Ari Pennanen

Workplace Planning

USER ACTIVITY BASED WORKPLACE DEFINITION AS AN INSTRUMENT

FOR WORKPLACE MANAGEMENT IN MULTI-USER ORGANIZATIONS
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ARI PENNANEN

USER ACTIVITY BASED WORKSPACE DEFINITION AS

AN INSTRUMENT FOR WORKPLACE MANAGEMENT
IN MULTI-USER ORGANIZATIONS

Dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Technology to be presented with the

assent of the Department of Architecture, Tampere University of Technology, for
public discussion in Tampere University of Technology, on April 3rd, 2004.
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Supervised by
Professor Juhani Katainen

Reviewed by
Professor Glenn Ballard
Professor Leen van Duin

Publisher:
Haahtela-kehitys Oy
Tinasepäntie 45
00620 Helsinki
eMail: firstname.surname@Haahtela.fi
internet: www.haahtela.fi

Helsinki 2004

IBSN 952-5403-04-1
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ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................................... 7

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................................... 8

1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 10
1.1 WORKPLACE PLANNING .................................................................................................................................. 10
1.2 PRACTICAL PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENTING WORKPLACE MANAGEMENT TO PROJECT DEFINITION .................. 11
1.2.1 Project Definition methods ..................................................................................................................... 11
1.2.2 Problem Seeking, an Architectural Programming Primer...................................................................... 12
1.2.3 Problems with Workplace Planning in Project Definition...................................................................... 14
1.2.3.1 Designer’s Point of View vs. Operations Point of View...................................................................................... 14
1.2.3.2 Decision Making and Commitment ..................................................................................................................... 15
1.3 THE AIM OF THE RESEARCH ............................................................................................................................ 17
1.4 LIMITS OF THE RESEARCH ............................................................................................................................... 17
2 HYPOTHESIS ...................................................................................................................................................... 18

3 THE SYSTEMIZATION OF THIS RESEARCH ............................................................................................. 19

3.1 ANALYZING WORKPLACE PLANNING AS A PROBLEM ...................................................................................... 19
3.2 ANALYZING WORKPLACE PLANNING THROUGH CONCEPTIONS OF PRODUCTION ............................................ 19
3.3 ANALYZING WORKPLACE PLANNING THROUGH CONCEPTIONS OF COMPLEXITY ............................................ 20
3.4 CONSTRUCTING THE THEORY OF WORKPLACE PLANNING .............................................................................. 20
3.5 DEFINING THE STEERING MODEL OF WORKPLACE PLANNING ........................................................................ 21
3.6 DEVELOPING THE WORKPLACE PLANNING PROCEDURE .................................................................................. 21
3.7 CASE STUDY; CYGNAEUS HIGH SCHOOL ......................................................................................................... 22
4 WORKPLACE PLANNING AS A PROBLEM ................................................................................................ 23
4.1 DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM.......................................................................................................................... 23
4.2 PROBLEMS FOR WHICH THERE EXISTS A CLEAR ANSWER ................................................................................ 23
4.3 PROBLEMS THAT DO NOT HAVE A CLEAR ANSWER .......................................................................................... 24
4.4 EVALUATING POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO INDUCTIVE PROBLEMS ....................................................................... 25
4.5 WORKPLACE PLANNING IS AN INDUCTIVE PROBLEM AND A COMPLEX SYSTEM .............................................. 26
5 CONCEPTIONS OF PRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 28
5.1 GENERAL ......................................................................................................................................................... 28
5.2 PRODUCTION THEORY...................................................................................................................................... 28
5.3 THE TRANSFORMATION CONCEPT ................................................................................................................... 28
5.4 THE FLOW CONCEPT ....................................................................................................................................... 29
5.5 THE VALUE GENERATION CONCEPT ................................................................................................................ 31
5.6 INTEGRATION OF THE CONCEPTS, TRANSFORMATION-FLOW-VALUE (TFV) THEORY OF PRODUCTION ........... 32
5.7 THE IDENTIFICATION OF VALUABLE REQUIREMENTS ...................................................................................... 32
5.7.1 Complexity Management ........................................................................................................................ 32
5.7.2 Value generation concept and commitment ............................................................................................ 34
5.8 COMMITMENT.................................................................................................................................................. 36
5.8.1 Concepts of Commitment ........................................................................................................................ 36
5.8.2 Commitment Process .............................................................................................................................. 37
5.8.3 Commitment and Workplace Planning ................................................................................................... 37
5.8.4 Conclusions............................................................................................................................................. 39
5.9 WORKPLACE PLANNING FROM THE PRODUCTION THEORY’S POINT OF VIEW ................................................. 39
5.9.1 The Transformation View ....................................................................................................................... 39
5.9.1.1 Identification of Workplace Needs in Relation to the Transformation Concept .................................................. 39
5.9.1.2 Workplace Planning Process as Transformation.................................................................................................. 40
5.9.2 The Flow View ........................................................................................................................................ 40
5.9.2.1 Identification of Workplace Needs in Relation to the Flow View Concept ......................................................... 40
5.9.2.2 Workplace Planning Process as Flow .................................................................................................................. 40
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5.9.3 Workplace Planning as Value Generation.............................................................................................. 42

5.9.3.1 New formulation.................................................................................................................................................. 42
5.9.3.2 Complexity Management in Workplace Planning and Design ............................................................................ 42
5.9.4 Workplace Planning and “Soft Values” ................................................................................................. 45
5.10 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................................... 46
6 CONCEPTIONS OF COMPLEXITY ................................................................................................................ 48
6.1 COMPLEXITY AND CHAOS ............................................................................................................................... 48
6.2 COMPLEXITY AND CYBERNETICS .................................................................................................................... 49
6.2.1 Control.................................................................................................................................................... 50
6.2.2 Controller ............................................................................................................................................... 51
6.2.3 Learning.................................................................................................................................................. 52
6.2.4 Feedback................................................................................................................................................. 52
6.2.5 Requisite Variety..................................................................................................................................... 53
6.2.6 Information flow ..................................................................................................................................... 53
6.3 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................................. 53
7 MATHEMATICAL MODELS IN COMPLEX SYSTEMS.............................................................................. 54
7.1 BLACK BOX ..................................................................................................................................................... 54
7.2 ACTIVITY BASED MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................................... 55
7.2.1 Tracing Costs to Activities ...................................................................................................................... 56
7.2.2 Tracing Costs from Activities to Products .............................................................................................. 57
8 THE THEORY OF WORKPLACE PLANNING ............................................................................................. 59
8.1.1 The Concept ............................................................................................................................................ 59
8.1.2 The Principles ......................................................................................................................................... 59
8.1.3 The Methods............................................................................................................................................ 61
9 THE STEERING MODEL OF WORKPLACE PLANNING .......................................................................... 62
9.1 GENERAL ......................................................................................................................................................... 62
9.2 THE STRUCTURE OF THE STEERING MODEL..................................................................................................... 62
9.3 CONTROLLED SYSTEM ..................................................................................................................................... 63
9.4 DISTURBANCE ................................................................................................................................................. 65
9.5 OUTCOME ........................................................................................................................................................ 66
9.6 CONTROLLER ................................................................................................................................................... 66
9.7 DIALOGUE ....................................................................................................................................................... 66
9.8 THE WORKPLACE PLANNING PROCEDURE AND TARGET PRICE METHOD ........................................................ 67
9.9 AGENT ............................................................................................................................................................. 68
9.10 GOAL ............................................................................................................................................................... 68
9.11 INFORMATION TRANSLATIONS IN THE DIALOGUE............................................................................................ 68
9.11.1 General ................................................................................................................................................... 68
9.11.2 The Operative Management’s Viewpoint................................................................................................ 69
9.11.3 The Viewpoint of Strategic Management ................................................................................................ 69
9.11.4 The Real Estate- and Building Sector’s Viewpoint ................................................................................. 70
9.11.5 The Chosen Presentation of Spatial Resources in this Research: Action, Space, and Activity............... 70
9.12 THE STEERING PROCESS FOR WORKPLACE PLANNING .................................................................................... 73
9.12.1 Planning the Process .............................................................................................................................. 73
9.12.2 Interviews................................................................................................................................................ 73
9.12.3 Current or Desired State Measurement .................................................................................................. 75
9.12.4 Dialogue ................................................................................................................................................. 76
9.12.5 Allocation................................................................................................................................................ 76
9.12.6 Next Steps................................................................................................................................................ 77
9.13 WORKPLACE PLANNING IN RELATION OF OTHER PRODUCTION OPERATIONS OF CONSTRUCTION ................... 77
10 THE WORKPLACE PLANNING PROCEDURE ........................................................................................ 80
10.1 GENERAL ......................................................................................................................................................... 81
10.2 ACTIVITY BASED ACCOUNTING AND WORKPLACE PLANNING PROCEDURE .................................................... 82
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10.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SPATIAL REQUIREMENTS .............................................................................................. 83

10.3.1 The Volume of the Sector ........................................................................................................................ 84
10.3.2 The Activity Bill to be Programmed to the Sector................................................................................... 84
10.3.3 Temporal Load of Activities and Goals for Operating Degree............................................................... 84
10.3.4 The Geometry of the People and Objects to be Placed in the Space ...................................................... 85
10.3.5 Legislation, Instructions, Norms............................................................................................................. 86
10.4 THE STRUCTURE OF THE WORKPLACE PLANNING PROCEDURE ....................................................................... 86
10.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................... 86
10.4.2 Project..................................................................................................................................................... 88
10.4.3 Functional Sector.................................................................................................................................... 88
10.4.4 Activity .................................................................................................................................................... 89
10.4.5 Sub-activity ............................................................................................................................................. 89
10.4.6 Space....................................................................................................................................................... 91
10.4.7 Action...................................................................................................................................................... 93
10.4.8 Parameters.............................................................................................................................................. 95
10.4.9 Combining and Optimizing ..................................................................................................................... 97
11 CASE STUDY; CYGNAEUS HIGH SCHOOL............................................................................................. 99
11.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 99
11.2 STAKEHOLDERS ............................................................................................................................................. 100
11.2.1 Education Policy................................................................................................................................... 100
11.2.2 Real Estate Policy................................................................................................................................. 100
11.2.3 Education in Practice ........................................................................................................................... 100
11.2.4 Students................................................................................................................................................. 101
11.3 PROGRAMS 1997…2002................................................................................................................................ 101
11.4 FIRST REPRESENTATION OF WORKPLACE PLANNING STEERING MODEL ....................................................... 102
11.4.1 Organizing the Client............................................................................................................................ 102
11.4.2 Bill of Activities and Drivers................................................................................................................. 103
11.4.3 Interviews.............................................................................................................................................. 104
11.4.4 The Representation ............................................................................................................................... 105
11.5 DISCUSSIONS WITH THE USERS ...................................................................................................................... 107
11.6 DISCUSSIONS WITH STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................. 108
11.7 STRATEGIC PROJECT MEETING ...................................................................................................................... 108
11.8 FURTHER DIALOGUES .................................................................................................................................... 109
11.8.1 Operative Managers Meeting 6.5.2003, started at 9.00 am ................................................................. 109
11.8.2 Decisions 6.5.-14.5.2003 ...................................................................................................................... 114
11.9 COMMITMENT................................................................................................................................................ 114
11.10 WHAT HAPPENED NEXT ?........................................................................................................................... 114
11.10.1 Corporate Real Estate Strategy Planning......................................................................................... 115
11.10.2 Budgets for Investment and Maintenance ......................................................................................... 115
11.10.3 Discussion about Locations in Jyväskylä City .................................................................................. 115
11.10.4 Steering the Design ........................................................................................................................... 116
11.11 THE OTHER CASE STUDIES ........................................................................................................................ 117
12 CASE STUDY ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................ 119
12.1 THE AIM OF THE RESEARCH AND THE THEORY OF WORKPLACE PLANNING .................................................. 119
12.2 CASE STUDY ANALYSIS OBJECTIVES............................................................................................................. 120
12.3 CASE STUDY FINDINGS IN RELATION TO THE WORKPLACE PLANNING THEORY ........................................... 120
12.3.1 Spaces and Geometric Actions; Transformation View ......................................................................... 120
12.3.2 Workplaces and Use of Time; Flow View ............................................................................................. 124
12.3.3 Workplaces and Value Generation; Transformation-Flow-Value view................................................ 126
12.3.4 Allocating Resources to Activities......................................................................................................... 129
12.4 COMMITMENT AS A PRODUCT........................................................................................................................ 130
12.4.1 Stakeholders in the Case of Cygnaeus High School ............................................................................. 130
12.4.2 Why did the Stakeholders not Commit to the Common Goals before Workplace Planning ?............... 131
12.4.3 Commitment Process in the Cygnaeus School case .............................................................................. 132
12.4.4 Commitment Drivers in the Cygnaeus High School Case..................................................................... 134
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12.5 THE RESULTS WHEN USING THE WORKPLACE PLANNING STEERING MODEL................................................ 135
12.5.1 Generation of Spatial Needs and Financial Resources during Workplace Planning ........................... 135
12.5.2 History of the Case Studies after Workplace Planning......................................................................... 138
12.5.3 Stakeholders’ Opinions of the Workplace Planning Steering Model.................................................... 138
12.5.3.1 Strategic Management ................................................................................................................................... 138
12.5.3.2 Operative Management and Users................................................................................................................. 139
12.5.3.3 Architects ...................................................................................................................................................... 140
13 SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................................... 141
13.1 THE AIM OF THE RESEARCH .......................................................................................................................... 141
13.2 THE WORKPLACE PLANNING THEORY........................................................................................................... 141
13.2.1 The Concept .......................................................................................................................................... 141
13.2.2 Principles.............................................................................................................................................. 142
13.2.3 Methods................................................................................................................................................. 143
13.3 THE STEERING MODEL FOR WORKPLACE PLANNING .................................................................................... 143
13.3.1 General ................................................................................................................................................. 143
13.3.2 The Structure of the Steering Model ..................................................................................................... 143
13.3.3 The Workplace Planning Procedure..................................................................................................... 145
13.4 THE WORKPLACE STEERING MODEL IN PRACTICAL USE .............................................................................. 148
13.5 VALUE GENERATION...................................................................................................................................... 148
13.5.1 The Principles of the Workplace Planning Theory in Case Studies...................................................... 148
13.5.2 Stakeholders Commitment to Common Goals....................................................................................... 150
13.5.3 Affect on Operational and Strategic Behavior...................................................................................... 151
13.6 VALUE REALIZATION: HISTORY OF CASE STUDIES AFTER WORKPLACE PLANNING ...................................... 152
13.7 WORKPLACE PLANNING STEERING MODEL AND ARCHITECTURAL QUALITY ................................................ 153
13.8 WORKPLACE PLANNING STEERING MODEL AND GENERATION OF BUILDING COSTS ..................................... 153
13.9 FIT FOR THE USE ............................................................................................................................................ 154
13.10 CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 154
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................................... 155
APPENDIX 1 JYVÄSKYLÄ HIGH SCHOOL. BILL OF ACTIVITIES
APPENDIX 2 JYVÄSKYLÄ HIGH SCHOOL. SPACE SCHEDULE
APPENDIX 3 JYVÄSKYLÄ HIGH SCHOOL. GROUNG FLOOR AND FIRST FLOOR PLANS BEFORE NEW
DESIGN
APPENDIX 4 JYVÄSKYLÄ HIGH SCHOOL. ACCEPTED DESIGN SOLUTION AFTER WORKPLACE
PLANNIG
APPENDIX 5 SYNAPSIA REHABILITATION CENTER. GROUND-, FIRST- AND SECOND FLOOR PLANS
APPENDIX 6 CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVITIES
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ABSTRACT

In the corporate real estate business, spaces are treated as functions of the
operational process; use of space is integrated into core business operations.
On the other hand, the building sector ultimately produce the user's functional
environment. In this research these perspectives are considered together in a
Workplace planning concept. The systemization of a workplace planning
concept consists of three parts:
- the Theory of Workplace Planning
- the Steering Model of Workplace Planning
- The Workplace Planning Procedure

The Workplace Planning Theory links workplace planning to production. A

spatial investment in an operation competes for the same recourses as the
other investments in the operations. Workplace planning is a process where
valuable requirements for workplace production are determined through
observing and evaluating the values of stakeholders against the organization’s
strategy.

