless, through fibre optic cable or through
an electric cable.
The function of the PLC control panel is to collect, process, monitor and display the following :-
1. Functions operation and functions display
2. Function test
3. Operating times
4. Pressure data display of accumulator unit
5. various alarms e.g. low fluid, low accumulator etc.
180
The main advantage of PLC based control systems is that it can be programmed to any
configuration as per the operators requirement. Further , the system is more compact as
compared to conventional systems.
PLC based Remote panel Typical electro-pneumatic panel
5.24 INSTALLATION REQUIREMENT FOR WELLHEAD AND BOP EQUIPMENT
The BOP equipment installation shall confirm the following:

a. Wellhead equipment should withstand anticipated surface pressure and allow for future
remedial operations.
b. When ram type preventers are installed the side outlets should be below the rams.
c. All connections, valves, fittings, piping etc. exposed to well pressure, should be flanged ,
studded , clamped or welded and must have a minimum working pressure equal to the rated
working pressure of the preventers.
d. Always install new and clean API ring gaskets. Check for any damage in the ring as well as
grooves before use.
e. All correct size bolts / nuts and fittings should be tightened to the recommended torque.
f. All connection should be pressure tested before drilling is resumed.
g. All manually operated valves should be equipped with hand wheels, and always be kept
ready for use.
h. Ram type preventers on surface BOP stack should be installed with extension rods and hand
wheels connected and be ready for use.
i. BOP equipment should be function tested and pressure tested as per API recommendations
j. The tool pusher / DIC / Drill site in-charge shall inspect and approve BOP installation and
testing.
k. Well head side-outlets shall not be used for killing purpose, except in case of emergencies.
l. Kill lines shall not be used for routine fill up operations.
m. Choke lines shall be as straight as practicable and firmly anchored to prevent excessive whip
or vibration.
n. Ensure that the instructions of the BOP operating manual of the manufacturers are followed
and no alterations are made to the BOP equipment without consulting the manufacturer.
181
5.25 TESTING OF BLOWOUT PREVENTERS STACK
There are two types of test to be conducted on blowout preventer stack.

a) Function test
b) Pressure test
Function test is conducted to :
1. Check if function working properly
2. Check leakage in the system
3. Check the closing time of each Blowout preventer which should be within the limit
prescribed by API
4. Check the health of BOP control unit.
Pressure test is conducted to check the integrity of all the joint in BOP stack, Blowout
preventer's seals and valves. To conduct pressure test a cup tester or a test plug should be
used.
5.26 TESTING OF SURFACE (LAND & JACK UP) BOP STACK
5.26.1 Function Test

i) Blowout preventer should be function tested at least once a week as per API
ii) The test should be conducted when the drill string is inside casing.
iii) Test should be conducted after installing FOSV / inside BOP on drill string.
iv) Both pneumatic and electric pump of accumulator unit should be turned off after recording
initial accumulator pressure.
v) All the ram preventers (except blind / shear) & HCRs’ in choke / kill line should be function
tested.
vi) Closing time of all the BOP’s should be recorded. .
vii) Weekly, function test is not required for shear ram. As a minimum these rams should be
tested after casing strings has been set.
viii) Blind ram should be operated for function test while string is out of hole.
ix) Closing time should not exceed 30 sec for all ram preventers and annular preventers smaller
than 18¾”. It is 45 sec for annular preventer 18¾" & larger size.
x) Function test should be carried out alternately from main control unit / rig floor driller’s
panel / auxiliary panel.
xi) Recorded final accumulator pressure after all the functions should not be less than 1200 psi
due to operating limitations or 200 psi above the pre-charge pressure of accumulator as per
API or value based on closing ratio of ram preventer (whichever is maximum).
xii) All the gate valves and blow out preventers should be returned to their original position to
continue normal operations.
xiii) All the results should be recorded in the prescribed format.
5.26.2 Pressure Testing
5.26.2.1 Recommendations
i) Test BOP using cup tester or test plug.
ii) Clear water should be used as test fluid for water base mud.
iii) For high pressure gas wells, use of inert gas such as nitrogen as test fluid is desirable.
iv) Diesel or an acceptable alternative should be used as test fluid for OBM.
182
5.26.2.2 Cup Tester

It has a mandrel with box connection on top, a cup and a sub with pin on bottom. The cup of
the tester gives effective sealing in the casing. It should be placed in the casing opposite to the
slips in casing spool or casing head.
5.26.2.3 Limitations of the cup tester

i) Cup tester is not rested in the well head, so all the load during pressure testing will be
transmitted on test drill pipe as well as on other equipment. Higher grade of drill pipe to be
used as test pipe otherwise yield strength of drill pipe may limit the test pressures.
Example:
A BOP is to be tested at 8,000 psi using a cup tester. The area of cup tester which will be
subjected to test pressure is 33.6 square inches. Calculate the amount of load at which the test
pipe will be subjected ?
Force on cup tester due to test pressure = Test Pressure  Area
= 8,000  33.6 = 2,68,800 pounds
The amount of load at which the test pipe will be subjected = 2,68,800 pounds
So the test pipe should have minimum tensile strength more than 2,68,800 pounds.
ii) Test pressure will be limited to 60 – 80% of the burst of upper part of casing so testing of BOP
at rated working pressure will be difficult.
iii) This cannot be used to test blind / shear blind rams.
5.26.2.4 Test Plug

Test plugs mainly have a box on top to connect test pipe and pin on bottom to add some
weight to it and also seal rings on the body. Test plugs are designed to sit in the well head and
the seal on the body isolates the upper part of the well head from the well bore. The plug is to
be lowered and landed in to the well head with a test drill pipe joint with one stand of drill
collar at the bottom. As this tool is weight set type, this added weight of drill collars helps it in
sitting properly and giving proper sealing. To test the blind or shear blind ram, test pipe should
be removed, leaving the test plug resting on the well head.
Care must be taken while using test plug for its designed compatibility with the existing well
head used since different type of well heads require different test plugs. Therefore, before
lowering a test plug it should be confirmed that whether the plug is compatible with the well
head being used or not, otherwise it may get stuck and can lead to complication.
5.26.2.5 Frequency of Pressure Test

As per API, pressure tests on the BOP equipment should be conducted at least :
i) Prior to spud or upon installation.
ii) After repairs that require breaking a pressure connection.
iii) Not to exceed 21 days.
5.26.2.6 Low Pressure Test

a. All the blowout preventers and hydraulically operated valves should be pressure
tested at 250-350 psi. (For detailed information refer Table 1 & Table 2)
183
b. The low pressure test should be stable for at least five minutes.
c. The pipe used for testing should be of sufficient weight and grade to safely
withstand tensile, yield, collapse, or internal pressures.
CUP TESTER TEST PLUG
Figure 5.55 TESTING BOP WITH CUP TESTER / TEST PLUG
184
5.26.2.7 High Pressure Test

Once the equipment passes the low pressure test, it should be tested to high pressure,
following are the recommendations:
a) On installation, blowout preventer stack should be pressure tested at the rated working
pressure of the ram preventer or well-head whichever is lower. An exception is the annular
preventer which should be tested to the test pressure applied to ram preventer or 70% of
annular rated pressure whichever is lesser . (For detailed information refer Table 1 )
b) On subsequent tests the BOP stack should always be tested to greater than the maximum
anticipated surface pressure but not to exceed the rated working pressure of ram preventer
or well head whichever is less (i.e. to be tested to least valued component of the stack). An
exception is the annular preventer which should be tested to 70% of its rated pressure or
the test pressure of the ram whichever is less to minimize packer element wear or
damage. (For detailed information refer Table 1 & Table 2)
c) The stable high pressure should be maintained at least for five minutes as per API.
d) Precaution should be taken not to expose the casing to pressures in excess of its rated
strength. A means should be provided to prevent pressure build up on the casing in the
event the test tool leaks. Well head valve should be kept open while pressure testing with
test plug. This will also help in observing any flow through the well while pressure testing.
e) Conduct high pressure test for entire blowout preventer stack, all choke manifold
components, upstream of chokes, Kelly & Kelly valves, drill pipe and tubing safety valves
and drilling spools (if in use).
f) Test pressure should be applied from the direction in which Blowout preventers / valves
would experience pressure during actual well kick situations.
5.27 PRESSURE TESTING OF INSIDE BOPs, KELLY COCKS , CHOKES, SWIVEL AND ROTARY
HOSES
All the above equipment should be pressure tested to at least maximum anticipated surface
pressure but limited to rated working pressure of BOP. While carrying out pressure testing, it is
recommended that test pressure should be applied from the direction in which they would
experience pressure during actual well kick situation.
5.27.1 Test Pressure
All the above equipment should be tested at low pressure i.e. at 250-350 psi . High pressure
test should be conducted at rated working pressure of the item being tested or of the weakest
member exposed to test pressure upon installation and the subsequent test should be
conducted at greater than the maximum anticipated surface pressure. Both the test should be
stable for at least five minutes.
5.27.2 Procedure
i) Pick up Kelly.
ii) Make up full opening safety valve (FOSV) on bottom of lower Kelly cock.
iii) Make up inside BOP on bottom of FOSV.
iv) Make up adapter sub on bottom of inside BOP and complete the connection of test
line from cementing unit or test pump to adapter sub.
v) Apply test pressure and test as explained in 5.31.1
vi) Release pressure and disconnect adopter sub from inside BOP. Disconnect inside
BOP and connect adapter sub to FOSV with test lines.
vii) Close FOSV and apply test pressure and test as explained in 5.31.1
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viii) In the same way test lower kelly cock, kelly, upper kelly cock, swivel, rotary hose
and stand pipe valve one by one.
Table 1—Pressure Test, Surface BOP Systems, Initial Test (Source: API-53)
Pressure Test Low Pressure a Pressure Test High Pressure b c
Component to Be Tested
psi (MPa) psi (MPa)
Lesser of 70 % of annular RWP, RWP of

Annular preventer 250 to 350 (1.72 to 2.41)
wellhead, or ram preventer test pressure.
Maximum operating pressure recommended by
Operating chambers N/A
the annular BOP manufacturer.
Ram preventers
Fixed pipe
RWP of ram BOPs or RWP of the wellhead
Variable bore 250 to 350 (1.72 to 2.41)
system, whichever is lower.
Blind/blind shear
Operating chamber N/A
the ram BOP manufacturer.
Choke and kill lines and RWP of ram BOPs or RWP of the wellhead
250 to 350 (1.72 to 2.41)
valves system, whichever is lower.
Operating chamber N/A
the valve manufacturer.
Choke manifold
RWP of ram BOPs, RWP of the wellhead
Upstream of choke(s) system, or RWP choke(s) inlet, whichever is
250 to 350 (1.72 to 2.41) lower.
RWP of choke(s) outlet, valve(s), or line(s),
Downstream of choke(s)
whichever is lower.
Function test only; verification of
Adjustable chokes
backup system.
BOP control system
Manifold and BOP lines N/A Control system maximum operating pressure.
Accumulator pressure Verify precharge. N/A
Close time
Pump capability Function test. N/A
Control stations
Safety valves
Kelly, kelly valves, and

250 to 350 (1.72 to 2.41) RWP of components.
safety valves
Auxiliary equipment
In accordance with equipment owner’s
Poor boy degasser/MGS d PM program.
Flow test.
Trip tank, flo-show, etc. Visual and manual verification. Flow test.
a The low-pressure test shall be stabilized for at least 5 minutes with no visible leaks. Flow-type test shall be of sufficient duration to
observe for significant leaks.
b The high-pressure test shall be stabilized for at least 5 minutes with no visible leaks.
c Well control equipment may have a higher rated working pressure than required for the well site. The site-specific test requirements shall
be used for these situations.
d The MGS requires a one-time hydrostatic test during manufacturing or upon installation. Subsequent welding on the MGS vessel shall
require an additional hydrostatic test to be per formed .
186
Table 2—Pressure Test, Surface BOP Systems, Subsequent Tests(Source: API-53)

Pressure Test Low Pressure a Pressure Test High Pressure b c
Component to Be Tested
psi (MPa) psi (MPa)
Minimum of MASP for the hole section or
Annular preventer 250 to 350 (1.72 to 2.41)
70 % of annular RWP, whichever is lower.
Ram preventers
Fixed pipe
Variable bore
Blind/blind shear
Casing rams (prior to running 250 to 350 (1.72 to 2.41) MASP of the hole section.
casing)
Choke and kill lines and
valves
Choke manifold
Upstream of choke(s) 250 to 350 (1.72 to 2.41) Same as the ram preventer.
RWP of choke(s) outlet, valve(s), or line(s),
Downstream of choke(s) 250 to 350 (1.72 to 2.41)
whichever is lower.
Adjustable chokes Function test only. Verification of backup control system.
BOP control system
Function test in accordance with
Manifold and BOP lines
equipment owner’s PM program.
Function test in accordance with
Accumulator pressure In accordance with equipment owner’s PM
equipment owner’s PM program.
program.
Close time
Pump capability Verify functionality of backup systems.
Control stations
Safety valves
Kelly, kelly valves, and safety
valves 250 to 350 (1.72 to 2.41) MASP of the hole section.
Auxiliary equipment
Poor boy degasser/MGS d Optional flow test. N/A
Trip tank, flo-show, etc. Visual and manual verification. Daily.
a The low-pressure test shall be stabilized for at least 5 minutes with no visible leaks. Flow-type test shall be of sufficient duration to
observe for significant leaks.
b The high-pressure test shall be stabilized for at least 5 minutes with no visible leaks.
c Well control equipment may have a higher rated working pressure than required for the well site. The site-specific test requirements
shall be used for these situations.
d The MGS requires a one-time hydrostatic test during manufacturing or upon installation. Subsequent welding on the MGS vessel shall
require an additional hydrostatic test to be performed.
5.28 TRIP TANK

5.28.1 Importance of Hole Filling During Trips
Failure to keep the hole full during pull out with mud can cause a kick and can lead to blowout if
undetected. Blowouts have occurred just as often while tripping as while drilling. The principal
cause of well kicks/blowouts during a tripping is improper filling of the hole with mud of desired
weight / sp.gr. The kicks/blowouts on trips can be avoided if due attentions is paid to
monitoring of hole filling during tripping by a trip tank.
When the drill string is pulled out from the hole sometimes it behaves like a piston and in this
process tries to swab the hole. The longer the open hole greater is the amount of swabbing.
Therefore greatest swabbing tendency occurs when the bit is just pulled off the bottom. It is
therefore important to keep a close watch in the beginning of each trip to ensure that no
formation fluid is being swabbed into the hole which can lead to a kick condition due to
reduction in hydrostatic head.
187
The other important factors which effect the swabbing and make it more pronounced are :
 High viscosity of mud
 Balling of bit
 High tripping speed
To prevent a kick on a trip, the hole must be filled with a volume of mud equivalent to the
displacement of the drill pipe. If it is observed that the hole is taking less amount of mud than
required, it means swabbing is taking place and all out efforts should be made to contain the
same. Trip tank is one of the most important equipment which is used during tripping operation
for early detection of the kicks / swab.
While pulling out of the hole, if less mud is taken by hole than the steel volume of the string /
pipe pulled out, it must be assumed that the formation fluid has
entered the well bore and swabbing is there. When this is detected the pipe should be run
back to bottom, the contaminated mud / swabbed formation fluid should be circulated out
and mud should be thoroughly conditioned, before pulling out.
5.28.2 Construction of Trip Tank
i) Trip tank is a small mud tank with a capacity of 40 bbl. To 50 bbl. Used to determine
accurately the amount of mud necessary to keep the well bore full during tripping
operations.
ii) Trip tank should be tall and relatively less cross sectionals base area so that the
volume changes of ½ bbl. Can be read easily.
iii) Use of graduated indicator on rig floor which should have graduation on one side
number of stand and other side in bbl. Easily visible from the Driller’s console
iv) Rig up trip tank for rapid refilling so that very little time is taken.
v) One / two centrifugal pumps with fill up line and a return line from the bell nipple to
the tank should be used.
Fig 5.56 a : TRIP TANK
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5.28.3 Important Points to Remember while Tripping

i) One of the most dangerous type of well kick is the one that occurs when the pipe is
out of the hole or almost out of the hole. This is usually the case when the hole is
not filled up equivalent to drill collar displacement. Since one stand of drill collars
may displace as much mud as five or more stands of drill pipes, it is therefore more
important to ensure that the proper amount of mud is filled in hole for each stand of
drill collar.
ii) Maintain accurate trip/fill up records.
iii) Run the trip tank pumps continuously during pulling out operations.
iv) On some of the new rigs the measuring devices are electronic. However there should
be a mechanical device rigged up as a back up.
v) During pulling out if hole is not taking proper amount of mud, stop pulling out
immediately and check the well for flow/swab and act accordingly.
vi) Before spudding the well, trip tank should be installed and same should be recorded
in spud meeting.
vii) After use of trip tank, clean it with water.
viii) It is important to use a flow sensor, backed-up by a pit volume totalizer along with
trip tank.
5.28.4 Use of Trip Tank during Tripping

5.28.4.1 Before Tripping Out
i) Fill trip tank with mud used in for final circulation before pulling out.
ii) Line up trip tank so as the return flow from the bell nipple is coming back to the trip
tank having a closed loop.
iii) Run the centrifugal pumps of the trip tank and check for its functioning and leakage
etc.
iv) Record the initial reading on the calibrated indicator at rig floor.
v) Start pulling out and fill up trip sheet after pulling three or five stands.
vi) Run the pump continuously throughout the pulling out.
The continuous filling of the hole keeps the hole full and allows mud volume that the hole is
taking to be read at any time during pulling out.
5.28.4.2 During Tripping

i) Record the volume taken by hole after every 3/5 stands.
ii) Any discrepancy in trip sheet should be thoroughly checked before continuing
further tripping out.(A sample trip sheet is given in Annexures.)
5.29 MUD GAS SEPARATOR ( POOR – BOY DEGASSER )
A mud / gas separator is an essential equipment used on the rig for removing high percentage
of gas from the mud, which is coming out from downstream of the choke during gas kicks.
i) Mud / gas separator provides a means of safely venting the gas away from the rig.
189
ii) A liquid seal/goose neck arrangement at bottom permits mud to flow to shale shaker /
vacuum degasser tank while maintaining a fluid head to hold the gas in the upper part of
the separator.
iii) Many of the mud / gas separators are constructed from a length of large diameter pipe
with interior baffles, to slow down the mud – gas stream, which assist in separation of
gas.
5.29.1 RECOMMENDATION
i) The pressure loss in the gas vent line at the top of separator must be less than the
hydrostatic pressure of the mud column in the bottom of the separator in order to vent
the gas at safe distance from the rig. Most of the separator have a working pressure
ranging from 50 psi to 125 psi.
ii) Lines from choke manifold to separator should be straight or with targeted turns.
Note: Rubber hoses should not be used.
iii) Flanged openings should be provided near the bottom to permit clean out. This
opening can be used for drain line if necessary.
iv) Vent line should be firmly anchored to ground anchors to prevent movement when
blowing off large volumes.
Fresh/Hot Mud inlet

line
Figure 5.56 b : MUD GAS SEPERATOR(Image reference from drillingformula.com)
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5.29.2 LIMITATIONS
i. Vertical height of the liquid seal (mud seal)/ goose neck limits the maximum allowable
internal pressure of the separator before the blow through takes place.
ii. The length/height and the internal diameter of the vent line determine the pressure
build up in the separator. Flow rate is also limits the MGS capacity to handle gas. This
should be less than the maximum allowable internal pressure to avoid the gas blow
through the shale shaker.
5.30 VACUUM DEGASSER
Vacuum degasser is used to remove gas from the gas cut mud during drilling, circulation and
well killing. Degasser has a vacuum pump on top and a horizontal tank with inclined flat surface
in it. The vacuum pump creates 2 to 6 psi depending on the weight of the mud being handled.
Mud enters the degassing vessel through the pipe on one side of the tank, the fluid being raised
from pit by the low pressure in the vessel and enters the horizontal tank. Mud flows across
inclined flat surfaces and creates thin layers so that the gas bubbles can be separated from
mud, The degassed fluid falls to the bottom of the vessel and this mud flows to the active pit. In
some of the degasser units an auxiliary pump on the rig is used to operate a hydraulic jet which
is used to pull mud from the vessel despite the vacuum. Vacuum degasser of this type handles
sizeable volume of mud, and with one pass through this unit a density of as high as 2 ppg can be
achieved.
Mud seal
Figure 5.57 VACCUUM DEGASSER
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5.31 PIT VOLUME RECORDER
One of the devices used to continuously monitor the level of the drilling mud in the mud pits is
a pit level indicator. The indicator usually consists of a float device that senses the mud level
and transmits data to a recording and alarm device called a pit volume recorder or (pit volume
totalizers). PVT is a gauge mounted on the driller’s console on the rig floor.
Pit volume indicator and totalizer devices use electric signal to record or indicate the mud level
in different tank. PVT instruments are calibrated in total barrels of fluid which is directly
indicated on the gauges installed on driller panel. These indicators have low and high-level
alarms that sound a warning or turn on light in case of lost circulation or well kick. Normally this
indicator is set for loss / gain depending on the size of hole drilled which varies from 5-10 bbl .
For slim hole drilling this limit is set as less as 1 bbl gain / loss, so that in case of any eventuality
in the well timely action can be taken.
5.32 MUD FLOW INDICATOR
5.32.1 Purpose
The mud volume control is designed for the purpose of providing the driller with a continuous
flow of information to keep him informed of mud flow rate and pump stroke rate or fill count
and total strokes and to warn him of an oncoming kick or loss of mud into an unconsolidated
formation.
5.32.2 Display
This displays return mud flow status on the flow meter. Pump strokes per minute, fill strokes
and total pump strokes are displayed on the electromechanical digital display on the front
panel which can be viewed up to twenty feet away, even in direct sunlight.
5.32.3 Signal Sources

The console receives its input signals from two sources : (a) the flow sensor and (b) pump
switches.
5.32.4 The Flow Sensor are of two types, one the potentiometer type or other non contacting
sensor type. The sensor senses the percent of mud returns from the well bore and this is
displayed on the return flow meter.
5.32.5 Pump Switches which are attached to the mud pumps, provide input pulses to the
console to be registered on the digital display as strokes per minutes fill strokes and total
strokes. These pump switches are either in contact closure models or non-contacting sensor
models.
5.32.6 Smoothing
The smoothing pot on the front panel can be adjusted to provide dampening for the flow meter
to enable it to give more stable readings.
192
5.32.7 Alarms
Alarms to indicate increase or decrease of flow are provided. An alarm lamp on the front panel
and optional external alarms, consisting of a horn and lamp, inform the driller that preset high
or low return flow limits have been reached which may indicate an impending kick (high) or loss
of mud to an unconsolidated formation (low).
5.33 MUD FLOW SENSOR
The purpose of the mud flow sensor is to monitor the mud flow level in the return flow line.
The signals from the flow sensor are registered on the mud flow indicator providing the
operator with indications of mud flow changes and initial mud flow returns during trips. The
location of the flow sensor in the return flow line gives the driller his first indication of a gas kick
or the beginning of lost circulation.
Drillers Console Rig Floor

40 60 Return Flow Gauge
0 100
Bell Nipple
Drill Pipe
Paddle
Figure 5.58 MUD FLOW SENSOR
The Flow Sensor monitors mud flow through the return line to the shaker using a paddle type
sensor. The assembly is mounted on the return line with the paddle extending through a 9.25 x
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2.50 inch cut-out in the pipe into the mud flow. Deflected by the force of the mud flow, the
paddle drives a potentiometer which provides a DC analogue signal (O to 10 Volt DSc) that is in
proportion in amplitude to the position of the paddle in the mud flow. The resultant signal
registers on the percent of Flow Dial in the console.
5.34 BOP DRILLS
1. BOP drills shall be performed to ensure that crew is adequately trained and remain alert to
implement early kick detection and closing procedures of BOP to shut in the well correctly.
2. BOP drills shall be conducted once a week with each crew, in order to maintain their
alertness and competence.
3. The drill should be initiated at unscheduled times when operations and hole condition
permits.
4. To conduct drill a kick should be simulated by manipulating primary kick indicator such as
the pit level indicator or the flow line indicator by raising its float gradually and checking for
the alarm.
5. The reaction time from float raising to the designated crew member is ready to start the
closing procedure shall be recorded and response time should not be more than 60
seconds.
6. Total time taken to complete the drill shall be recorded and it should not be more than 2
minutes.
7. Following drills should be performed:
 On bottom drill
 Trip drill
 Drill collar in blowout preventer drill
 String out of the hole drill
5.34.1 Shut in procedure for BOP drills

Common points to all type of drill
1. Raise the float gradually
2. Check and see change in pit volume totaliser reading and detection of pit gain.
3. Check for alarm.
5.34.2 Condition-1 : On Bottom Drill (While Drilling)

1. Give signal by raising alarm.
2. Stop rotary
3. Pick up kelly to clear tool joint above rotary.
4. Stop mud pump.
5. Lock the brake securely.
6. Check for well flow.
7. On bottom drill should be carried out only to the point of driller’s recognition,
signaled by raising the kelly and pump shutdown. This is to avoid danger of stuckup.
5.34.3 Condition – 2 : Trip Drill (While Tripping)

2. Position tool joint above rotary and set the pipe on slips.
194
3. Install full opening safety valve in open position. Close FOSV after installation.
4. Close Annular Preventer.
5. Close adjustable choke.
6. Open HCR valve
or
In case there is no HCR valve on choke line then open mechanical valve adjacent to drilling
spool.
7. Make up Kelly or circulating head and open FOSV.
8. Record SIDPP & SICP.
5.34.4 Condition – 3 : Collar in Blowout Preventer Drill

2. Position upper drill collar box at table and set it on slips.
3. Connect a drill pipe joint or stand of drill pipe on drill collar tool joint with change over sub
and run in the hole.
4. Connect FOSV and close it.
5. Close blowout preventer on Drill pipe.
6. Close adjustable choke and open HCR valve / manual valve of choke line.
7. Make up kelly or circulating head and open FOSV.
8. Record SIDPP & SICP.
Note:
Under actual kick conditions (other than drills) if only one stand of drill collar remained in
the hole it would be probably fast to simply pull the last stand and close the blind ram.
5.34.5 Condition – 4 : String is out of hole Drill

2. Close blind / shear ram.
3. Close adjustable choke and open HCR valve.
4. Record shut in pressure.
5.34.6 Stripping Drill

1. The stripping drill should be performed by at least one crew on each well.
2. This drill can be conveniently performed after casing is set and before drilling out cement.
3. Keep the drill string in the hole, install NRV on drill pipe & close a blowout preventer
4. Pressurised the BOP at desired pressure.
5. Reduce the operating pressure of BOP to an acceptable value.
6. Assign position of each crew member .
7. Follow an acceptable procedure and the crew should strip sufficient pipe into the hole to
establish the workability of the equipment and to allow each crew member to learn to
perform their assignments. In addition to establishing equipment reliability, this will permit
the training of at least one crew on each well.
Note:
1. Over a period of time, all crews should become proficient in stripping operations.
2. Stripping drills are not recommended for operations involving sub sea blowout preventer
stacks.
195
5.34.7 Choke Drill