The Workplace Planning Steering Model fulfills the theory’s principles in

practice. The Workplace is linked to a very complex system; sets of goals, a
wide range of needs, the different viewpoints of the owner and user etc. The
created steering model is based on dialogue between strategic and operational
management. It encourages learning, group working, transparency and the
elicitation of viewpoints. It supports strategic and operative management’s
collaboration and mutual commitment forming. It also underlines accountability
by creating feedback loops between decisions and outcomes. It enable the
reduction of unnecessary investments and thus releases resources for more
important operations in the organization’s strategy.

A steering model requires rapid feedback. The Workplace Planning Procedure

models the need for space based on the temporal load of activities and on the
geometric actions within a space. It gives the number of rooms, their sizes,
functional possibilities and utilization degrees. The procedure enables the
budget to be directed away from pure spaces, and back to the activities which
enable activity-based cost management.

In case studies the workplace planning concept has led to shared

understanding and mutual commitment between owners and users. It has also
led to a remarkable reduction in the use of spatial resources.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research is a cross-disciplinary study of architecture, construction

economics, production and complex social decision making. It has required
open-minded guidance and empathy to the values of customers, users,
owners, architects, managers, financiers etc. I am grateful to Professor
Katainen and Professor Salokangas for reflective research meetings and for
creating such a research environment. Professor L. van Duin from the Delft
University Faculty of Architecture assisted me in concentrating on the essence
of the structure of the research. Professor Ballard from the University of
California at Berkeley encouraged me to study workplace planning in the
context of production theories, which appeared to strengthen and simplify the
theory of workplace planning. I had valuable theoretical one-to-one research
meetings with Professor Koskela from the University of Salford. I am especially
grateful to all of these.

It is clear that the unique working environment within the Haahtela Group has
created a profound understanding of the values of stakeholders covering the
whole construction process. As a project manager I have been able to
communicate directly with customers who require workplaces, with architects,
with other designers, with site organizations, with contractors and, again, with
the customers who use these workplaces. The Haahtela Group also is a center
of innovative research, as a third of all employees work on development tasks.
I am grateful to Yrjänä Haahtela, Harri Väänänen and to all my colleagues.
This research would not have been possible without them. This research is
now complete but we will go on together to meet new challenges in the future.

Tekes (National Technology Agency of Finland) recognized the importance of

strategic and operational based workplace planning far in advance of any
results of the research. I am grateful to Director, Dr Ari Ahonen and to Tekes
for allowing access to their network of collaborative international organizations
and for their financial support. Our co-operation will continue.

It is sometimes hard to evaluate the outcome of customer behavior if the

researcher is himself influencing that behavior. My fellow researcher, Dr
Michael Whelton from UC Berkeley, was of great help when conducting
parallel research as an “outsider” with the same customers. He also assisted
me in finding more theoretical background. During the course of our work
together, we became firm friends. Thank you Michael.

The relationship between Workplace planner and customer leads to a process

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of mutual learning. I have learned much. I am grateful to Arcada, Senate

Properties, Jyväskylä Polytechnics, Stadia, Synapsia, Neuro, the Municipal
Federation of Education in the Jyväskylä District, Jyväskylä City, HEX, Helsinki
Lutheran Church…there are so many. Without its value in practical use this
research would lose its importance.

I would like to thank my wife Heli and my daughters Aino and Elena. You have
supported me in my life and thus in meeting this challenge. Thank to my
parents, Liisa and Antero, and to my sisters Riitta and Saara for waiting so
patiently for my almost-ready dissertation.

Helsinki 15.3.2004 Ari Pennanen

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1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Workplace Planning

The definition “workplace planning” has been used in particular in connection

with Corporate Real Estate (CRE). Workplace planning is a continually
updated resource allocation in relation to the working environment, its users
and the organization’s strategy (Horgen & Joroff & Porter & Schön). In
workplace planning the production of spatial resources is integrated into the
core business operations. The concept of the workplace as a functional
environment contrasts with the idea of the building as just a structure. (Joroff
2001).

A spatial investment in an operation competes for the same recourses as the

other investments in the operations (Pennanen 1999). In general business
administration workplaces tend to be seen as one of the components of
production. Spaces are treated as functions of the ongoing operational
process. In the modern world the organization as a whole is often challenged
to rethink it’s central mission, its assumptions and strategies, so the spaces
within which the organization operates and the manner in which those spaces
are created and used are equally subject to challenge. The current situation
can continuously be reviewed (Horgen & Joroff & Porter & Schön).

Drivers of change are new business strategies necessitated by the changing

business environment. The most important contributions of workplace planning
to business objectives are
- Access to qualified workforce
- Workplace efficiency and productivity
- Cost reduction (Lambert & Poteete & Waltch 1995)
Workplace planning can also be studied through production theories, which
leads to the same goal. Production theories aim to improve the production
process and the value of the product (working environment) to the customer
(Koskela 2000).

The creation of an effective workplace requires collaboration between

stakeholders with different interests, freedoms and powers. (Horgen & Joroff
& Porter & Schön 1999: 7). The basic premise is for workplace management to
have an interactive effect on business strategy, e.g. ”the workplace manager
operates on the board of directors” (Joroff 2001).
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This perspective on workplace planning is understandable since a workplace

affects productivity, whilst the working environment represents a large share of
the use of resources. Space expenses (investment + maintenance costs) vary
from 5 to 30 % of all expenses of an organizations (among offices and
schools) (Kuntien kiinteistötalouden kehittämisohjelma, yhteenvetoraportti
1997). Indeed, workplaces are a significant investment in an organization’s
strategy.

1.2 Practical Problems in Implementing Workplace Management to Project Definition

1.2.1 Project Definition methods

The construction industry has traditionally focused on situations of change,

and spaces are treated as functions of the production process. Building
professionals, programmers, planners, building consultants, and contractors,
ultimately produce the user's functional environment. The main focus of the
management system emphasizes that area in which each party’s strongest
professional competencies lie. Once the rooms needed and the spatial
requirements are defined by the client, production economics are well
controlled, as are economics in early design phases. However, interfaces
between different users, user processes, business operations, business
strategy and management of spatial resources is an unfamiliar concept. The
head of personnel, rather than a construction professional, plans workplace
strategy. (Pennanen 1999).

Sanoff has presented a conclusion of seven programming methods widely

used in the USA for project definition (Sanoff 1989). They are well documented
and their processes are well described:
- Davis & Szigeti (1986)
- Farbstein (1985)
- Kurtz (Preiser 1978)
- McLaughlin (1976)
- Molenski (Palmer 1981)
- Peña et al. (1987)
- White (1972)
It is hard to define the “traditional project definition method”. Problem Seeking,
an architectural programming primer (Pena et al. 1987), is one of those seven
methods Sanoff has studied. It covers most of the processes covered by the
others. It can therefore be used as an example of today’s architectural project
definition.
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1.2.2 Problem Seeking, an Architectural Programming Primer

According to Problem Seeking (Pena et al. 1987) programming consists of

five steps:
1. Establish goals
2. Collect and analyze facts
3. Uncover and test concepts
4. Determine needs
5. State the problem

The problem stated must be identified in areas of

- Function
- Form
- Economy
- Time

Framework for information handling and guideline for decision making

The programmers do not have to know everything the client knows, but they
should know enough of the client’s needs, conditions and ideas to have an
influence on the design of the building. For this, programmers have to know
the right questions to ask; so they start with thirty-six sub-categories. This
framework is useful in avoiding information clogs when dealing with massive
quantities of information, it can be used as a checklist. The framework can be
extended to serve as an Information Index, a one-hundred-thirty cell matrix of
key words to be used to acquire the appropriate information.

Good programming is characterized by decision making by the client. The

programmer must stimulate client decisions, he may have to evaluate the
gains and risks. Who will actually make which decisions? Generally, he who
has responsibility for the outcome has the authority to make decisions. The
programmer must interview this decision maker and then ask for his approval
of the program.

Goals
Goals are important to the designer, as he will not find inspiration in a list.
Goals must be tested for relevance to a design problem and not to a social or
other problem.

Collect and analyze facts

Facts are used to describe the existing conditions of the site. Other important
facts include statistical projections, economic data and descriptions of the user
characteristics. When the programmer asks questions he must separate fact
from fiction. He must find out the truth. He must tell the difference between
 13

established fact and mere opinion. He must evaluate opinions and test their
validity.

Concepts
Concepts indicate how the client wants to achieve goals; goals are
implemented through concepts. Programming concepts refer to abstract ideas
intended mainly as functional solutions to the clients’ performance problems
without regard to the physical response. Convertibility is a programmatic
concept, a folding door is a corresponding design concept. Problem Seeking
introduces twenty-four programmatic concepts that can be used in projects.

Needs
Few clients have enough money to do all the things they want to do. According
to Problem Seeking the client and architect must agree on a quality level of
construction and on a definite space program as funds allow.

State the problem

The designer and programmer must detail the most salient statements
regarding the problem, the kind of statements that will shape the building.
Typically they cover the functional program, the site, the budget and the
implications of time. The problem statements must be clear, in the designer’s
own words so there is no doubt that he understands.

Levels of complexity
In Problem Seeking, programming projects and their characteristics are
divided into levels, ascending from less to more complex.

First level
- architect organizes the information received
- tests the simple economic feasibility of the project
- decision making is centralized in the client owner

Second level
- architect leads the client through the decision-making process
- architect takes the leadership to develop the program, provides
information through interviewing, statistical analysis
- specialists are needed when making decisions with complex
organizational requirements. The professional has experience in the
social and political awareness to communicate with the complex client
organization
- client is final authority in decision making, client might be a multi-headed
group in which the owner is not necessarily the user
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- user groups might be conflicting

Third level
- the analysis includes a survey of existing operational and functional plans
dealing with management activities
- management of the programming team becomes critical
- timing of decisions important
- programming needs large, highly specialized practice of multi-company
joint venture organizations
- one important characteristic of programming at this level is total
leadership by the architect to develop the program without the
involvement of the client organization
- high level decisions tend to be autocratic, whether by corporation
presidents or governmental executives

1.2.3 Problems with Workplace Planning in Project Definition

1.2.3.1 Designer’s Point of View vs. Operations Point of View

Problem Seeking’s (Pena et al. 1987) point of view, as an architectural project

definition model, is a program for an architect, the designer.
- “The problem statements must be clear, in the designer’s own words”
- “Goals are important to the designer, he will not find inspiration in a list”
- “Programming is related to schematic design”
- “Programmer should know enough of the client’s needs, conditions and
ideas that will influence the design of the building”.
Problem Seeking’s classification of data collection (thirty-six categories + one
hundred-thirty cell index of key words) in most cases covers most of the issues
dealt with project definition. Problem Seeking guides how questionnaires must
be organized to collect all the information required.

Today workplace planning is considered also (and mainly) from the standpoint
of the organization’s idea, it’s strategy and operations.
- “align workplace strategies with business strategies and work practice to
add value. Use the workplace making process to improve business
practices and culture” (Joroff 2001).
- “conceiving the workplace as a strategic element in the enterprise requires
a shift in how we view the workplace itself. The workplace as a strategic
element of the organization is more than a physical container for work. It
depends upon the internal compatibility of spatial, organizational, financial
and technological arrangements” (Horgen & Joroff & Porter & Schön).
- “in the modern world the organization as whole is challenged to rethink it’s
central mission, assumptions, and strategies, then the spaces within which
 15

the organization operates and the manner in which those spaces are
created are equally subject to challenge” (Horgen & Joroff & Porter &
Schön)

Not enough effort is put in by strategic and operational managers to lead to

adequate commitment in today’s project definition. The biggest mistakes in
building projects are currently as follows (Huovila & Tiula 1992):
• Setting of the goals for the operations to be located in the building is
rarely thoroughly carried out, sometimes not at all;
• Operations are not usually considered in the spatial need specifications;
• Site specifications are usually done without taking into account the
operative spatial needs.

1.2.3.2 Decision Making and Commitment

If workplace planning is integrated into business strategy and operations, it is

dependent on the client’s decision making concerning strategy and operations.
Such decisions are connected to a complex social system.

How does Problem Seeking guide a programmer to support the client’s

decision making?
- programmer must separate fact from fiction
- programmer must find out what is true
- programmer must tell the difference between established fact and mere
opinion
- programmer must evaluate opinions and test their validity
- programming is the process of distinguishing between wants and needs
- generally, he who has responsibility for the outcome has the authority to
make decisions. Programmer must interview him and then insist on his
approval of the program.

How does Problem Seeking define decision making in different levels of

project complexity?
- in the first level decisions are made by one person
- in the second level specialists are needed to deal with complex
organizational requirements
- in the third level complexity is avoided by the total leadership of the
architect and autocratic decision making.

Problem Seeking requires a very experienced and skilful programmer who

knows the facts and can relate them to the client and thus distinguish wants
from needs. When dealing with complex social systems and decision making
16

concerning strategy and operations, it is not possible. When referring to

complex systems in problems of planning, architect Rittel uses the term
”wicked problem” (Rittel & Webber 1972).
- There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem. Whilst solving the
problem it becomes clear that the problem’s nature is different from that
initially understood. When the solution is almost ready, the problem
requires extensive redefinition.
- Wicked problems have no stopping rule. If it proves impossible to clearly
define a problem, it will also prove difficult to know when it has been
solved. It could be improved or the matter could be viewed differently. The
process ends when money, time or the interest of the client ends.
- Solutions to wicked problem are not true-or-false, but good-or-bad.
- There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked
problem.
- …

The solutions are not true-or-false but good-or-bad. It is not that the workplace
planner knows the facts because instead of facts there are numerous
viewpoints. The planner must lead the client in the decision making process
that leads to clear commitment, not optimal or best, but good and acceptable
for business and operations.