1. The Choke drill should be performed by at least one crew on each well.
2. This drill can be conveniently performed after casing is set and before drilling out cement
from surface casing and each subsequent casing string.
3. Keep the drill string in the hole ,install NRV on drill pipe & close a blowout preventer
4. Pressurised the BOP at desired pressure.
5. Reduce the operating pressure of BOP to an acceptable value.
6. Assign position of each crew member .
7. With pressure trapped below a closed preventer, the choke should be used to control casing
pressure while pumping down the drill pipe at a prescribed rate. This drill will establish
equipment performance and allow the crew to gain proficiency in choke operation.
8. It is desirable to discharge into a trip tank to accurately monitor flow rates for correlation
with choke opening , pump rates, and pressure drops in the circulating system and across
the choke.
Note:
1. Over a period of time, all crews should become proficient in stripping operations.
2. This is particularly important for sub sea blowout preventer stacks in deep water, which
may have significant circulating pressure losses in the choke lines.
5.34.8 Diverter Drill

When the posted instruction is to divert, a diverter drill must be held by crew at the beginning
of every tour. Diverter drills must be carried out to improve the crew’s reaction time and prove
the operation of all diverter system equipment. A drill must be carried out before drilling out
the surface casing. A specific detailed diverter drill must be prepared for each rig/well that
should include the following:
o Simulation of diverting the well according to diverter procedures (includes lining up
pumps to heavy mud).
o The sending of essential personnel to their pre-assigned positions.
o The sending of all non-essential personnel to the muster point or assigned position as
per the Emergency Response Plan.
o Simulate “get ready for disconnect and move off location” on floating rigs
5.35 RING GASKETS & CONNECTIONS
The most common connections for BOPs, Spools, and side outlets are Studded connection,
Flange connection & Hub connection. There are two basic type of flanges type 6B & type 6BX.
6B type of flanges are for all sizes in maximum working pressure rating of 2,000 psi and 3,000
psi. In case of 5,000 psi the type of flanges for sizes smaller than 13 5/8” will be 6B where as
type of flanges for sizes 13 5/8” & above will be 6BX . All sizes of 10,000 psi , 15,000 psi and
20,000 psi rating flanges will be of 6BX type .
Type 6B flanges are for R or Rx type rings having flat bottomed grooves. Since the type of flange
for R and Rx is same that’s why these rings are interchangeable. Type BX – flanges use Bx type
of rings only. Rx and Bx type of ring gaskets are not interchangeable but both provide a
pressure – energized seal.
196
There is considerable merit to the energised seal. With the non- energised type, the weight of
the stack above rests on the seal ring. Weight and vibration deform the rings, loosening the
flanges bolts, and tightening is required from time to time. Energised rings still seal despite
some loosening. Rx rings also carry load, but Bx rings are even better since the design allows
the flanges faces to come together and carry weight. Bx ring gaskets have some interference
and are not recommended for re-use.
Nominal Flange Diameter

Studded Connection Flange Connection
Clamp / Hub Connection

Figure 5.59 DIFFERENT TYPE OF CONNECTIONS
Clamp – type connections of the bolted half – ring are also used and are much quicker to
assemble and disassemble than API flanges. These are designed to withstand external loading,
both bending and tension. The Grayloc ring combines tapered, flexible lips on each side of a
rigid rib. The angle of the lips is slightly less than the mating hub thereby forming a surface seal
as the connection is brought together. The rigidity of the seal provides a definite stop on make
– up and prevents crushing by over tightening the seal. The seal is pressure energised. These
two clamps type connections are similar in appearance.
197
Type R Octagonal Type R Oval
Type Rx Type Bx
PRESSURE ENERGISED RING GASKETS
Figure 5.60 RING GASKETS
Figure5.61 TYPE 6B FLANGE Figure5.62 TYPE 6BX FLANGE

When tightened When tightened
198
RINGS FOR 6B & 6BX TYPE FLANGES
Size Pressure Rating
2M 3M 5M 10M 15M/ 20M
2 1/16” R/RX 23 R/RX 24 R/RX 24 BX 152 BX 152

2 9/16” R/RX 26 R/RX 27 R/RX 27 BX 153 BX 153
3 1/8” R/RX 31 R/RX 31 R/RX 35 --- ---
3 1/16 --- --- --- BX 154 BX 154
4 1/16” R/RX 37 R/RX 37 R/RX 39 BX 155 BX 155
7 1/16” R/RX 45 R/RX 45 R/RX 46 BX 156 BX 156
9” R/RX 49 R/RX 49 R/RX 50 BX 157 BX 157
11” R/RX 53 R/RX 53 R/RX 54 BX 158 BX 158
13 5/8” R/RX 57 R/RX 57 BX 160 BX 159 BX 159
16 3/4” R/RX 65 R/RX 66 BX 162 BX 162 ---
18 3/4” --- --- BX 163 BX 164 BX 164
20 3/4” --- R/RX 74 --- --- ---
21 1/4” R/RX 73 --- BX 165 BX 166 ---
M = 1000 psi Source API RP 16A
NOTE : 1. RING GASKETS SHOULD BE USED CLEAN & DRY . NO

GREASE SHOULD BE APPLIED TO RING GASKETS.
2. RING GASKETS SHOULD NOT BE RE-USED.
199
ANNULAR BLOWOUT PREVENTERS

Bore Size Maximum Gallons Gallons Gallons
Model (inches) Working Secondary To Close To Open
Pressure (PSI)
MH KOOMEY
N 7-1/16 3,000 2.85 2.24
7-1/16 5,000 3.86 3.30
7-1/16 10,000 9.42 7.08
7-1/16 15,000 11.20 7.50
11 3,000 7.43 5.54
11 5,000 9.81 7.9
11 10,000 25.10 18.98
13-5/8 3,000 11.36 8.94
13-5/8 5,000 17.98 14.16
13-5/8 10,000 37.18 26.50
21-1/4 2,000 31.05 18.93
HYDRIL
GK 7-1/16 3,000 2.85 2.24
7-1/16 5,000 3.86 3.30
7-1/16 10,000 9.42 7.08
7-1/16 15,000 11.20 7.50
7-1/16 20,000 10.90 7.20
9 3,000 4.33 3.41
9 5,000 6.84 5.80
9 10,000 15.90 11.95
11 3,000 7.43 5.54
11 5,000 9.81 7.98
11 10,000 25.10 18.97
11 15,000 26.67 20.45
13-5/8 3,000 11.36 8.94
13-5/8 5,000 17.98 14.16
HL 13-5/8 5,000 17.98 26.50
13-5/8 10,000(SH) 37.18 26.50
13-5/8 10,000(LH) 37.18 12.59
16¾ 2,000 17.46 15.80
16¾ 3,000/5,000 28.70 19.93
GX 11 10,000 17.88 17.88
11 15,000 24.14 24.14
13-5/8 10,000 24.14 24.14
13-5/8 15,000 34.00 34.00
18¾ 10,000 58.00 58.00
GL 13-5/8 5,000 8.24 19.76 19.76
16-3/4 5,000 16.60 35.30 35.30
18-3/4 5,000 20.00 44.00 44.00
21-1/4 5,000 29.50 58.00 58.00
200
ANNULAR BLOWOUT PREVENTERS

Bore Size Maximum Gallons Gallons Gallons
Model (inches) Working Secondary To Close To Open
Pressure(PSI)
HYDRIL (Cont.)
MSP 7-1/16 2,000 2.85 1.98
9 2,000 4.57 2.95
11 2,000 7.43 5.23
20-3/4 2,000 31.05 18.93
21-1/4 2,000 31.05 18.93
HL21-1/4 2,000 31.75 19.25
29-1/2 500 60.00 Vent
30 1,000 87.60 27.60
FSP 28 2,000 90.00 75.00
CAMERON
D 7-1/16 3,000/5,000 1.69 1.39
7-1/16 10,000 2.94 2.55
7-1/16 15,000 6.94 6.12
7-1/16 20,000 8.38 7.56
11 3,000/5,000 5.65 4.69
11 10,000 10.15 9.06
11 15,000 23.50 21.30
13-5/8 3,000/5,000 12.12 10.34
13-5/8 10,000 18.10 16.15
16-3/4 3,000/5,000 22.30 19.00
18-3/4 5,000 35.60 29.00
18-3/4 10,000 51.00 45.10
20-3/4 3,000 40.50 28.40
21-1/4 2,000 40.50 28.40
SHAFFER
S 7-1/16 3,000/5,000 4.57 3.21
7-1/16 10,000 17.11 13.95
9 3,000 7.23 5.03
9 5,000 11.05 8.72
11 3,000 11.00 6.78
11 5,000 18.67 14.59
11 10,000 30.58 24.67
13-5/8 3,000 23.50 14.67
13-5/8 5,000 23.58 17.41
13-5/8 10,000 40.16 32.64
16-3/4 5,000 33.26 25.61
18-3/4 5,000 48.16 37.61
18-3/4 10,000 85.00 66.00
21-1/4 2,000 32.59 16.92
21-1/4 5,000 61.37 47.76
30 1,000 122.00 55.00
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5.36 CLOSING RATIO

Closing ratio is defined as the cross sectional area of the ram piston (cylinder) divided by the
cross sectional area of the ram shaft. It is used to determine ram closing pressure which will
overcome wellbore pressure acting on ram body.
Therefore , Closing ratio is also the ratio of well bore pressure or well head pressure to the
pressure required to close the Ram Preventer.
Well bore pressure or well head pressure
Closing Ratio =
Pressure required to close the Ram Preventer
Example
13 5/8”, 10,000 psi, Cameron U type ram preventer
Closing ratio = 7:1, Manifold pressure = 1,500 psi
Calculate pressure required to close the ram if well head pressure is 10,000 psi.
Solution
Closing Ratio =
Pressure required to close the Ram Preventer
Pressure required to close the Ram Preventer = Well bore pressure  Closing Ratio
= 10,000  7 = 1428 psi
It means 1,500 psi manifold pressure is sufficient to close the ram preventer if the well is
flowing at 10,000 psi .
5.37 OPENING RATIO

Opening ratio is the ratio of well bore pressure or well head pressure to the pressure required
to open the Ram Preventer.
Opening Ratio =
Pressure required to open the Ram Preventer
Example
13 5/8”, 10,000 psi, Cameron U type ram preventer
Opening ratio = 2.3:1, Well bore pressure = 10,000 psi
Calculate pressure required to open the ram under pressure. Can the ram preventer be
opened when the well is under pressure ?
Solution
Opening Ratio =
Pressure required to open the Ram Preventer
10,000
Pressure required to open the Ram = = 4,348 psi
2.3
As this pressure is more than the Manifold pressure, the ram can not be opened under
pressure.
202
RAM BLOWOUT PREVENTERS

Bore Size Maximum Working Closing Opening Gallons Gallons
Model (inches) Pressure (psi) Ratio(C.R.) Ratio(O.R.) To Close To Open
MH KOOMEY
PL-HD 7-1/16 Except15M 7.75:1 2.50:1 1.02 .96
PL-PRC 7-1/16 Except15M 7.75:1 2.50:1 1.10 .97
PB-PRC 7-1/16 15,000 * 25:1 * 25:1 .75 .75
PL-PRC 11 10,000 7.75:1 2.50:1 3.60 3.30
PB-PRC 11 15,000 * 25:1 * 25:1 2.66 2.66
PL-HD 13-5/8 5,000/10,000 7.75:1 2.50:1 6.25 5.78
PL-PRC 13-5/8 5,000/10,000 7.75:1 2.50:1 6.25 5.78
PB-PRC 13- 5,000/10,000 * 25:1 * 25:1 2.80 2.80
PB-PRC 5/813- 15,000 * 25:1 * 25:1 3.54 Pip 3.54 Pip
5/8 5.30 Shr 5.30 Shr
PB-PRC 10,000 * 25:1 * 25:1 11.50 Pip 11.50 Pip
18-3/4 19.30Shr 19.30Shr
PB-PRC 15,000 * 25:1 * 25:1 11.50 Pip 11.50 Pip
18-3/4 19.30Shr 19.30Shr
PL-PRC 2,000 7.75:1 2.50:1 12.65 12.18
PL-PRC 21-1/4 5,000 7.75:1 2.50:1 9.70 9.00
*Model PB (Pressure Balanced) Preventers do not oppose wellbore pressure to open or close.
Effective opening and closing ratios of 25:1 are provided for calculation purposes of API 16E.
CAMERON
U-Pipe 7 1/16 ALL 6.90:1 2.20:1 1.30 1.30
11 Except 15M 7.30:1 2.50:1 3.50 3.40
11 15,000 9.80:1 2.20:1 6.20 6.10
13-5/8” Except 15M 7.00:1 2.30 :1 5.80 5.40
13-5/8 15,000 10.60:1 3.60:1 10.60 10.40
16-3/4 3,000/5,000 6.80:1 2.30:1 10.60 9.80
16-3/4 10,000 6.80:1 2.30:1 12.40 11.60
18-3/4 10,000 7.40:1 3.70:1 23.10 21.20
20-3/4 3,000 7.00:1 130:1 8.40 7.90
21-1/4 2,000 7.00:1 1.30:1 8.40 7.90
21-1/4 5,000 6.20:1 4.00:1 29.90 27.20
21-1/4 10,000 7.20:1 4.00:1 26.90 24.50
26-3/4 3,000 7.200:1 1.00:1 10.80 10.10
U-Shear 11 Except 15M 12.00:1 4.80:1 7.60 7.40
11 15,000 15.20:1 3.70:1 9.00 8.90
13-5/8 Except 15M 10.80:1 4.50:1 10.90 10.50
13-5/8 15,000 16.20:1 6.00:1 16.20 16.00
16-3/4 3,000/5,000 10.40:1 4.40:1 19.00 18.10
16-3/4 10,000 10.40:1 4.40:0 19.10 18.20
20-3/4 3,000 10.80:1 1.70:1 14.90 14.30
21-1/4 2,000 10.80:1 1.70:1 14.90 14.30
U-II Pipe 18-3/4 10,000 6.70:1 2.50:1 24.70 22.30
18-3/4 15,000 9.30:1 3.50:1 34.70 32.30
203

Bore Maximum Closing Opening Gallons Gallons
Model Size Working Ratio Ratio To Close To Open
(inches) Pressure (C.R.) (O.R.)
(psi)
HYDRIL
Manual 7-1/16 3,000/5,000 4.80:1 1.50:1 1.00 .93
Lock Pipe 7-1/16 10,000 7.70:1 1.70:1 1.90 1.80
Rams 7-1/16 15,000 7.10:1 6.60:1 3.70 3.40
9 3,000/5,000 4.50:1 2.60:1 1.90 1.90
11 3,000/5,000 6.00:1 2.00:1 3.30 3..20
11 10,000 6.90:1 2.40:1 5.20 5.00
11 15,000 7.20:1 3.24:1 8.80 8.10
13-5/8 3,000/5,000 4.80:1 2.10:1 5.40 4.80
13-5/8 10,000 10.20:1 3.80:1 11.80 11.80
20-3/4 3,000 4.75:1 .98:1 8.10 7.20
21-1/4 2,000 4.75:1 .98:1 8.10 7.20
21-1/4 5,000 10.20:1 1.90:1 17.50 16.60
Manual 11 3,000/5,000 5.60:1 4.20:1 5.50 5.00
Lock 11 10,000 11.70:1 4.00:1 8.80 8.20
Shear 11 15,000 7.20:1 3.24:1 8.80 8.10
Rams 13-5/8 3,000/5,000 10.10:1 4.70:1 11.50 11.20
13-5/8 10,000 10.20:1 3.80:1 11.80 11.80
20-3/4 3,000 10.14:1 2.20:1 17.20 16.30
21-1/4 2,000 10.14:1 2.20:1 17.20 16.30
21-1/4 5,000 10.20:1 1.90:1 17.50 16.60
Multi 7-1/16 3,000/5,000 5.40:1 1.60;1 1.20 .93
Position 7-1/16 10,000 8.20:1 1.70:1 2.00 1.80
Lock Pipe 7-1/16 15,000 7.60:1 6.60:1 3.90 3.40
Rams 11 10,000 7.60:1 2.40:1 5.70 5.00
13-5/8 3,000 5.20:1 2.10:1 5.90 4.90
13-5/8 5,000 5.20:1 2.10:1 5.90 5.20
13-5/8 10,000 10.60:1 3.80:1 12.90 11.80
13-5/8 15,000 7.74:1 3.56:1 12.60 11.00
16-3/4 10,000 10.60:1 2.41:1 15.60 14.10
18-3/4 10,000 10.60:1 1.90:1 17.10 15.60
18-3/4 15,000 7.27:1 2.15:0 19.40 16.70
20-3/4 3,000 10.60:1 .98:1 18.00 1630
21-1/4 2,000 10.60:1 .98:1 18.00 16.30
21-1/4 5,000 10.60:1 1.90:1 19.30 16.60
SL w/10” 7-1/16 10000/15000 3.37:1 2.72 2.32
Piston 13-5/8 3,000/5,000 3.00:1 5.4 4.46
16-3/4 5,000 2.03:1 6.07 4.97
CAMERON
T-Pipe 13-5/8 10,000 8.60:1 4.30:1 13.90 12.90
18-3/4 15,000 6.70:1 3.10:1 24.30 22.40
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Bore Maximum Closing Opening Gallons Gallons
Model Size Working Ratio Ratio To Close To Open
(inches) Pressure (C.R.) (O.R.)
(psi)
HYDRIL
Multi 11 3,000/5,000 6.00:1 4.20:1 6.00 5.00
Position 11 10,000 12.40:1 4.00:1 9.30 8.20
Lock 11 15,000 7.60:1 3.24:1 9.30 8.10
Shear 13-5/8 3,000/5,000 10.60:1 4.70:1 12.00 11.20
Rams 13-5/8 10,000 10.60:1 3.80:1 12.90 11.80
13-5/8 15,000 7.74:1 3.56:1 12.60 11.00
16-3/4 10,000 10.60:1 2.40:1 15.60 14.10
18-3/4 10,000 10.60:1 1.90:1 17.10 15.60
18-3/4 15,000 7.27:1 2.15:1 19.40 16.70
20-3/4 3,000 10.60:1 2.20:1 18.00 16.30
21-1/4 2,000 10.60:1 2.20:1 18.00 16.30
21-1/4 5,000 10.60:1 1.90:1 19.30 16.60
SL w/14” 7-1/16 10000/15000 13.90:1 7.14:1 6.00 5.57

11 10,000 7.11:1 7.62:1 9.45 7.00
11 15,000 7.11:1 2.80:1 9.40 8.10
13-5/8 5,000 10.85:1 10.02:1 11.00 10.52
13-5/8 10,000 7.11:1 4.29:1 10.58 10.52
13-5/8 15,000 7.11:1 2.14:1 11.56 10.52
16-3/4 5,000 10.85:1 5.77:1 11.76 10.67
16-3/4 10,000 7.11:1 2.06:1 14.47 12.50
18-3/4 10,000 7.11:1 1.83:1 14.55 13.21
18-3/4 15,000 10.85:1 1.68:1 14.62 13.33
21-1/4 10,000 7.11:1 1.63:1 16.05 13.86
LWS 7-1/16(6.5) 5,000 5.45:1 1.93:1 1.45 1.18
(8.5”, 10” 9 (8.5) 5,000 5.57:1 3.00:1 2.58 2.27
& 14” 11 (6.5) 3,000 5.45:1 1.16:1 1.74 1.45
Piston) 11 (8.5) 3,000 5.57:1 2.09:1 2.98 2.62
11 (14) 5,000 16.00:1 3.41:1 9.50 8.90
20-3/4 (8.5) 3,000 5.57:1 .78:1 5.07 4.46
20-3/4(10) 3,000 8.16:1 1.15:1 7.80 6.86
20-3/4(14) 3,000 16.00:1 2.21:1 14.50 13.59
21-3/4(8.5) 2,000 5.57:1 .78:1 5.07 4.46
21-1/4(10) 2,000 8.16:1 1.15:1 7.80 6.86
21-1/4(14) 2,000 16.00:1 2.21:1 14.50 13.59
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5.38 ROTATING HEAD
Features:
 Rotating heads are used to pack off the annulus, diverting the air and gas flow down the
blooey line. Without the rotating head, the air and gas would come up through the rotary
table and onto the rig floor.
 Newer-generation heads have sealed bearings rather than external oilers.
 Most are driven by a Kelly driver. This attaches to the Kelly and is mated to a machined
piece on the top of the bearing assembly.
 The Kelly driver transfers rotation of the drill string to the sealing element in the rotating
head.
 The bearing assembly provides a seal and allows rotation of the stripper rubber while the
bowl remains stationary.
 The stripper rubber is designed to rotate with the Kelly since rotating the Kelly within the
stripper rubber would cause the stripper rubber to wear out much faster.
 Hexagonal Kelly allows for a better seal than do square Kellys. These should be used
whenever possible for air drilling applications.
 The life of the sealing element will be increased by proper lubrication and minimal tripping
through it.
 The drill pipe can be tripped through the stripper rubber when necessary but it will reduce
the life of the rubber.
 Pressures on the sealing element are to be kept to minimum so that life of the rubber can
be increased.
Limitations:
 It is a weak link in well control in areas where induced gasification or high GOR is
experienced.
 The manufacturers do not rate the equipment with regard to pressure containment.
 Wear on the rubber element cannot be monitored or predicted. Once the element begins to
wear, its ability to seal reduces continuously until complete failure.
 They do not comply with API specification and as per API RP 53 these are defined as
diverters instead of pressure containment devices.
5.39 ROTATING BLOWOUT PREVENTER
Features:
 It is used with conventional BOP to maintain the surface backpressure during
Under-balance / Horizontal Drilling operations.
 Commonly available nominal flange size available are 7 1/16" x 5000 psi,
11"x 3000 psi, 11"x 5000 psi, 13 5/8" x 5000 psi
 The packing element is hydraulic actuated and is supported on large rollers bearings
isolated by mechanical seals inside a large pressure vessel.
 It has a flange to mount on the BOP stack and a flange on the side for return
discharge.
 The bearing of the rotating BOP get lubricated and cooled by the hydraulic Oil used for
actuating rubber element.
206
 Kelly packer's rubber loss is compensated by increase in hydraulic oil supply. Sealing
element does not fail catastrophically and provides same rated seal throughout the life of
the packer element.
Benefits:
 Provides greater safety to rig personal and environment.
 Reduces drilling fluid cost by using less mud / brine or water.
 Increases drill bit life by drilling with less Hydrostatic pressure.
 Assist in reduction of formation damage.
 Increase penetration rate resulting from drilling with lighter fluid.
 Reduces time in circulating out gas kick.
Construction:
 RBOP consists of main bowl, top cover, bearing assembly, and packing element.
 Surge bottles hydraulic assembly installed close to the inlet hydraulic line for quick
response and smooth operation.
 Hydraulic Power Unit
 Control panel
Fig 5.63 : Rotating BOP (Source: NL Shaffer)
207
CHAPTER -6 DEEP WATER WELL CONTROL
6.1 WELL CONTROL ON FLOATING RIGS
Introduction
Even though the basic well control principles remains same for wells drilled from a jack-up rig
or a land rig as well as for a floating rig, however, a situation on a floating rig can become much
more complicated, especially in deep waters due to following reasons :
 The long distance between the BOP stack and the drill floor.
 Significant additional pressure drop when circulating through the riser choke line.
 Significant changes in the annulus pressure when an influx enters the choke line.
 The possibility of formation of hydrates in the BOP stack or riser choke line & thereby
further complicating the well killing process.
 Delayed response time of stack functions due to long control lines running from rig floor to
sub-sea stack.
 The complex control system consisting of pilot valves for remote function of BOP stack has
more chances of system failure which is much more difficult to diagnose & repair.
 Adverse weather conditions could delay implementation of well killing operations.
 Excessive wear inside the wellhead & BOP stack due to rig movement.
Effect of water depth on formation fracture pressure
Offshore fracture gradients are calculated in fundamentally the same manner. However, since
the uppermost interval is water, which is considerably less dense than rock, the overburden
stress is less as compared to onshore location. As a result, fracture gradients are also lower.
Increasing water depth will reduce the margin between mud weight and fracture pressure. At
the same water depth, the fracture pressure at the shallower section will be decreased more
than the deeper depth
At a shallow depth where the average overburden is greatly reduced by water column, more
casing strings are required to reach the plan casing depth.
6.2 TOP HOLE DRILLING ON FLOATING RIGS

Gas or water flows from shallow sands are difficult to handle while drilling with seawater with
returns to mud line before the BOP and riser are installed. Pore pressure in shallow sands can
be as high as 70 to 80% of overburden. Since shallow holes have high permeability, flow rates
are often several barrels per minute. Therefore, the existence of gas in shallow zones can be a
dangerous situation when drilling. A number of blowouts have been caused by influxes of over-
pressured shallow gas in to the well bore. Because the hole is shallow, gas can reach the surface
within a very short time. Since the time for action is short, a prompt action is necessary to
prevent the blow-out. Often, the well cannot be shut-in because there is possibility of
formation fracture & broaching in shallow zones. When shallow gas broaches to the mud line
the water beneath the drilling vessel can be aerated enough to reduce the buoyancy & cause
208
the rig to become unstable & sink. In general, submersible rigs are less affected by aerated
water whereas moored drilling vessels, with decks closer to the sea’s surface, are at more risk.
The degree of risk depends upon vessel design, load & weather conditions. To overcome the
problem of possible broaching, diverter systems have been used extensively. The system should
be such that the response time for diverter closing should not exceed 45 seconds on large
diameter holes & should be less on smaller holes. The internal diameter of vent lines should be
minimum 10 inches.
In view of above, the main well planning decision involving handling of shallow gas flows is
whether to drill with or without the riser. Merits or demerits of both the options are discussed
below :
6.2.1 Top hole Drilling with Riser

In Sub sea operation a riser is used to provide a conduit (or annulus) for carrying mud from
seabed to floating drilling vessel. If the riser is not used the returns are discarded at the mud
line, in such case at any given time the full hydrostatic pressure of seawater (depending upon
water depth) is acting on the formation.
Advantages
a. A riser provides a flow path for mud returns to the surface, thereby providing a relatively
early warning of shallow gas influx.
b. It reduces mud cost.
c. Allows easy diverting of shallow gas kicks in shallow to medium water depth, since flow rate
is not high & diverter / riser can easily handle it.
d. In shallow waters, while drilling with riser, no risk to floating rig because of loss of buoyancy
due to shallow gas influx.
Disadvantages
a. Very high pump rates may be required to kill the well with a riser.
b. It has been seen that even low flow rates of shallow gas will rapidly unload a riser of mud.
With riser becoming void, a very high flow rate may develop. Whereas without riser, the
seawater itself shall maintain a constant hydrostatic head on the formation and as a result
gas influx will be reduced.
c. In dynamic kill, use of higher mud weight is not possible as it may cause formation
breakdown at shoe.
d. In deep waters, the riser with gas inside may collapse due to hydrostatic head of sea water
acting outside.
e. In emergency situations process of unlatching of hydraulic connector from well head will
hamper the immediate release of floating rig from the location.
However to prevent the riser collapse & to retain the sea water hydrostatic head against a
flowing well & to be able to use large volumes of heavy mud without risk of formation
breakdown, the bottom joint of riser should be provided with a dump valve that can be
operated from the rig floor immediately after it is known that the mud is being displaced from
the riser. The possibility of breaking down of formation due to buildup of cuttings in riser
annulus too could be avoided up-to a large extent by use of booster pumps.
Also Because of hazards of handling shallow gas, particularly when the flow rates are high, it is
advisable to drill a pilot hole thereby restricting the rate of flow & relatively easy handling of
209
the shallow flows with the diverter. With floating rigs, normally no marine riser & BOP stack is
used when drilling a pilot hole. If the pilot hole encounters shallow gas, the gas is allowed to
flow from the hole & in to the water.
6.2.2 Effect of gas expansion in the riser
In shallow/ medium water depths ( 150 – 1,000 ft ) , there is no significant change in gas flow
rate with or without a riser . As flow rate normally is not high so diverter - riser
combination can handle it. In deep waters the magnitude of the pressure in gas zone is
quite high & therefore the flow rate of gas will be high.
There is a big difference in gas flow rate with or without a riser. The reason is that if the riser
is not used and returns are discarded at mud line ,the hydrostatic pressure of sea water is
constantly acting on the formation and hence flow rates are considerable reduced.
In deep waters while drilling shallow gas sands the use of riser can be hazardous due to very
high flow rates which may have to be sustained for an indefinite period. It can cause :
a) Large volume of gas venting on the rig creating a fire hazard
b) A seabed blow out if efforts are made to reduce the flow.
c) Riser collapse in deep waters if mud is evacuated from the riser as shown in figure 6.1 & it
is filled with low density gas. The collapse resistance of riser is further reduced due to riser
tension & bending , it may fall below the sea water hydrostatic pressure acting on the
outside of the riser.
Figure 6.1
210
6.2.3 Top Hole Drilling Without Riser