Problem seeking doesn’t introduce concepts for decision making, rather it

suggests what decisions should be made. Problem Seeking programming
lacks methods of decision support or uses methods that are far too simple.

Cygnaeus high school, a test case in this research, was already programmed
in the “traditional way”. But the investment in workplaces was not done. The
city just stopped the project and did not give any feedback regarding the
development. The programmer points out that although he can analyze needs
in a logical context, the projects will seldom be actualized based on that
program (Whelton 2004). Participants tend to require further investigation and
extra programming (no stopping rule). It is difficult to create a common goal
between strategic and operational managers.

Higgin and Jessop emphasized in 1965: “Sufficient thought and time does not
seem to be given to ensuring, either as a design team brief or during the
designing process, that all who must contribute understand the common
objective similarly and fully” (Higgin and Jessop 1965). Coles found that the
most significant causes of design problems are poor briefing and
communication, inadequacies in the technical knowledge of designers and a
lack of confidence in preplanning for design work (Coles 1990). In Lindkvist’s
 17

study (Lindkvist 1996) a group of Swedish construction professionals were

asked about problems in the early phases of projects. The five most important
problems found are all related to client decision making, rather than to other
parties or methods of working.

In the corporate real estate sector a new balance is being sought between
central management and those individuals in part responsible; the trend is to
move decision making to the customer interface (Horgen & Joroff & Porter &
Schön 1999). Workplace management requires effective interaction between
company management and the users of the space. The building industry lacks
a procedure by which user operations and business strategy are converted
into a project program for a building project and how this decision making is
supported.

It is worth considering construction, real estate business and production

theories together in cross-disciplinary research.

1.3 The Aim of the Research

The aim of this research is to create a steering model for workplace planning
decision making. Spatial resource requirements can be planned on the basis
of the organization's strategic and operational needs, and by using operational
measurement units as initial values. The steering model will enable dialogue
between strategic and operational bodies of a organization. It will produce new
information and new viewpoints which when reviewed will assist the company
in strategic workplace planning and project definition. The steering model will
support common understanding and commitment of strategic and operational
bodies of a organization to common goals.

1.4 Limits of the Research

In this research the real estate sector's commercial asset value perspective
has not been considered. Such aspects are, for example, the commercial
value of the building or site, appreciation in commercial value over time,
balance sheet of the building etc.

The strategic goals of companies themselves are not within the limits of this
research. If a procedure has an effect on strategic decision-making, it has
been interpreted in this research that the procedure facilitates strategic
workplace management. If a procedure effects strategic decision-making, it
has been noted in the practical case-research.

The research does not consider the management of spatial resources from the
18

viewpoint of steering the design and sketch design economy. These

viewpoints are, for example, the building's form, connections between spaces,
costs of different draft alternatives or alternative material choices.

2 HYPOTHESIS

From the viewpoint of operative management, needs for spatial resources

arise from the time management planning of the operational environment and
the geometric requirements. From the strategic management perspective, the
needs for spatial resources arise from those operations that management has
chosen to realize the company’s strategic aims. It is possible to map the
spatial resource needs and to categorize them in accordance with the above
mentioned factors.

Studying the need for spatial resources from the perspectives of the company
operative management and of company strategic management
simultaneously, builds up a collective group process. It generates new
information in relation to the operational environment. This information
influences strategic workplace management. The information influences also,
as feedback, strategic and operational decision making.
 19

3 THE SYSTEMIZATION OF THIS RESEARCH

Workplace management has been researched by:

- Analyzing workplace planning as a problem
- Analyzing workplace planning through conceptions of production
- Analyzing workplace planning through conceptions of complexity
- Constructing the Theory of Workplace Planning
- Defining the steering model for workplace planning
- Developing the Workplace Planning Procedure to provide a
representation in the steering model
- Testing the steering model in a case study

3.1 Analyzing Workplace Planning as a Problem

Workplace planning activity has been identified as a social process. This social
system is perceived as complex in behavior. Organization of this complex
system is perceived to occur through networks of communications,
conversations and dialogues among system agents (stakeholders).

Problem definition is described in section 4.

3.2 Analyzing Workplace Planning through Conceptions of Production

Programming concepts identify often workplace in relation to design. For

instance Problem Seeking’s (Pena et al. 1987) point of view, as an
architectural project definition model, is a program for an architect, the
designer.

In the corporate real estate business (CRE), workplace planning is treated as a

function of the operational process; use of space is integrated into core
business operations, production.

Workplace planning has been studied through concepts of production and thus
workplace planning is shown to be part of the production process. Historical
analysis reveals that three different conceptualizations of production have
been used in practice and conceptually advanced in the 20th century (Koskela,
2000).
- In the first conceptualization, production is viewed as a transformation of
inputs to outputs.
20

- The second conceptualization views production as a flow, where, in

addition to transformation, there are waiting, inspection and moving
stages.
- The third conceptualization views production as a means for the fulfillment
of the customer needs.

3.3 Analyzing Workplace Planning through Conceptions of Complexity

Workplace planning deals with social systems which are complex by nature.
The evolution of complex systems cannot be precisely managed through linear
steps, optimizing strategies work well only when operating in precisely known
environments (Simon 1996). But by studying complex system management
theories, possibilities can be found that direct evolution to possible or
acceptable areas.

After World War II complexity has often been associated e.g. with “holism”,
“feedback”, “cybernetics and general systems”, “chaos”, “adaptive goal-
oriented systems” and “cellular automata” (Simon 1996).

Cybernetics is the study of complex systems, especially adaptive goal oriented

systems; human organizations, systems in nature and machines. It is a
combination of servomechanism (feedback control systems) theory and
information theory. Cybernetics has proved to be especially useful over a wide
range of applications when steering complex systems. Therefore that theory
has been chosen to be basis of the steering system of workplace planning.
Principles of cybernetics are described in section 6.

The workplace planning procedure is a mathematical model that provides a

representation of the organization’s present volition. A model is never the “real
truth”, but a practical approximation that may elicit practical new information.
This model is based on cybernetic modeling principles.

The model traces the results of actual decisions. The Information handling is
based on activity based cost management structure.

Modeling and activity based cost management are described in section 7.

3.4 Constructing the Theory of Workplace Planning

The constructed Theory of Workplace Planning is built on the basis of

Production Theory’s TFV combination. The Workplace Planning Theory links
 21

workplace planning to production, not only to construction production but also

to the organization’s general strategy.

3.5 Defining The Steering Model of Workplace Planning

The steering model is a mode of action that systemizes the organization’s

decision making actions and specific methods in accordance with workplace
planning theory. By following this model different types of organizations are
able to manage their workplace requirements on the basis of strategic and
operational information.

The steering model defines the organization workplace planning as a social

process, a collaborative group interaction and dynamic learning process. The
structure of cybernetic closed loop control has been chosen as the basis of the
steering model.

The concept of workplace resources combines spatial, operational and

economic information (i.e. space size, building cost, actions, functions, core
activity, etc.). The project contains more information than any one individual
can cope with. Information must be presented in an appropriate way to
company management, users, property maintenance units and designers.

A cybernetic closed loop control requires fast feedback on the results of recent
decisions or proposals in group processing. For that purpose a Workplace
Planning procedure has been developed.

The steering model is described in section 9. The workplace planning

procedure is a part of the steering model. But because it’s development is a
significant part of this research, it is described in more detail in section 10.

3.6 Developing the Workplace Planning Procedure

Strategic workplace management requires that decision makers identify what

they are to decide upon as well as the responsibilities that go with those
decisions. It is worth noting that results of decisions should be passed on as
comprehensible information to the operative level (users, planners, project
leaders).

In this research a procedure for quantifying space has been developed for the
management of spatial resources. The workplace planning procedure
determines the quantity of the space categories needed and their required
area. This is dependent upon the timing of the operations allocated to the
22

space, time bound efficiency goals set for the space, as well as, the
performance results (actions) taking place. The space categories are
determined by the activities by which the company's idea can be produced
(Pennanen 1999).

The workplace planning procedure is a program which produces the required

space schedules, and gives the dimensions of their floor area using both
strategic information about the company (core-activities, supporting
activities…) and operational information from users (time used for operations
and performance results). The Target Price-Procedure (Haahtela & Kiiras
2003) and the workplace planning procedure generate feed-back for decision
making (the budget of the project), an instrument for strategic planning
(activities and activity based accounting), as well as an instrument for
operative spatial planning (utilization degree and performance results of
spaces). At the end of the decision making process, usable information has
been created for the users, personnel administration and designers:
- activities
- spaces including floor area
- internal operations of the space

The workplace planning procedure is described in more detail in section 10.

"Workplace planning Procedure".

3.7 Case Study; Cygnaeus High school

A steering model of workplace planning has been tested in the case of

Cygnaeus High School. The customer, Jyväskylä city, had done architectural
programming earlier but they couldn’t start the project. Strategic and
operational management had not been able to discuss problems and the
extension would have been just too expensive. Jyväskylä city asked the
Haahtela Workplace Planning team to use the Steering model in order to
achieve mutual commitment. The case study can be found in section 11.
 23

4 WORKPLACE PLANNING AS A PROBLEM

4.1 Definition of the Problem

The planning of the operational environment can be defined as identifying a

problem and solving it. Defining a workplace environment is a social process.
Social systems tend to be complex, they are self-regulating and they can
adjust themselves to new conditions (Beer 1966). It is necessary to take a
closer look at the concept of a problem and complexity.

4.2 Problems for which there Exists a Clear Answer

Those problems, for which a correct answer can be found, have been named,
for example, deductive problems (Nicolis 1998: 15) or tame problems (Rittel
H. & M. Webber 1972). The answer to a deductive problem can be deduced
from given information through steps of linear regression (gather information,
analyze, solve). No new or unique information is produced during the
deductive process. Deductive problems can be , for example, mathematical
problems (axioms and implicit, as well as explicit theorems). Furthermore,
many systems limited by humans participation are deductive. For example, the
accounting system of a company is deductive, as the chaotic outer world is
kept outside the boundaries of the base information in the accounting system.

Sometimes solving a deductive problem can be difficult, even impossible, even

if we can verify the solution as true or false. A solution can be unattainable
when
1. the problem has been poorly described (Simon 1984: 317-327). The
problem could be solved if variables necessary for solution were clarified.
When a poorly defined problem is being solved, collecting information
may lead to a clearer definition of the problem, which may bring results.
2. the system is too complex. The system is complex if it requires
information which is difficult to obtain (Ruelle 1991). It is difficult to make
a weather prediction a month in advance because there are so many
variables; the movement of air particles in different areas and in different
air layers, their directions, differences in temperature, pressure
differences, the shape of the earth …
3. the system is chaotic. The variables have an effect on each other. A
minute change in one variable can throw the equilibrium out of balance.
(Lorenz 1963). The classic example of this is the flutter of a butterfly’s
wings, that can, weeks later, cause a storm on the other side of the world.
24

4.3 Problems that do not have a Clear Answer

In the previous example, predicting weather on a long-term basis is difficult,

even impossible. However, if rain has been forecast for Monday a month from
now, and it then rains, we can congratulate the forecaster on his accuracy. If
the problem is to define the best ever movie made, the discussion could go on
for hundreds of years (Citizen Kane??).

There may be several correct solutions to inductive problems (Nicolis

1998:15). Not all the information needed for the solution can be found in the
given information. The system is self-organizing, and produces new
information and states during the process. Old information is not always
recorded and some knowledge disappears forever. In inductive problems the
answer is not right or wrong, but deemed good or poor.

When referring to inductive systems in problems of planning, Rittel uses the

term ”wicked problem” (Rittel & Webber 1972). The problem is wicked, if it
follows these ten commandments:
1. There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem. Whilst solving the
problem it becomes clear that the problem’s nature is different from that
initially understood. When the solution is almost ready, the problem
requires extensive redefinition (compared with the inductive problem
which produces new information and new states).
2. Wicked problems have no stopping rule. If it proves impossible to clearly
define a problem, it will also prove difficult to know when it has been
solved. It could be improved or the matter could be viewed differently. The
process ends when money, time or the interest of the client ends.
3. Solutions to wicked problem are not true-or-false, but good-or-bad.
4. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked
problem.
5. Every solution to the wicked problem is “one-shot-operation”; because
there is no opportunity to learn by trial-and-error, every attempt counts
significantly.
6. Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively
describable) set of potential solutions, nor is there well-described set of
permissible operations that may be incorporated into the plan.
7. Every wicked problem is essentially unique.
8. Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another
problem
9. The existence of a discrepancy in representing a wicked problem can be
explained in numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the
nature of the problem’s resolution.
 25

10. The planner (designer) has no right to be wrong.

4.4 Evaluating Possible Solutions to Inductive Problems

The outcome of the inductive problem cannot be predicted in advance. The

end result can later be understood and evaluated only in a historical and
evolutional context (Nicolis 1998: 15). For example the difference between the
workplace planning of the extremely efficient and impersonal 20th century
American style office and that of the inefficient and individualistic European
narrowly structured office is not necessarily logical. However, it can later be
understood by studying the Tayloristic scientific work office culture of the time
and the Northern European goals in the social sector, respectively (Duffy
1997). The cell office models of today can be understood in the light of modern
team organization culture. There is no logical decision making chain that can
be deducted in the decision to use the 21st century double glazed facade, but
in the later history of architecture this can be understood in the light of
attempts to make European management transparent.

The non-quantitative values of building, such as pleasantness, beauty, etc are

culturally bound and evolution is essential to culture. People mirror concepts of
beauty against their cultural background (their experience, reading, learning.
etc.). The basis of Finns’ taste in music is in accordance with western cultural
heritage, interval division and chord techniques. Cultural heritage makes it
difficult for a Finn to find Arabic, Chinese or Indian music beautiful, even
though this music, like western music, includes its own culturally specific
notions of beauty. Personal judgments of beauty are in accordance with
personal inclinations and levels of education. The media (the press, television
etc.) usually concentrate on those areas, where the values of individuals
concur (how beauty is generally conceptualized) (Pennanen 1999).

Culture and pleasantness is a problematic combination, because cultural

heritage is cumulative and changes over time. Impressionism in the arts at the
end of the 19th century was for the most part considered incomprehensible by
both critics and collectors, whereas currently both Monet and Renoir are widely
regarded as masters. Many of the buildings currently regarded as beautiful (for
example functionalistic) were once beautiful only to a small elite. On the other
hand most of the buildings that are currently considered ugly, will, in the future,
still be considered ugly, and we do not know the direction evolution will take.
The Museum of Modern Arts in Helsinki by Steven Holl delighted many when it
was finished, but at the same time many felt it ran counter to modern cultural
evolution. Only time will tell if it will become part of the accepted cultural
stratum (Pennanen 1999) (14.9.2003 The museum of modern arts was voted
26

one of the ten most remarkable buildings in Finland. It was also voted the most
unattractive building. The poll was conducted by the Helsingin Sanomat
newspaper).

It helps to evaluate an inductive problem if the measuring subject can be

determined. If construction is concerned the client can be used. If a project
manager or architect uses himself, he can succeed if he is an opinion leader or
he might fail. Because the consequences of failure are often huge and paid for
by the client, “the planner (designer) has no right to be wrong” (Rittel &
Webber 1972). In this context architecture is rather more artistic than art
(Pennanen 1999).

4.5 Workplace Planning is an Inductive Problem and a Complex System

The operating environment of a company is realized by buying, renting,

constructing or renovating a building to better suit that company’s needs.
These processes involve an endless amount of decisions. These cannot
generally be made deductively from earlier decisions or from the current
situation. The decisions may vary widely. The need for change by the user
organization cannot be used to forecast the final requirements for space, size
of building, form, materials, systems, details, costs etc. The operating
environments chosen by two different organizations having the same needs
are not likely to resemble each other, solutions will be good or bad, not right or
wrong. Workplace Planning is an inductive problem. The chaotic birth process
of the built environment allows for the setting of goals, but does not allow for
the prediction of the end result at the initiation phase (Pennanen 1999).

Workplace planning is also a complex system. Workplace planning gets

information from social organizations and does work for social organizations.
Organizations are exceedingly complex systems (Simon 1996).

Inductivity and complexity can be avoided, ”tamed”, by standardization through

central management, commonly acceptable ways of living, going to school,
work, etc. This was done in the construction of Northern European apartments
and schools. (Pennanen 1999). In today’s society it is difficult to set generally
acceptable norms. In the current cultural environment, individuals and
communities desire to be independent, and to create their own sets of values;
government departments have become business enterprises, schools set their
own curriculums, etc. (Pennanen 1999).

That Workplace Planning is an inductive and complex problem does not mean
that one should be concerned about it. In creative human functions and in the
development of human culture, chaos is important in the formation of new
 27

viewpoints. Thought without chaos can be used for classifying, but not creating
the environment. (Nicolis 1998).
28

5 CONCEPTIONS OF PRODUCTION

5.1 General

Programming concepts often identify workplaces in relation to design. For

instance Problem Seeking (Pena et al. 1987), as an architectural project
definition model, is a program for an architect, the designer.
- “The problem statements must be clear, in the designer’s own words”
- “Goals are important to the designer, he will not find inspiration in a list”
- …
In the corporate real estate business, workplace planning is treated as a
function of the operational process; use of space is integrated into core
business operations. Workplace planning allocates resources in relation to the
working environment, its users and organization’s strategy (Horgen & Joroff &
Porter & Schön). The driver of allocation is value for operations or value for
strategy.

The concept of value has been studied in production theories. Production

theories aim to improve the production process and the value of the product
(working environment) to the customer (Koskela 2000). The following
workplace planning is studied through concepts of production.

5.2 Production theory

Historical analysis reveals that three different conceptualizations of production

have been used in practice and conceptually advanced in the 20th century
(Koskela, 2000).
- In the first conceptualization, production is viewed as a transformation of
inputs to outputs.
- The second conceptualization views production as a flow, where, in
addition to transformation, there are waiting, inspection and moving
stages.
- The third conceptualization views production as a means for the fulfillment
of the customer needs.

5.3 The Transformation Concept

A production process can be viewed as an input-output system. There is a set

of resources which we call inputs. A transformation process operates on this
set and releases it in a modified form which we call outputs (Starr 1966). The
transformation concept follows such principles as:
- Transformation process (operations) can be decomposed into
 29

subprocesses, which are also transformation processes.

- Managing whole production is managing those operations.
- The cost of total process can be managed by managing the cost of each
subprocess.
- The value of output is associated with the value (or costs) of inputs to that
process (Koskela 2000).

Material Production
Labor process Products
Machines

Subprocess Subprocess
A B

Fig. 1. The view of a production process as a transformation process

5.4 The Flow Concept

Just-in-time (JIT) movement critisizes the transformation concept. There is

another dimension of production that is not captured by the transformation
model, namely, what is happening between transformations (Shingo 1988). If
transformation is considered as a value adding operation, there are also non-
value-adding activities, such as moving resources, waiting before
transformation and inspection after transformation. In the flow concept time is
considered as one the inputs of the production. Production is linked to spatial
and temporal flow.

Correcting Correcting

Moving Waiting Processing Inspec- Moving Waiting Processing Inspec-

A tion B tion

Fig. 2. Production process as a flow process. The shaded boxes represent

non-value-adding activities, in contrast to value-adding activities (Koskela
2000)
30

Non-value-adding activities have also been considered as waste from the point
of view of value-adding transformation. Production can be improved by
reducing waste. Waste can be classified as flow of material or work of men
(Ohno 1988):
- waste of overproduction
- waste of correction
- waste of material movement
- waste of processing
- waste of inventory
- waste of waiting
- waste of motion.

What causes waste? There seem to be three root causes (Koskela 2000).
1. The structure of the production system. The waste exists by design in
hierarchical organizations; tasks are divided into subtasks and between
different specialists, and so inspecting, moving and waiting increases.
The waste is determined at the time of design and is thus tackled in
advance
2. The way production is controlled. The waste associated with control is
tackled during production.
3. The inherent nature of production. There is variability in all natural and
human systems. Machines break down, accidents happen, things don’t
always go as planned. The waste can be dealt with after production.

The means of reducing waste are (Koskela 2000):

1. Reduce the lead time
E.g. JIT system. One-piece lot, low capacity machines, transportation
distances in lay-out, faster delivery to the customer…
2. Reduce variability
If it is not possible to reduce variability, the following has to be accepted:
long lead times, wasted capacity, lost output (Hopp & Spearman 1996).
Reduction of variability within the flow process must be considered as
an intrinsic goal. Variability is the universal enemy (Schonberger 1986).
3. Simplify
Complexity increases waste. Complex systems are less reliable than
simple systems. Simplification can be understood as a reduction in the
number of components, steps or variables in production.
4. Increase flexibility
5. Increase transparency
Transparency means a separation of the network of information and the
hierarchical structure of order giving (Greif 1991). The goal is to
substitute self-control for formal control and related information
 31

gathering.

5.5 The Value Generation Concept

The concept of value generation focuses on the interaction between a

customer and a supplier. It is not the transformation itself that is valuable, but
the fact that the output corresponds to the requirements, wishes, etc., of the
customer (Koskela 2000). The wishes should be condensed into a
specification of the product or the customer should communicate directly with
all design and production parties who make decisions relevant to him
(Karlsson et al. 1998). The value generation concept has also been used as an
internal analysis of production; the next transformation is considered as a
customer of the present transformation.

There are five principles which cover the cycle of value generation. They are
illustrated in Figure 3.

Supplier Requirements Customer

Product 1 Requirement
design 2 formulation 3

Order - Buying and

delivery 4 ordering
Value
Production Use of
5 product

Figure 3. Principles related to the value generation concept (Koskela 2000). 1.

Requirement capture. 2. Requirement flow-down. 3. Comprehensiveness of
requirements. 4. Capability of production subsystems. 5. Measurement of
value.

Requirement capture
Ensure that all customer requirements have been captured. The Kano model
of customer satisfaction has become popular (Bergman & Klefsjö 1994).
Needs and requirements can be separated into basic needs, expected needs
and existing requirements. The basic needs are so obvious that the customer
might not describe them even if asked. On the other hand, the customer can
usually not even imagine existing requirements. When asked, the customer
will usually discuss expected needs.

Requirement flow-down
32

Ensure that relevant customer requirements are available in all phases of

production.

Comprehensive requirements
Ensure that customer requirements have a bearing on all deliverables for all
roles of the customer.

Capability of the production system

Ensure the capability of the production system to produce products as required

Measurement of value
Ensure by measurements that value is generated for the customer.

5.6 Integration of the Concepts, Transformation-flow-value (TFV) Theory of Production

In his study Koskela comes to this conclusion (Koskela 2000): In production

management the three concepts of production should be integrated into TFV
production theory. The theories are not competing but rather complementary.
As a first step towards integration, we can conceptualize production
simultaneously from these three views. However, minimizing cost from the T
concept’s point of view might lead to lower value from the V concept’s point of
view etc.; the integration calls for better understanding and research of
interactions between the views.

5.7 The Identification of Valuable Requirements

5.7.1 Complexity Management

Drucker argues that the value of the product can be determined only in
reference to the customer. “The result of business is a satisfied customer”
(Drucker 1989). He proposed a conceptualization of production that
incorporates the customer. The principles of value generation can be easiest
understood and studied when producing a physical object whose
characteristics are known in advance. We know what it is like and we seek the
fastest and cheapest way to achieve all the required quality specifications.
Value is reduced if there are differences between required quality and the
actual quality.

Workplace planning is linked to a complex social system. The outcome of

workplace planning is the working environment strategy defined for the
organization. In the initial stage of workplace planning in a multi-user
organization the customer is divided into many departments all having an
 33

operative responsibility linked to the organization’s strategy. The amount of

information in a organization may be so huge that no individual in strategic
management or in operational management can handle everything, rather they
concentrate on their responsibilities, on marketing, product design, machine
maintenance, catering, accounting, managing, educating etc. These
departments compete for the same resources. In the initial stage of workplace
planning the outcome is not known, nor is there any quality specification
against which success can be measured in a deterministic way. Instead, there
are a lot of specifications and wishes, many of them in contradiction to each
other and, when combined, they are generally in serious competition for the
resources available. In current value generation concepts the incorporation of
the customer is input-data exchange (the customer gives the requirements to
the supplier) and result verification (the customer verifies that the product
fulfills the requirements). As far as complex social systems are concerned,
valuable requirements identification and complexity management must both be
added to the current value generation concept as a part of production.

How exactly do requirements control production? There are two extreme

possibilities (Koskela 2000). The first is that the needs and wishes of a
customer are condensed into a specification of the product, and the
specification controls the value generation. The second possibility is that the
customer communicates directly with all value generation processes and
production parties who make decisions relevant to him, either on his initiative
or on their initiative (Karlsson et al 1998). Actually, in the first possibility,
something has happened before. The client has already identified the valuable
requirements and condensed them into a specification. This identification is in
a black box in current value generation concepts. In the second possibility the
value identification is still in a black box, alhough it is more closely linked to
production.

There is much uncertainty and many iterations in design (Koskela 2000).

There may be also much uncertainty and many iterations in the valuable
requirements identification. If we combine iterations of valuable requirements
identification with the iterations of the design, the amount of iterations would
expand enormously. Complexity is unnecessary if an enormous amount of
complex variables that are orthogonal (not having interaction with each other)
are combined.

Complexity management can be simplified if we observe internal customer

relationships in production. The rest of the production can be considered as a
customer of the valuable requirements identification process. The next internal
customer would be design. In design, the project requirements are translated
34

into a design solution. In production, this solution is realized. Vague

requirements of the stakeholders harm design (and production). Design (and
production) require the elimination of uncertainty regarding stakeholders’
requirements.

Workplace planning (the identification of valuable requirements in the

construction industry) does not aim for an optimum because an optimum does
not exist in a complex system. It aims for a “good” solution. There are
numerous working environment solutions that can be considered acceptable.
What is the criteria that differentiates the chosen solution from the bad ones
and from the other good ones? It is the commitment of the participants to
something achieved. The product of value identification process for the rest of
production is the stakeholders commitment.

When defining the hierarchy of project objectives Robert Youker underlined

that the commitment of stakeholders to the common objectives and
understanding of the project’s goals are critical to project success. If this is not
achieved, the result is confusing and conflicting as stakeholders gradually
discover differences in their interpretations of the project’s objectives (Youker
1998).

Indeed, stakeholders’ commitment to the common values and requirements is

an absolute necessity in all production to enable value generation. Thus it is a
crucial part of the production.

5.7.2 Value generation concept and commitment

In a complex social organization there are many participants with many values.
The different values may all be “right” but when combined cause disturbance
to production. Is there a framework in which the stakeholders commitment to
common values in a specific production case can be achieved? The purpose
of the organization is determined by the organization’s strategy. The
identification of valuable requirements must be done in the context of the
organization’s strategy.

Shewhart presented value generation with the customer-supplier relationship

(Shewhart 1931). Many production tasks, e.g. design, may be done by the
organization under the direct control of the customer (the customer
organization itself or the consultant). The valuable requirements identification
process is also a part of production, and is mainly carried out by the customer
organization. In a complex environment the value generation concept must
incorporate the customer directly in the production decision making process in
 35

order to manage (and reduce) complexity, as shown in fig. 4. The customer

communicates with the production parties and commits to production
requirements by evaluating potential values to his strategy.

Identification of
Requirements Commitment valuable requirements 1

Supplier Strategy

Product
2 design

Order - Buying and

3 delivery ordering
Value
Production Use of
sub-systems 4 product

Production Customer

Figure 4. Principles related to the value generation concept in complex

environment. 1. Identification of valuable requirements. 2. Requirement flow-
down. 3. Capability of production subsystems. 4. Measurement of value.

The identification of valuable requirements in the context of strategy may

require complexity management. Complexity has been studied in chapter 6
and a steering model for the identification of valuable requirements in
construction industry is presented in chapter 9.

Commitment and it’s role in a project has been studied in connection with
software process improvement. Based on empirical findings, it was shown that
while objective features, costs and benefits dominate in the project initiation
phase, their role tends to reduce in later stages due to an inability of the effort
to produce meaningful results, even if these are explicitly sought. This
phenomenon gives rise to a need for enhancing the role of commitment and its
social and psychological drivers at the operational level. If this is not achieved,
software process improvement activities are likely to cease to exist
(Abrahamsson 2002).

From the workplace planner’s point of view mutual commitment is a necessity

and can be considered as a product, too. Planner, as well as client, know that
it is possible to generate several acceptable environments but they will not be
adopted without commitment.
36

5.8 Commitment

5.8.1 Concepts of Commitment

Commitment has been studied through dynamic games and from an

individual’s point of view. An individual interacting dynamically with others can
often benefit from the opportunity to credibly bind himself to certain actions
(Caruana & Einav 2003). Commitment has also been studied through
organizational behavior, from the viewpoint of individuals as members of an
organization. Because workplace planning demands commitment to common
goals, organizational behavior is more interesting.