If riser is not used & returns are discarded at mud line, the hydrostatic pressure of sea water is
constantly acting on the formation & hence the flow rates are considerably reduced. Therefore
this can be considered to be the safest way for a floating rig to cope with shallow gas risks.
Moreover since the gas is routed to the rig floor the rig can move off the location if necessary.
One area of concern is that when shallow gas broaches to the mud line the water beneath the
drilling vessel can be aerated enough to reduce the buoyancy & cause the rig to become
unstable & sink. However, recent studies have indicated that the loss of buoyancy is acceptable
since as the water depth increases the loss of buoyancy becomes lesser & lesser as shown in fig
6.2, but that vessel heeling will occur. Current speed and direction should be considered while
analysing the loss in buoyancy.
Figure 6.2 LOSS OF BUOYANCY
211
6.3 EFFECT OF RISER MARGIN ON MAINTAINING BOTTOM HOLE PRESSURE
In the event of riser getting accidentally disconnected due to vessel drive-off or riser failure
etc. the bottom hole pressure shall be reduced due to loss of hydrostatic pressure as the riser
mud column is replaced by sea water. To compensate this reduction in bottom hole pressure,
some margin has to be added to the drilling mud density which is known as riser margin.
Example:
Water depth - 700 ft
RKB to Sea level - 50 ft
Mud Density - 11 ppg
Seawater density - 8.5 ppg
Well TVD - 10000 ft
Solution :
RISER MARGIN (ppg) =
[ Air Gap + Water depth] x Mud density – [ Water Depth x Sea Water Density]
TVD – Air Gap – Water Depth
[ 50 + 700] x 11 – [ 700 x 8.5] = 0.25 ppg

10000 – 50 – 700
Mud Density including Riser margin = 11+0.25 = 11.25 ppg
6.4 CHOKE LINE FRICTION LOSSES

In Sub sea operations when circulating through choke, flow resistance in the extending choke
line running up from the sub sea BOP to surface is considerable. If pressure losses in choke line
are not taken into account during well killing, an excess pressure unnecessarily may be applied
in the hole. Since fracture gradient generally decreases with increased water depth, so beyond
500ft water depth choke line friction losses should always be considered while planning well
control operations.
6.4.1 Measurement of choke Line friction losses

There are three ways to find out choke line friction losses .These are :
a) Pump down the choke line at slow circulation rate taking the returns into the riser
through open blow out preventer. The pressure thus shown on the choke manifold
gauge is the choke line friction losses. The value so obtained does include circulating
pressure losses in the riser but that is negligible.
b) Record circulating pressure at slow rate through riser with BOP open. Close BOP, open
choke line fail safe valve and record pressure with full choke open . The difference of
the two values is the choke line friction loss.
c) Pump down the choke line at slow circulation rate taking the returns through kill line
with BOP closed . The pressure thus shown on the choke manifold gauge is twice the
choke line friction losses.
212
Corrected choke line friction losses for new mud density can be calculated as follows:-
New mud density

Choke line friction losses with old mud  -------------------------------
Old mud density
Drill pipe pressure should be recorded at two or more slow circulation rates. Choke line
pressure should also be measured over the same range of rates. Both drill pipe pressure &
choke line pressure losses can be plotted separately on Log-Log paper and extrapolated to
provide respective estimated pressure losses at various pump rates because due to high friction
losses in the choke line it may be necessary to circulate out a kick at a very slow rate if
formation breakdown is to be avoided.
6.5 KICK PREVENTION AND DETECTION
6.5.1 Kick warning signs

In deepwater the standard well kick warning signs are the same discussed in chapter 2.
6.5.2 Riser Margin

In deep waters, no riser margin is kept.
6.5.3 Shut-in pressures

Shut-in casing pressure can be masked due to viscosity increase in choke and kill lines due to
length and low temperature, therefore kick detection may be difficult.
In order to reduce viscosity, clear or gelled fluid should be kept in choke & kill lines.
6.5.4 Breaking circulation

In deepwater, the gel strength can be high, especially with synthetic mud. Slow rotation of the
drill pipe can be used to reduce the mud gel strength when breaking circulation.
6.5.5 Drilled Cuttings

6.5.5.1 Riser cuttings
The impact of increased annular fluid density ( riser cuttings ) in creating higher than assumed
hydrostatic pressure can lead to fracturing of low strength casing shoes, which can lead to a
kick. This becomes especially important if the booster line is not available or is not used.
6.5.5.2 Pressure While Drilling Equipment

Pressure while drilling ( PWD ) equipment can be useful to provide down hole pressure
monitoring and to assess equivalent circulating density ( ECD ). This includes effect of high
viscosity as well as any problem related to hole cleaning.
6.5.6 Abnormal Pressure Detection

Detection of abnormal pressure is delayed due to increase in lag time for gas units and cuttings
in deep water.
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Due to the cooling effect of a long riser, flow-line mud temperature is not an effective tool in
assessing formation temperature or abnormal pressure. An on-line sample heater on the mud
prior to measuring gas units should be used, otherwise, cold mud may give lower gas units.
Therefore, measurement while drilling ( MWD ) kick detection methods should be used.
6.5.7 Effect of Pitch, Roll and Heave motions

Pitch, roll and heave motions due to weather & crane activity etc. affect the reliability of pit
level and return mud flow detection methods. Therefore, two or more sensors should be
installed in each pit connected to pit volume totalizer so as to minimise this effect. Moreover,
the location of the sensor is also important i.e. single sensor should be installed in centre &
two sensors should be placed at the edges.
Downhole swabbing and surging from the vessel motion

During operations in Deepwater wells (such as, for instance, running smart completions), there exist
periods when the axial movement of the string in the well remains uncompensated. During these
periods, vessel heave is imposed on the string at the surface, resulting in swab and surge effects
downhole. The problem is further complicated by the presence of multiple flow ports in the string,
and of choke and kill lines at surface, as well as float valves in the string itself. As the margin
between pore and fracture pressure is narrow, these fluctuations can create conditions for an influx
(Swabbing) or lost circulation (Surging), with potentially significant consequences.
6.6 WELL SHUT–IN PROCEDURES
6.6.1 Pre – Kick Preparation

Preparation before a kick includes following :
a. MAASP & maximum allowable mud density values should be displayed preferably at the
driller’s console subsequent to a Leak Off Test. These values should be periodically updated
when the mud properties change.
b. Slow pump rate should be recorded at two or more different SPM, directly through riser &
through choke/kill line with both the pumps. Pressure should be recorded from at least two
gauges so as to rule out the possibility of an error due to gauge failure. Ensure that cuttings
in hole and riser do not affect slow pump data.
c. A sub sea BOP kill sheet duly filled in with current well data should be maintained.
d. A float valve ( NRV ) should always be used in the drill string to prevent back-flow through
drill pipe during an emergency disconnect and / or failure of the shear rams to seal.
e. Choke & Kill line valves’ position ( open/close ) & fluid contents in the lines should be
displayed on a chart or board near the driller’s console.
f. Tool joint space –out for various ram preventers should be displayed.
Note: With increase in water depth, the variation in drill pipe joint length can create
uncertainty in tool joint position, this can be reduced by arranging joints such that the
average length of 8-10 stands do not vary by much.
g. Gas handling capacity of mud – gas separator should be displayed
h. Immediately after lowering BHA the insert packer should be installed & locked.
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i. Hang-off ram should be identified & its hang-off capabilities for the various DP sizes should
be displayed
j. The BOP Drills (including tool joint space out) should be conducted regularly to ensure crew
competency.
6.6.2 Shut-in Criteria, hard Vs. soft shut-in

Soft shut-in leads to more kick volume & therefore higher casing pressure as compared to hard
shut-in. At the same time fluid hammer effect during shut-in happens to be more in case of
hard shut-in. As a matter of fact, whatever hammer pressure does occur it is mainly at the BOP
& down below at the shoe the effect is minimal. Moreover there is only a small difference in
fluid hammer effect between two shut-in practices.
As regards annular Vs. ram shut-in there are advantage of using either approach as described
below :
Advantages of Annular shut-in

a) It allows for the movement of the drill string & reduces chances of string sticking.
b) Before shutting-in there is no need to ensure that tool joint is not near the BOP.
Advantages of Ram shut-in

a) It provide higher pressure rating as compared to annular.
b) It reduces the amount of gas that may be trapped in the BOP.
c) It prevents wear of BOP due to vessel heave in case motion compensator is not working
properly or if compensator is set at less than the string weight.
In view of above it is advised to shut – in with an annular & then hang – off on a ram BOP.
6.6.3 Shut-in while Drilling(Hard Shut-in)

a. Stop rotary table.
b. Raise kelly to hang off point ensuring that lower kelly cock is above rotary table and kelly is
at the pre-designated level so that tool joint is clear of ram preventers.
c. Stop mud pump, check self flow. If yes, proceed further to shut in the well.
d. Close annular BOP (Preferably upper annular)
e. Open fail safe valve on choke line when remote choke is in close position.
f. Close the upper pipe rams.
g. Reduce hydraulic pressure on annular, hang the string and ensure rams are locked.
h. Open annular after bleeding trapped pressure between annular and pipe ram.
i. Record SIDPP, SICP and Pit Gain.
If motion compensator is not working or not reliable, following steps should be followed after
step e) :
a) Set slips and close lower kelly cock. Bleed off stand pipe pressure and break away kelly
above kelly cock.
b) Pick up circulating head make up the same above lower kelly cock, pick up the string to
hang off point and remove slips.
c) Close the upper pipe rams.
d) Reduce hydraulic pressure on annular hang the string and ensure rams are locked.
e) Open annular BOP after bleeding trapped pressure between annular and pipe ram.
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f) Open Lower kelly cock.

g) Record SIDPP, SICP and Pit Gain.
6.6.4 Shut–in while Tripping(Soft Shut-in)

a. Set slips below tool joint.
b. Install full open safety valve (FOSV) in open position, close it & remove slips.
c. Open Fail-safe valve on choke line when remote choke is in close position.
d. Close annular BOP.
e. Calculate the length of the pup joint and /or length of stick up above rotary table to ensure
that the tool joint is clear off the pipe ram to be closed.
f. Make up kelly & open FOSV.
g. Close upper pipe rams. Reduce operating pressure on annular BOP.
h. Lower drill string & hang it off on the rams. Open Annular BOP after bleeding pressure.
i. Record SIDPP, SICP and pit gain.
6.6.5 Shut–in with bit out of the hole or inside riser.

In case kick indication is observed while out of the hole or inside riser the well should be
immediately shut-in with the blind shear rams to avoid entry of influx in riser. Step by step
procedure is as below :
a) At the first indication of flow from the well, close the blind shear rams &. open selected sub
sea Choke & Kill line valves.
b) Monitor flow from the riser & close the diverter as a precautionary measure( ensure riser
booster valve is closed)
c) Record shut-in casing pressure on both Choke & Kill lines, and pit gain.
Prepare for stripping , volumetric or bullheading operations.
6.6.6 Shut –in while Running Casing / Liner

In case of kick indication while running casing/liner, the shut-in sequence will depend on the
following conditions.
 Casing / Liner inside the riser
 Casing / Liner inside the BOPs
 Hanger is below the BOPs & drill pipe is in a position that allows the well to be shut-in.
Depending upon either of above situation the appropriate shut-in procedures as already
discussed in 6.6.3 & 6.6.4 should be followed.
6.6.7 Hang–off consideration

For hanging off the string precise instructions and drills for spacing and landing the string are
helpful. All concerned must know exactly where the tool joint is. Closing the rams on a tool joint
would have dire consequences in a real emergency situation. If a circulating head is to be used
in well kick operations, the hang-off procedure will include the installation of a circulating head.
Following conditions require hang-off :
a) Weather and sea conditions creating excessive heave.
b) Where there are chances of drift-off.
c) When motion compensator cannot prevent the drill string from moving through the annular
due to vessel heave.
d) When riser angle at the Lower Marine Riser Package is greater than the operating limit.
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e) When surface flow from the riser indicates that annular preventer is leaking.
f) When Casing pressure increases above operating limits.
g) When unable to establish full returns, or there is evidence of an underground flow.
Hang-off procedure
The general procedure for running a hang-off tool is as follows, assuming drilling has been in
progress:
a) Pull the bit into the casing shoe plus the distance from the rotary table to the wellhead.
b) Install the inside BOP and make up the hang-off assembly to the string.
c) Run the tool to the wellhead and land on the bore protector, compensating for the weight
of the running string.
d) Turn to the right to release the running sub from the top sub.
e) Pull the running sub above the shear rams. Close both pipe and shear rams and circulate the
riser to seawater (if time and conditions allow).
6.7 WELL KILLING TECHNIQUES

Prior to initiating a kill method, consider breaking circulation in Choke & Kill line if Choke & Kill
line gel strength is high and mud weight / formation integrity margin is low.
6.7.1 Consideration of Choke Line Friction

The effect of long choke lines can be very significant. The pressure loss is related to water
depth, circulating rate, and internal diameter of choke and kill lines. The pressure loss effect of
the choke line applies to all points in the well bore and is especially critical at shallow or weak
casing seats.
The problem can be handled by measuring the choke line friction pressure before drilling out of
casing. The casing pressure could then be reduced by the amount of choke line friction pressure
while bringing the pump to kill speed. The initial circulating pressure (SIDPP + Slow rate
pressure through riser) will be approximately the same if the casing pressure is reduced by the
amount of the choke line friction pressure. Choke line friction can be reduced by lowering slow
circulation rate. Another way of lowering choke line pressure would be to utilize both choke
and kill lines. Normally both lines are utilized specially towards the end of the kill operation.
6.7.2 Effect Of Different Density Fluids In Choke & Kill Lines
In deep water well killing, the displacement of one density fluid by another can cause sharp
changes in the surface pressures. There can be rapid change in casing pressure when gas
displaces mud in the choke line & when the trailing mud displaces gas in the choke line. If the
choke does not respond equally fast then a second influx or formation breakdown may occur.
This makes choke line displacement one of the most difficult stages of the well killing operation.
Moreover, since there is rarely a sharp boundary between gas and mud, several severe and
sharp changes in Casing pressure and Drill pipe pressure are encountered. As the capacity of
choke line is very less, displacement even at kill rate gives very short time to make the
adjustments on choke to keep the BHP constant. Some of the actions suggested to maintain
BHP constant are:
i) To displace the line at an extremely slow rate when gas top reaches the BOP
stack.
ii) Use a large diameter choke line.
iii) Use both choke and kill line in parallel without changing the pump rate.
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6.7.3 Driller’s Method

In driller’s method since the influx remains in the well bore for a shorter time, the probability of
formation of hydrates gets reduced because immediate circulation brings well bore heat up
thereby helps keeping temperatures at BOP & choke & kill lines above than required for
formation of hydrates. Step by step killing procedure has been discussed in chapter 3.
6.7.4 Wait & Weight Method

In wait & weight method lesser circulation is required for killing the well. Another advantage of
this method is that it gives lesser surface pressure & also less casing shoe pressure if open hole
annular volume is more than string volume. Step by step killing procedure has been discussed
in chapter 3.
6.7.5 Choke Pressure Fluctuations

As the gas influx is circulated up the annulus its height will increase considerably when it is
displaced from the annulus into the small diameter choke line. Unless the surface choke is
quickly closed down a sharp reduction in Bottom Hole Pressure could occur leading to a
secondary kick. Similarly as the gas is circulated out of the choke line the mud replacing it will
cause a sudden increase in Bottom Hole Pressure and in order to avoid the risk of fracturing
exposed formations the choke will need to be rapidly opened.
The above effect on the choke pressure profile in deep waters as compared to a fixed rig is
shown in figure no.6.2
These choke pressure fluctuations will become more pronounced as the water depth increases.
6.7.6 Choke & Kill Lines Consideration

Floating rigs for deep waters should have provision for two choke & kill lines which serves
following purposes:
a. Pumping through both the lines helps to reduce the choke line friction loss by 50-60 %
for same circulation rates
b. A back up for the line in use
c. While bringing the pump to kill rate static line’s pressure can be kept constant in order
to compensate for choke line friction loss
d. Help circulating out trapped gas below BOP
e. Help circulating a well in which string is hung-off with the drill pipe disconnected below
closed blind rams
f. If the gas is not dissolved, the use of both choke & kill lines causes BOP stack to act as a
mud/gas separator
Use of both choke & kill lines as a mud gas separator
i) Most of the gas will rise to the top of the BOP cavity & shall exit through upper choke
line, as a result upper choke line shall have more gas as compared to lower choke line.
ii) Consequently, hydrostatic head in upper line shall be less which causes reverse flow
from lower line due to U-tube effect. As shown in figure, upper line takes higher flow
rates as the mud flow from lower line is added to it. Due to this the fluid entering lower
line has more mud in it.
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iii) This affects the pressure behaviour at the surface as it reduces surface pressure
fluctuations & degree of choke adjustment.
Choke Pressure profile comparison
2800
Gas Reaches The Choke
2400 Floating Rig
Choke Pressure (psi)
2000 Mud enters the choke line
1600
Gas Filling The Choke Line
1200
800 Mud filling the choke line

Fixed Rig
400
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Volume of Mud Pumped (bbl)
Choke Pressure variation with water depth
2800 3000 ft water depth

2400
Choke Pressure (psi)
1500 ft water depth

2000
1600 300 ft water depth
1200
Fixed Rig
800
400
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Volume of Mud Pumped (bbl)
Figure 6.3 CHOKE PRESSURE FLUCTUATIONS
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To choke manifold
Flow reversed
More gas due to
in upper U-tube
choke line
Figure 6.4 USE OF TWO CHOKE LINES AS BOP SEPARATOR EFFECT
 Choke line friction loss consideration when SICP<CLFL

When the SICP<CLFL , as the well is brought to desired kill rate, an extra pressure equal to the
difference of CLFL & SICP ( i.e CLFL-SICP) shall be applied in the well-bore which is
undesirable.
If the magnitude of this pressure is considered excessive then a slower value of pump rate
should be selected. Alternatively, the returns could be taken up both the kill & choke lines.
If this extra pressure is not considered excessive , the resulting ICP shall be higher by the
difference of CLFL & SICP. Therefore, the drill pipe pressure step down schedule values shall
also be higher as compared to pre-determined values.
6.7.7 Trapped Gas
After the kill operation, some gas will remain trapped in the space between the close preventer
and the choke line outlet used for circulation.. Volume of this gas can be significant if the
closed preventer is an annular preventer. In surface operations this gas does not pose any
problem because pressure of the gas, being at surface, is minimal. Whereas, in sub sea stacks
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the pressure of the gas trapped below preventer is equal to hydrostatic head of kill mud in the
choke line. Volume of trapped gas depends on following factors :
a) The arrangement of BOP stack and size of preventer.
b) Type of drilling fluid in use.
Removal of Trapped gas

In order to prevent a rapid unloading of riser mud due to trapped gas when the preventer is
opened, following actions are recommended.
a. Isolate the well bore from the riser closing lower pipe ram (preferably).
b. Pump through kill line and circulate hydrate inhibited sea water across the stack
maintaining back pressure at choke.
c. Once the circulation is complete close the kill line fail safe valve.
d. Bleed off choke line pressure through choke at surface.
e. Open the annular / upper ram preventer to sweep remaining gas down, into the choke
line due to U-tube effect.
f. Close annular / upper ram preventer, circulate kill mud through kill line and displace kill
line, BOP & choke line with kill mud.
g. Close diverter, open annular/upper ram preventer and displace the riser mud with kill
mud pump through kill line.
h. Check for any pressure below the lower ram preventer.
i. Open the ram preventer and diverter. & resume normal operation.
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6.8 SUB SEA BOP STACK
Each component in the blowout preventer assembly usually has several functions to perform.
Ram type preventers, for example, when equipped with pipe rams are used to seal against a
pre-designated size and to support or to suspend the drill string weight when the need arises.
When equipped with shear blind rams, ram preventers can be used to part the drill string and /
or seal over an open well bore. Annular preventers can seal on different shapes ( except bit ,
stabiliser & underreamer) in the well bore and are also used to strip the drill string in the well
bore under pressure. The kill and choke valves are used to provide flexibility in circulating fluids
out of the well bore and to isolate the BOP stack in the event of a kill and /or choke line
rupturing. The hydraulically operated BOP connectors are used to remotely connect and
release the riser, and the BOP stack. The connections, other than those made hydraulically,
are made with clamps or flanges. However, clamps are preferred because they reduce overall
stack height, can be connected faster and are stronger.
There are certain objectives to be considered in designing the proper arrangement of

equipment within he BOP stack. Specifically, the arrangement should provide a reliable means
of :
a) Closing in on open hole or around drill pipe or collars, stripping the drill string to
bottom, and circulating a well kick.
b) Allowing these conditions to be sustained over a prolonged period of time.
c) Suspending the drill string at the BOP stack, the shearing the drill pipe if necessary,
and closing in the well, so that the drilling vessels can be moved off location.
d) Monitoring the well before re-entry and circulating out any hydrocarbon before opening
the blind rams.
e) Providing redundancy in the event of any function failure.
Sub sea BOP stack is mainly in two parts one is Main BOP stack other is Lower Marine Riser
Package (LMRP). The lower marine riser package is upper most part of BOP which consist of
normally a high pressure connector, an annular which is optional, a flex joint to compensate
the movement of risers and a top riser connector to connect riser on top of it. The high
pressure connector on LMRP is hydraulically operated which can latch or unlatch to LMRP with
main BOP stack.
In sub-sea BOP stack, there are normally two annular preventers, one in LMRP and one in Main
stack known as upper annular and lower annular respectively. There are two basic reasons for
having two annular preventers. First, the upper annular preventer would be used as the
"working" preventer. When its sealing element fails, it can be replaced by tripping the
preventer with the riser, without the added expense of plugging the well and pulling the entire
BOP stack. Secondly, if the drill string has to be stripped to the bottom or if the drill pipe is
reciprocated through the closed upper annular preventer during hanging off operations, an
additional annular preventer would be available to complete the well operations.
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Riser Adapter
Flex Joint
Choke and kill Coflex hose
Junction Box Annular BOP
Control POD
Accumulator Bottles
LMRP Connector
(Riser Connector)
Fig 6.5 Lowe Marine Riser Package(LMRP)
Lower Annular BOP
Upper Double RAM BOP
Fail Safe Valves
Lower Dual RAM BOP
Wellhead Connector
Fig 6.6 Main BOP Stack (Lower BOP stack)

223
Sub sea BOP stack are mostly equipped with four ram type preventers. Which are hydraulically
operated and having an automatic locking system, which lock them in the closed position.
More number of ram preventers are used in sub sea stack than land rig because, the BOP once
lowered to sea bed will have sufficient back-up for ram preventer in case any ram fails to hold
pressure. The provision of shear blind ram is always made in BOP stack so that in case of any
emergency the drill string can be sheared off and by unlatching the LMRP drilling vessel can be
moved to the shore, leaving the BOP stack on the well head.
6.9 SUB SEA BOP HOOK-UP & CONTROL
6.9.1 Hydraulic Fluid Mixing System
For sub sea stack operation, the closing units hydraulic fluid reservoir is a combination of two
storage sections, one containing mixed fluid to be used in operation and other, section
containing the concentrated water soluble hydraulic fluid to be mixed with water to form the
mixed hydraulic fluid. The mixing system has a air pump fitted on concentrated soluble oil tank,
fresh water line with flow meter, a regulator and fluid level indicator. The mixing system is
automatically controlled system, when the mixed fluid reservoir level drops to a certain point,
the mixing system will turn on and water and hydraulic fluid concentrate will be mixed into the
mixed fluid reservoir.
224
Fig 6.7 SUBSEA BOP HOOKUPS AND CONTROLS
225
6.8
226
6.9.2 Hose And Hose Reels

The hose bundle used on offshore floating rigs to operate BOP stack consists of 3/16" or 1/8"
diameter pilot lines and 1" or 1 1/2" diameter main supply lines. For Electro hydraulic system
electric cables with integrated hydraulic power supply line is used.
6.9.3 Sub sea Control Pods

It is a hydraulic junction consisting of pilot operated valves which are used to operate the
function of sub sea BOP stack and hydraulic regulators. The control pods are retrievable and
non-retrievable type. The hose bundle is connected to the sub sea pod to give hydraulic supply
from the closing unit.
6.9.4 Marine Risers

Marine risers are the pipes along with two high pressure pipes outside of body called choke and
kill line with support flanges which have guided ribs and provide support for choke and kill lines.
These choke and kill lines are having clamp-on support to the riser pipe body. At one end of the
riser pipe a pin type connector and on the other end a box type connector is welded to connect
the risers. A marine riser fulfils the following functions:
a) It provides an annular flow path around the drill pipe for transporting drilling fluid and
cuttings from the well bore to the surface of vessels.
b) It serves as a critical flow link between the vessel and BOP stack to aid in well control
procedures.
c) It is used to run sub sea BOP stack and LMRP to the ocean floor.
d) It helps in guiding the drill pipe, bit and other tool to the well.
6.9.5 Riser Dump Valves / Auto Fill Valve

Riser dump valves are used on the riser joint to prevent the riser from collapsing under external
pressure in the event of sudden mud loss or while diverting shallow gas. Riser with auto fill up
valve have an outer sliding sleeve which opens automatically when the internal riser pressure
differential is 100 to 150 psi less than the external pressure, and fills the riser with sea water.
The riser auto-fill up valve is usually located at least 250 to 300 ft. below the surface of the
water.
Riser dump valve/auto-fill valve has a override mechanism. This over ride cylinder is centred
over the piston by an actuator having a floating piston which floats freely through the flanges
on the sliding sleeve. This sleeve can be moved up by applying pressure to the bottom of the
cylinders which results in opening of fill-up ports. When hydraulic pressure is released the
sleeve moves down thereby closing the fill-up ports.
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6.9
228
6.9.6 Hydraulic Latch / Low Pressure Connector

After lowering conductor casing well can be drilled down either with returns or without returns.
When drilling without returns appropriate BHA is made up and run down to drill with sea water.
In this case, all the cuttings will spill over the sub sea guide structures on the mud line.
Figure 6.10 Lowering of Hydraulic Latch
Drilling with returns requires a hydraulic latch, flex joint, marine risers and diverter to provide
the necessary closed circuit for circulation and means to control shallow gas if encountered.
Hydraulic latch/low pressure connector is the sealed interface connection between conductor
casing’s well head housing and marine risers. In most of the hydraulic latches, four hydraulic
cylinders are attached to the main body, and are used to drive the dog ring downward which
forces dogs to come out & latch with well head housing. Internal latch and external latch type
low pressure connectors are available with some of the manufacturers. Internal latch type
connectors are lowered and latched on the well head housing from inside. External latch type
connectors are lowered on the top of the well head housing and latched on the outside. A flex
joint is provided on the top of the hydraulic latch, which allows for any deflection from vertical
to which the drilling vessel might be subjected.
Riser with slip/telescopic joint on top is used to get the mud returns to the surface and
compensate for up and down movement of the drilling vessel. Diverter on the top of slip joint
is used to diverter the flow in case of shallow gas and in normal condition allows the return to
go to shale shakers through flow line.
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Recommendations
a) Prior to running the hydraulic latch, it should be function tested and latch dogs should be
free and greased.
b) Seals of the hydraulic latch should be checked prior to lowering.
c) Preferably hydraulic latch with flex joint and riser connector should be stored in the
moon pool areas as a package.
d) Hydraulic locking pressure should be maintained during operation..
e) While releasing the latch from housing, motion compensator or riser tensioners should be
used to avoid damage to the dogs of the latch and profile of well head housing.
6.9.7 SPM Valve & Pilot Operating System