An actor, e.g. operative or strategic manager, might be committed to a project

or organization in four forms or archetypes (Abrahamsson 2002):
1. Affective commitment
Affective commitment refers to an actor’s attachment to, identification
with, and involvement within the respective entity (an organization, a
project…) (Meyer & Allen 1991).
2. Continuance commitment
Continuance commitment refers to an awareness of the costs associated
with leaving or abandoning the respective entity (e.g. aborting a project)
(Meyer & Allen 1991). These costs may be both financial and non-
financial. If an organization, e.g., has a reward structure in which a
manager’s performance is linked to the success of a project, it can be said
that the primary commitment driver of the manager is continuance
commitment.
3. Normative commitment
Normative commitment reflects a feeling of obligation to continue
membership with the entity in question (e.g. a project) (Meyer & Allen
1991). As normative commitment may only last until the “debt” is regarded
as paid, it is to be subject to be lost later on.
4. Instrumental commitment
Instrumental commitment refers to a form of involvement for specific,
extrinsic rewards (O’Reilly & Chatman 1996). E.g. a manager is not
committed to the project goals because of personal recognition, but due to
a desire to derive benefit and avoid punishment. Some researchers
(Meyer & Allen 1997) have criticized that instrumental commitment is the
of antithesis of commitment.

In relation to commitment and cooperation in an organization there are two

other psychological concepts that should be mentioned; altruism and
reciprocity. Altruism matters in the workplace insofar as people’s actions at
work depend on a feeling of benevolence towards co-workers. People might
 37

do actions because they enjoy the benefits this gives to others they care of.
Reciprocity means that people reward kind actions of others and punish unkind
ones. People do actions because they would feel it would be unfair to others to
do otherwise (Rotemberg 2002).

5.8.2 Commitment Process

An individuals commitment changes continually. This change in commitment

has been studied in a Information Systems project (Newman & Sabherwal
1996). As one of the results of the study a dynamic model of commitment has
been constructed, including five processes (Figure 5). Three of them are
decision making processes (A,C,E) and two are intervening events (B,D).
Newman and Sabherwal explain that the project started with A and was
followed by the loop B>C>D>E>B. This loop was traversed three times. The
conflicts may be e.g. conflicts between commitments or organizational
changes.

Identification of an
Conflicts alternative approach
for continuing

Making new
Making initial Ensuing Withdrawal of Ensuing commitment to
commitment events commitment events new approach

A B C D E

Figure 5. The dynamic commitment model (Newman & Sabherwal 1996)

According to the study, the individual stakeholders are committed to their

various different goals during the initial stage, so there may be conflicts
between goals, personnel etc. To find a new target for mutual commitment,
new approaches must be identified. Achieving a final commitment of an
organization is an iterative process of commitments, withdrawals and new
approaches.

5.8.3 Commitment and Workplace Planning

What archetypes of commitment are interesting to a workplace planner:

- Workplace planning seeks common goals in a complex social system. If
38

instrumental commitment is used, the goal should be determined first

(tamed complexity) and a reward should be set for achieving that goal. If a
wide commitment to workplace planning is required, instrumental
commitment seems not to be the workplace planner’s tool.
- To be effective, normative commitment has to be built into an organization
before workplace planning starts through the socialization process. A
newcomer to an organization learns what is valued and what is expected
of a novice by that organization. In turn, the newcomer is expected to
behave in an acceptable manner (Wiener 1982). If normative
commitment does not exist, a workplace planner can not create it within a
project.
- Previous investments, financial or mental, affect continuance
commitment. This kind of commitment is possible in the architectural
design phase when participants, after having done much work and
invested in designers, commit to achieved solution. Workplace planning is
usually done at a very early stage. Continuance commitment in the
beginning is rare but, of course, it is possible at the end of the process.
- Affective commitment may be created or strengthened in the beginning
and during the workplace planning. It is worth concentrating on variables
affecting affective commitment.

Work experiences are seen to play the most important role in the development
of affective commitment toward a commitment target. Following variables have
been found to be important: (Meyer & Allen 1997):
- Job challenge
- Degree of autonomy
- Variety of skills used
- Participation in decision making
- Fairness of organizational policies and treatment
- Personal fulfillment
- Personal importance
- Personal competence
- Decentralization
- Transparency in information given

In general, employees that have a strong confidence in their abilities and

achievements (personal competence) tend to develop a stronger sense of
affective commitment.

Altruism seems to be often endogenous, it can not be created for better

cooperation during workplace planning. Instead, reciprocity is related to an
individuals belief in, or knowledge of another’s actions. Reciprocity seems to
 39

play a clear role in the feelings that employees have towards their employers
(Rotemberg 2002), e.g. in strategic management and operational management
relations. There is evidence that workers who feel betrayed or treated unfairly
by their employer take actions that cause their employer harm; this can also be
termed poor morale (Rotemberg 2002).

5.8.4 Conclusions

Concepts of commitment and reciprocity give tools to strengthen cooperation

and achieve commitment in workplace planning. The steering model of
workplace planning must:
- support and stimulate strategic and operative mangers to participate in
decision making
- decentralize the decision making to the levels where responsibilities are
met
- be transparent in terms of information handling
- treat all information equitably, regardless of its origin
These characteristics must be constructed in an iterative steering model
because previously committed stakeholders need an opportunity to commit to
common goals.

5.9 Workplace Planning from the Production Theory’s Point of View

The physical outcome of workplace planning is spatial needs; the workplaces

and requirements set on the workplaces. The abstract outcome is the
commitment; it is valuable to invest in these workplaces (valuable
requirements for workplace production). The commitment is achieved by the
workplace planning process. Production theory can be studied in relation to the
workplace planning process or in relation to the identification of workplace
needs and formation of commitment.

5.9.1 The Transformation View

5.9.1.1 Identification of Workplace Needs in Relation to the Transformation Concept

Since commitment to the operations that require spatial resources is the

product of workplace planning, then the transformations (operations) inside
those spaces are important to workplace planning. The size of the space is
due to the transformations; if a client does mental work in his space, he needs
a 11 m2 room. If he also has 6 people negotiations in the room he needs a 20
m2 room.
40

5.9.1.2 Workplace Planning Process as Transformation

Workplace planning is a transformation. Wishes, wants, needs and available

resources are transferred to a possible environment solution and by iterations,
dialogues, the creation new valuable information, the omission of information
that appears to be unnecessary the commitment to a working environment for
strategy and operations will be fixed.

Workplace planning can be divided into tasks such as:

- gathering information
- interviewing
- determining activities needed
- modeling spaces and performances for activities
- cost estimation

Workplace planning processes should be made more efficient by developing

more efficient tools for tasks; methods of interviewing, applications for
modeling spaces and performances and applications for cost estimation.
However, commitment is not just the sum of these tasks. It is by no means
certain that just by minimizing the cost of those tasks that good value and
lower costs in workplace planning will be achieved. Decision making and
commitment is not easily described as a transformation and thus more
research will be required.

5.9.2 The Flow View

5.9.2.1 Identification of Workplace Needs in Relation to the Flow View Concept

Since commitment to the operations that need spatial resources is the product
of workplace planning then the flow of transformations (operations) inside
those spaces is important to workplace planning. The number of the spaces is
due to the flow of transformations inside those spaces; if the members of a 100
people marketing group spend on average 3 hours/ working day at their own
workstations, they need 100 workstations with less than 40 % temporal
utilization. If hot desks are used (an incoming person chooses the first free
workstation), the utilization degree can be raised to 75 %, so only 50
workstations will be needed to support all the activities.

5.9.2.2 Workplace Planning Process as Flow

Workplace planning is information handling, and the information flows through

the transformation, waiting, moving, inspection and correction stages.
According to the flow theory, only the transformation stage is value adding, the
 41

others are waste and should be eliminated.

Information flow can be improved by increasing transparency. Transparency

means a separation of the network of information and hierarchical structure of
order giving (Greif 1991). The goal is therefore to substitute self-control for
formal control. Workplace planning is decision making among strategic and
operational managers. If the product of workplace planning is commitment
then transparency has been shown to be urgently needed.

The time and effort needed for all the necessary transfer of information can be
reduced through a team approach. In a team, much information can be
transferred informally and orally through vertical and horizontal divisions. It
also means that the team is empowered to make decisions that would
otherwise be made at higher hierarchical layers (Koskela 2000).

The uncertainty in workplace planning arises from the variability in values of

people in the organization. We don’t have a specification for workplace
planning but a wide set of specifications. Variability is named “ the universal
enemy” (Schonberger 1986). Also rework and iterations due to uncertainty are
waste in the flow concept (Koskela 2000) and should be removed by removing
complexity, variables, steps, and by standardization etc.

There is complexity in workplace planning as described in Chapter 4.

Commitment in workplace planning is a state of a social system and social
systems are complex by nature. Because the values of the people and their
responsibilities in the organization differ, people emphasize the importance of
activities in different ways. It produces several iterations and proposals that
must be together again evaluated against the organization’s strategy. After all,
an organization commits to one solution and the other solutions can later found
out to be waste. But since commitment is considered to be the product too, it
can not be achieved without the other proposals and their information.

Standardization and fewer variables would mean fewer opinions, a narrower

range of values from various people and more autocratic decisions. It would
quickly lead to a workplace solution but not to commitment. It would lead to
iterations and waste in designing and contracting. If we operate in a complex
environment, we have to admit that not all the complexity is the “universal
enemy”. Then a certain variability in the process is urgently needed. The
workplace planning process can be made faster by adopting the flow concept.
But workplace planning’s relation to complexity must be researched more and
determined in the context of theories of complexity.
42

5.9.3 Workplace Planning as Value Generation

5.9.3.1 New formulation

In the value generation model the focus is on control of the transformation and
flow, namely control for the customer’s sake. Value generation according to
Koskela is a process where value for the customer is created through
fulfillment of his requirements (Koskela 2000). In workplace planning there are
many specifications and wishes, a number of them in contradiction with each
other and they are all often, if combined, in serious contradiction with the
resources available. The production is not the fulfillment of all the
requirements. The product of workplace planning is the organization’s
commitment of what needs and activities will require spatial investment to
serve the strategy of the organization in a beneficial way. For workplace
planning value generation should be determined in another way.

Workplace planning deals with a set of competing specifications and the

customer must be involved directly in production decision making as it is
presented in chapter 5.7.2.

For workplace planning value generation can be formulated as follows:

a process where valuable requirements for production are determined
through observing and evaluating the values of stakeholders against the
customer’s strategy.

5.9.3.2 Complexity Management in Workplace Planning and Design

If we compare workplace planning to design, there are similarities in

uncertainty and in non-repetitiveness (project type). Both design and
production are based in known definitions and success can be measured
against these definitions. Uncertainty in design is related to the fact that there
are numerous solutions to the definition. In workplace planning uncertainty is
more complex. The planner knows the initial information but can not be sure if
all the information is really necessary (Chapter 4). The planner can not
evaluate the result based on previously set criteria, but must rely on the
ongoing judgement process of the stakeholders.

A certain variability in the workplace planning process is acceptable and

indeed required. However complexity is not a target, it is a phenomenon. If we
combine architectural design and workplace planning, it leads to an
unnecessary amount of information and complexity; one must deal with
information of activities valuable to strategy, their need for spatial recourses,
the shape of the building and layouts of the sketches etc. It might be asked:
 43

could the space for an activity, that in the end proves superfluous, be located
in the basement, as in this sketch or on the third floor, as in another sketch?
This kind of decision making is very slow and expensive. There are numerous
possible locations for a space, once it has been deemed essential to the
strategy! If 100 architects are consulted, they will submit 100 proposals, many
of them excellent. Sketch design doesn’t create more valuable information for
decision making in workplace planning. There is much uncertainty and many
iterations in design (Koskela 2000). There is also much uncertainty and many
iterations in workplace planning. If we combine iterations of workplace
planning with the iterations of the design, the amount of iterations would
expand enormously. Complexity is unnecessary if an enormous amount of
complex variables that are orthogonal (not having interaction with each other)
are combined.

Complexity management can be simplified if we observe internal customer

relationships in production as presented in chapter 5.7.1. The rest of the
construction process can be considered as a customer of the workplace
planning process. The next internal customer would be design. In design, the
project requirements are translated into a design solution. In production, this
solution is realized. Vague requirements of the stakeholders harm design (and
production). Design (and production) require the elimination of uncertainty
regarding stakeholders’ requirements. The product of workplace planning for
the rest of construction is the stakeholders commitment.

If workplace planning is separated from architectural design, total waste of

construction can be reduced and value generation can be more efficient since
unnecessary complexity will be reduced (Fig. 6). In the initial stage the
customer doesn’t know what activities require spatial investments. The
customer communicates with a production sub-system, the workplace planning
process. After workplace planning and commitment have been achieved, the
customer determines the value criteria for the design (spaces, performances,
budget…). The potential value of the product to the customer is known but the
form of the physical product is unknown.

The customer starts to communicate with another production sub-system, the

design process. During design the customer commits to the physical product,
the design solution. The value and the characteristics of the physical product
are now known (size, shape, connections, materials, equipment, details…) but
it does not yet exist.

Complexity has been reduced. As the customer communicates with the next
production sub-system, the contractor, production becomes a controlling
44

process from the customer’s point of view.

Workplace planning is rather a visual angle than a chronological stage of a

construction project. Although it is mostly used in the initial stages, it can be
used whenever new commitment is needed. Construction is no longer
managed in a straightforward manner using steps such as define goals, design
and construct. Part of production may be in the workplace planning process,
part in design and part in construction. Today it is often the case that the
customer simply changes the goals, which he of course has the right to do at
any stage. If commitment to the same goals must be changed e.g. in the
design phase, it is simple matter of doing some workplace planning concerning
those goals and then to continue designing (see example in chapter 9.13).

Workplace planning Design

- strategy Commitment to what
- operations
is required
- people

Complexity Complexity
- wants - theme
- values - shape, connections
- costs... - equipment, costs...

Outcome Outcome
- commitment to what - design solution
is required - commitment to
- spaces, performances what customer gets
- budget, time table...

Figure 6. Unnecessary complexity can be reduced by separating the

workplace planning process from the design process.

Researcher’s observations in practice

Previous statements may be contradicted. Many architects state that
it is possible to create needs by architectural design. It is possible to
design something fantastic, and a customer will commit to that
solution in spite of it’s irrelevance to the customers strategy. This is
a rare but distinct possibility. However, this new information can still
be added to the workplace planning steering model. That supposed
need for something fantastic has then to be evaluated among the
 45

other values. Workplace planning can also be carried out during

design.

5.9.4 Workplace Planning and “Soft Values”

Many requirements affecting job satisfaction are measurable and thus they
can be determined using workplace planning. For instance a comfortable
internal climate can be achieved by controlling temperature e.g. within +- 2
degrees and comfortable lighting can be achieved by controlling the color and
luminance of lamps.

However, there are soft values (e.g. beauty) that can not be controlled in a
quantitative way. How does workplace planning deal with soft values?. To
answer that question we have to find out what factors correlate to architectural
quality. Architect Ilkka Niukkanen has studied the correlation of architectural
quality and building costs (Niukkanen 1980). The population of the study was
design & build competitions in Helsinki City residential building production. The
competitors competed with architectural design solutions and price tenders.
The architectural quality (external beauty, internal comfort, habitability) was
analyzed by a delphi-group and value analyze matrix. The result of the study
can be seen in Figure 7.