Sub Plate Mounted (SPM) valves are pilot operated valves mounted on a sub plate. These
valves are spring return type, normally closed and pilot operated . The spring force and
hydrostatic pressure of sea water keep the valve in closed position. The pilot pressure opens
the valve and it allows the regulated operating fluid to go to the function. When a Manipulator
valve of pilot supply is operated to close/ open, the pilot supply goes to both the active and
redundant pods and operates the SPM valves of both the pods. The operating fluid through the
SPM valve of selected /active pod starts going to the function. The pilot system is a close
system and uses the same fluid which is used for operating the BOP functions. There are
separate accumulator bottles for operating pilot system.
6.9.8 Shuttle Valve

Shuttle Valve is basically 3- way valve. It has two inlets and one outlet with a shuttle inside.
Main function of these valves is to isolate regulated operating control fluid from selected
/active pod to isolated/redundant pod. When any BOP function is operated, pressurised fluid
from SPM valve of the active pod shifts the shuttle of the shuttle valve to isolate the redundant
pod from the function and directs pressurised fluid to go to the function. The Shuttle valves
allow to retrieve the inactive/ malfunctioning/ leaking pod without loosing hydraulic control of
BOP.
Shuttle
Connection to
Inactive pod Pressurised
fluid from active
pod
To function
Figure 6.11 SHUTTLE VALVE
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6.9.9 Sub sea BOP Control System

For sub sea drilling operations, the BOPs are remotely located and are more complex in nature.
Hence in the event of controlling all the functions through direct hydraulics control, as is the
case in surface BOP operations, the resulting control lines connecting all the functions of BOPs
to the surface would be prohibitively large to handle, cumbersome and prone to damage.
Moreover, as the lines become long , the reaction time of BOP operations would be sluggish
due to the larger distance to the BOP functions and the consequent pressure drop.
In order to overcome the above problems indirect operating systems have been developed.
They are mainly of two types-
1. Indirect Hydraulic control system
2. Multiplex Electro-hydraulic control system
Out of the above two systems, the indirect hydraulic system is by far most commonly used
system.
6.9.9.1 Indirect Hydraulic Control system
This system consists of an Umbilical hose comprising of one main large diameter hydraulic line
and several smaller diameter pilot lines. The power fluid is carried by the large diameter line to
a manifold installed on the BOP ( called Pod) on which several valves( called SPMs ) are
mounted. The pilot line corresponding to the BOP function actuates the corresponding SPM
valve which in turn supplies the fluid to the BOP function.
Hence the main features of indirect Hydraulic system are :-
- Transmitting hydraulic power to the BOP down a large diameter line
- Transmitting hydraulic signals down smaller lines to pilot valves which in turn direct the
operating power fluid to the appropriate BOP function.
As the BOP is placed at sea bed level, it is uneconomical to pull it out every time for any kind of
repair , hence 100% redundancy backup is provided by having two identical hoses and pods to
the BOP. These are usually referred to as the blue and the yellow pods.
As with increasing water depths it is not possible to have return line of the main hydraulic fluid
because of frictional losses and extra line considerations, no attempt is made to recover the
hydraulic power fluid once it has been used to operate a function. As cost of use of hydraulic oil
will be prohibitive, hence a special water based fluid having lubrication and corrosion inhibition
properties is used. Normally the oil to water mix ratio is 1: 50 or 1:100.
The main manufactures of control systems are NL Shaffer, Koomey, Steward and Stevenson
and the Valvcon Division of Hydril. The general system will be discussed in details to illustrate
the general concept. All systems work on same principle with very little variation in equipment.
231
Fig. 6.13 shows the general arrangement. The operation command can be given in following
ways :-
1. From Main panel( at drillers station), Mini Panel( tool pusher/DIC station) whereby an
electric signal is sent to main surface control unit where the pilot valve is operated by
solenoid actuated air operators.
2. Manually at control unit by actuating the lever at surface control unit.
The operation of pilot valve at surface sends a pilot signal down to the pod mounted on BOP
stack. The pilot signal operates the corresponding SPM and the fluid from the main line after
regulation is sent to the appropriate function.
The pilot fluid is sent to the sub sea control pods through individual, small diameter hoses
bundled around the larger diameter main fluid hose which delivers the power fluid. In order to
provide complete redundancy for the sub sea portion of the control system there are two
independent hydraulic hose bundles and two independent control pods.
The hydraulic hose bundles ( or umbilicals ) are stored on two hose reels, each of which is
equipped with a special manual control manifold so that certain stack functions can be
operated whilst the stack is being run. The Hydraulic hose bundles connecting the surface
hydraulic control unit to the two hose reels are called jumper hoses.
For repair purpose each pod along with its umbilical can be retrieved and run independently of
the BOP stack. In order to do this, the pod and umbilical is run on a wireline which is usually
motion compensated. In some designs especially in deeper water depths, the umbilical is run
attached to the riser in order to give it more support and reduce fatigue at hose connections.
The pod is still attached to a wireline for retrieval purposes. This design has the advantage of
not having to handle the umbilicals whenever the pod is pulled but has the disadvantage of
requiring more sub sea remote hydraulic connections. Guidance of the pod is provided by the
guidewires and guideframes.
The power fluid is routed to the sub sea control pod selected by the pod selector valve which is
located in the central hydraulic control manifold. The line to the non-selected pod is vented to
surface. The power fluid at the pod is at 3000 psi pressure.
232
Figure 6.12 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT SUB SEA HYDRAULIC CONTROL SYSTEM
233
Sub sea Hydraulic Control for Electric Operated Driller’s Panel
1. Hydraulic Power Unit with Pumps
2. Hydraulic Jumper Hose Bundles
3. Sub sea Hose Reels with Manual Control Manifold
4. Sub sea Hydraulic Hose Bundles
5. Sub sea Control Pods
6. Sub sea Accumulators
7. Retrieving Frame for Sub sea Pods
8. Electric Control Power Supply Cable
9. Electric Power Pack
10. Electric Power Cable to Control System
11. Central Hydraulic Control Manifold
12. Air Winches for Running Sub sea Pods
13. Master Electric Panel Control Cable
14. Master Electric Panel
15. Electric Mini Panel Control Cable
16. Electric Mini Panel
17. Sheaves for Sub sea Hose Bundles
18. Wire Lines to Sub sea pods
19. Sheaves for Wire Lines to Sub sea Pods
234
This pressure is then regulated down to the pressure required to operate the stack function, by
a sub sea regulator situated in the control pod. i.e 1500 psi for ram, connector and fail safe
valve operation and 600-1500 psi for annular operation. Adjustment of this regulator is
performed from the surface via dedicated pilot and read-back lines in the hose bundle.
Pilot fluid is always directed to both pods at the same time. When the pilot fluid for a particular
function reaches each pod it lifts the spindle of its associated SPM ( sub plate mounted ) valve
in both pods. This allows the fluid to pass through the SPM valve and be routed to the stack
function via a shuttle valve in the pod where the power fluid is available.
Read back Pressure
Regulator
(Manifold/Anuular)
Pilot Pressure
Fig 6.13 : Operation of SPM Valve
235
 Operating Sequence
Each BOP stack function has a corresponding pilot control valve on the surface control unit
which is actuated either manually or by an air operator.
Close function
In fig 6.14, one of the BOP rams is being closed using the drillers master control panel. By
Pushing the `close’ button on this panel an electric signal actuates the close solenoid valve on
the surface control unit thus allowing air pressure to move the pilot control valve to the `close
position’. The open side solenoid valve on the right in the diagram vents the other side of the
air cylinder. With the pilot control valve in the `close’ position, pilot fluid at 3000 psi is sent
down the umbilical to the RAMS CLOSE SPM valve in the sub sea control pods. The pressure lifts
the spindle in this valve so that it seals against the upper seat, thus blocking the vent.
As the valve lifts up and seals against the top seal the regulated fluid is allowed to flow
through the shuttle valve to the `close’ side of the BOP ram cylinder. Simultaneous reciprocal
action in the RAMS OPEN SPM valve vents the hydraulic fluid from the òpen’ side of the BOP
ram.
Block Function
The block function as the name indicates is for blocking a particular function i.e Pilot signal of
both the SPMs of a particular BOP function are vented which in turn vents the open and close
chamber of the BOP. This is particularly helpful in locating leaks in SPMs, Shuttle Valves, Seals
or Hoses so that remedial action can be taken.
Blocking is achieved by centering the pilot valves on the surface control unit which vents the
pilot lines to the tank. It is always a good practice to block all functions when the unit is being
pressurized for the first time so as to prevent unintentional and inadvertent operation of any
BOP function.
Referring to fig. 6.15, when the `block’ button is pressed, electrical signal actuates the solenoid
valves in such a way so as to apply pressure to both sides of the air operator. This causes the
pilot control valve to be centered which then allows both the pilot òpen’ and `close’ lines to be
vented. The springs in both the SPM valves then push the spindles down so that they seal
against the bottom seats and block the flow of any regulated fluid through the SPM valves. At
the same time this also vents both sides of the BOP ram operating cylinders.
236
Pilot Fluid Power Fluid

OPEN BLOCK CLOSE
Accumulators Accumulators
Solenoid Valve
Solenoid Valve
Pilot Control Mix Water Tank
Air Valve Pod Selector Valve
Operator
3 Position
Rig Air
4 way valve
Main Hydraulic
Fluid at 3000 psi
Regulated Fluid Yellow Pod Blue Pod

at 1500 psi
Close Open
Pilot Pressure at SPM SPM
3000 psi
Rig Air Pressure Inactive
at 125 psi pod
Vented Pressure
Shuttle Valve
Shuttle Valve
BOP Rams
Figure 6.14 Operating

OPERATINGSequence Close Function
SEQUENCE CLOSE FUNCTION
237

OPEN BLOCK CLOSE
Solenoid Valve
Solenoid Valve
Operator
3 Position-
4 way valve
Rig Air
Main Hydraulic
Fluid at 3000 psi

at 1500 psi
Close Open
3000 psi
at 125 psi pod
Vented Pressure
Shuttle Valve
Shuttle Valve
BOP Rams
Operating Sequence
Figure 6.15 OPERATING BLOCK
SEQUENCE Function
BLOCK FUNCTION
238
Open Function
This sequence is the parallel opposite of the CLOSE function. As shown in fig. 6.16, when the
òpen’ button is pressed, the open solenoid valve on the surface control unit is actuated and
allow air pressure to move the operator on the pilot control valve to the òpen’ position. The
solenoid valve on the left in the diagram vents the `close’ side of the operating piston.
The pilot fluid then flows down to the sub sea control pod where it lifts the spindle in the RAMS
OPEN SPM valve thus blocking the vent and allowing regulated fluid to flow through the shuttle
valve to the òpen’ side of the BOP ram cylinder. Simultaneous reciprocal action in the RAM
CLOSE SPM valve allows the fluid from the `close’ side of the operating cylinders to be vented.
FUNCTIONAL PROBLEMS DURING OPERATIONS OF A INDIRECT HYDRAULIC CONTROL SYSTEM

Symptoms Analysis Action Recommended
1 Accumulator pressure dropping very fast Leaking Put 3 position 4 way valve in
with flow meter running continuously. Power Hose block position. And operate
Manifold or annular pressure will also another BOP.
drop depending on whether ram or
annular BOP was operated.
2 Put manipulator valve in neutral

Pilot pressure dropping with no visible Leaking signal
change in flowmeter reading and other line .Try operating another BOP or
gauges. use different POD for same BOP
(if time permits).
3 Pilot pressure dropped but other Malfunctioning Put manipulator valve in neutral
pressures constant .No change in SPM valve .Try operating another BOP or
flowmeter. use different POD for same BOP
Flow meter running continuously with (if time permits).
drop in pressure.
4. While operating function from one pod Shuttle Valve Try operating another BOP or
pressure drop will be absent, while it will stuck use different POD for same
be getting operated from other pod. BOP (if time permits).
5 Communication in between yellow and Shuttle valve Try operating another BOP
blue pod. Flow meter will run leaking .Change the valve in next BOP
continuously. pullout.
6. No change in read back pressure and flow Malfunction Put manipulator valve in
meter. manipulator neutral. Try operating another
valve BOP.
239

OPEN BLOCK CLOSE
Solenoid Valve

Operator
Rig Air
Main Hydraulic
Fluid at 3000 psi

at 1500 psi
Close Open
3000 psi
at 125 psi pod
Vented Pressure
Shuttle Valve
Shuttle Valve
 Multiplex BOP Control System
BOP Rams
Figure 6.16 OPERATING SEQUENCE OPEN FUNCTION

Operating Sequence Open Function
240
6.9.9.2 Multiplex Electro-Hydraulic Control Systems
6.9.9.2.1 Development of Electro-Hydraulic Control Systems

Rapid response is of particular importance when drilling in deep water. Rapid response is
important because of the possibility of a DP system drive-off necessitating an emergency
disconnect from the BOP stack. The response time constitutes the two main elements; signal
time and hydraulic execution (flow) time.
The response time for closing of blowout preventers, when located at seabed, will be up to 45
seconds. API RP 16E, section 16E.3.1, states the control system for a subsea BOP stack should
be capable of closing of each ram BOP in 45 seconds or less. Closing response time should not
exceed 60 seconds for annular BOPs. Operating time response time for choke and kill valves
(either open or close) should not exceed the minimum observed ram close response time. Time
to unlatch the LMRP should not exceed 45 seconds.
Electro-hydraulic control systems were developed to provide rapid signal time. In 3000 ft water
depth, an E/H control system will function substantially faster than a conventional hydraulic
system. Pilot signal transmission time with an E/H system (3000 ft depth) is a fraction of a
second whereas hydraulic pilot signal time through 3000 ft of pilot hose can be as much as 30
seconds and more depending on the type of system and the type of pilot hose. The basic difference
between E/H and hydraulic control systems is pilot signal transmission. The E/H system achieves its
rapid response by transmitting an electrical pilot command signal to a solenoid operated pilot valve
in the subsea pod which in return directs the pilot pressure to the designated hydraulic control valve.
Early electro-hydraulic BOP control systems utilised DC circuits to actuate each solenoid pilot valve
in the control pod. This required a large number of conductors resulting in a large, stiff control
cable. Considerable difficulty with system reliability was experienced with the early DC circuit E/H
control systems due, in part, to problems with the large, multi-conductor control cable and its
terminal fittings. Additionally, the early E/H circuitry did not have sufficient safeguards against
spurious commands. The need to develop an advanced system was felt as in one instance, a BOP
stack was dropped to the sea floor when sea water created a short circuit across the face of a cable
connector causing the upper hydraulic connector to open. These problems with the early E/H
control systems prompted the development of the multiplex E/H control systems which are now in
use on most specially designed deep water DP drilling vessels.
6.9.9.2.2 Multiplex BOP Control Systems

The primary difference between multiplex E/H systems and the earlier individual DC circuit E/H
systems is in the mode of signal transmission between the surface control units and the subsea
pods. Utilising electronic transceivers in the surface control unit and the subsea control pods, the
multiplex system transmits coded command and data signals similar to FM radio transmission over a
small multi-conductor cable . Command signals are received at the control pod, decoded, verified by
reciprocal transmission to the surface and then executed within a fraction of a second as shown in
fig 6.17. In addition to command/data signal transmission, the multiplex control cable transmits
television signals and power for solenoid valve actuation.
The principal advantages of multiplex over earlier E/H systems are a much smaller, lighter weight
control cable and less susceptibility to spurious command signals that could be generated by short
circuits or other component failures since coded signals are used. A typical deep water multiplex BOP
stack with TV cameras can be controlled through a 16 conductor, 1.4-inch OD. armoured cable.
Earlier standard E/H control systems required a 2.5 in OD. cable with in excess of 100 conductors to
control a similar BOP stack.
The MUX system provides electrical power, hydraulic power, control signals and communication to
the numerous BOP functions. It uses modems (modulator/demodulator) to send and receive signals
241
to and from control computers, via copper wires. The cable goes from the rig and down along the
riser to the BOP. The multi conductor cables carry the multiplexed signals in both directions. The
power is provided by the Power and Communication Cabinets (A & B).Each cabinet has a dedicated
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) delivering 230 VAC electrical power. It has the ability to power
the BOP system for a minimum of two hours, should the main be lost.
The MUX control pod is an electro-hydraulic valve control mounted on the LMRP. Normally there are
two pods, but systems including three do exist. They are identical, interchangeable and can be
installed in the blue or yellow position. Each pod consists of hydraulic pressure regulators, solenoid
pilot valves, subsea electronic modules (SEMs), subsea transducer modules (STMs), hydraulic valves
and hydraulic accumulators. Both pods receive commands from the MUX and initiate solenoid valve
actions; however, only one does it with hydraulic fluid, causing the effect of the other pod to be
none.
The hydraulic fluid is transported from the reservoir bank, through rigid and flexible conduit lines in
the umbilical and ending in the conduit valve package. In the conduit valve package a pod selector
directs the fluid to one of the pods. Before entering the pod, the fluid pressure is controlled/adjusted
by a hydraulic regulator.
Each pod contains a low-pressure accumulator and a solenoid valve for each preventer. The
generated low-pressure fluid is directed via a shuttle valve and into a pilot valve, opening for the high
pressure fluid to go to the preventer(s) through hard lines.
An example of the process could be: For Situations requiring a BOP ram to close, a MUX signal would
be sent from the central control unit to the pod for decoding. The decoded signal would notify the
specific solenoid valve to open, causing the low-pressure hydraulic fluid to open the pilot valve. As a
result, the pilot valve would shift and send stored high-pressurized hydraulic fluid from the
accumulator to the BOP ram for closure.
6.9.9.3 Secondary(Backup) Control Systems
In addition to the dual main control system, back up systems are also often installed. These are
normally an acoustic control system as described later, and a ROV operated hot line system. The
hot line system allows a hydraulic line to be connected to the desired function on the BOP stack (such
as the LMRP) connector, the wellhead connector, etc. by means of a ROV.
a. Acoustic Backup Control system

Most deep water drilling vessels are now equipped with an acoustic control system to serve as an
emergency backup in case the primary control system becomes inoperative because of cable failure
or hydraulic supply line failure, etc.. These systems function independently of the primary control
system and are usually configured to operate three or four critical BOP stack functions such as shear
rams close, pipe rams close, ram locks close, and lower riser connector open (including possible kill
and choke line connectors and disconnect assist (lift-off) system).
The acoustic control system as shown in fig 6.18 operates basically like a multiplex E/H system
except that coded command signals are transmitted acoustically through the water rather than
through an electrical cable. The surface control unit transmits coded acoustic signals from a
transponder beneath the vessel hull or from a portable unit that can be operated from a work-boat.
The signals are received by a hydrophone and processed by electronics in an acoustic "mini-pod" on
the BOP stack. The acoustic control pad contains solenoid pilot valves and pilot operated control
valves for directing power fluid to the designated BOP stack functions. Electric power for the
acoustic pod is supplied by a battery pack. Hydraulic power fluid if supplied by a dedicated bank of
accumulators that is charged through a check valve by the primary control system supply line.
242
Acoustic control systems have a longer response time than the main hydraulic or E/H systems and are
therefore not suited for emergency disconnect situations.
Subsea accumulators are less efficient with increasing water depth. The reason is because of the
higher nitrogen precharge pressure that is required (surface accumulator precharge pressure plus
hydrostatic pressure of the sea). This causes less expansion of the gas (smaller relative difference
between maximum and minimum gas pressure). For that reason operations in 2000m water depth
will require about 30%-50% more accumulator volume than in the more normal water depths. The
accumulator bank required for the acoustic system on a deep water BOP stack will therefore occupy
most of the available space inside a normal BOP stack envelope. Increasing this envelope size may
have significant impact on the handling and storage systems on board the drilling unit.
It should be noted that the maximum absolute pressure in subsea accumulators is the sum of the
surface accumulator pressure plus the hydrostatic pressure between the surface and the subsea
accumulators. This pressure (about 5900 psi in 2000m water depth) would be trapped in the
accumulators when pulling the BOP stack to surface. Therefore either a system (or procedure) for
bleeding down the pressure must be provided or the pressure rating of the system must be
sufficient.
Acoustic back-up systems are manufactured by Shaffer (formerly Koomey), Cooper Oil Tools
(formerly Cameron Iron Works), Tri-Tech Systems and Simrad.
b. ROV Intervention
The BOP stack shall be equipped with ROV intervention equipment that at a minimum allows
the operation of the critical functions (each shear ram, one pipe ram, ram locks, and unlatching
of the LMRP connector).Hydraulic fluid can be supplied by the ROV, stack mounted
accumulators (which may be a shared system), or an external hydraulic power source that shall
be maintained at the well site. The source ofhydraulic fluid shall have necessary pressure and
flow rate to operate these functions.All critical functions shall be fitted with single-port docking
receptacles designed in accordance with API 17H.If multiple receptacle types are used, a means
of positive identification of the receptacle type and function shall be required.
Frequency of testing and acceptance criteria shall be in accordance with Table 1 and Table 2.
6.9.10 Power Fluid Supply

As mentioned earlier, hydraulic power fluid to actuate BOP stack components is supplied either
through a control hose umbilical (hydraulic system), a separate power fluid hose or through a rigid
conduit that is integral with the riser joints similar to choke/kill lines. The rigid conduit can supply
high pressure power fluid with less lag time than hoses because it does not exhibit the "ballooning"
effect that occurs with pressure surges in hoses.
To minimise actuation time for BOP stack components, most deep water BOP stacks have been
equipped with accumulators mounted directly on the BOP stacks. Subsea accumulators would
provide an immediate source of high pressure power fluid which could actuate BOP stack
components faster than surface accumulators alone supplying power fluid through several thousand
feet of hose or conduit. However, by introducing an acoustic control system a substantial
accumulator bank will be required just for this. If one wants to stay within a normal BOP stack
envelope size, it will be difficult or impossible to fit enough accumulators to cater for both needs,
especially for a large size BOP (18 3/ 4 - 10 or 15000 psi wp). In addition subsea accumulators becomes
less efficient with increasing water depth. It should therefore be considered to use large size conduit
lines (2-21/2lD) in combination with a few surge accumulators only.
243
Reference :
Figure 6.17 MULTIPLEX BOP CONTROL SYSTEM
244
Figure 6.18 ACOUSTIC BOP CONTROL SYSTEM
245
6.10 SUB SEA BLOWOUT PREVENTION EQUIPMENT
The underwater BOP equipment may comprise of either a single stack or two stack system. The
single stack system should be preferred.
The single stack system consists of one large bore BOP stack (generally 18. 3/4") with a working
pressure classification of 10,000 psi or 15,000 psi. The configuration of this stack is shown in
figure.
The two stack system consists of a 2,000 psi working pressure large bore BOP stack (generally
21") and a smaller bore stack (generally 13 5/8") with working pressure rating sufficient to meet
the maximum anticipated surface pressure.
6.10.1 Single Stack System

A single stack system built into a guide frame with lifting attachment shall, regardless of the
rated working pressure, contain the following.
a) Riser adapter.
b) Flexible joint.
c) Two annular preventers with a hydraulic connector located above the lower annular
preventer. It is acceptable to have a 5,000 psi working pressure annular preventer on a
10,000 psi working pressure BOP stack, and a 10,000 psi working pressure annular
preventer on a 15,000 psi working pressure BOP stack.
d) Four ram type preventers all equipped with ram locks. One of the preventers to be
equipped with blind shear rams and the other three with the correct size pipe ram, out of
which one may be variable bore ram. At least one pipe ram preventer should be available
below the blind shear ram preventer. Each preventer shall have two minimum 3 inch bore
side outlets rated to the same working pressure as the ram preventer. At least one side
outlet of each preventer should be fitted with two fail safe valves each for connection with
the kill and choke lines The remainder of the side outlets shall be blanked off.
e) The female part of the lower hydraulic connector.
f) Two hydraulic or electro-hydraulic control pods each with 100% redundancy and provided
with remote control pressure regulators.
g) The BOP stack shall be built with a guide frame, provided with a lifting attachment.
6.10.2 Two Stack System

A two stack system contains a large bore and a small bore stack.
6.10.2.1 Large Bore Stack

The 2,000 psi working pressure stack shall contain:
i) The male part of the upper hydraulic connector.
ii) One annular preventer.
iii) Two ram type preventers both equipped with ram locks, one preventer to be equipped
with proper size pipe ram. Each ram type preventers shall have two minimum 3" bore side
outlets fitted with two fail safe valves each for connection with the kill and choke lines. The
remainder of the side outlets shall be blanked off.
iv) Two hydraulic or electro-hydra control pods each with 100% redundancy and provided with
remote control pressure regulators.
The BOP stack shall be built into a guide frame provided with a lifting attachment.
246
Annular
Preventer
Connector
Annular
Preventer
Ram Preventer
Ram Preventer
Ram Preventer
Ram Preventer
Optional location for kill/choke
Line shown schematically depending
On ram preventer placement. Choke Connector
Line has two hydraulically operated
(at least one fail safe ) gate valves
installed adjacent to Blowout preventer Optional location for kill/choke
Line shown schematically depending
On ram preventer placement. Choke
Line has two hydraulically operated
(at least one fail safe ) gate valves
installed adjacent to Blowout
preventer
Figure6.19 EXAMPLE OF SUB SEA BOP STACK ILLUSTRATING
OPTIONAL LOCATIONS FOR KILL AND CHOKE LINE
247
6.10.2.2 Small Bore Stack

The small bore stack shall, regardless of the working pressure, contain the following:
i) A riser adapter.
ii) Flexible joint.
iii) One annular preventer with the same pressure rating as the ram type preventers, a 5,000
psi working pressure annular preventer on 10,000 working pressure BOP stack or a 10,000
psi working pressure on a 15,000 psi working pressure BOP stack is acceptable.
iv) Female part of hydraulic connector.
v) The male part of hydraulic connector.
vi) Four ram preventers with ram locks. One to be equipped with blind shear rams andthree
with proper size pipe rams out of which one should be variable bore rams .At least one
pipe ram preventer should be available below the blind shear ram. Each ram preventer
below the blind shear rams shall have two 3 inch bore side outlets rated to the same
working pressure as the ram preventer. One side outlet of each preventer shall be fitted
with two fail safe valves each for connection with the kill and choke lines. The remainder
of the side outlets shall be blanked off.
vii) Female part of hydrostatic connector compatible to well head used.
v) Two hydraulic or electro-hydra control pods each with 100% redundancy and provided
with remote control pressure regulators.
ix) The BOP stack shall be built into a guide frame, provided with a lifting attachment.
Connector Annular
Preventer
Connector
Annular
Preventer
Connector
Annular
Preventer
Ram Preventer Ram Preventer
Ram Preventer
Ram Preventer Ram Preventer
Connector
Connector Connector
Figure 6.20 EXAMPLE OF BOP ARRANGEMENTS FOR 2M & 3M