Good

Poor

Cheap Expensive

Figure 7. Architectural quality and building costs in Helsinki City residential

building production (Niukkanen 1980).

If we aim at a minimum price, it might lead to poor quality. But very soon when
46

moving to average price production, the correlation between quality and costs
disappears. In Niukkanen’s study the most expensive design solution was
quite poor in terms of quality and the best quality was achieved with a
reasonable price (of course, high price did not prevent good quality). When
moving from minimum to reasonable costs the quality can not be assured by
allocating more resources to production, indeed, this may just as well lead to a
poor quality solution as a high quality one. It seems that architectural quality is
linked to creativity and artistry of the design group in interpreting our culture
and it’s changes rather than to money (see chapter 4.4). If we operate with
minimum cost, the alternative design solutions are limited to a few, and
creativity will also be limited. Solutions below minimum cost do not any more fit
the functional requirements. If in workplace planning financial targets are set in
a reasonable area in relation to quantitative requirements there will be an
enormous amount of possible design solutions. In that area good architectural
quality is possible. This will be realized by design, designers and steering of
the design.

5.10 Conclusion

The product of workplace planning is the commitment of stakeholders to a

chosen working environment, as well as the chosen environment itself.

Workplace planning is strongly linked with value generation for the customer,
indeed it actually generates value. Commitment after workplace planning is a
declaration that: among all the values, these are the ones deemed to be
valuable to our strategy. Workplace planning must concentrate on
stakeholders’ values, value management, on stakeholders’ collaboration and
interaction and on organization’s strategy. Workplace planning incorporates
the customer in production decision making.

The value generation concept’s impact on the flow concept is that some
degree of complexity has to be accepted and that some degree of variability is
needed in the process. The impact on the transformation concept is that
workplace planning is also a decision making task. It is so closely linked to
value generation that its costs can not simply be minimized.

In the flow concept time is considered as one of the inputs of production.

Production is linked to spatial and temporal flow. It has been shown in practice
that there is much temporal waste in customers’ workplaces, they are not well
occupied. If workplace planning can reduce that waste, it would be a significant
benefit for customers.

The TFV concept is usable in workplace planning. More beneficial results can
 47

be achieved if needs identification through TFV concept are studied; spatial

expenses (investment + maintenance costs) vary from 5 to 30 % of the total
financial resources of offices and schools (Kuntien kiinteistötalouden
kehittämisohjelma, yhteenvetoraportti 1997).

The TFV concept is usable when studying the workplace planning process,
too. Tasks can be done more efficiently by improving methods. There is a lot of
waste in present practices that should be removed. However, to define
unnecessary waste from necessary variability and iterations for commitment in
complex social systems, managing complexity in parallel with reducing
complexity should be added to production theory.
48

6 CONCEPTIONS OF COMPLEXITY

Complex theories claim, in contrary to production theories, that complex

systems are not simply the sum of their parts. Whereas details of components
can often be ignored while studying their interactions in the whole system, the
short-run behavior of the individual subsystems can often be described in
detail while ignoring the interactions among subsystems. In economics we can
study the demand for iron ore, pig iron, sheet steel etc. But studying these
subsystems a central bank can not predict fluctuations and control interest
rates. The evolution of self-organizing systems cannot be precisely managed
through linear steps, optimizing strategies work well only when operating in
precisely known environments (Simon 1996). But by studying complex system
management theories, possibilities can be found that direct evolution to
possible or acceptable areas.

After World War II complexity has often been associated e.g. with “holism”,
“feedback”, “cybernetics and general systems”, “chaos”, “adaptive goal-
oriented systems” and “cellular automata” (Simon 1996).

6.1 Complexity and Chaos

The theory of chaos is linked to solid mathematics and deterministic dynamic

systems. The variables in the system have an effect on each other. Even a
infinitesimally small change in one variable can throw the equilibrium out of
balance. (Lorenz 1963). Thus, although the system is deterministic, its detailed
behavior over time is unpredictable.

In classical nonlinear theory a system might come to a stable equilibrium, or it

might oscillate permanently within a limit cycle, like the orbit of a planet. A
chaotic system, however, might also enter a region of its state space, the
strange attractor, in which it would remain permanently. Within the strange
attractor motion would not cease, nor would it be predictable, but although
deterministic, would appear to be random (Ruelle 1991).

Chaos theory describes the characteristics of deterministic systems.

Workplace planning is an inductive problem that is not deterministic as
described in Chapter 4, although it has also chaotic features.
 49

6.2 Complexity and Cybernetics

The production of steel sheets of equal thickness in the mid 1950’s can be
used as an simple example of cybernetics (de Latil 1956). Half a dozen
variables were known to affect the thickness of the metal sheets, such as the
speed of the roller drum, temperature of the steel and the amount of
compression. Engineers studied the effects of each variable separately and
from these studies ideal conditions were synchronized, where according to the
laws of physics the desired product was manufactured. This, however, did not
produce steel sheets of consistent quality. The system to be adjusted was
complex, it changed the initial values (temperature), and knowing their exact
values was difficult. The system was chaotic; a reduction in speed lowered the
temperature, a reduction in temperature raised compression, an increase in
pressure reduced speed and raised temperature, etc. Everything influenced
everything else, even a small change in initial values led to a large change in
the final result.

Adapting cybernetic control to the problem, engineers added to the system an

electronic feedback loop, a sensor which measured the thickness of the newly
produced steel plate and sent the information back to the regulator, a servo-
motor, which adjusted only the pressure of the roller drum. Adjustment of the
thickness of the plates was successful. Having the wrong speed or
temperature was no longer important. By changing one variable the whole
variable group could indirectly be controlled. The regulator did not need to
know all the reasons; it just measured and corrected (de Latil 1956).

After World War II the concept of what Norbert Wiener named cybernetics
emerged, a combination of servomechanism (feedback control systems)
theory and information theory. Information theory explains organized
complexity in terms of the reduction of entropy that is achieved when systems
absorb energy (information) from external sources and convert it into a pattern
or structure. Feedback control shows how a system can work towards goals
and adapt to a changing environment. What is required is the ability to
recognize the goal, to detect differences between the current situation and the
goal, and actions that can reduce such differences (Simon 1996).

Cybernetics is the study of complex systems, especially adaptive goal

oriented systems; human organizations, systems in nature and machines.
Cybernetic systems have many heterogeneous interacting components.
Systems are adaptive and self-regulating, they tend to evolve and grow in an
opportunistic manner, rather than be designed and planned in an optimal
manner. Systems are constructive, in that as they tend to increase in size and
50

complexity, they become historically bound to previous states when

simultaneously developing new traits (Principia Cybernetica 1992). Cybernetic
management searches for acceptable paths rather than a simple optimum; the
word cybernetics is derived from Greek word meaning steersman.

6.2.1 Control

The concept of control is the cornerstone of cybernetics. Control is the

operation mode of a control system which includes two subsystems; the
controller (C) and the controlled (S). In Fig. 8 the controlled is disturbed D. A
perfect controller would keep the controlled outcome E in the required state in
spite of disturbance. The controller needs information about disturbance to
plan its actions and the connections are:

D S E

Fig. 8. A perfect control

Perfect control is possible if information flow is sufficient and the relation

between D and S is known. It may be that the controller moves at a higher
speed than the controlled, and plans its actions before the controlled starts to
respond to the disturbance (Ashby 1956). A chief-cook can double the raw-
material procurement when he anticipates that business will double tomorrow.
The goal, a meal for each, will be achieved.

Sometimes, however, the C’s action cannot be communicated to S before its

outcome on E. In that case, the best that can be done is that imperfect
regulation should be as good as possible in the circumstances. Information
from D to C can be forced to take a longer route so that C is affected only by
the variation in E. The connections form an “error-controlled servomechanism”
or “closed loop regulation” with feedback. The fundamental property of error-
controlled control is that it cannot be “perfect” (Ashby 1956). The diagram is
(Fig. 9):
 51

D S E

Fig. 9 A Closed loop control

This form is of the greatest importance and widest applicability when

controlling complex systems.. When is closed loop regulation and feedback
needed? It is needed if it is impossible to predict D’s affect on S and it’s
outcome E and thus it is impossible to plan regulation based on the information
of D (Ashby 1956). It happens if
- Information about D is inadequate or not communicated fast enough. It
would be hard to regulate a meeting-room’s internal temperature based
on tomorrow’s weather report and the anticipated amount of people in the
meeting. The weather report may prove inaccurate and some people may
not show up. It’s easier to let disturbance happen, measure it’s affect on E
(too hot) and to regulate it with that information (more cool air).
- The controlled (S) is too complex. We can not predict its outcome even if
we know the disturbance. Steel sheet production in the beginning of this
chapter is an example of this. Another example would be steering the
economy of a nation. The central bank knows the variations in imports,
exports, levels of production, investments etc. It does not, however, know
exactly how the variables affect the economy. It must observe the new
states of the nation and then decide, for example, on interest rate policy.

6.2.2 Controller

A controller can be formed so that in the controller there is a representation of

the controlled system and an agent which is responsible for its actions
(Principia Cybernetica 1996). Representation is an object whose states can be
identified with perceptions. The actions of the agent depend on the flow of
information from the representation. The action of S (or E) on C is limited, it
can change only it’s representation in C, not in the rest of the system. The
action of S is filtered through the representation, its effect on C cannot be
greater than that permitted. Thus the control relation is asymmetric, C controls
S but S does not control C (Fig. 10).
52

Controller
Goal

Representation Information Agent

Perception Action

Fig. 10. Controller

The controller includes one more object which influences the agent: the goal.
The goal can be simple or a complicated set of goals (Ashby 1956). The agent
compares the current representation with the goal and takes actions which
tend to minimize the difference between them. This is known as purposeful
behavior (Principia Cybernetica 1996).

6.2.3 Learning

Cybernetics also concerns the principle of learning (Beer 1966). By studying

the process to be steered, a model (representation) which describes reality as
closely as needed is formed. The regulator (agent), which steers the process,
uses the model. The influence of the regulator’s command on the achievement
of the goal is measured and further used to fine-tune the model. In this way the
regulator will give better results in the future. The feedback loop, the regulator
and the regulator’s program together form the steering system.

6.2.4 Feedback

The behavior of the steering system is purposeful, it can resist and over ride
the effects of outside disturbance and keep to its goals. So that the original
aims can be achieved, the steering system needs a feedback loop, dampers
(negative) and amplifiers (positive) (Principia Cybernetica 1997). Only positive
feedback leads to divergent behavior, indefinite expansion and a snowball
effect. Too much complexity needs to be damped, so that the number of
alternative states is kept manageable. Damping must be planned; it cannot be
done randomly.
 53

6.2.5 Requisite Variety

If there is big variance in the controlled – disturbance –pair (S-D), it can, due
to the internal positive feedback, lead to destruction of the system. This can be
avoided only if there is large variance in the controller; only variety in C can
force down the variety due to the D (Ashby 1956). If a species survival is a
goal and there is a big variance in its environment in time and space, there
should be a big variance in it’s gene-pattern. This is how nature works. Only a
control-system which contains variation can produce alternatives in a creative
way to keep to goals in spite of disturbance.

6.2.6 Information flow

If a closed loop control is designed, information flow from the present state (E)
to the controller must be adequate and fast enough. If the flow is inadequate
the controller can not plan the actions. If it is too slow, the controlled will go on
creating new states before the controller can act. If there are restrictions in the
flow of information it will be difficult, or even impossible, to maintain control
(Ashby 1956).

6.3 Conclusions

Workplace planning is an inductive system and linked to a complex system.

Chaos theories are solid mathematics and linked to deterministic dynamic
systems and deductive problems rather than to inductive systems.

Cybernetic feedback control shows how an inductive, adaptive system can

work towards goals and adapt to a changing environment. Cybernetics has
proved to be useful over a wide range of applications. In chapter 9 the
characteristics of Cybernetics are studied as a basis for Workplace Planning
management.
54

7 MATHEMATICAL MODELS IN COMPLEX SYSTEMS

7.1 Black Box

The Workplace Planning Procedure (Chapter 10) is an adaptation of a

mathematical Operations Research model. It is used as a representation in the
steering model of workplace planning.

Operations Research is an attempt to control complexity through modeling

reality, by using a model that simulates reality by using a limited number of
variables and with limited complexity. This type of mathematical model
requires quantification of variables (Hillier & Lieberman 1980).

Usually in the laboratory model all variables, apart from two are fixed. Then,
one is varied and the effects on the other are observed. In complex systems
this is not possible, variables cannot be fixed, because they have an effect on
one another and the meaning of variables in the system changes over time.
Variables in a complex system are for example, product quality, costs of
production, the characteristics of the products of competitors, salaries,
employee motivation, the set of values of purchasers, e.g. The continuous
calculation work needed for all variables is laborious and paralyses company
management. Usually the model is built by creating a steering system that
brings a stable equilibrium instead of the simple maximum (Beer 1966). It is
good, but not the optimum that is sought.

In workplace planning it is not important that the model produces an absolutely

correct value. For the conclusion it is usually sufficient that the model produces
the magnitude of difference between different alternatives, the relative
correlation and a value, close to the truth (Hillier & Lieberman 1980). If the
model produces a result different from the measured observation, it does not
mean that the model has given the wrong result. The reason is either one
pertaining to variations in reality (usually a coincidence) or the roughness of
the model (intentional). In order that the information handled by company
management does not become too large or complex, a black box can be
added to the model. For example, if the cost prediction for the event given by
the model is 27 000 € and the measured observation of the same event is
36 000 €, the black box states a value of 75 %. In other words, the model
calculated three quarters of the effects of the event and the rest has been
caused by an unknown mechanism in the black box. The black box measures
the difference between an analytical model and empirical data. If the relations
measured by the black box accumulate and behave consistently, the model
 55

can be adjusted with the black box without knowing the mechanisms included
in it (Beer, S. 1966). This type of adjustment requires the continuous
maintenance of the black box.

7.2 Activity Based Management

The closed loop control requires a representation of the controlled system in

the controller (see Section 6). The controlled system in workplace planning is
the organization that needs a working environment. The outcome is spaces
that are used by one or more operational departments. To understand the links
between power to make decisions and responsibilities in workplace planning
the spaces must be treated as resources demanded by operational
departments.

In his dissertation Heikki Piirainen suggests Activity Based Management and

Activity Based Accounting as tools for bringing visions, services and activities
of an organization into line in a construction project (Piirainen 1996).

In activity based accounting resources are initially directed towards activities

and in the end towards a product or products. An operatively obtained method
can be used the other way around, the quantity of products or functions are
varied and thus, the variations in the use of resources can be observed.

The product is the goal of the function. The products use activities and
therefore, resources (Brimson 1991). The activities are either core activities or
support activities. Core activities are those which immediately produce results.
Support activities support core activities. Without support activities functional
process breaks or becomes more difficult, particulary on a longer time span
(Kärri & Kangas 1994). Analogical in the organizational models are line
management and staff management.
56

Activity based cost management is based on activities that link organizational

spending on resources to the products and services produced (Atkinson &
Banker & Kaplan & Young 2001). A company producing color-pens is
presented as an example of ABC management. The company had used
traditional accounting. Direct costs (material costs, direct labor…) were
directed to each product. Indirect costs (machinery, quality control, purchasing,
maintenance, room rent…) were allocated to products in relation to their
production volume. The outcome was:

Blue Black Red Purple

Selling volume 50 000 40 000 9 000 1 000
Unit selling price $4,50 $4,50 $4,65 $4,95
Material costs +
Direct labor $117 000 $93 600 $21600 $2 490
Overhead $78 000 $62 400 $14 040 $1 560
Return of sales 13,6% 13,3% 14,8% 18,2%

Management steered strategy based on that information but was not satisfied
with results. They decided to use ABC management that traced indirect
expenses to individual products, services and customers. They concentrated
on indirect costs; indirect labor, fringe benefits, computer systems, machinery,
maintenance and energy.

7.2.1 Tracing Costs to Activities

Indirect costs are first traced to activities (fig. 11)

- a controller discovered that 50 % of the company’s indirect labor was
involved in scheduling orders, purchasing and first-item inspection, when
the process was changed to a new-colored pen. The controller
aggregated all these tasks into an activity and named it “handle
production runs”.
- Another 40 % of indirect labor actually performed the physical changeover
from one color pen to another, this activity was labeled “perform setups”.
- most of the company’s computer time was used to schedule production
runs and to order and pay for the materials required in each production
run. 80 % of computer resources were involved with the activity “handle
production runs”
- the rest of computer time was used to keep records on products. This
activity was labeled “support products”.
- energy was used to…
 57

Expenses

Indirect Labor Computer Energy Machine

$84 000 $30 000 Maintenance Depreciation
$18 000 $24 000

50% 40% 10% 80% 20% 100 % 100 %

Activities

Handle Set up Support Run

Production Runs Machines Products Machines
$66 000 $33 600 $14 400 $42 000

Fig. 11. Mapping Resource Expenses to Activities

7.2.2 Tracing Costs from Activities to Products

The next step is to understand why the activities were being performed.
Therefore, the activity expenses needed to be related in some way to the
demands for the activities by the individual products.

Activity cost drivers identify the linkage between activities and cost objects,
such as products, services and customers. They serve as quantitative
measures of the output of activities. The following activity cost drivers were
identified for the activities:

Activity Activity cost driver

Handle production runs Production runs
Set up machines Setup hours
Support products Number of products
Run machines Machine hours
58

Activity cost driver rates were calculated then by dividing the activity expense
by the total quantity of the activity cost driver.

Handle Set up Support Run

Prod Runs Machines Products Machines
Activity
Expense $66 000 $33 600 $14 400 $42 000
Activity Cost
Driver Quantity 150 526 4 10 000
Activity Cost $440 $63,88 3 600 per 4,20 per
Driver Rate per run per hour product hour

Management investigated how much activities each product used. The final
calculations were done using activity cost drivers.

Blue Black Red Purple

Handle prod.runs 50 50 38 12
Set up machines 200 50 228 48
Support products 1 1 1 1
Run machines 5000 4000 900 100

An the final report was:

Blue Black Red Purple
Selling volume 50 000 40 000 9 000 1 000
Unit selling price $4,50 $4,50 $4,65 $4,95
Material costs +
Direct labor $117 000 $93 600 $21600 $2 490
Handl. Prod. Runs $22 000 $22 000 $16 720 $5 280
Set up machines $12 776 $3 194 $14 565 $3 066
Support products $3 600 $3 600 $3 600 $3 600
Run machines $21 000 $16 800 $3 780 $420
Return of sales 21,6% 22,7% -44,0% -200,1%

So, the marketing department might try to get higher a price to compensate for
the higher costs of red and purple pens or operative management might try to
develop production to reduce the use of activities (resources) used in red and
purple pens.
 59

8 THE THEORY OF WORKPLACE PLANNING

Practical theory is based on concepts, principles and methodologies (Koskela

2000). The concept provides an answer to the question: What is this? The
principles provide the causality that makes prediction possible and so answers
the question: How?. Based on principles, it is possible to create methods, tools
etc. for controlling the phenomena covered by theory (Koskela 2000).

The workplace planning theory links workplace planning to production, not only
to construction production but also to the organization’s general strategy.

8.1.1 The Concept

The purpose of the organization is determined by the organization’s strategy.

The strategy is realized by the operations.

A spatial investment in an operation competes for the same resources as the

other investments in the operations. Workplace planning brings spatial
investments and values concerning the spaces into line with the other factors
of production.

Workplace planning is a process where valuable requirements for workplace

production are determined through observing and evaluating the values of
stakeholders against the organization’s strategy. The product of workplace
planning is the stakeholders commitment to the spatial needs of the
operations.

The size of a space is dictated by the operations (transformations) taking place

within that space and these operations can be decomposed to sub-processes
which are also operations.

Spaces are the scene of a temporal flow of operations and non-use time. The
number of spaces is due to the temporal utilization of the spaces.

8.1.2 The Principles

Spatial investments in operations that are not needed for the organization’s
strategy are not value-adding and therefore are waste.
60

Spaces are the scene of a temporal flow of operations and non-use time. The
operations are value adding whereas the non-use time is not value adding to
the strategy. Non-value adding time is waste and should be reduced or
removed. Temporal waste can be removed by following these principles:

- Combine diverse activities into the same working environment.

- Plan spaces to be flexible enough to support diverse activities.
- Combine similar activities of separate operational departments to
same environment

If waste of spaces unneeded for operations and waste of non-use-time can be

reduced, more resources would be available for other investments, spatial or
non-spatial.

The value of a spatial investment in an operation can not be predicted based

on the initial information, decision making is linked to complex economic-
technical-social systems. Commitment to common values can be achieved via
iterative steering concepts of complex social systems (Fig 12).

Alternatives for Value Generation

- is the activity really needed ?
- are other activities needed?
Present State of - combine activities within the same
Commitment environment
Proposed temporal and geometric loads to the spaces

Bill of Activities

Value Evaluation against Strategy

Activity 1
Space 1

Activity 2
Activity 1

Activity 2
Size

Not in use Not in use

Activity 3 Time

Space 2
Activity 4
Activity 3
Size

Not in use Not in use

Time
Activity 5

Activity … Space …

Fig. 12. Workplaces as a transformation/ flow /value generation process.

 61

8.1.3 The Methods

A significant product of workplace planning is commitment of the stakeholders
to investment in workplaces. Decision making for commitment requires fast
feedback in a complex social system. Modeling methods are needed to show
decision makers the responsibilities that are due to the proposed needs.
Participants must have information on operations, spaces, sizes, their temporal
utilization degrees, investment costs, life cycle costs and possibilities of
combining operations within the same spaces.

To support the stakeholders’ commitment process, the steering model of

workplace planning must:
- support and stimulate strategic and operative managers to participate in
decision making
- decentralize the decision making to the levels where responsibilities are
met
- be transparent in terms of information handling
- be fair regarding equitable handling of information

The stakeholders are committed in the initial stage to their present values.
These characteristics must be constructed in an iterative steering model
because stakeholders need an opportunity to commit to common goals.
62

9 THE STEERING MODEL OF WORKPLACE PLANNING

9.1 General

The steering model is a mode of action that systemizes the organization’s

decision making actions, produced information and specific methods in
accordance with workplace planning theory. By following this model different
types of organizations are able to manage their workplace requirements on the
basis of strategic and operational information.

The steering model of workplace planning might be part of a project definition

and its results will then be actualized in design and construction. It may also be
part of long term workplace strategy, actualized in transactions and
organizational changes.

The steering model does not need information that is derived from
architectural or engineering design. Workplace planning deals with strategies,
operations and allocation of resources. Design deals with theme, shape,
connections of functions, details and materials. Workplace planning and
design use and create different information. Workplace planning asks, is it
needed, what resources does it require, is it still valuable? Design asks where
it will be located as part of the design theme and shape? If we combine these
viewpoints and information, it might be asked: could the space for an activity,
that in the end proves superfluous, be located in the basement, as in this
sketch or on the third floor, as in another sketch? Both workplace planning and
design are complex systems. For any functional and visual problem stated
there are almost limitless amounts of alternative architectural design solutions.
Design proposals do not remarkably increase the information needed in
workplace planning but they might become fixed and thus prevent creativity
when handling complex design problems.

9.2 The Structure of the Steering Model

Workplace planning is linked to a very complex system; sets of goals, a wide

range of needs, different viewpoints of the owner and user etc. Even though in
strategic workplace management there is no one correct answer, there are
certain limitations on decision making that can not be exceeded. The most
important points are economic and temporal limitations. The system needs a
damped feedback system to keep it in balance. New viewpoints and creative
ideas will be welcome if they produce new alternative solutions in an area
possible to business. An individuals commitment changes continually. An
 63

iterative dynamic system would support participants’ commitment towards

common goals (Newman & Sabherwal 1996). The Steering Model for
Workplace Planning is an application of cybernetic closed loop control (see
chapter 6 and Fig.13):
- Controlled system is the organization definition of its working environment
- Controllers representation measures systems outcome. Controller’s
representation consists of two sub-models:
- Workplace Planning Procedure and
- Target Price Method (Haahtela-Kiiras 2003)
- The cybernetic “steersman” in the controller is an organized dialogue
between strategic and operative management of the organization.
Dialogue is responsible for the actions.
- The dialogue is led by a human agent, a professional in project
management, the steering model and the required procedures.

Disturbance Controlled Outcome

- different values Organization defining Wishes and wants in
- different interests working environment - activities, rooms
- organizational changes - strategic visions - performances
- changing business - operative visions - consequenses in use
environment of resources
-…

Action Perception

Goal Agent Measurement Representation

Dialogue - Workplace Planning
- strategic and Procedure
operative - Target Price Method
management
Controller

Fig. 13. Closed loop control adjusted to workplace management

9.3 Controlled System

The controlled system is the organization that is defining its spatial

requirements. The complexity of information needs to be reduced as it moves
up the organization hierarchy (Beer 1969). Organizations tend to localize and
minimize information demands by decentralizing decisions. Matters of fact can
be determined whenever the most skill and information is located to determine
64

them, and they can then be communicated to “collecting points” where all the
facts relevant to an issue can be put together and a decision reached (Simon
1996). However, it is not reasonable to allow the production department and
the marketing department of a company to make independent estimates of
next year’s demand if the production department is to make the products that
the marketing department is to sell. It is preferable that all the relevant
departments responsible for the operations operate on the same body of
assumptions even if the uncertainties might justify quite a range of different
assumptions (Simon 1996).

The aim of this research is to manage spatial needs on the basis of the
organization’s strategic and operational needs. Therefore the organization
must be organized for workplace planning so that strategic decision makers
(“common assumptions and goals”) and operative decision makers (“collecting
points for decisions”) are represented and identified. They will represent the
whole organization during the dialogue and value generation.

Normally strategic decision makers come from the top leadership of the
organization. Operative decision makers come from the organization’s
departmental management. Examples:

Education

Strategic management:
- board of the institution
- president of the institution

Operative management
- leaders of the faculties

Church

Strategic management:
- church council
- minister of the church

Operative management
- priest in charge
- leader of child work
- leader of youth work
- leader of adult work
- leader of social work
 65

Police

Strategic management:
- public administration
- police chief

Operative management
- leader of the patrols
- leader of the investigations
- leader of the technical investigation
- leader of the …

9.4 Disturbance

Disturbance comprises everything that causes complex variation in the

outcome. However, complexity is necessary for creating new viewpoints, new
states and new information for testing, although it tends to push the system out
of accepted balance and must therefore be managed. Disturbance is not good
or bad, it is a phenomenon, a part of life and therefore part of the steering
model.

There are many participants in workplace planning. Strategic leaders,

operative managers, workplace professionals, project managers, architects,
users, investors, contractors, regulators, neighbors among others. The
multivariate bodies generally hold different values, different starting points and
different perspectives on the workplace. They pursue different and often
conflicting objectives and seek to protect their respective interests (Horgen &
Joroff & Porter & Schön).

The business environment is constantly changing and organizations are

undergoing organizational changes. Global competition, technological
breakthroughs and new product demand have changed the corporate world. In
response companies are resizing or reengineering their strategies. Business
has become increasingly complex (Lambert & Poteete & Waltch 1995).

Disturbance is normally linked to

- different values of the stakeholders
- different interests
- organizational changes
- changing business environment
66

9.5 Outcome

Outcome means the decision maker’s decisions concerning the workplaces,

their belief in what the organization needs as a working environment. Outcome
is the sum of numerous decisions and decision makers:
- wishes on the activities
- wishes on the spaces
- money needed
- time needed

9.6 Controller

The controller is built up of the dialogue between strategic and operational

management and two mathematical models to create information for dialogue,
namely The Workplace Planning Procedure and The Target Price Method.

9.7 Dialogue

The characteristics that individual managers bring to the workplace planning

have three principal roots. First, these individuals have professional
orientations that carry distinctive professional languages and values. Second,
they have personal styles that determine how they set and solve problems and
how they create and respond to interpersonal relationships. Third, they come
from different divisions within the same organization, and they occupy specific
roles and positions of authority (Horgen & Joroff & Porter & Schön). In order to
balance disparate objectives and resolve conflicts of values, one must bridge
across the different languages, styles and organizational roles of decision
makers. One should learn to see more acutely how these factors enter into
decision-making about the work environment (Horgen & Joroff & Porter &
Schön).

Organizational loyalty can be labeled identification. The motivational

component of identification is an attachment to group goals and a willingness
to work for them even at some sacrifice of personal goals. The cognitive
component of identification requires that decision making is dependent on
information that is locally available to individuals (Simon 1996).

The steering model of workplace planning includes a component that promotes

organizational identification by giving a forum to view alternatives from
organizational goals and by unifying organizational language. This component
is a transparent dialogue between strategic and operational bodies.
 67

Dialogue is also the steersman which is responsible for the actions (the agent
in chapter 6). In dialogue, strategic and operational management examine the
workspace environment from their own positions. Operative management
looks for functional rooms for the operations they are responsible for. Strategic
management maps the activities that the business idea requires. Dialogue
offers many advantages to steer the complex system:
- Rittel suggests debate as the solution to inductive problems (Rittel &
Webber 1972). Methods are needed that support collective
understanding, consensus and mutual decisions.
- De Bono considers the concept of solving inductive problems together
with the concept of ”lateral thinking” (de Bono 1993). Lateral thinking is
based on insight, which comes when the problem field is simultaneously
investigated from different perspectives.
- If there is big variance in the steered system, the controller must also be
able to produce variety (Ashby 1956) (chapter 6, Requisite variety).
During the course of the dialogue, both parties produce new information
whilst they are shaping and defining the actual problem. As strategic and
operational management are called to dialogue, the variety of the
controller is as big as the problem.
- According to Newman and Sabherwal the stakeholders are also
committed in the initial stage, but there may be conflicts with goals,
personnel etc. (Newman & Sabherwal 1996). To find a new target for
mutual commitment, new approaches must be identified. Achieving final
commitment of an organization is an iterative process of commitments,
withdrawals and new approaches. Dialogue is a way to find new
approaches and to stimulate managers to transparent decision making.