RATED WORKING PRESSURE SERVICE- SUB SEA INSTALLATION
248
Annular
Preventer
Annular
Preventer
Connector Connector
Connector Connector
Annular Annular
Preventer Preventer
Annular Annular
Preventer Preventer
Double Double
Ram Preventer Ram Preventer Ram Preventer Ram Preventer
Double Double Double Double
Ram Preventer Ram Preventer Ram Preventer Ram Preventer
Connector Connector Connector Connector
Figure 6.21 EXAMPLE OF BOP ARRANGEMENTS FOR 5M, 10M & 15M
RATED WORKING PRESSURE SERVICE- SUB SEA INSTALLATION
249
6.11 CONTROL SYSTEM FOR SUB SEA BOP STACK
In under water operations, BOP operating and control equipment shall include:
i) An independent automatic accumulator unit rated for 3000 psi WP for use with the sub sea
BOP control system complete with a soluble oil/water reservoir and automatic mixing
system for soluble oil / water.
ii) The accumulator capacity should be adequate depending on the make of BOP used for
closing and opening all ram type preventers and annular preventers without recharging
accumulator bottles. The unit shall include minimum one electrically driven charging pump
and two air driven pumps for charging the accumulators. The unit shall be located in a safe
area away from the drill floor and the spider deck / moon pool.
Part of the accumulators may be installed on the BOP stack for quicker response of the
functions, and for operation via an acoustic control.
iii) Two remote control panels, each one clearly showing open and close positions for all
under water functions. When a two stack system is used, the panels should each
contain an overlay, clearly showing all functions and provided with controls for the 2000 psi
WP BOP stack. One panel must be located near the driller's console. The other panel to be
located at the tool pusher's office. A flow meter for indicating control fluid flow should be
located on each remote panel. The panels should be connected to the control manifold in
such a way that all functions can be operated independently from each panel.
iv) Two hydraulic or Electro-hydraulic cable and / or hose system providing 100% redundancy of
control for all functions of the BOP stack. The nature of the interconnection between the
surface control equipment and the underwater BOP stack depends upon the type of control
system. For the direct hydraulic and pilot operated hydraulic systems, integrated multiple
hose bundles are used. For Electro-hydraulic systems the electrical interconnections may
be combined into integrated umbilical cable bundles. Alternately, the original total length
of the flexible control cables and hoses should be 300 feet longer than the maximum water
depth for which the system is designed.
v) An emergency control system, known as acoustic system, can be used in the event that the
BOP functions are inoperative due to a failure of the control system to close at-least one
ram type preventer, blind shear ram and to open Lower Marine riser Package (LMRP)
hydraulic connector.
vi) The accumulator bottles on the BOP stack should be fitted with non return valves to
prevent accidental dumping.
6.12 TESTING OF SUB SEA BOP STACK
6.12.1 Surface Testing Of Sub sea BOP Stack

For testing BOP stack at surface, a test stump is used which has the male profile of wellhead.
Hydraulic connector of the stack is latched to the test stump.
While testing the BOP Stack at surface, following practices should be followed.
i) The control system should be pressure tested before the BOP stack.
ii) Test fluid should be water and not mud.
iii) All components should be tested at the rated working pressure.
iv) All pipe rams and annular preventers should be tested by closing around drill pipe to
avoid damaging the seals.
250
v) All ram locks should be tested by locking the rams and bleeding off the hydraulic
closing pressure while holding rated BOP pressure below the rams.
vi) All hydraulic connections and stack connectors should be carefully inspected for
leaks.
vii) It is advisable to keep a log of reaction times for all the functions. Changes in
reaction times denote changes in the hydraulic efficiency of the control system.
These changes may indicate impending failure.
6.12.2 Surface Function Testing Of Sub sea BOP Stack

Before pressure testing of BOP stack, it is recommended to test all functions at rated operating
pressure using both the pods independently without filling water in BOP stack, so that
actuation of each ram and annular preventer could be seen from top.
General function testing procedure for BOP stack is as under:-
i) Check pressure of accumulator bottles on unit and BOP stack.
ii) Check control system for any leak.
iii) Close blind cum shear ram at the rated operating pressure and check for any leak.
Open the ram at rated working pressure and again check for any leak.
iv) Install a test drill pipe in the test stump.
v) Close all the rams and annular BOP one by one at rated operating pressure of control
unit and check for any leaks. Open function should also be checked at rated
operating pressure of control unit for leaks.
vi) Check all the choke and kill valves operation at rated operating pressure of control
unit.
vii) Function test high pressure connector for BOP and LMRP, check for any leak in latch,
unlatch and secondary unlatch.
viii) Function test both the high pressure connectors from both the pod’s hose reel
manifold.
ix) Closing time should not exceed 45 sec. for all ram preventers & annular
preventers smaller than 18 ¾” . It is 60 sec for annular preventers of 18 ¾” and
large sizes.
6.12.3 Surface Pressure Testing Of Sub sea BOP Stack

Pressure testing of the stack should be done with the help of high pressure test pump.
General pressure testing procedure for the BOP stack shown in the figure is as given under:-
a) Install a test drill pipe on the test stump.
b) Hook up the high pressure test unit to the test stump.
c) Fill up BOP with water keeping all the choke and kill valves open.
d) Latch the BOP connector with test stump.
6.12.3.1 Testing of Lower Pipe Ram (LPR) and Lower Outer Kill Valve(LOK)
Close LPR and LOK valve and make a low pressure test at 200-300 psi and the test pressure
should be stable at least for 5 minutes. Check for any leakage. If pressure is holding, increase
it up to its rated working pressure and the test pressure should be stable at least for 5 minutes.
After testing, bleed off the operating pressure maintaining the test pressure to check the ram
locking function. After testing the ram locking function, bleed off the test pressure and open
LOK to make sure there is no pressure trapped inside BOP stack and open LPR.
251
Upper
Annular
Connector
Lower
Annular
Upper Inner Kill

Blind Shear Ram
Upper Pipe Ram

Upper Outer Kill
Inner Choke
Middle Pipe Ram
Lower Pipe Ram Lower Inner Kill
Outer Choke
Lower Outer Kill
Connector
Figure 6.22 SUBSEA BOP TESTING
252
6.12.3.2 Testing Middle Pipe Ram (MPR), Lower Inner Kill Valve (LIK) and Inner Choke Valve
(IC)
Close MPR, LIK and IC valves and conduct low pressure test at 200-300 psi and the test
pressure should be stable at least for 5 minutes. Check for any leakage. If pressure is holding,
increase it up to its rated working pressure and the test pressure should be stable at least for 5
minutes. Test the ram locks in the similar manner as explained in 6.12.3.1
Bleed off the test pressure, open LIK and IC to make sure that there is no pressure trapped
inside BOP stack and open MPR .
6.12.3.3 Testing of Upper Ram (UPR) and Outer Choke Valve(OC)

Close UPR, OC and one of the lower kill valves. Conduct the test as in 6.12.3.2
After testing, open kill and choke line fail safe valves first and than open ram.
6.12.3.4 Testing of Lower Annular Preventer (LA). Upper Annular Preventer(UA) and Riser
Connector
a) Lower Annular Preventer: Close LA and IC, UIK and LTK valves. Conduct low pressure at
200-300 psi and the test pressure should be stable at least for 5 minutes. Check for any
leakage. If pressure is holding, increase it up to 70% of its rated working pressure and the test
pressure should be stable at least for 5 minutes. Bleed off the test pressure and open UIK to
make sure that no pressure is trapped inside stack, and open LA.
b) Upper Annular Preventer and Riser Connector: Close UA and repeat the test as in
6.12.3.4.a. After testing, bleed off the test pressure and first open fail safe valve and than open
Annular.
6.12.3.5 Testing Blind Shear Ram

It is not advisable to test the shearing function of the ram at surface because after shearing,
condition of the blade may be questionable. Every time the shear ram has been used,
condition of the blades should be checked for any damage.
Remove the test drill pipe and close BSR, UIK, IC, and LIK valves. Make a low pressure test at
200-300 psi and the test pressure should be stable at least for 5 minutes. Check for any
leakage. If pressure is holding, increase it up to its rated working pressure and the test
pressure should be stable at least for 5 minutes. After testing of the ram, bleed of the operating
pressure holding the test pressure to check the ram locking function. Bleed off the test
pressure, first open UIK and UOK and than open shear ram.
6.12.4 Test Frequency Of Sub sea BOP Stack
6.12.4.1 Pressure Test

As per API pressure test on BOP equipment should be conducted at least :
 Prior to running the BOP & upon Installation.
 After disconnection or repair of any pressure containment seal in BOP stack.
 Not to exceed 21 days.
 Before production testing.
253
6.12.4.2 Function Test

 As per API, all the components on the BOP stack should be function tested at least once in a
week.
 As per API, release or latching type component of sub sea well control systems (riser, well
head connectors etc.) & emergency back-up systems are typically only functioned at the
start or completion of the well.
 Function test should be conducted alternatively from the driller’s & from mini panel (tool
pusher panel) .
Periodic actuation test of shear blind ram is not desirable. This ram should be tested when
installed and after setting each casing string.
6.12.4.3 Recommended Test Pressure For Sub sea BOP Stack

Both low pressure and high pressure testing procedure should be employed.
6.12.4.4 Low Pressure Test

A low pressure test in the range of 200-300 psi should be applied. The low pressure test should
be stable at least for 5 minutes.
6.12.4.5 High Pressure Test

Once the equipment passes the low pressure test, it should be tested to high pressure,
following are the recommendations:
i) On installation, blowout preventer stack should be pressure tested at the rated
working pressure of the ram preventer or well-head, whichever is lower. An
exception is the annular preventer which should be tested to the test pressure
applied to ram preventer or 70% of annular rated pressure which ever is less.
ii) On subsequent tests the BOP stack should always be tested to greater than the
maximum anticipated surface pressure but not to exceed the rated working pressure
of ram preventer. An exception is the annular preventer which should be tested to
70% of its rated pressure or the test paper of the ram which ever is less, to minimize
pack off element wear or damage.
iii) The stable high pressure should be maintained at least for 5 minutes as per API.
iv) A communication from atmosphere to below the tool should be provided to prevent
pressure build up on the casing in the event the test tool leaks.
v) Conduct high pressure test for entire blowout preventer stack, all choke manifold
components, upstream of chokes, kelly valves, drill pipe and tubing safety valves.
vi) Test pressure should be applied from the direction in which Blowout preventers /
valves would experience pressure during actual well kick situations.
Note:
1. Preferably the annular preventer should be pressure tested using the smallest OD
pipe to be used and the variable bore rams should be initially pressure tested on the
largest and the smallest OD pipe sizes that may be used during the well operation.
2. After any major repair, BOP should be tested to full rated working pressure.
Note:
While testing the BOP, the differential pressure of mud vs. seawater should be considered
because BOP body is subjected to this differential pressure. For example, for 5000 ft water
254
depth, 14 ppg mud & 8.4 ppg sea water will create a differential pressure of 1456 psi [( 14 – 8.4
) × 5000 × 0.052]. Therefore, the maximum test pressure under this condition for 10, 000 psi
working pressure BOP should be 8544 psi ( i.e. 10, 000 – 1456 ).
6.12.5 Test Procedure

6.12.5.1 Function Test
If the string is in hole, hang it on one of the ram and perform function test. If string is not in the
hole, lower test plug, land it in the well head and perform function test.
i) All the functions should be opened and closed at normal operating pressure from
both the pods.
ii) It is advisable to test the functions from remote and main control panel alternatively.
iii) A record of time & the volume of fluid taken on closing/opening of the functions
should be maintained.
6.12.5.2 Pressure Test

i) Test kill and choke lines & the valves as per 6.12.3.
ii) Lower test plug on ‘G’ or ‘S’ grade drill pipe & rest it on the well head.
iii) Test the pipe rams and annular preventers in a similar fashion as explained in test
pressure of BOP in 6.12.3.
iv) Shear blind ram can be tested only while testing casing prior to cement
drilling.
6.12.6 Hang – off Drill ( Subsea Blowout Preventers only )

The crew should place the drill string in position for hang-off. One hang-off should be made
before drilling out of surface pipe to ensure that all necessary equipment is on hand and in
working condition. Actual hang –off will not normally be performed on subsequent drills. This
drill can be conveniently performed in conjunction with the pit drill.
6.13 Number of accumulator bottles required for sub sea

The accumulator bottles in the sub sea BOP control unit should be designed to have usable fluid
equal to the volume of fluid required to close and open all the Blowout preventers and the fail
safe valves in the choke and kill line of BOP stack with an additional safety factor of 50% which
is required to compensate for any fluid loss in control system and / or preventers.
Accumulator bottles should also maintain a minimum operating pressure of 1,200 psi or 200 psi
above pre-charge pressure or based on C/R of RAM which ever pressure is maximum when all
above functions are operated with pumps off. (All pneumatic and electric).
Example: Using following data calculate the number of bottles required at surface & sub sea if
the stack mounted bottles are to be designed to close 1 Annular & 1 Ram & surface bottles are
required to close & open the remaining functions.
There are 2 Rams, 1shear Ram & 1 Annular preventer.
Gallons to close 1 Annular = 17.98

Gallons to open 1 Annular = 14.16
Gallons to close 1 Ram = 5.8
Gallons to open 1 Ram = 10.8
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Gallons to close 1 shear Ram = 10.9

Gallons to open 1 shear Ram = 10.5
Water depth = 3000 ft

Sea water gradient = 0.445 psi/ft
Solution:
For stack mounted bottles:
Capacity of accumulator (V1) = 10 gallons

Pre charge pressure (P1) = 1000+ 3000x .445
= 2335 psi
Pressure of Nitrogen when fully charged (P2) = 2335 + 2000
= 4335 psi
Volume of Nitrogen at 4335 psi (V2 ) :
P1 x V1 2335x10
V2 = --------------- = ------------- = 5.4 gallons
P2 4335
Pressure of Nitrogen after BOP is operated (P3) = 2335 + 200

= 2535 psi
Volume of Nitrogen at 2535 psi (V3):
P1 x V1 2335x10
V3 = --------------- = ------------- = 9.2 gallons
P3 2535
Usable fluid = V3 – V2
= 9.2 – 5.4
= 3.8 gallons
For Surface bottles:
Capacity of accumulator (V1) = 10 gallons
Pre charge pressure (P1) = 1000 psi
Pressure of Nitrogen when fully charged (P2) = 3000 psi
Volume of Nitrogen at 3000 psi ( V2) :

P1 x V1 1000 x10
V2 = --------------- = ------------- = 3.33 gallons
P2 3000
Pressure of Nitrogen after BOP is operated (P3) = 1200 psi
Volume of Nitrogen at 1200 psi ( V3) :
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P1 x V1 1000 x 10
V3 = --------------- = ------------- = 8.33 gallons
P3 1200
Usable fluid = V3 – V2
= 8.33 – 3.33
= 5 gallons
No. of bottles required :
Gallons to close 1 Annular = 17.98
Gallons to open 1 Annular = 14.16
Gallons to close 2 Ram ( 2 x 5.8 ) = 11.6
Gallons to open 2 Ram ( 2 x 5.4 ) = 10.8
Gallons to close 1 shear Ram = 10.9
Gallons to open 1 shear Ram = 10.5
----------
Total = 75.94 gallons
Plus 50 % safety factor = 37.97 gallons
-----------
Total usable fluid required = 113.91 gallons
As sub sea mounted bottles are required to close 1 Annular & 1 Ram, so
Sub sea capacity = 17.98 + 5.8

= 23.78 gallons
No. of stack mounted bottles = 23.78 / 3.8
= 7 bottles
Surface capacity = 113.91 – 23.78

= 90.13 gallons
No. of bottles at surface = 90.13 / 5
= 18 bottles
Note: The stack mounted bottles must have Rated Working Pressure of 5000 psi.
6.14 HYDRATE FORMATION
Hydrates are a mixture of hydrocarbon gas & water that form a solid substance (clathrates ).
Hydrate formation is a function of pressure, temperature, gas composition & free water
available in the drilling fluid. In deep water drilling with water base mud, the likelihood of
hydrates formation while removing a gas influx is much more because of low sea bed
temperature & higher hydrostatic head. They can form in temperature above 32ºF under
sufficient pressure. For example, at water depth of 2000 ft, hydrostatic pressure of 10 ppg mud
is about 1040 psi In such condition, Hydrate can form at about 48ºF which is just above the sea
floor temperature of about 46ºF. Whereas at water depth of 4000 ft hydrate equilibrium
temperature is 61ºF. Formation of hydrates can plug the choke and kill lines & prevent normal
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BOP functioning. Plugging or partial plugging of choke lines as a kick is being circulated can
cause bottom hole pressure to become so high that the formation breaks down.
6.14.1 Prevention of Hydrates

The best way to deal with hydrates is to prevent or minimise their occurrence. Salt muds are
known to suppress their formation. Therefore, in areas where there is likelihood of hydrate
formation, well planning should include preventive measures.
Given below are some such measures which may be considered.
a) At no time the circulation should be stopped when the gas is at or near sea bed.
b) The time factor favours Driller’s method of well control .
c) Salt mud inhibit the formation of hydrates as it lowers the temperature required for the
hydrate formation.
d) Glycol are effective inhibitors. Continuous injection of glycol/methanol @ 4-5 litre per
seconds through kill line before the gas is expected to reach sub sea stack should be tried.
e) During unavoidable prolonged shut-in, choke & kill lines & BOP cavity should be displaced
by glycol.
6.14.2 Hydrates Removal

Once hydrates have been formed in sub sea equipment, their removal may be difficult.
Inhibitor, such as glycol, may decompose them but if a plug has formed, it may be difficult or
impossible to get the inhibitor in contact with the hydrate. Spotting of methanol in small
quantities with the help of ROV can also dissipate a hydrate plug. Another option that can be
tried is pumping down of hot fluid at a high rate around BOP & well head.
6.15 DEEP WATER EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATION
6.15.1 Gas Handler

Gas handler is equipped with riser below slip joint. Due to pressure limitation of slip joint seals
sometimes it is difficult to divert the flow through diverter. This equipment allows handling of
gas in riser with a back pressure to control the rate of flow.
6.15.2 Riser fill up valve
In deep waters, risk of riser collapse is very high. Riser should be equipped with a riser fill up
valve, which fills up the riser with sea water once the fluid level in the riser drops. Its
differential pressure setting should be such that before the riser reaches its collapse rating the
valve should open up.
6.15.3 Riser booster pump
In deep waters with long riser and high penetration rate, equivalent circulating density can
increase significantly due to loading of drilled cuttings in the riser. A booster pump and riser
booster line should be used to increase the fluid velocity in the riser so as to reduce the
intensity of cuttings loading.
6.15.4 Longer telescopic / slip joints

As the rig moves into the deep waters, slip joint stroke can become the limiting factor. Since
offset increases for a lower flex/ ball joint angle with water depth, slip joint longer than 50 feet
may be required to compensate for rig heave.
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6.15.5 Shear ram

Use of dual shear ram provides 100% redundancy. Now-a-days, new shear rams are capable of
shearing a drill pipe as well as a casing pipe which can be considered for deep water sub-sea
BOP.
6.15.6 High pressure connector

In deep waters, high angle release connectors should be used as they facilitate disconnection
of LMRP in the event of station keeping failure. Some of these connectors are locked with 150-
300 psi & thereafter operating pressure is reduced to 500-80 psi. In such case a separate third
regulator should be considered.
6.15.7 Control unit

In water depth greater than 5000 ft, due to inefficiency of accumulator and high nitrogen pre-
charged pressure requirements, generally 5000 psi working pressure control unit should be
used. Stack mounted accumulators should always be vented before retrieving of BOP stack to
the surface.
6.15.8 Back Up system

There are mainly two back up systems :
a) Electro Hydraulic
b) Acoustic
 Electro hydraulic back up system uses dedicated wire going along-with hose bundle to the
pod solenoid values and operates emergency functions such as LMRP disconnect and shear
ram close.
 Acoustic back up system includes stack mounted accumulator, battery packs, Electro-
hydraulic control module, acoustic communication transponders, fixed and portable
surface control and communication system. This system is capable of operating pipe rams,
shear ram, close choke and kill line valves, open LMRP and unlock BOP connector.
6.15.9 Riser Tensioners

In deep waters 12 numbers of riser tensioners should be considered. As per API, the riser
design criteria for deep waters should include setting tension high enough to allow for two
tensioners to fail and still retain adequate tension to keep riser in tension. Where each
tensioner has an independent power system, this allowance is often reduced to failure of a
single tensioner.
6.15.10 Control Pod

Normally two pods are used in sub-sea system but for water depth more than 5000 ft, a third
retrievable pod can be considered as a safety against failure of pods.
6.15.11 Inverted test ram in subsea BOP stack

A device known as a Subsea Test Valve (SSTV) or inverted test ram, installed in a modified BOP
cavity, can eliminate the need to trip drillpipe and install a test plug when conducting required
testing. The SSTV uses a relatively simple design philosophy and proven technology to allow
BOP testing without retrieving drillpipe to the surface or running additional tools.
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The SSTV can be thought of as a set of standard ram blocks turned upside down, with the
sealing surfaces contacting the bottom of the cavity instead of the top. The BOP test pressure
applied above the rams energizes the downward-facing “top seal,” while the packer is bi-
directional. This arrangement allows pressure to be applied above the SSTV to test all the
cavities above it, while isolating the well from the test pressure.
In the SSTV cavity design, what normally is referred to as the “top seal” is actually a bottom
seal, effecting a seal on what is usually a wearing surface. This surface can be designed with a
replaceable wear plate to allow the cavity to be returned to manufacturing tolerances during
overhaul and repair activities. Using the SSTV replaces the traditional practice of running and
setting a BOP test plug, potentially saving a great deal of tripping time.
Normal procedures for conventional subsea BOP testing require the drill string to be pulled
from the well and a test plug that seals in the wellhead be run into the bore. Once testing is
complete, the test plug is removed from the well, and the drill string is tripped back in and
drilling can be resumed. These operations can be summarized as:
• POOH (drill string)
• RIH (wear bushing/test plug)
• Test the plug
• Test BOPs
• POOH (wear bushing/test plug)
• RIH (drill string)
• Resume drilling
Using the SSTV can mitigate much of the risk associated with BOP testing, as any tripping time is
significantly reduced, and the drill string never needs to be completely tripped. To test the
BOPs using the SSTV, the drill string is only pulled up either off bottom, to a casing shoe or to a
point where a suitable-size pipe is in the SSTV cavity. If there is only one size of pipe in the hole,
the drill string can be pulled up to a hang off point, or where the rams being tested and SSTV
can be closed on pipe and not on a tool joint.
These operations, which reduce the number of drill string round trips to the surface from the
conventional 4 to 0, can be summarized as:
• Pick up off bottom to appropriate test point (depending on drill string and spaceout)
• Close SSTV
• Test BOPs
• Open SSTV
• Repeat for tapered string
• Resume drilling
6.15.12 Emergency system
Emergency Disconnect System/Sequence

An emergency disconnect sequence (EDS) shall be available on all subsea BOP stacks that are
run from a dynamically positioned vessel. A EDS is optional for moored vessels. The EDS is a
programmed sequence of events that operates the functions to leave the stack and controls in
a desired state and disconnect the LMRP from the lower stack. The number of sequences,
timing, and functions of the EDS are specific to the rig, equipment, and location.
There shall be a minimum of two separate locations from which the EDS can be activated.
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Autoshear System
Autoshear is a safety system that is designed to automatically shut-in the wellbore in the event
of a disconnect of the LMRP. Autoshear shall be installed on all subsea BOP stacks. The
autoshear system shall be armed while the BOP stack is latched onto a wellhead. A documented
MOC shall be required to disarm the system unless covered in equipment owner’s standard
operating procedures (SOP). The dedicated accumulator system may be used for both the
autoshear and Deadman systems, as
well as for secondary control systems (e.g. ROV and acoustic systems).This accumulator system
can be replenished from the main control supply, but shall be maintained, if the main supply is
lost.
Deadman System
The Deadman system is designed to automatically shut in the wellbore in the event of a
simultaneous absence of hydraulic supply and control of both subsea control pods. A Deadman
system shall be installed on all subsea BOP stacks. The Deadman system shall be armed while
the BOP stack is latched onto a wellhead. A documented MOC shall be required to disarm the
system unless covered in equipment owner’s SOP. The dedicated emergency accumulator
system may be used for both the autoshear and Deadman systems, as well as for secondary
control systems (e.g. ROV and acoustic systems).This dedicated emergency accumulator system
is supplied from the main control system and shall be maintained (e.g. check valves) if the main
supply is lost.
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Table 1 – Surface Testing of Secondary, Emergency and other Systems

(FROM API 53)
Secondary systems Test

System Type Components Acceptance
Function Tested Frequency Criteria
All assigned Prior to deployment; all

Acoustic functions assigned components
respond
To secure the well Prior to deployment In 90 seconds or
less c
ROV – critical All ROV critical Rams in 45 seconds
functions ( shear functions or less, connector(s)
rams close, one pipe in 45 seconds or
Prior to deployment
ram close, and less ) c
LMRP
unlock/unlatch)
Emergency Systems Test
components. assigned components
Deadman (or respond. Tested by removing
equivalent ) circuit electric power and hydraulic
test a d supply
Components to In 90 seconds or
Prior to development
secure the well less c
Autoshear (or components assigned components
equivalent) circuit respond.
test a d To secure the well Prior to deployment; Tested
In 90 seconds or
by activation or trigger,
less c
where applicable
Emergency All assigned
In 90 seconds or
disconnect sequence components Prior to deployment
b less c
a. Securing the well means closing rams, valves and locks and does not include disconnects or
other functions that may subsequently be employed after the well has been secured.
b. EDS not required on moored vessels.
c. Minimal time requirement to secure the wellbore, does not include functions after well has
been secured.
d. Power fluid may be supplied from surface accumulators or an alternative source.
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Table 2 – Subsea Testing of Secondary, Emergency and other Systems

(FROM API 53)
Secondary systems Test

System Type Components Acceptance
Function Tested Frequency Criteria
Communications. Not to exceed 21 days N/A

Acoustic between tests
One function One time during initial
N/A
subsea BOP test
ROV – critical One BSR or pipe in 45 seconds or
One time annually subsea
functions ( shear ram less c
rams close, one pipe Not required – consider
ram close, and LMRP functioning during storm
in 45 seconds or
unlock/unlatch) LMRP connector evacuation, repair,
less c
maintenance and end of well
or program.
Emergency Systems Test
Commissioning or within 5
All assigned years of previous test d.
in 90 seconds or
Deadman (or components. Tested by removing control
less c
equivalent )a and hydraulic supply to the
activation device.
Commissioning or within 5
Autoshear (or All assigned years of previous test d. in 90 seconds or
equivalent) a components Tested by activation of less c
trigger where applicable
Emergency All assigned Commissioning or within 5
In 90 seconds or
disconnect sequence components years of previous test.
b less c
Dedicated emergency Accumulator At initial installation and
-
accumulators volume subsequently every 6 months
a. Unable to verify criteria when installed subsea on some systems.
b. EDS not required on moored vessels.
c. Minimal time requirement to secure the wellbore, does not include functions after well has
been secured.
d. Drawdown test shall be performed in accordance with 7,6,8,3 to verify the accumulator capacity
available on the stack.
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CHAPTER-7 FOMULAE, EXERCISES & KILL SHEETS
INTERNATIONAL WELL CONTROL FORUM – Field Units Formulae Sheet
1. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE (psi)

Mud Density (ppg) x 0.052 x TVD (ft)
2. PRESSURE GRADIENT (psi/ft)

Mud Density (ppg) x 0.052
3. DRILLING MUD DENSITY (ppg)

Pressure (psi)
TVD (ft) x 0.052
4. FORMATION PORE PRESSURE ( psi)

Hydrostatic Pressure in Drill String (psi) + SIDPP (psi)
5. PUMP OUT PUT (bbl/min)

Pump Displacement (bbl/stroke) x Pump Rate (SPM)
6. ANNULAR VELOCITY (ft/min)

Pump Output ( bbl/min)
7. EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY (ppg)

Annular Pressure Loss (psi)
+ Mud Density (ppg)
TVD (ft) x 0.052
8. MUD DENSITY WITH TRIP MARGIN INCLUDED (ppg)

Safety Margin (psi)
+ Mud Density (ppg)
TVD (ft) x 0.052
9. NEW PUMP PRESSURE WITH NEW PUMP RATE (psi) approximate

New Pump Rate(SPM) 2
Old Pump Pressure (psi) x
Old Pump Rate (SPM)
10. NEW PUMP PRESSURE WITH NEW MUD DENSITY (psi) approximate
New Mud Density (ppg)
Old Mud Density (ppg)
11. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE MUD DENSITY (ppg)

Surface LOT Pressure (psi)
+ LOT Mud Density (ppg)
Shoe TVD (ft) x 0.052
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12. MAASP
[ Maximum Allowable Mud Density (ppg) – Current Mud Density(ppg)] x 0.052 x Shoe TVD (ft)
13. KILL MUD DENSITY (ppg)

SIDPP (psi)
+ Original Mud Density (ppg)
TVD (ft) x 0.052
14. INITIAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (psi)

Kill Rate Circulating Pressure (psi) + SIDPP (psi)
15. FINAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (psi)

Kill Rate Circulating Pressure (psi) x Kill Mud density (ppg)
Original Mud density (ppg)
16. BARYTE REQUIRED TO INCREASE DRILLING MUD DENSITY (lb/bbl)

[Kill Mud Density (ppg) – Original Mud Density (ppg)] x 1500
35.8 – Kill Mud Density (ppg)
17. PERCOLATION RATE /GAS MIGRATION RATE(ft/hr)

Increase in Surface Pressure (psi/hr)
Drilling Fluid Density (ppg) x 0.052
18. GAS LAWS

P1 x V1 P1 x V1
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2 P2 = V2 =
V2 P2
19. PRESSURE DROP PER FOOT TRIPPING DRY PIPE (psi/ft)

Drilling Mud Density (ppg) x 0.052 x Metal Displacement (bbl/ft)
Riser / Casing Capacity (bbl/ft) – Metal Displacement (bbl/ft)
20. PRESSURE DROP PER FOOT TRIPPING WET PIPE ( psi/ft)

Drilling Mud Density (ppg) x 0.052 x Closed End Displacement (bbl/ft)
Riser/casing Capacity (bbl/ft) – Closed End Displacement (bbl/ft)
21. LEVEL DROP PULLING REMAINING COLLARS OUT OF HOLE DRY ( feet)
Length of Collars (ft) x Metal Displacement (bbl/ft)
Riser/Casing Capacity (bbl/ft)
22. LEVEL DROP PULLING REMAINING COLLARS OUT OF HOLE WET (feet)
Length of Collars (ft) x Closed End Displacement (bbl/ft)
Riser or Casing Capacity (bbl/ft)
23. LENGTH OF TUBULARS TO PULL DRY BEFORE OVERBALANCE IS LOST (ft)

Overbalance (psi) x [ Riser/Casing Capacity (bbl/ft) – Metal Displacement (bbl/ft) ]
265
24. LENGTH OF TUBULARS TO PULL WET BEFORE OVERBALANCE IS LOST (ft)

Overbalance (psi) x [Riser or Casing Capacity (bbl/ft) - Closed End Displacement (bbl/ft)]
Mud Gradient x Closed End Displacement (bbl/ft)
25. VOLUME TO BLEED OFF TO RESTORE BHP TO FORMATION PRESSURE (bbl )

Increase in Surface Pressure (psi) x Influx Volume (bbl)
Formation Pressure (psi) – Increase in Surface Pressure (psi )
26. SLUG VOLUME (bbl) FOR A GIVEN LENGTH OF DRY PIPE

Length of Dry Pipe (ft) x Pipe Capacity (bbl/ft) x Drilling Mud Density (ppg)
Slug Density (ppg) – Drilling Mud Density (ppg)
27. PIT GAIN DUE TO SLUG U – TUBING (bbl)

Slug Density ( ppg)
Slug Volume (bbl) x –1
Drilling Mud Density (ppg)
28. RISER MARGIN (ppg)

[ Air Gap (ft) + Water depth (ft) ] x Mud density –[ Water Depth (ft)x Sea Water Density (ppg) ]
TVD (ft) – Air Gap (ft) – Water Depth (ft)
29. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE LOSS IF CASING FLOAT FAILS

Mud Density (ppg) x 0.052 x Casing Capacity (bbl/ft) x Unfilled Casing Height (ft)
Casing Capacity (bbl/ft) + Annular Capacity (bbl/ft)
*FORMULAE NOT AVAILABLE IN IWCF FORMULAE SHEET GIVEN IN EXAMINATION: FROM 30-35
30. BOP CLOSING RATIO

Wellhead Pressure at BOP (psi)
Hydraulic Pressure Required to Close (psi)
31. BOP OPENING RATIO

Hydraulic Pressure Required to Open (psi)
32. LENGTH OF INFLUX ALONG HOLE (ft)
Influx Volume (bbl)
33. INFLUX VERTICAL HEIGHT (ft)
Length Of Influx along Hole (ft) x Cosine Inclination
34. PRESSURE GRADIENT OF INFLUX ( psi/ft)
SICP (psi) – SIDPP (psi)
Drilling Mud Density (ppg) x 0.052 –
Influx Vertical Height (ft)
35. SHUT IN CASING PRESSURE (psi)

[Drilling Mud Density – Influx Density (ppg)] x 0.052 x Influx Vertical Height (ft) + SIDPP(psi)
266
7.1 EXERCISES ON IWCF FORMULAE SHEET
1. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE (psi)

Mud Density (ppg) x 0.052 x TVD (ft)
Example :
Drilling fluid density = 11.5 ppg
Well MD = 12,500 ft
Calculate hydrostatic pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure = 11.5  0.052  11,000 = 6578 psi
2. PRESSURE GRADIENT (psi/ft)

Mud Density (ppg) x 0.052
Example :
Drilling fluid density / mud weight = 11.5 ppg
Calculate pressure gradient.
Pressure gradient = 11.5  0.052 = 0.598 psi / ft
3. DRILLING MUD DENSITY (ppg)

Pressure (psi)
TVD (ft) x 0.052
Example :
Pressure = 6500 psi
Calculate drilling fluid density/ mud weight.
6500
Drilling fluid density = = 12. 5 ppg
10000 x 0.052
267
4. FORMATION PORE PRESSURE ( psi)

Hydrostatic Pressure in Drill String (psi) + SIDPP (psi)
Example :

Well MD = 12,500 ft
SIDPP = 500 psi
SICP = 700 psi
Calculate formation pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure = 11.5  0.052  11,000 = 6578 psi
Formation pressure = 6578 + 500 = 7078 psi
5. PUMP OUT PUT (bbl/min)

Pump Displacement (bbl/stroke) x Pump Rate (SPM)
Example :
Pump output = 0.107 bbl / stk

Well MD = 12,500 ft
Pump speed = 40 SPM
Calculate Pump output.
Pump output = 0.107  40 = 4.28 bbl / min
268
6. ANNULAR VELOCITY (ft/min)

Pump Output ( bbl/min)
Example :
Pump output = 6.2 bbl / min

Well MD = 12,500 ft
Annular volume = 0.0473 bbl / ft
Calculate Annular velocity.
6.2
Annular velocity = = 131 ft / min
0.0473
7. EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY (ppg)

Annular Pressure Loss (psi)
+ Mud Density (ppg)
TVD (ft) x 0.052
Example :
Original drill fluid density = 11. 5 ppg

Well MD = 12,500 ft
Casing shoe TVD = 8,700 ft
Casing shoe MD = 9,500 ft
Annular pressure loss = 100 psi
Calculate Equivalent circulating density
100
Equivalent circulating density = + 11.5 = 11.67 ppg
11,000  0.052
269
8. MUD DENSITY WITH TRIP MARGIN INCLUDED (ppg)

Safety Margin (psi)
+ Mud Density (ppg)
TVD (ft) x 0.052
Example :

Well MD = 12,500 ft
Safety Margin required = 100 psi
Calculate Mud density with trip margin included.
100
Mud density with trip margin included = + 11.5
11000 x 0.052
= 11.7 ppg
9. NEW PUMP PRESSURE WITH NEW PUMP RATE (psi) approximate

New Pump Rate(SPM) 2
Old Pump Rate (SPM)
Example :
Pump Pressure at 60 SPM = 800 psi

Well MD = 12,500 ft
Calculate pump pressure at 30 SPM.
(30)2
Pump pressure at 30 SPM = 800  = 200 psi
2
(60)
270
10. NEW PUMP PRESSURE WITH NEW MUD DENSITY (psi) approximate
New Mud Density (ppg)
Old Mud Density (ppg)
Example :
Pump Pressure with 11 ppg mud = 800 psi
Well MD = 12,500 ft
Calculate pump pressure with 12 ppg mud at same SPM.
12
Pump pressure with 12 ppg mud = 800  = 873 psi
11
11. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE MUD DENSITY (ppg)

Surface LOT Pressure (psi)
+ LOT Mud Density (ppg)
Shoe TVD (ft) x 0.052
Example :
LOT mud density = 11. 5 ppg

Well TVD = 9,700 ft
Well MD = 10,500 ft
Surface leak off pressure = 1000 psi
Calculate Max. allowable drill fluid density.
1000
Max. allowable drill fluid density = + 11.5 = 14.25 ppg
7,000  0.052
271
12. MAASP
[ Maximum Allowable Mud Density (ppg) – Current Mud Density(ppg)] x 0.052 x Shoe TVD (ft)
Example :
Max. drill fluid density = 14.25 ppg

Current fluid density = 12.0 ppg
Well TVD = 9,700 ft
Well MD = 10,500 ft
Calculate MAASP with current mud.
MAASP = (14.25 – 12.0)  0.052  7,000 = 819 psi
13. KILL MUD DENSITY (ppg)

SIDPP (psi)
+ Original Mud Density (ppg)
TVD (ft) x 0.052
Example :

Well MD = 12,500 ft
SCR @ 30 SPM = 300 psi
SIDPP = 500 psi
SICP = 700 psi
Calculate Kill fluid density.

500
Kill fluid density = + 11.5 = 12.37 ppg
11,000  0.052
272
14. INITIAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (psi)

Kill Rate Circulating Pressure (psi) + SIDPP (psi)
Example :

Well MD = 12,500 ft
SIDPP = 500 psi
SICP = 700 psi
Calculate initial circulating pressure.
Initial circulating pressure = 300 + 500 = 800 psi
15. FINAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (psi)

Kill Rate Circulating Pressure (psi) x Kill Mud density (ppg)
Original Mud density (ppg)
Example :
Original drilling fluid density = 11.5 ppg

Kill rate pressure @ 30SPM = 300 psi
Kill fluid density = 12.5 ppg
Calculate final circulating pressure.
300  12.5
Final circulating pressure = = 326 psi
11. 5
273
16. BARYTE REQUIRED TO INCREASE DRILLING MUD DENSITY (lb/bbl)

[Kill Mud Density (ppg) – Original Mud Density (ppg)] x 1500
35.8 – Kill Mud Density (ppg)
Example :

Kill fluid density = 12. 0 ppg
Calculate amount of Baryte to raise drill fluid density.
(12.0 – 11.5)  1500

Baryte to raise drill fluid density = = 31.5 lbs / bbl
35.8 – 12.0
17. PERCOLATION RATE / GAS MIGRATION RATE (ft/hr)

Increase in Surface Pressure (psi/hr)
Drilling Fluid Density (ppg) x 0.052
Example :
Drill fluid density = 11.5 ppg

Increase in drill pipe pressure = 100 psi per 15 minutes
Well TVD = 9,700 ft
Well MD = 10,500 ft
Gas gradient = 0.1 psi / ft
Calculate Percolation rate.

Increase in drill pipe pressure per hour = 100  4 = 400 psi
400
Percolation rate = = 669 ft / hour
11.5  0.052
274
18. GAS LAWS

P1 x V1 P1 x V1
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2 P2 = V2 =
V2 P2
Example :
Well TVD = 9,700 ft

Well MD = 10,500 ft
Gas bubble pressure = 1,000 psi
Gas bubble Volume = 14 bbl
New pressure of gas bubble = 500 psi
Calculate new volume of gas bubble.
1,000
New volume of gas bubble =  14 = 28 bbl
500
19. PRESSURE DROP PER FOOT TRIPPING DRY PIPE (psi/ft)

Riser / Casing Capacity (bbl/ft) – Metal Displacement (bbl/ft)
Example :
Metal Displacement = 0.008 bbl/ ft
Casing capacity = 0.148 bbl/ ft
Calculate pressure drop per ft tripping out dry pipe.

11.5.052 0.008
Pressure drop per ft tripping dry pipe = = 0.0341 psi/ ft
0. 148 - 0.008
275
20. PRESSURE DROP PER FOOT TRIPPING WET PIPE ( psi/ft)

Drilling Mud Density (ppg) x 0.052 x Closed End Displacement (bbl/ft)
Riser/casing Capacity (bbl/ft) – Closed End Displacement (bbl/ft)
Example :
Well TVD = 9,700 ft
Well MD = 10,500 ft
Pipe Capacity = 0.0178 bbl/ ft
Calculate pressure drop per ft tripping out wet pipe.
Closed end displacement = 0.008+ 0.0178 = 0.0258 bbl/ft
11.5.052( 0.008 + 0.0178 )

Pressure drop per ft tripping wet pipe = = 0.126 psi/ ft
0.148-0.0258
21. LEVEL DROP PULLING REMAINING COLLARS OUT OF HOLE DRY ( feet)
Length of Collar (ft) x Metal Displacement (bbl/ft)
Example :
Well TVD = 9,700 ft
Well MD = 10,500 ft
Length of drill collars = 500ft
Calculate level drop for pulling drill collars out of the hole ( Dry ).
500  0.008
Level drop for POOH drill collars ( Dry ) = = 27.02 ft
0.148
276
22. LEVEL DROP PULLING REMAINING COLLARS OUT OF HOLE WET in FEET
Length of Collar (ft) x Closed End Displacement (bbl/ft)
Example :
Well TVD = 8900 ft Well MD = 9,500 ft
Casing shoe TVD = 6,000 ft Casing shoe MD = 6,500 ft
Length of drill collars = 500ft Metal Displacement = 0.008 bbl/ ft
BHA Capacity = 0.009 bbl/ft Casing capacity = 0.148 bbl/ ft
Calculate level drop for pulling drill collars out of the hole ( wet ).
500  (0.008 + 0.009)

Level drop for POOH drill collars ( Dry ) = = 57.43 ft
0.148
23. LENGTH OF TUBULARS TO PULL DRY BEFORE OVERBALANCE IS LOST

Overbalance (psi) x [ Riser/Casing Capacity (bbl/ft) – Metal Displacement (bbl/ft) ]
Example :
Well MD = 12,500 ft
Formation pressure = 6,400 psi
One stand length = 93 ft
Calculate number of stands which can be pulled out dry before the well starts flowing
Hydrostatic pressure = 0.052  11,000  11.5 = 6578 psi
Overbalance = Hydrostatic pressure - Formation pressure = 6578 - 6400 = 178 psi
178  (0.147 – 0.008)
Pipe to pull before well starts to flows = = 5171 ft
11.5  0.052  0.008
Number of stands = 5171  93 = 55. 6 stands
So ,stands which can be pulled out safely = 55
277
24. LENGTH OF TUBULARS TO PULL WET BEFORE OVERBALANCE IS LOST

Overbalance (psi) x [ Riser/Casing Capacity (bbl/ft) – Closed EndDisplacement (bbl/ft) ]
Mud Gradient x Closed End Displacement (bbl/ft)
Example :
Well MD = 12,500 ft
One stand length = 93 ft
Calculate number of stands which can be pulled out dry before the well starts flowing
Hydrostatic pressure = 0.052  11,000  11.5 = 6578 psi
Closed end displacement = ( 0.008 + 0.0178) = 0.0258 bbl
Overbalance = Hydrostatic pressure - Formation pressure = 6578 - 6400 = 178 psi

178  (0.147 – 0.0258)
Pipe to pull before well starts to flows = =1398 ft
11.5  0.052  0.0258
Number of stands = 5171  93 = 15.035 stands
So ,stands which can be pulled out safely = 15
25. VOLUME TO BLEED OFF TO RESTORE BHP TO FORMATION PRESSURE (bbl )

Increase in Surface Pressure (psi) x Influx Volume (bbl)
Formation Pressure (psi) – Increase in Surface Pressure (psi )
Example :
SIDPP = 500 psi
SIDPP after one hour = 600 psi
Original kick volume = 20 bbl
Calculate volume to bleed to maintain BHP.
Increase in pressure in one hour = 600 – 500 = 100 psi
100  20
Volume to bleed to maintain BHP = = 0 .317 bbl / hour
6400 – 100
278
26. SLUG VOLUME (bbl) FOR A GIVEN LENGTH OF DRY PIPE

Length of Dry Pipe (ft) x Pipe Capacity (bbl/ft) x Drilling Mud Density (ppg)
Slug Density (ppg) – Drilling Mud Density (ppg)
Example :
Well TVD = 9,700 ft
Well MD = 10,500 ft
Length of dry pipe required = 153 ft
Mud density = 11ppg Slug Trip tank
Slug density = 12.5 ppg Mud
Calculate Slug volume required.
153  0.0178 x 11
Slug volume required = = 20 bbl
12.5 -11
27. PIT GAIN DUE TO SLUG U – TUBING (bbl)

Slug Density ( ppg)
Slug Volume (bbl) x –1
Drilling Mud Density (ppg)
Example :
Slug volume = 20 bbl
Mud density = 11 ppg
Slug density = 12.5 ppg
Calculate increase in mud volume in trip tank after slug.
12.5
Increase in trip tank level = 20 x -1
11
= 2.72 bbl
279
28. RISER MARGIN (ppg)

[ Air Gap (ft) + Water depth (ft) ] x Mud density –[ Water Depth (ft)x Sea Water Density (ppg) ]
TVD (ft) – Air Gap (ft) – Water Depth (ft)
Example:
Water Depth - 1810 ft. RKB
Air Gap - 90 ft.
Well TVD - 3800 ft.
Sea Water Density - 8.6 ppg 90 ft
Mud in use - 9.5 ppg
1810 ft
3800ft
Calculate the reduction in BHP & Riser margin ?
Reduction in BHP when riser removed = (9.5  1900  0.052) – ( 8.6  1810 0.052)
= 938.6 - 809.4 = 129.2 psi
Depth below sea bed = 3,800 – 1,900 = 1,900 ft
Reduction in BHP when riser is removed = 129.2psi

129.2
Riser Margin =
0.052  1900
= 1.3 ppg
280
29. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE LOSS IF CASING FLOAT FAILS

Mud Density (ppg) x 0.052 x Casing Capacity (bbl/ft) x Unfilled Casing Height (ft)
Casing Capacity (bbl/ft) + Annular Capacity (bbl/ft)
Example:
In a well while lowering casing, 10 joints of 40 ft each were lowered without filling mud. If
the casing shoe fails, what will be reduction in BHP with following data :
Casing Capacity : 0.147 bbl/ft

Annular Capacity : 0.121 bbl/ft
Mud in use : 11.5 ppg
Well Depth : 7, 500 ft
Hydrostatic Pressure Loss = 11.5 x 0.147 x 10 x 40

0.147 + 0.121
= 131 psi
30. BOP CLOSING RATIO

Hydraulic Pressure Required to Close (psi)
Example:
BOP Rating = 10,000 psi
Closing Ratio = 7:1
Calculate the minimum hydraulic pressure required to close the rams anticipating 10,000 psi
pressure acting from bottom.
10000
Hydraulic pressure required to close =
7
= 1428 psi
281
31. BOP OPENING RATIO

Hydraulic Pressure Required to Open (psi)
Example:
BOP Rating = 10,000 psi
Opening Ratio = 2.3 : 1
Calculate the minimum hydraulic pressure required to open the rams anticipating 10,000 psi
pressure acting from bottom.
10000
Hydraulic pressure required to open =
2.3
= 4348 psi
32. LENGTH OF INFLUX ALONG HOLE (ft)

Influx Volume (bbl)
Example :

Well MD = 12,500 ft
SIDPP = 500 psi
SICP = 700 psi
Kick size = 14 bbl
Annular volume = 0.0316 bbl / ft
Calculate Height of influx.
14
Height of influx =
0.0316
= 443 ft
282
33. INFLUX VERTICAL HEIGHT (ft)

Length Of Influx along Hole (ft) x Cosine Inclination
Example :
Calculate the vertical height of influx if hole angle in the above example is 60 º
Vertical Height of influx = 443  cos 60 º

= 443  0.5
= 221.5 feet
34. PRESSURE GRADIENT OF INFLUX ( psi/ft)

SICP (psi) – SIDPP (psi)
Drilling Mud Density (ppg) x 0.052 –
Influx Vertical Height (ft)
Example :
Drill fluid density = 11. 5 ppg

SIDPP = 500 psi
SICP = 700 psi
Height of influx = 500 ft
Calculate influx gradient.
(700 – 500)
Influx gradient = 11.5  0.052 - = 0.198 psi / ft
500
283
35. SHUT IN CASING PRESSURE (psi)

[Drilling Mud Density – Influx Density (ppg)] x 0.052 x Influx Vertical Height (ft) + SIDPP(psi)
Example :
Drill fluid density = 11. 5 ppg

SIDPP = 500 psi
Influx density = 2.5 ppg
Influx height = 200 ft
Calculate SICP.
SICP = (11.5– 2.5 )  0.052  200 + 500 = 593.6 psi
284
7.2 OTHER RELATED FORMULAE & EXERCISES
7.2.1 Volume of Tanks & Pits

Volume = L×B×W
where,
L = Length
B = Breadth
W = Width
Example:
Let us calculate volume of a tank with height 5ft, Length 30 ft and Width 6 ft.
900
Volume = 5 × 30 × 6 = 900 cubic feet = --------- or 160 bbl
5.6146
(for conversion from cubic feet to bbl divide by 5.6146)
7.2.2 Volume of a Cylinder


Volume = ---- D2 × L
4
D = Diameter
L = Length
For a tube drill pipe or drill collar etc

Open end Displacement Volume = ---- (OD2 - ID2) × L
4
For field calculations
(OD2 - ID2) × L
Open End Displacement Volume( bbl) = -----------------------
1,024
OD = Outer diameter in inches
ID = Inner diameter in inches
L = Length in feet.
Example:
Calculate displacement volume of 30ft of 6 ½ ” OD drill collar having 3”internal diameter
(6.52 - 32) × 30
Displacement Volume = --------------------- = 0.974 bbl
1,024
Example:
Similarly closed end displacement of 6 ½” drill collar, 30 feet length, can be calculated.
OD2 × L
Closed end Displacement = ------------------
1,024
285
6.52 × 30
= ------------------ = 1.23 bbl
1,024
Annular capacity per unit length too can be calculated in the same way.
Calculate Annular capacity of 8 1/2” × 6 1/2” drill collar per foot.
( 8.52 - 6.52 ) × 1
Annular capacity / foot = ----------------------------
1,024
= 0.029 bbl/foot
Let us calculate annular volume of 1,500 feet of 5”drill pipe in 8 1/2” hole.
( 8.52 - 52 ) × 1,500
= ---------------------------- = 69.21 bbl
1,024
7.2.3 Effect of water depth on formation strength

Formation strength or fracture strength at any depth depends upon overburden stresses.
Overburden gradient for land is considered to be 1.0 psi/ft. But in offshore operations part of
the overburden is replaced by water gradient (0.465 psi/ft), therefore, depending upon the
water depth the fracture strength of the formation is reduced.
Example :
Compare overburden pressure for land and offshore operations, with following well data :
Depth of interest - 10,000 feet
Water depth - 1,000 feet
Assume over burden gradient - 1.0 psi/feet
Sea water gradient - 0.465 psi/ft.
Solution.
Overburden pressure for land = 10,000 × 1.0
= 10,000 psi
Overburden pressure for offshore = 9,000 × 1.0 + 1,000 × .0465
= 9,465 psi
In offshore fracture strength at shallow depths is less because of
(a) Water depth and
(b) Less compact sediments below sea bed (mud line).
7.2.4 Exercise
A well is being drilled at 8,700 feet. with 12 ppg mud. Last casing (9 5/8", N-80, 47 ppf) was
lowered at 7,000 feet TVD. LOT was conducted after drilling 9 5/8" shoe and Leak off Pressure
was 2,000 psi with 11 ppg mud. Burst rating of 9 5/8" casing is 6,874 psi. Well head and BOP
stack rating is 5,000 psi. At 9,000 feet a reservoir pressure of 6,000 psi is expected. Calculate
the following :
a. Static Bottom Hole Pressure (BHP) at 8,700 feet.
b. Circulating Bottom Hole Pressure at 8,700 feet and equivalent mud density, assuming
friction losses of 100 psi.
286
c. Calculate MAASP with 12 ppg mud.

d. How much mud density is required prior to opening the reservoir at 9,000 feet, if a
minimum of 200 psi of overbalance is to be maintained. Also calculate the mud gradient ?
e. What shall be the MAASP after mud density increase in (d) above ?
Solution:
a. Static BHP at 8700 feet = 12 × 0.052 × 8,700
= 5,429 psi
b. Dynamic BHP = Static BHP + Annular friction losses
= 5,429 + 100 = 5,529 psi
5,529
Equivalent mud density = ---------------
0.052 × 8,700
= 12.22 ppg
c. MAASP with 11 ppg mud = Surface Leak Off Pressure
= 2,000 psi
(Note that casing burst value and well head rating is more than Leak Off Pressure)
Formation Leak Off Pressure = 0.052 × 11 × 7,000 + 2,000

(at shoe) = 6,004 psi
6,004
Maximum mud weight that = ------------- = 16.5 ppg
shoe can support. 0.052 ×7 ,000
MAASP with 12 ppg mud = (16.5 - 12) × 0.052 × 7,000

= 1,638 psi
d. Reservoir pressure expected at 9000 ft. = 6,000 psi
Min. overbalance required = 200 psi
Static hydrostatic pressure = 6,000 + 200 = 6,200 psi
required for overbalance
6,200
Mud weight equivalent = ---------------- = 13.25 ppg
0.052 × 9,000
Mud gradient = 13.25 × 0.052 = 0.689 psi/ft
e. MAASP after increase of mud density from 12 ppg to 13.25 ppg

= (16.5 - 13.25) × 0.052 × 7,000 =1,183 psi
7.2.5 Exercise
In a well, while drilling 8 1/2” hole at 10,000 feet with 10 ppg mud, pit gain was noticed. After
closing the well pit gain was found to be 14bbl. The shut in stabilized pressures read 360 psi and
550 psi respectively on drill pipe and annulus. BHA consisted of 500 ft of 6 1/2” drill collar.
annular volume against drill collar - 0.03 bbl/ft
annular volume against drill pipe - 0.0447 bbl/ft
287
Calculate:
a) The height of the influx
b) The influx gradient
c) Increase in mud density required to balance the formation pressure
d) BHP if SIDPP and SICP had increased to 550 and 740 psi respectively
e) SICP, if gas influx migrates by 700 feet in the annulus after closing
f) What would be the difference in increase in SICP in case of gas migration in
uniform annulus of drill pipe and of migration from drill collar to drill pipe
annulus
Solution:
a) Annular volume against Drill collar = 500 × 0.03 = 15 bbl
(Since pit gain is 14 bbl, therefore all the influx is against drill collar annulus)
14
Height of influx = ------ = 467 feet
0.03
( SICP - SIDPP)
b) Influx gradient = Original mud gradient - ---------------------
Height of Influx
(550 - 360)
= 10 x 0.052 - ----------------
467
= 0.52 - 0.407 = 0.113 psi/feet (Indicates gas influx)
c) Increase in mud density required to balance formation
SIDPP 360
pressure = ------------------ = ------------------- = 0.69 ppg
Depth × 0.052 10,000 × 0.052
d) After the shut-in, the surface pressures have increased & BHP has also increased.
Now BHP = SIDPP + Hydrostatic pressure in drill string
= 550 + 10 × 0.052 × 10,000
= 5,750 psi
e) Shut in stabilized pressure on casing was 550 psi. After the gas influx has migrated (in
closed well conditions) by 700 ft, mud hydrostatic above gas has reduced equivalent to
700 ft.
New casing pressure = SICP + Hydrostatic pressure of 700 ft of 10 ppg mud
= 550 + 0.052 × 10 × 700 = 914 psi
f) When gas influx migrates from drill collar to drill pipe annulus, the height of influx
decreases due to more annular volume per unit length against d/p.
Difference in increase in casing pressure
= Mud gradient (Height of influx in D/C - Height of influx in D/P)
14 14
= 0. 52 ---- - ------- = 80 psi
0.03 0.0447
288
7.3 FORMULA FOR CALCULATING PRESSURE AT CASING SHOE WHEN GAS TOP REACHES THAT
POINT DURING DRILLER AND WAIT & WEIGHT METHOD
Before calculating pressure at casing shoe when gas top reaches that point, familiarization of
following equation is necessary.
BHP on Drill pipe and Annulus side after the well is shut-in is given by following
equations:
For Drill String P1 (BHP) = SIDPP + DW1 .........(i)
For annulus P1 (BHP) = SICP + (D-h) W1 + Hgas ........ (ii)
where
D = depth of the well, feet.
h = height of influx, feet.
W1 = original mud gradient psi/ft
SICP = shut-in casing pressure
SIDPP = shut-in drill pipe pressure
P1 = Formation pressure or Bottom hole Pressure
Hgas = Hydrostatic pressure of gas, psi
Equating and simplifying equations (i) and (ii)
Hgas = h W1 - (SICP - SIDPP) ..... (iii)
During killing by constant bottom hole pressure method, we are allowing controlled
expansion of gas.
P1 V1 P2 V2
As per gas law -------- = --------
T1 Z1 T2 Z2
P1 = Initial gas pressure or formation pressure

V1 = Initial gas volume or pit gain.
T1 = Initial gas temp. (o R)
Z1 = Initial gas compressibility.
and P2, V2, T2, Z2 are respective values at any higher depth.
Or
V1 T2 Z2
P2 = P1 × ----------- × ------
V2 T1 Z1
or
V1 T2 Z2
V2 = P1 × ------------ × ------
P2 T1 Z1
289
K
or we can say V2 = -------
P2
where
P1 V1 T2 Z2
K = ----------------
T1 Z1
For wait and weight method, at any stage during killing, when the kill mud has entered the
annulus, equation (i) can be written as:
P1 = Pcsg + hydrostatic head of original mud + Hydrostatic head of
kill mud + Hydrostatic pressure of gas ...... (iv)
Pcsg. = Casing pressure when gas has reached a point at depth ‘d’ from surface
= (P2 - d W1),
where P2 is Pressure of gas bubble at depth d.
Hydrostatic head of original mud = (d + l) W1
Where, l = height of light mud below gas
V2
hydrostatic head of kill mud = (D - d - l - ------ ) × W2
Cdpa
where W2 = kill mud gradient
V2
------- is height of gas influx at depth ‘d’
Cdpa
(V2 being gas volume and Cdpa being annulus capacity against d/p.)
Equation (iv) above can be rewritten as :

V2
(P2 - dW1) + (d + l) W1 + (D - d - l - ------) W2 + Hgas = P1
Cdpa
or
V2
P2 - dW1 + dW1 + lW1 + DW2 - dW2 - lW2 - ------- W2 + Hgas = P1
Cdpa
or
V2
P2 + (D-d)W2 - l (W2 - W1) + Hgas - --------W2 - P1 = O ----(v)
Cdpa
replacing (D - d) W2 - l (W2 - W1) + Hgas - P1 by ‘X’

equation (v) reduces to :
290
V2
P2 + X - --------- W2 = 0
Cdpa
K P1 V1 T2 Z2
Now, V2 = -------- where K = ------------------
P2 T1 Z1
Therefore
K
P2 + X - -------------- W2 = 0
P2 Cdpa
Or
K
P22 + XP2 - ------------- W2 = 0
Cdpa
or
X2 K 1/2
X
P2 = ------- + -------W2 - -------- ........(vi)
4 Cdpa 2
Similarly for Driller’s method value of P2 can be derived as:

1/2
X1 K X1
P2 = ---------- + ----------- - ------
4 Cdpa 2
where
X1 = (D - d)W1 + Hgas - P1 ...............(vii)
7.3.1 Example:
A well being drilled with 12 ppg mud at a depth of 9,000 ft (8 1/2”) had to be shut in on kick
indications. Pit gain was recorded as 14 bbl, SIDPP and SICP were 350 and 580 psi respectively.
Last casing shoe ( 9 5/8”, N-80, 47 ppf) was set at 3,000 feet. BHA consists of 500 ft of 6 1/2” ×
3”d/c. MAASP as per LOT conducted at 3,000 ft with 10 ppg mud was 1,500 psi.
Take annular volume against d/c - 0.03 bbl/ft

annular volume against d/p - 0.0447 bbl/ft
capacity of 5” d/p - 0.018 bbl/ft
capacity of 6 1/2” × 3” d/c - 0.0087 bbl/ft
surface temp. - 60oF
Geothermal gradient - 1o F / 100 ft.
Pump discharge - 6 gps (Gallons per stroke)
Kill rate pressure at 30 SPM - 700 psi. Well is to be killed by Wait & Weight
method
291
Find out:
a) Kill mud density
b) Initial circulating pressure
c) Final circulating pressure
d) Pump pressure schedule
e) Influx height and gradient
f) Maximum casing shoe pressure when gas top reaches that point and check
whether well can be killed without risk of formation break. Ignore
compressibility factor.
Solution: 350
a) Kill mud density = 12 + -------------- = 12.75 ppg
9,000 × 0.052
b) Initial circulating pressure = 700 + 350 = 1050 psi

12.75
c) Final circulating pressure = 700 × ----------- = 743 psi
12
d) String volume = 8500 × 0.018 + 500 × 0.0087

= 153 + 4.35 = 157.35 bbl.
= 6,608 gal
Pump discharge= 6 gps
6,537
No. of strokes from surface to bit = -----------
6
= 1,089
Pump pressure schedule Surface to Bit

Strokes D/P Pressure
0 1,050
109 1,019
218 988
327 958
436 927
545 896
654 866
763 835
872 804
981 774
1089 743
14
e) Influx height = -------- = 467 feet
0.03
292
SICP - SIDPP
Influx gradient = old mud gradient - -------------------
Influx height
( 580 - 350 )
= 12 x 0.052 - -------------------
467
= 0.624 - 0.492 = 0.132 psi/ft
a) Maximum casing shoe pressure is given by equation
X2 K 1/2
X
Max. Pcsg. shoe = ------ + ------- W2 - -------
4 Cdpa 2
where
X = (D - d)W2 - l(W2 - W1) + Hgas - P1
D = Well depth, feet.
d = casing shoe depth, feet
W1 = original mud gradient, psi /ft.
W2 = kill mud gradient, psi/ft.
Hgas = Hydrostatic head of gas, psi
P1 = Bottom hole pressure (formation pressure)
l = Height of string volume in the annulus, feet
h = height of influx ,feet
Cdpa = Annular capacity against drill pipe,bbl/ft
Hgas = h(W1) - (SICP - SIDPP) = 467 ×12 ×0.052 - (580 - 350)
= 291 - 230 = 61 psi
P1 = SIDPP + hydrostatic head in drill string
= 350 + 12 × 0.052 × 9,000 = 5,966 psi
Drill string volume = 157.35 bbl (as calculated in (d))
therefore,
String Volume (bbl) 157.35
l = ------------------------- = ------------ = 3,520 feet
An. Vol. bbl/ft. 0.0447
therefore,
X = (9,000 – 3,000) 12.75 × 0.052 – 3,520 (12.75 × 0.052 - 12 × 0.052) + 61 – 5,966
= 3,978 - 137 + 61 – 5,966 = - 2,064 psi
Now
P1 V1 T2
K = ------------- (Ignoring compressibility factor)
T1
P1 = 5,966psi V1 = 14 bbl
9,000 × 1
T1 = 60 + --------------- + 460 = 610 oR (oF + 460 = oR)
100
293
3,000 × 1
T2 = 60 + --------------- + 460 = 550 oR
100
(60oF is surface temp. and geothermal gradient is 1oF/100ft)
so,
5,966 x 14 x 550
K = ---------------------- = 75,308
610
Putting the values for X and K

½
2
(-2064) 75,308 x 12.75 x 0.052 -2,064
Pcsg Maximum = -------------- + -------------------------------- - --------
4 0.0447 2
= (10,65,024 + 11,16,984)1/2 + 1,032

= 1,477 + 1,032 = 2,509 psi
Now MAASP as per LOT conducted with 10 ppg mud at shoe is 1,500 psi therefore, max.
pressure that casing shoe can support = 1,500 + 0.052 x 10 x 3,000
= 1,500 + 1,560
= 3,060 psi
Since maximum pressure that casing shoe can support is 3,060 psi and maximum pressure
anticipated at casing shoe while killing is 2,509 psi, therefore well can be safely killed without
formation breakage at shoe.
7. 4 EXERCISES FOR SUB SEA
7.4.1 Exercise:
Riser length : 1200 ft
Kill mud weight : 14.7 ppg
Original mud weight : 12.9 ppg
Atmospheric pressure : 14.6 psi
Volume of gas trapped in BOP stack: 4 gallons
Calculate the volume of gas at surface when it is circulated out after killing the well .
Pressure of gas bubble at BOP = 14.7 1200  0.052 = 917.28 psi
917.28  4
Volume of gas at the surface = ------------- = 251.309 gallons
14.6
294
7.4.2 Exercise:
Choke line is full of water and well is shut-in. The recorded SICP is 950 psi, calculate the SICP if
choke line is full of mud with following data :
RKB to BOP TVD : 1500 ft.

Water Density : 8.4 ppg
Mud density : 13.5 ppg
Increase in hydrostatic pressure due to mud in choke line = (13.5- 8.4 )  1500  0.052
= 397.8 psi
SICP if choke line is full of mud = 950- 397.8 = 552.2 psi
7.4.3 Exercise:
RKB to MSL (Air gap) : 90 ft.
MSL to Ocean Floor (Water depth) : 610 ft.
RKB to Casing Shoe : 1500 ft.
Sea water gradient : 0.46 psi / ft.
Formation strength gradient below sea bed: 0.665psi / ft.
What maximum mud weight can be used without exceeding formation strength ?
( Neglect annular pressure loss )
Maximum pressure at casing shoe = 610  0.46 + {1500- (610+90)}  0.665 = 812.6 psi
812.6
Maximum mud weight = ---------------- = 10.4 ppg
1500  0.052
7.4.4 Exercise:
Well Depth : 9500 ft

Casing shoe depth : 7400 ft
Water depth : 900 ft
Air gap : 90 ft
Casing shoe strength : 17.6 ppg
SIDPP : 500 psi
SICP : 700 psi
Circulating pressure through riser at 30 spm : 300 psi
Circulating pressure through choke with BOP close at 30 spm : 550 psi
Calculate the dynamic MAASP & Dynamic choke pressure.
Choke line friction = 550-300 = 250 psi
MAASP = (17.6- 12.5)  7400  0.052 = 1962.5 psi
295
Dynamic MAASP = 1962.5- 250 = 1712.5 psi
Dynamic choke pressure = SICP- Choke line friction
= 700- 250 = 450 psi
7.4. 5 Exercise:
Surface to bit stroke : 1000 strokes

Bit to shoe : 400 strokes
Bit to surface : 3500 strokes
Mud in use : 12 ppg
Well depth : 10,000 ft
Casing shoe depth : 7,500 ft
PL @ 30 SPM : 400 psi
SIDPP : 600 psi
SICP : 900 psi
Well is killed using Wait & Weight method .After pumping 500 stroke ,the pump speed is
increased to 40 SPM . Calculate the drill pipe pressure.
( 40 )2
PL @ 40 SPM = --------------  400 = 711 psi
( 30 ) 2
500
Remaining SIDPP = 600 - 600  --------- = 300 psi
1000
600
Kill mud weight = 12 + ----------------------- = 13.15 ppg
10,000  0.052
13.15
FCP at new SPM = -----------  711 = 779 psi
12
Increase in pressure losses due to kill mud = 779-711 = 68 psi
500
Increase in pressure losses after pumping 500 strokes = ------------  68 = 34 psi
1000
Drill pipe pressure at 40 SPM = 711 + 300 + 34 = 1045 psi
296
7.5 FILLING OF SURFACE VERTICAL WELL KILL SHEET
7.5.1 Well Kick Data
Hole Size 8½”

Hole Depth TVD 12,860 ft
Casing 9 5/8 ” casing set at 10, 205 ft
Drill Pipe 5 ” capacity = 0.0178 bbls /ft
Heavy Weight Pipe 5 ”, 558 ft Long
Capacity = 0 .0088 bbls/ ft
Drill collars 6 ¼ ”, 722 ft long
Capacity = 0.006 bbls /ft
Mud Density : 13.9 ppg

Volume Open Hole / collars : 0.0322 bbls /ft
Volume Open Hole / Drill Pipe/ HWDP : 0.0473 bbls /ft
Volume casing / Drill Pipe : 0.0493 bbls /ft
Fracture Mud Weight at the casing shoe : 16.8 ppg
Mud pumps : Output = 0.107 bbls/stk

Slow Circulating Rate : 600 psi at 30 SPM
The well has been shut-in after a kick.
Kick Data
Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure : 450 psi

Shut-in Casing Pressure : 680 psi
Pit Gain : 12 bbl
297
Filled Kill Sheet

Surface BOP ( Vertical Well ) Kill Sheet API Field Unit
Formation Strength Data: Current Well Data :
Surface Leak-off Pressure ( A ) psi

Mud data:
Mud Weight (B) ppg
Maximum Allowable Mud Weight Mud 13.9 ppg
(A) Weight
(B) +
Shoe True Vertical Depth x 0.052 Casing Shoe Data:
( C) 16.8 ppg Size 9-5/8 in
Initial MAASP M.D. ---- ft

{(C) –Current Mud Weight} x Shoe TVD x0.052
T.V.D. 10205 ft.
= (16.8-13.9) 10,205  0.052 = 1539 psi
Pump No.1 Pump No.2 Hole Data:

Displacement Displacement
Size 8-1/2 in
0.107 bbls /stroke bbls / stroke
Slow Pump Dynamic Pressure Loss ( PL) ft
Rate Data Pump No. 1 Pump No. 2 M.D.
T.V.D.
12860 ft.
30 spm 600 psi
Pre-Volume Data: Length Capacity Volume Pump Strokes Time
Ft. Bbls/ft. Bbls minutes
Drill Pipe 11580 x .0178 = 206.12 Volume Pump Strokes

Heavy Wall Drill Pipe 558 x .0088 = 4.91
Drill Collars 722 x .006 = 4.33 Pump Slow Pump
Displacement Rate
Drill String Volume (D) 215.36 (E) 2012 stks 67 min
DC x Open Hole 722 x .0322 = 23.24
DP / HWDP x Open 1933 x .0473 = 91.43
Hole
Open Hole Volume (F) 114.67 bbl 1071 stks 35.7 min
DP x Casing 10205 x .0493 = (G) 503.10 bbl 4702 stks.
Total Annulus Volume (F +G ) =( H ) 617.77 bbl 5773 stks 192.4 min

Total Well System Volume ( D+H ) = ( I ) 833.13 bbl 7785 stks 259.3 min
298
Kick Data
SIDPP 450 psi SICP 680 psi Pit Gain 12 bbls
Kill Mud Weight SIDPP 450
Current Mud Weight + ----------------- = 13.9 + = 14.57 ppg
TVD X 0.052 12860 X .052
KMW
Kill Mud Gradient SIDPP
Current Mud Gradient + -------------- = psi
TVD
KMG
Initial Circulating
Pressure Dynamic Pressure Loss + SIDPP = 600 + 450 = 1050 psi
ICP
Final Circulating Kill Mud Weight 14.57
Pressure ------------------------- x Dynamic Pressure Loss =------x 600 = 630 psi
Current Mud Weight 13.9
FCP
Final Circulating Kill Mud Gradient
Pressure ------------------------- x Dynamic Pressure Loss = psi
Current Mud Gradient
FCP
( K ) x 100 420 x 100
( K ) = ICP – FCP=1050-630 = 420 psi ------------------ = ----------- -= 21 psi /100 strokes
( E) 2012
Strokes Pressure Static &

00 1050 Dynamic
Drill Pipe Pr.(
psi)
200 1008
400 966
600 924 Pr
800 882 e
1000 840 s
1200 798 s
1400 756 ur
1600 714 e
1800 672
2012 630
Strokes
299
7.5.2 Fill the following data from filled kill sheet
a. Strokes Surface to Bit = 2012 strokes
b. Strokes Bit to shoe = 1071 strokes
c. Strokes Bit to Surface = 5773 strokes
d. Kill Mud Weight ( no safety factor ) = 14.57 ppg
e. Initial Circulating Pressure = 1050 psi
f. Final Circulating Pressure = 630 psi
g. MAASP with current mud weight = 1539 psi
MAASP after kill = (16.8 – 14.57) 10,205 0.052 = 1183 psi
h. MAASP after circulation of kill mud = 1183 psi
i. Time for complete circulation = 259.3 minutes
Height of influx = 12 0.0322 = 372 ft
(680 – 450)
Influx gradient = (13.9  0.052) - -----------------
372
j. Influx Gradient = 0.106 psi /ft
300
7.6 FILLING OF SURFACE HIGHLY DEVIATED WELL KILL SHEET
7.6.1 Well data:

8 ½” HOLE DEPTH : 13, 600 ft MD
5,000 ft TVD
KICK – OFF POINT ( KOP ) : 2, 000 ft

END OF BUILD ( EOB ) : 5,400 ft MD
4,285 ft TVD
9 5/8” CASING SET AT : 9, 000 ft MD

4,600 ft TVD
DRILL PIPE 5” ,CAPACITY : 0.0178 bbl / ft
5” HEAVY WEIGHT DRILL PIPE : 180 ft,
Capacity =0.0087 bbl / ft
6 ¼” DRILL COLLAR : 150 ft,
Capacity =0.0061 bbl / ft
MUD IN USE : 10.9 ppg
VOLUME OPEN HOLE / DRILL COLLAR : 0.0323 bbl / ft
VOLUME OPEN HOLE/ DRILL PIPE/ HWDP : 0.0459 bbl / ft

VOLUME CASING / DRILL PIPE : 0.0515 bbl / ft
LOT DATA : SHOE LEAKED AT 1120 psi WITH 10.4 ppg MUD
MUD PUMP OUT PUT : 0.12 bbl / stks

SLOW CIRCULATING PRESSURE : 625 psi at 30 spm
WELL KICK DATA
SIDPP : 875 psi

SICP : 895 psi
PIT GAIN : 15 bbl
301
Surface BOP ( Deviated Well ) Kill Sheet - API Field Units
FORMATION STRENGTH DATA: CURRENT WELL DATA:

Mud Data:
Surface Leak –off Pressure
(A) 1120 psi M Weight pppp
10.9 ppg
( OMW )
Mud Weight
(B) 10.4 ppg
Deviation Data: KOP
Max. Allowable Mud Weight =
(A) KOP M.D. 2000ft.
B + ---------------------------------- = KOP T.V.D 2000
ft.
Shoe TVD x 0.052
(C) 15.08 ppg EOB
EOB M.D. 5400ft.
INITIAL MAASP = 4285ft.
{(C) - Current MW } x shoe TVD x 0.052 EOB T.V.D
(15.08-10.9)x 4600 x0.052 = psi
1000 Casing Shoe Data:
Pump No.1 Disp
Pump-1 Displacement Pump-2 Displacement Size 9 5/8in.
M. Depth 9000ft.
0.12 Bbl/stroke Bbl/strokes T.V. Depth 4600ft.
Slow Pump ( PL ) Dynamic Pressure Loss Hole Data:

Rate Data Pump No.1 Pump No. 2
30 spm 625 psi psi Size 8 ½in.
M. Depth 13600ft.
spm psi psi 5000
T.V. Depth ft.
Pre – recorded Volume Data Length Capacity Volume Pump Strokes Time
( ft. ) ( bbl/ft. ) ( bbl ) (stks ) minutes
DP– Surface to KOP 2000 x 0.0178 = 35.60 (L) 297 stks
DP- KOP to EOB 3400 x 0.0178 = 60.52 (M) 504 stks
DP- EOB to BHA 7870 x 0.0178 = 140.09 (N1) 1167 stks
HWDP 180 x 0.0087 = 1.57 (N2) 13 stks
Drill Collar 150 x 0.0061 = 0.92 (N3) 8 stks
Drill String Volume (D) = 238.7 bbl 1989 stks min
DC x Open Hole 150 x 0.0323 = 4.85
DP / HWDP x Open hole 4450 x 0.0459 = 204.26
Open Hole Volume (F) 209.11 bbl 1743 stks min
DP x Casing 9000 x 0.0515 = (G) 463.5 bbl 3863 stks min
Total Annulus Volume ( F +G ) = ( H ) 672.61 bbl 5605 stks min
Total Well System Volume ( D +H ) = ( I ) 911.31 bbl 7594 stks 253 min
302
Surface BOP ( Deviated Well ) Kill Sheet – API Field Unit
Kick Data:
SIDPP 875 ps SICP 895 psi Pit Gain 15

bbl
Kill Mud Weight SIDPP

Current Mud Weight + --------------------
KMW 0.052 x TVD
10. 9 + 3. 37 = 14.27 ppg
Initial Circulation Pressure Dynamic Pressure Loss + SIDPP

ICP 625 + 875 = 1500 psi
Final Circulating Kill Mud Weight

Pressure -------------------------- x Dynamic Pressure Loss
Current Mud Weight
FCP (14.2710.9) x 625 = 818 psi
Dynamic Pressure Loss KOPMD 2000

at KOP ( O ) PL+ (FCP-PL) x -------- = 625+[ ( 193 ) x --------- ] = 653 psi
TDMD 13600
Remaining SIDPP at SIDPP – [ ( KMW – OMW ) x 0.052 x KOP TVD ]

KOP ( P ) = 875 – [ ( 14. 27 – 10. 9 ) x 0.052 x 2000 ] = 524.5 psi
Circulating Pressure
at KOP ( KOP CP ) ( O ) + ( P ) = 653 + 524. 5 = 1177.5 psi
Dynamic Pressure Loss

at EOB ( R ) PL + (FCP – PL) x EOB MD = 625+ [ (818 – 625 ) x 0. 397]
TD MD
= 701.5 psi
Remaining SIDPP at SIDPP – [ ( KMD – OMD ) x 0.052 x EOB TVD ]

EOB ( S )
= 875 – [ ( 14. 27 – 10. 9 ) x 0.052 x 4285 ]= 124 psi
Circulating Pressure at ( R ) + ( S ) = 701. 5 + 124 = psi

EOB ( EOBCP ) 825.5
303
(T) = ICP – KOPCP = 1500 – 1177 = 323 psi (T) x 100 = 323 x 100 = psi per-
(L) 297 108 100 strokes
(U)= KOPCP – EOBCP=1177- 825 = 352 psi (U) x 100 = 352 x 100 = psi per-
(M) 504 70 100 strokes
(W)= EOBCP – FCP = 825 - 818 = 07 psi (W) x 100 = 07 x 100 = psi per -
(N1+N2+N3) 1188 0.6 100 strokes
Strokes Pressure Static & Dynamic

00 1500 Drill Pipe Pr.(psi)
100 1392
200 1284
297 1177 Pr
400 1106 e
500 1036 s
600 966 s KOP, Pressure 1177 psi
700 896 ur
801 826 e
1300 823
1989 818
EOB, Pressure 826 psi
Strokes
304
7.6.2 Fill the following data from filled deviated kill sheet
a. Strokes Surface to Bit = 1989 strokes
b. Strokes Bit to shoe = 1743 strokes
c. Strokes Bit to Surface = 5605 strokes
d. Kill Mud Weight ( no safety factor ) = 14.27 ppg
e. Initial Circulating Pressure = 1500 psi
f. Final Circulating Pressure = 818 psi
g. MAASP with current mud weight = 1000 psi
MAASP after kill = (15.08 – 14.27) 4,600 0.052 = 193 psi
h. MAASP after circulation of kill mud = 193 psi
i. Time for complete circulation = 253 minutes
j. Circulating pressure at KOP = 1177 psi
k. Circulating pressure at EOB = 825 psi
l. Pressure drop /100 strokes up to KOP = 108 psi / 100 stks
m. Pressure drop /100 strokes from KOP to EOB = 70 psi / 100 stks
n. Pressure drop /100 strokes from EOB to bit = 0.6 psi / 100 stks
305
7.7 FILLING OF SUB SEA VERTICAL WELL KILL SHEET

7.7.1 Well data:
Hole size : 12 ¼”
Air gap (RKB to MSL) : 76 ft
Water Depth (MSL to SEA BED) : 724 ft
Measured Depth From RKB : 10500 ft
Hole TVD : 9900 ft.
13 5/8” casing shoe depth from RKB : 6500 ft MD
13 5/8” casing shoe depth from RKB : 6300 ft TVD
Internal Capacities:
Drill pipe 5” : 0.0177 bbl/ft
HWDP 5” 400 ft. : 0.0088 bbl/ft
Drill Collar 8” 800 ft. : 0.006 bbl/ft.
Choke line 2 13/16” 820 ft. : 0.0088 bbl/ft
Marine Risers 20” 800 ft. : 0.3886 bbl/ft
Mud pump to rig floor volume : 5.0 bbls.
Annular Capacities:
Drill collar in open hole : 0.0829 bbl/ft.
Drill pipe/HWDP in open hole : 0.1194 bbl/ft.
Drill pipe/HWDP in casing : 0.1288 bbl/ft.
Drill pipe in riser : 0.3626 bbl/ft.
Pump Data:
Pump output at 97% efficiency : 0.119 bbl/stk
Through riser @ 40 SPM : 750 psi
Through choke line @ 40SPM : 880 psi
Formation strength: Casing shoe leaked at 1200 psi with 10 ppg mud.
Kick Data:
SIDPP : 400 psi
SICP : 600 psi
Pit gain : 20 bbls.
Mud weight in use : 10.5 ppg
Seawater weight : 8.6 ppg
Active surface mud volume : 460 bbls
306
Sub sea BOP ( Vertical Well ) Kill Sheet API Field Unit
Sub sea BOP Data:
Surface Leak-off Pressure ( A ) 1200 psi
Riser 800 Ft.
Mud Weight (B) 10 ppg
Choke Line 820 Ft.
aximum Allowable Mud Weight
(A)
Mud data:
(B) + Mud
Shoe True Vertical Depth X 0.052 Weight 10.5 ppg
10.0 + 1200 ( 6300 x 0.052) (C) 13.66 ppg
Initial MAASP Casing Shoe Data:

{ C –Current Mud Weight} x Shoe TVD x 0.052 =
Size 13 5/8 in.
(13.66-10.5) x 6300 x 0.052 1035 psi
Pump No.1 Pump No.2 M.D. 6,500 ft.
Displacement Displacement 6,300 ft.
0.119 bbls /stroke bbls / stroke T.V.D.
Slow Dynamic Pressure Loss ( PL)
Pump Pump No. 1 Pump No. 2 Hole Data:
Rate Data
Riser Choke Choke Riser Choke Choke Size 12 ¼ in.
Line Line Line Line
Fric. Fric. M.D. 10,500 ft.
40 spm 750 880 130
spm T.V.D. 9,900 ft.
Drill Pipe 9300 x 0.0177 = 164.61 Volume Pump Strokes
HWDP 400 x 0.0088 = 3.52
Drill Collars 800 x 0.006 = 4.8 Pump Slow Pump Rate
Displacement
Drill String Volume (D) 172.93 (E) 1453 stks 36.3 min
DC x Open Hole 800 x 0.0829 = 66.32
DP / HWDP x Open Hole 3200 x 0.1194 = 382.08
Open Hole Volume = (F) 448.4 bbl 3768 stks 94.2 min
DP x Casing 5700 x 0.1288 = (G) 734.16 bbl 6169 stks 154.3 min
Choke line 820 x 0.0088 = (H) 7.21 bbl 61 stks 1.5 min
Total Annulus Volume ( F+G+H)=(I) 1189.77 bbl 9998 stks 250 min
Total Well System Volume (D+I)=(J) 1362.7 bbl 11451 stks 286.3 min
DP x Marine Riser 800 x 0.3626 = 290.08 bbl 2437 stks
307
Kick Data
SIDPP 400 psi SICP 600 psi Pit Gain 20 bbls
Kill Mud Weight
SIDPP 400
KMW Current Mud Weight + ----------------- =10.5 + ------------------ = 11.28 ppg
TVD X 0.052 9900 x 0.052
Current Mud Gradient + -------------- = psi/ft.
KMG TVD
Initial Circulating
Pressure Dynamic Pressure Loss + SIDPP = 750 +400 = 1150 psi
ICP
Initial Dynamic
Casing Pressure at SICP - Choke Line Friction = 600-130 = 470 psi
Kill Pump Rate
Final Circulating Kill Mud Weight 11.28
Pressure ------------------------- X Dynamic Pressure Loss = -------x 750 = 806 psi
FCP Current Mud Weight 10.5
Pressure ------------------------- X Dynamic Pressure Loss = psi
FCP Current Mud Gradient
( L ) X 100 344x 100

(L) = ICP – FCP = 1150-806 = 344 psi ------------------ = ------------= 24 psi / 100 strokes
( E) 1453

00 1150 Drill Pipe Pr.( psi)
100 1126
200 1102 1050 psi
300 1078 Pr
400 1054 e
500 1030 s
600 1006 s
700 982 ur
800 958 e
900 934
1000 910 806 psi
1100 886
1200 862
1300 838
1400 814
1453 806
Strokes
308
7.7.2 Fill the following data from filled kill sheet
Pressure safety margin at shoe after kick = MAASP- SICP

= 1035 – 600 = 435 psi
A)Pressure safety margin at shoe after kick = 435 psi
B) Surface to bit strokes = 1453 strokes
C) Bit to Shoe strokes = 3768 strokes
D) Kill Mud Weight = 11.28 ppg
E) Initial Circulating Pressure = 1150 psi
F) Final Circulating Pressure = 806 psi
G) Initial Dynamic Choke Pressure = 470 psi
H) Riser Displacement = 2437 strokes
MAASP after kill = (13.66 – 11.28)  6300  0.052 = 780 psi
I) MAASP after kill = 780 psi
J) Pressure Drop /100 stroke = 24 psi
K) Cycle time = 286.3 min.
L) Bit to Surface Strokes = 9998 stks
309
Blank Kill Sheet

Surface BOP ( Vertical Well ) Kill Sheet API Field Unit

Mud data:
Mud Weight (B) ppg
Maximum Allowable Mud Weight Mud ppg
(A) Weight
(B) +
Shoe True Vertical Depth x 0.052 Casing Shoe Data:
( C) ppg Size in
Initial MAASP M.D. ft

{(C) –Current Mud Weight} x Shoe TVD x0.052
T.V.D. ft.
psi
Pump No.1 Pump No.2 Hole Data:

Displacement Displacement in
bbls /stroke bbls / stroke Size
Slow Pump Dynamic Pressure Loss ( PL) ft
Rate Data Pump No. 1 Pump No. 2 M.D.
T.V.D.
ft.

Drill Pipe x = Volume Pump Strokes

Heavy Wall Drill Pipe x =
Drill Collars x = Pump Slow Pump
Displacement Rate
Drill String Volume (D) (E) stks min
DC x Open Hole x =
DP / HWDP x Open x =
Hole
Open Hole Volume (F) bbl stks min
DP x Casing x = (G) bbl .
Total Annulus Volume (F +G ) =( H ) bbl stks min

Total Well System Volume ( D+H ) = ( I ) bbl stks min
310
Kick Data
SIDPP psi SICP psi Pit Gain bbls
Current Mud Weight + ----------------- = ppg
KMW TVD X 0.052
Current Mud Gradient + -------------- = psi
KMG TVD
Initial Circulating
Pressure Dynamic Pressure Loss + SIDPP = psi
ICP
FCP Current Mud Weight
( K ) x 100
( K ) = ICP – FCP= psi ------------------ = psi /100 stks
( E)

Drill Pipe Pr.( psi)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Strokes
311
Surface BOP ( Deviated Well ) Kill Sheet - API Field Units

Mud Data:
Surface Leak –off Pressure
(A) psi M Weight pppp
ppg
( OMW )
Mud Weight
(B) ppg
Deviation Data: KOP
(A) KOP M.D. ft.
B + ---------------------------------- = KOP T.V.D ft.
Shoe TVD x 0.052
(C) ppg EOB
EOB M.D. ft.
INITIAL MAASP =
{(C) - Current MW } x shoe TVD x 0.052 EOB T.V.D ft.
psi
Casing Shoe Data:
Pump No.1 Disp
Pump-1 Displacement Pump-2 Displacement Size in.
M. Depth ft.
Bbl/stroke Bbl/strokes T.V. Depth ft.
Slow Pump ( PL ) Dynamic Pressure Loss Hole Data:

Rate Data Pump No.1 Pump No. 2
spm psi psi Size in.
spm psi psi M. Depth ft.
T.V. Depth ft.
Pre – recorded Volume Data Length Capacity Volume Pump Strokes Time
( ft. ) ( bbl/ft. ) ( bbl ) (stks ) minutes
DP– Surface to KOP x = (L) stks
DP- KOP to EOB x = (M) stks
DP- EOB to BHA x = (N1) stks
HWDP x = (N2) stks
Drill Collar x = (N3) stks
Drill String Volume (D) = bbl stks min
DC x Open Hole x =
DP / HWDP x Open hole x =
DP x Casing = (G) bbl stks min
Total Annulus Volume ( F +G ) = ( H ) bbl stks min
Total Well System Volume ( D +H ) = ( I ) bbl stks min
312
(T) = ICP – KOPCP = …………-...........= psi (T) x 100 = x 100 = psi /100 stks
(L)
(U)= KOPCP – EOBCP=……. - …….. = psi (U) x 100 = x 100 = psi /100stks
(M)
(W)= EOBCP – FCP =…….. - …………= psi (W) x 100 = x 100 = psi /100 stks
(N1+N2+N3)

Drill Pipe Pr.(psi)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Strokes
313
Sub sea BOP ( Vertical Well ) Kill Sheet API Field Unit
Sub sea BOP Data:
Riser Ft.
Mud Weight (B) ppg
Choke Line Ft.
aximum Allowable Mud Weight
(A)
Mud data:
(B) + Mud
Shoe True Vertical Depth X 0.052 Weight ppg
(C) ppg
Initial MAASP Casing Shoe Data:

{ C –Current Mud Weight} x Shoe TVD x 0.052 =
Size in.
psi
Pump No.1 Pump No.2 M.D. ft.
Displacement Displacement ft.
bbls /stroke bbls / stroke T.V.D.
Slow Dynamic Pressure Loss ( PL)
Pump Pump No. 1 Pump No. 2 Hole Data:
Rate Data
Riser Choke Choke Riser Choke Choke Size in.
Line Line Line Line
Fric. Fric. M.D. ft.
spm
spm T.V.D. ft.
Drill Pipe x = Volume Pump Strokes
HWDP x =
Drill Collars x = Pump Slow Pump Rate
Displacement
Drill String Volume (D) (E) stks min
DC x Open Hole x =
DP / HWDP x Open Hole x =
Open Hole Volume x = (F) bbl stks min
DP x Casing x = (G) bbl stks min
Choke line x = (H) bbl stks min
Total Annulus Volume ( F+G+H)=(I) bbl stks min
Total Well System Volume (D+I)=(J) bbl stks min

DP x Marine Riser x = bbl stks
314
Kick Data
SIDPP psi SICP psi Pit Gain bbls
Kill Mud Weight
SIDPP
KMW Current Mud Weight + ----------------- = = ppg
TVD X 0.052
Current Mud Gradient + -------------- = psi/ft.
KMG TVD
Initial Circulating
Pressure Dynamic Pressure Loss + SIDPP = = psi
ICP
Initial Dynamic
Casing Pressure at SICP - Choke Line Friction = 600-130 = psi
Kill Pump Rate
Pressure ------------------------- X Dynamic Pressure Loss = = psi
FCP Current Mud Weight
Pressure ------------------------- X Dynamic Pressure Loss = psi
( L ) X 100
(L) = ICP – FCP psi ------------------ = psi / 100 strokes
( E)

Pr
e
s
s
u
r
e
Strokes
315
Subsea BOP ( Deviated Well ) Kill Sheet - API Field Units

Surface Leak –off Pressure Mud Data:
(A) psi
Mud Weight
(B) ppg M Weight
( OMW ) ppg
(A) Deviation Data:
B + ---------------------------------- =
Shoe TVD x 0.052
(C) ppg KOP M.D. ft
KOP T.V.D ft
INITIAL MAASP =
{(C) - Current MW } x shoe TVD x 0.052 =
psi EOB M.D. ft
EOB T.V.D ft
Pump No. 1 PumpNo.2 Displacement
Displacement Casing Shoe Data:
Bbl/stroke Bbl/strokes Size in
Slow ( PL ) Dynamic Pressure Loss (psi) M. Depth
Pump ft
Pump No.1 Pump No. 2
Rate Riser Choke Choke Riser Choke Choke
Data T.V. Depth ft.
line line fric. line line fric.
spm
Hole Data: in
Size ft
spm
M. Depth
ft
T.V. Depth
Pre – recorded Volume Length Capacity Volume Pump Strokes Time
Data ( ft. ) ( bbl/ft. ) ( bbl ) (stks ) min
DP– Surface to KOP x = (L) stks
DP- KOP to EOB x = (M) stks
DP- EOB to BHA x = (N1) stks
Heavy WeightD/ Pipe x = (N2) stks
Drill Collar x = (N3) stks
Drill String Vol (D) bbl (E) stks min
DC x Open Hole x =
DP / HWDP x O/ H x =
DP x Casing x (G) bbl stks min
Choke line x = (H) bbl stks min
Total Annulus Volume ( F +G + H) = ( I ) bbl stks min

With choke line
Total Well System Volume ( D +I ) = ( J ) bbl stks min
Marine riser X Drill pipe x = bbl stks
316
Subsea BOP ( Deviated Well ) Kill Sheet – API Field Unit
Kick Data:
SIDPP psi SICP psi Pit Gain bbl

Current Mud Weight + --------------------
KMW 0.052 x TVD
……… + ----------------- = ppg
Initial Circulation Pressure Dynamic Pressure Loss + SIDPP

ICP ……………….. + …………………… = psi

Pressure -------------------------- x Dynamic Pressure Loss
Current Mud Weight
FCP ………………. x ------------------------ = psi
Dynamic Pressure Loss KOPMD

at KOP ( O ) PL+ (FCP-PL) x -------- = ….. +[ ( ….. - …. ) x ------ ] = psi
TDMD
Remaining SIDPP at SIDPP – [ ( KMW – OMW ) x 0.052 x KOP TVD ]

KOP ( P ) = ………. – [ ( ………. - ……… ) x 0.052 x ……. ] = psi
Circulating Pressure
at KOP ( KOP CP ) ( O ) + ( P ) = ………….. + …………… = psi
Dynamic Pressure Loss
at EOB ( R ) PL + (FCP – PL) x EOB MD = ……. + [ (….. . .- …….. ) x -------------]
TD MD
= psi
Remaining SIDPP at SIDPP – [ ( KMD – OMD ) x 0.052 x EOB TVD ]

EOB ( S )
= …………. – [ ( ……. - ………. ) x 0.052 x ……… ] = psi
Circulating Pressure at ( R ) + ( S ) = …………… + …………. = psi

EOB ( EOBCP )
317
Subsea BOP ( Deviated Well ) Kill Sheet – API Field Unit
(T) = ICP – KOPCP = …….. - ……. = ……..psi (T) x 100 = x 100 = psi /100 stks
(L)
(U)= KOPCP – EOBCP =…….- …….= …….. psi (U) x 100 = x 100 = psi /100 stks
(M)
(W)= EOBCP – FCP = ……. - …….. =------- psi (W) x 100 = x 100 = psi /100 stks
(N1+N2+N3)

Pr
e
s
s
ur
e
Strokes
318
7.8 EXERCISE ON CASING SHOE FAILURE

Well Data:
17 ½’’ hole drilled depth : 4,000ft
20’’ Casing shoe depth : 1,200ft
13 3/8’’ Casing capacity : 0.149 bbl/ft
Length of one 13 3/8’’ casing joint : 38ft
Annulas capacity(20’’ X 13 3/8’’ ) : 0.116 bbl/ft
10 joints of 13 3/8’’ casing were lowered were lowered without filling mud. While connecting
11th joint casing shoe failed. Calculate the reduction in BHP due to shoe failure.
As the casing was lowered without filling mud so the complete 13 3/8’’ casing will be empty and
annulus between 20’’ x 13 3/8’’ casing will be full with 11.5 ppg mud as shown in figure-A .
Length of 13 3/8’’ casing lowered = 38  10 = 380 ft

Amount of mud in the annulus = 380 0.116 = 44.08 bbl
After the shoe failure mud from annulus will enter into the 13 3/8’’ casing and due to U-
tube effect the height of mud column in both 13 3/8’’ casing & it’s annulus will be same as
shown in figure-B
Height of mud column in casing/annulus after shoe failure = 44.08  ( 0.116 + 0.149)
= 166 ft
Drop in mud level in the annulus = 380-166 = 214 ft
Reduction in BHP due to shoe failure = 0.052  214  11.5 = 128 psi
214 ft
380 ft
Figure -A Figure -B
319
7.9 SIZING OF MUD GAS SEPARATOR
Blow through can take place when peak gas flow rates are experienced under following two
situations:
1. When friction pressure of the gas through the vent line exceeds liquid seal
hydrostatic.
2. When Internal Diameter of the MGS body is small which may cause insufficient
retention time for the gas to separate from mud.
 Steps for sizing the MGS on the basis of vent line friction pressure losses ( 1st
criteria) :
a ) Calculate Maximum Pressure & Volume of gas upstream of the Choke
Pmax = 200   ( P  V  W )  C
Where
Pmax – Maximum Pressure of gas upstream of the choke
P - Formation pressure in thousand of psi
( Pressure of gas at bottom of hole )
V - Pit gain, bbl
W -Kill mud weight ppg
C - Annular capacity at surface, bbl / 1000 ft
Vmax =4  (PVC)W
Where Vmax - Maximum Volume of gas upstream of the choke
b) Calculate time necessary to vent the gas ( t ) in min
Vmax
t=
Kill rate ( bbl / min )
c) Calculate Volume of gas downstream of the choke using Boyle’s law ( Vc )
Pc X Vc = Pmax X Vmax
Where
320
Pc - Pressure of gas downstream of the choke

( Atmospheric Pressure i.e. 14.7 psi)
d) Calculate Peak gas flow rate to be handled by the MGS ( Qmax ) in bbl / min
Vc
Qmax =
t
e) Calculate Effective vent line length ( Le ) in ft
Le = Length of vent line + n x Leq
Where
n = No. of bends of each type
Leq = Bend / corner equivalent length ( Refer Data sheet )
f) Calculate Vent line friction pressure ( Pf ) in psi
5 X 10 -12 X Le X (Qmax ) 2
Pf =
( ID of vent line) 5
g) Calculate hydrostatic of liquid seal ( PL) in psi
PL = .052 X mud density X height of liquid seal
To avoid blow through, MGS sizing should be such that PL is more than Pf
 Steps for sizing the MGS on the basis of separator ID ( 2nd criteria ) :
a) Calculate separator capacity ( Cs ) in bbl / ft
(ID of separator, inch) 2

Cs =
1029
b) Calculate Liquid velocity downward in the separator ( VL ) in ft/ min
2 X Kill rate ( bbl/ min)

VL =
Cs
321
To avoid blow through sizing of MGS should be such that VL is less than Gas migration
rate in ft/ min which can be taken as 8.4 ft / min assuming gas migration rate of 500
ft/hr.
BEND /CORNER EQUIVALENT LENGTH DATA SHEET
322
7.10 HYDRAULIC CONTROL SCHEMATIC FOR A BOP CONTROL SYSTEM

( API-RP 53)
Precharge valves
1 1
Accumulators
Test line BOP test line
2 Full opening valves

2
3 4 Pressure regulator Annular regulator

Reservior
2 Pressure gauge
Pump Relief valve

5 7 12 13
Check valves
6 8
Pump
Bleeder
9 10 11 valve 18
Bypass valve 14 15 16 17
Connection for another pump
Rams HCR Annular
Set of valves should be kept open in normal drilling mode
2 5 6 12 14 15 17 18
323
ANNEXURE
1. CONVERSIONS
DEPTH
Feet x 0.3048 to give Metres ( m)
Metres x 3.2808 to give feet ( ft )
VOLUME
( U.S. ) Gallon x 0.003785 to give Cubic Metres ( M3)
( U.S. ) Barrel x 0.1590 to give Cubic Metres ( M3)
Cubic Metre x 6.2905 to give Cubic Metres ( M3)
PRESSURE
psi x 6.895 to give Kilo Pascals ( KPa)
KPa x 0.14503 to give Pounds pser Square Inch ( psi)
Kg/cm2 x 98.1 to give Kilo Pascals ( KPa)
Bar x 100 to give Kilo Pascals ( KPa)
MUD WEIGHT
Specific Gravity x 8.33 to give Pounds per Gallon ( ppg)
ppg x 119.8 to give Kilogram per Cubic Metre( Kg/m3)
Kg/m3 x 0.00835 to give Pounds per Gallon ( ppg)
PRESSURE GRADIENT
psi/ foot x 22.62 to give Kilo Pascals per Metre( KPa/m )
KPa / Metre x 0.0442 to give Pounds per Square Inch per Foot ( psi/ ft
)
MUD WEIGHT TO PRESSURE GRADIENT

ppg x 0.052 to give Pounds per Square Inch per Foot
( psi/ft) [ Pressure Gradient ]
Specific Gravity x .433 to give Pounds per Square Inch per Foot
( psi/ft)
3
lb/ft ÷ 144 to give Pounds per Square Inch per Foot
( psi/ft)
3
Kg/m x 0.000434 to give Pounds per Square Inch or
( psi/ft)
324
FLOW RATE
Gallon / Minute x 0.003785 to give Cubic Metres per Minute
( M3/ min)
Barrels / Minute x 0.159 to give Cubic Metres per Minute (M3/min)
Cubic Metres / Minute x 6.2905 to give Barrels per Minute ( bbl/ min)
Cubic Metres / Minute x 264.2 to give Gallons per Minute ( gals / min)
ANNULAR VELOCITY
Feet / Minute x 0.3048 to give Metres per Minute ( m / min)
Metre / Minute x 3.2808 to give Feet per Minute ( ft / min)
FORCE ( eg WEIGHT ON BIT )

Pound force x 0.445 to give Deca-newtons
Deca-newtons x 2.2472 to give Pound force
MASS
Pounds x 0.454 to give Kilograms ( Kg )
Tons ( Long – 2240 lbs ) x 1017 to give Kilograms ( Kg )
Tons (Metre – 2205 lbs) x 1001 to give Kilograms ( Kg )
Kilograms x 2.2026 to give Pounds ( lbs )
PIPE WEIGHTS
Pound / Foot x 1.49 to give Kilograms / Metre
Kilogram / Metre x 0.671 to give Pound / Foot
R.K. Khanna
325
2. TRIP SHEET
RIG DATE
WELL TIME
DRILLER DEPTH
Reason for the trip :

Number of stands to have top of DC's one stand below BOP's :
Displacement Drill collar 1 Drill Collar 2 HWDP Drill Pipe 1 Drill Pipe2
Size
bbls/ft
Stand/Single
Length(ft)
Vol(bbls)
Calculated Measured Hole fill Discrepancy

Stand Trip tank Hole Per Per
No Gauge Fill(Bbls) increment Ccumulative increment Cumulative Remarks
326
FILLED TRIP SHEET

RIG DATE
WELL TIME
DRILLER DEPTH
Reason for the trip : Bit Change

Number of stands to have top of DC's one stand below BOP's :
Displacement Drill collar 1 Drill Collar 2 HWDP Drill Pipe 1 Drill Pipe2
Size 8 5 5
bbls/ft 0.0535 0.01795 0.0076
Stand/Single
Length(ft) 90
Vol(bbls)
Calculated Measured Hole fill Discrepancy

Stand Trip tank Hole Per Per
No Gauge Fill(Bbls) increment Accumulative increment Accumulative Remarks
0 40
5 36.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 - -
10 33 3.5 3.5 7 - -
15 29.5 3.5 3.5 10.5 - -
20 26 3.5 3.5 14 - -
25 24 3.5 2 16 1.5 1.5

Check for
flow
327
Interpretation of Trip Sheets
It is easy to say investigate every deviation from calculated figures, and of course this is exactly
what should happen.
What exactly do we mean by a discrepancy - 0.1 bbl,0.5 bbl., 1.0 bbl.?
Sometimes our calculations may not be entirely accurate(e.g. not allowing for tool
joints).However in the field, this level of accuracy is acceptable.
So whilst we must investigate any discrepancies , we must be aware of the general trend.
For example, your calculations may give a hole fill of 3.5 bbl./stand. If on every trip out and trip
in on the well we record a displacement of 3.25 bbl./stand with no further happening then
obviously this is the norm.
On subsequent trips we would regard 3.25 bbl./stand as the norm and investigate any
discrepancy from this.
It is important to be aware of the normal trend and investigate any deviation from this . If at
any time there is doubt – CHECK FOR FLOW FROM THE WELL.
328
3. LIST OF API STANDARDS RELEVANT TO WELL CONTROL
API Specification 5L, Line Pipe
API Specification 6A, Wellhead and Christmas Tree Equipment
API Specification 16A, Specification for Drill-through Equipment
API Specification 16C, Choke and Kill Systems
API Specification 16D, Control Systems for Drilling Well Control Equipment and Control Systems
for Diverter Equipment
API Specification 17D, Subsea Wellhead and Christmas Tree Equipment
API Specification 17H, Recommended Practice for Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV) Interfaces
on Subsea Production Systems
API Standard 53 Blowout Prevention Equipment Systems for Drilling Wells
API Recommended Practice 75, Development of a Safety and Environmental Management

Program for Offshore Operations and Facilities
API Recommended Practice 64, Recommended Practice for Diverter system equipment and
operations.
API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 16ST, Coiled Tubing Well Control Equipment Systems
API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 59, Recommended Practice for Well Control Operations
API RECOMMENDED PRACTICE 16 E, Recommended Practice for Design of Control Systems for
Drilling Well Control Equipment
329
This training manual is designed solely for the purpose of training in accordance
with IWCF,IADC curriculum for well control course. The content and coverage is
based on references drawn from similar manuals of well control techniques
during drilling operations available worldwide form major companies.
330

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What is the Well Control School and what are its aims?

What is the Well Control School and what are its aims?

What learning tools and technologies does the Well Control School use?

What learning tools and technologies does the Well Control School use?

WELL CONTROL SCHOOL, IDT

Courses offered are:

1. IWCF ROTARY DRILLING WELL CONTROL: Introductory(Level-2),Driller(Level-

2. IWCF WELL INTERVENTION PRESSURE CONTROL : Level-3 and Level-4

1. IADC WELLSHARP DRILLING WELL CONTROL : Introductory, Driller and Supervisor

CHAPTER-1 RISK MANAGEMENT AND BASIC PRESSURE CONCEPTS

CHAPTER-2 KICK INDICATIONS & SHUT IN PROCEDURES

CHAPTER 3: WELL KILLING METHODS

CHAPTER- 4 BARRIER CONCEPTS AND CONTINGENCIES

CHAPTER 5: BLOW OUT PREVENTER EQUIPMENT SURFACE/SUBSEA

CHAPTER-6 DEEPWATER WELL CONTROL

CHAPTER 7 FORMULAE, EXERCISES AND KILL SHEETS

CHAPTER-1 RISK MANAGEMENT AND BASIC PRESSURE CONCEPTS

1.1.1 Impacts of Well Control Incident:

Need for Well Control Training

1. Know the consequences for well control problems.

1.1.2 The Concept of Systematic Risk Management

1.1.3 Principles of Risk Management Identifying Risks

A more thorough assessment is warranted due to the implementation of new drilling

1.1.4 Assessment and Analysis of Risks

1.1.5 Plan Development

1.1.6 Management of Change

1.1.7 Pre-Operation Planning

1.1.8 Pre-Job Meeting

1.1.9 General Information:

1.2.1 Hydrostatic Pressure

Hydrostatic pressure (psi) = Depth (TVD-feet) x Mud density (ppg) x 0.052

Hydrostatic pressure (psi) = Mud gradient x Depth

Pounds/barrel = 1490(W2 - W1)/ 35.4 - W2

1.2.2 Pressure Gradient

1.2.3 Bottom Hole Pressure ( BHP )

BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure + Surface Pressure  Dynamic Pressure

BHP in different well situations :

f) While tripping out

1.2.4 Formation Pressure

1.2.5 Fracture Pressure

1.2.6 Circulating System Pressure

1.3 SOME BASIC TERMS

1.3.3 Primary Well Control

1.3.4 Secondary Well Control

1.3.5 Tertiary Well Control

1.4 NORMAL AND ABNORMAL PRESSURES

or Overburden pressure = matrix stress + pore pressure

1.5 CAUSES OF ABNORMAL PRESSURES

1.5.1 Under Compaction

1.5.2 Artesian Effect

Figure 1.1 ARTESIAN EFFECT

Normal Pressure Abnormal Pressure

Figure 1.2 FAULTING

1.5.4 Salt Dome

Figure 1.3 ABNORMAL PRESSURE DUE TO SALT DOME

1.5.5 Gas Cap Effect

Gas gradient 0.1 psi/ft

Formation pressure gradient at 8,000 ft is 0.465 psi/ft

Figure 1.4 GAS CAP EFFECT