9.8 The Workplace Planning Procedure and Target Price Method

The controller consists of a representation of a controlled system. The

representation is composed of two mathematical models:
- the Workplace Planning Procedure created in this research
- the Target Price Method (Haahtela-Kiiras 2003)
In the workplace planning process the client does not dictate the spaces and
areas that he or she requires but describes the activities that he or she needs.
The Workplace Planning Procedure supplies dimensions for the working
environment and lists it as spaces required.

The Target Price Method (Haahtela-Kiiras 2003) calculates the budget based
on the rooms and the requirements for those rooms. The Target Price Method
is a mathematical model that creates the link between the requirements the
client sets on the rooms and the possible distribution of elements + use of
resources connected to running costs (energy, cleaning…). The budget can
68

then be addressed back to the activities by tracing paths back in the

Workplace Planning Procedure. After measurement the client knows the
current or desired state of the system; what kind of working environment it
would be, which resources the environment demands and what activities
cause them.

During the process participants develop alternative solutions, reshape the

corporation’s activities and working models. These changes can be added to
the workplace planning model for present and future use (principle of learning,
chapter 6).

The Workplace Planning Procedure is described in more detail in chapter 10.

9.9 Agent
The dialogue is led by an agent, a professional with experience of the steering
model and the required procedures. The agent is aware of the goal. The agent
compares the current representation with the goal and suggests actions which
will minimize the differences between them. Therefore purposeful behavior by
the controller is represented by an agent.

9.10 Goal

The goal is based on a client’s business plan. The spatial environment must
support the corporation’s basic idea. Before the workplace planning process,
the client and the agent describe the most important goals of the corporation
(e.g. core activities required and constraints in economy and time).

9.11 Information Translations in the Dialogue

9.11.1 General

The complexity of information needs to be reduced as it is moves up the

company hierarchy (Beer 1969). Company management does not need to
know everything happening on the construction site or in marketing.
Correspondingly, the functional environment is more complex than the
company’s operations. The complexity of information reduces as it travels up
the company hierarchy.

The horizontally complex information of organizations should be reduced.

When complex information crosses internal boundaries within the organization,
it may easily become incomprehensible to those on the other side of the
boundary. Information must be recorded in the language of the new
organization. The translator must be sufficiently competent to handle complex
 69

information. The new building’s catering manager does not recognize the need
for structural beams, nor does the building project manager usually,
regrettably, care about the preparation of vegetables. (Pennanen 1999). These
organizational boundaries exist between the user and company management,
planners and the users, etc.

9.11.2 The Operative Management’s Viewpoint

The responsibility for the realization of the company's strategic goals is given
to different parts of the organization and finally to individuals. The user’s
viewpoint is practical; the space is the functional environment that makes
operations possible. The space should facilitate functional performance, as
should other specified features, (temperature control, computer connections,
cleanliness of air…).

Functional measurements are important for user decision-making and for

commitment. The user cannot be told that these boundaries are generally
planned in these dimensions, but should be informed of what possibilities the
space allows. Through functional performance results (termed actions)
questions may arise such as ”how do the special requirements change if:”
- 8 people instead of 4 people need to fit around the conference table?
- the secretary needs 30 meters of shelf space instead of 12 for document
storage?
- if the food is served in an islet instead of distribution in a line?
- the height of a 1000 pallet warehouse is 5 meters instead of 4?
- the conference space also needs to be used for video presentations?

9.11.3 The Viewpoint of Strategic Management

Spaces and their performances are too detailed for strategic decision-makers
to consider.

In activity based accounting, which is extensively used in industry, information

is condensed by underlying and defining operationally critical activities and
allocating variable and fixed costs to them.

In the business world efficiency is commonly measured through benchmarking,

a comparison with other companies which operate in the same field.
Comparing buildings to one another is largely unhelpful, because no two
buildings are functionally identical. However, if the company’s functional
environment is divided into operative activities, comparison between them
becomes possible and sensible. Dining can be compared to dining; conference
activities to one another, data transfer to one another etc.
70

9.11.4 The Real Estate- and Building Sector’s Viewpoint

The real estate sector handles space as an asset to be maintained, sold,

rented, or improved. Commonly used is a catalogue where space has been
classified in the desired way.

Also, in the building sector it is customary to use a catalogue of spaces, the

spatial program as the preliminary information for planning.

9.11.5 The Chosen Presentation of Spatial Resources in this Research: Action, Space, and Activity

In this research three descriptive ways have been chosen to present spatial
resources, all of which describe the functional environment of the company,
from different viewpoints. These descriptions are performance actions, space,
and activity.

Strategic Manage-
ment

Activities

Fig. 14. Three perspectives to describe organizations workspace. Activities for

strategic management, working environment enabling actions for operational
users and rooms for real estate management
 71

Real Estate Management

Spatial resources are described to real estate management as lists of spaces
and their floor areas. When the spaces are classified, the system of
classification follows that of the Target Price System (Haahtela & Kiiras 2003).

User
Spaces are described to the user as performance results that describe the
usability of the space. Whilst traditionally users have been informed that
individual room size varies between 10…17 m2, this information has not
supported the user commitment process. In spatial resources management the
space ”Patient bedroom” is described by referring to its potential to bring
about performance results (named actions later).

Patient bedroom 10 m2 Patient bedroom 15 m2

- Sleeping - sleeping, access from 3
- Storing, 2 cupboards sides
- Guests sitting - Storing, 4 cupboards
- Working at table - Washing hands
- Guests sitting
- Working at table

Table 1. Working environment defined by actions

72

Company Strategic Management

Spatial resources have been described as functional entities, as activities,
each with it’s own measurement unit. For example, a restaurant provides food
and an environment for its consumption (measurement unit: number of
persons), a storage activity provides storage facilities (shelf meters), an
accountancy practice is responsible for internal and external accounting
(number of persons), property activities are responsible for property
maintenance (size of the building) etc.

Activity...

R&D
Corporate 1

Catering Catering
Corporate 2
Production Management

Purchasing Storing

Meetings Meetings

Accounting

Activity...

Fig. 15. Activities. Vertical and horizontal perspective

The concept of services, when used by real estate management is often

limited to considering the activities not included in the core activities, which the
company is ready to out-source. In this horizontal activity concept, companies
aim to concentrate on core activities and the operators of out-sourced activities
increase efficiency by choosing the support functions of others as their core
competence.

In this presentation activities are considered vertically from a company

viewpoint, in such a way, that all functions of the company are produced as
activities (Fig 15). In the strategic management of spatial resources
observation is made of which activities and to which degrees spaces are
required in order to achieve the company business idea. Spaces will be
classified together as functions of these activities, without company
management having to research them. To be able to handle these activities a
system of classification has been created.
 73

9.12 The Steering Process for Workplace Planning

The workplace planning process is like orienteering on hilly ground. The

participants must continually make decisions. The consequences of these
decisions in regard to goals may become ambiguous. The participants run into
a valley from which they can not see the direction in which they should travel.
By measurement the entropy of the system is decreased, the present state is
defined and so the next hill can be climbed. The direction can be seen again
and a new set of decisions started. The direction is clear until, after a while, the
valley is reached; and a new measurement is required.

In workplace management the lack of rapid feedback in relation to spatial and

economic goals has been a serious problem. The different parties (users,
planners, owners…) can progress quite far and commit themselves to goals
that are unachievable. Economic feedback can come in the form of a contract
offer or a production plan cost estimate, months after decisions have been
made. When there are thousands of decisions, the decision makers cannot
retrospectively be held responsible or made to commit to their original goals.
The system has been allowed to become complex without damping. From the
viewpoint of leadership, the same thing can be described as power without
accountability.

9.12.1 Planning the Process

Before the workplace planning process the client must be organized. In the
process the operational requirements and ideas will be evaluated against
strategic goals. It is important to define, who is representing the strategic view
of the company and who represents the operational views of the departments.

9.12.2 Interviews

Strategic management interview

The agent identifies the business plan, the activities with which the plan can be
achieved, the drivers of the activities and the economical and temporal
limitations. Some examples of business plans in case studies:
- to offer rehabilitation services for patients with spinal cord injury, traumatic
brain injury, stroke and polio. Driver: will be extended to 75 patient
capacity.
- to offer business-, technical- and social sciences polytechnic education for
Swedish speaking people in a new campus in the Helsinki city area.
Driver: 1 630 students.
- to sell PC computers, customized software and server-capacity to
74

business. Driver: 390 employees

- church activities in a Helsinki suburb. Driver: 35 000 people living in the
suburb

Some core activities and their drivers in previous business plans:

- occupational therapy 60 patients
- speech therapy 20 patients
- accommodation (ward-type 1 or 2 person rooms) 75 patients
- general studies in technical faculty 120 students
- server maintenance 96 employees

Some supporting activities and their drivers

- administration 2 persons
- accounting and information activities ask the operational manag.
- food services 150 meals/ shift
- reference library ask the operational management
- …

Operational management interview

The agent identifies how the operations of the activities are planned to be
realized. The activities are divided into sub-activities which are needed to
make the activities possible. For instance, food services comprise food
preparation activities and eating activities, a library comprises customer
activities and material activities etc. If possible, the load of the sub-activity is
determined. Some sub-activities, their drivers and their load in case studies:

driver load
eating activity 150 meals/ shift 45 min/ meal
acute ward studies 60 students 8 credits, 40 h/cr
reference library shelving 5000 volumes 0,025 m/volume

And finally, the desired working environment for sub-activities is identified. The
working environment means the name of working area and the actions in the
area:

Acute ward studies

60 % of the load General lecturing area
20 students workplace
1 teachers workplace
30 m shelves
20 % of the load Acute ward workshop
10 students lying on their
 75

back
10 students sitting
100 m deep shelves
20 % of the load not in built environment

9.12.3 Current or Desired State Measurement

The workplace planning process starts by defining the initial state. The agent
interviews each party separately from their own viewpoints. In this stage the
agent is more interested in understanding the viewpoints than criticizing them.

The interview is recorded in the workplace planning procedure and in the

target price method. The outcome of these two methods is the room schedule
needed for the activities, their utilization degrees if possible, and the budget for
construction and maintenance during the building’s life cycle.

The workplace planning procedure and the target price method are themselves
deductive and give the ”right” answer with no alternatives, based upon the
information the parties have given. Measurement does not describe the past
nor does it give advice on the future but shows the declination to the target.
After dialogue and any new decisions measurement must be re-done.

Activity Quantity Unit Space m2/ Utilization

(m2) unit (%)

Health care faculty 495 Pers

Anatomy store 1 10 10,0
Art teaching, 16 stud 1 Classr. 60 60,0 27 %
Physical examination 1 Classr. 133 133,0 51 %
Physiotherapy (chouchroom), 20 stud 1 Classr. 175 175,0 10 %
Clinical treatment 1 Classr. 60 60,0 24 %
Acute ward, 15 opp 1 Classr. 56 56,0 25 %
Acute w. store 1 10 10,0
Tissue samples, 7 stud 1 Classr. 35 35,0 20 %
Polyclinic ward, 15 stud 1 Classr. 40 40,0 6%
Children ward, 27 stud 1 Classr. 50 50,0 13 %
Surgery, 15 stud 1 Classr. 35 35,0 10 %
Maternity ward, 10 stud 1 Classr. 40 40,0 12 %
Exhibition cupboards 1 13 13,0 14 %
Central store 1 Classr. 35 35,0
Gymnasium 1 Classr. 300 300,0 6%
usable area 1052 m2
circulation area, delivery 140 m2
circulation area, section 60 m2
plantroom area 63 m2
Net area 1314 m2

Fig. 16 Part of the Arcada Polytechnic school workplace planning outcome

76

9.12.4 Dialogue

Practice has shown that when groups can freely define their goals in regard to
required functions, they almost always end up outside the possible area. Their
desire for functions exceeds their resources to produce a matching spatial
environment. The result is simply too expensive.

The project group, strategic and operative management, becomes acquainted

with the initial state measurement. The workplace planning procedure and the
target price method are made transparent, so that the parties may understand
each other’s perspectives, and so facilitate the process. Participants realize
that something must be done. They start to become familiar with the entity and
to the each others’ wishes.

Consensus requires an understanding of the viewpoints of different parties.

Empathy to other’s viewpoints helps facilitate compromise. Various different
important viewpoints must be integrated for steering to succeed.
The dialogue can occur in a meeting or the agent may transfer information
between groups. The agent is conscious of the target and prepares the
participants for the allocation.

9.12.5 Allocation

In case the measured state proves to be outside the possible area, the
functional concept will need to be changed, and the direction of changes will
depend on the group achieving commitment on the allocation of funds. The
agent can deliver his/her suggestions, but in practice it is difficult to address
from where the outstanding ideas come from. The dialogue ultimately defines
what is really important and what is less important.

If a better allocation of funds is needed, the agent’s proposals might be:

1. Combine activities
- can diverse activities be combined within the same working environment?
Combining will mean that space will be used more efficiently leading to
increased utilization
- should actions be planned in the environment more flexibly so that
activities can be combined within the same environment?
2. Combine similar activities of separate operational departments
- can similar activities be combined within the same working environment?
(e.g. meetings, resting…)? This will allow increased utilization of the
space.
3. Is there somewhere else in the neighboring environment where the activity
 77

can take place

- auditorium utilization is very low. Can auditorium capacity be rented
elsewhere in the neighborhood ?
4. Is the activity really necessary? Compared to another?
- Is the action/room of/for that activity really needed?
5. Are other activities needed?

An example of the Polytechnic case can be found in Fig. 16. The rooms with
low utilization degrees were evaluated. Clinical treatment, polyclinic treatment
and maternity treatment are taught in a similar environment, the actions
(sleeping, storing…) are almost identical. The spaces used for physical
examination and exercise are also similar, mainly requiring an open space.
The clinical treatment environment was provided with some new actions and
polyclinic and maternity teaching was combined into the clinical treatment
environment. Physical examination was combined into the gymnasium. The
cost reduction was 18 %. Quality was not reduced (activities were not removed
and Clinical treatment utilization was still less than 50 %).

9.12.6 Next Steps

Workplace planning is a complex and self-organizing process. Groups

continue making decisions and soon new measurements and a new dialogue
to steer the process will be required. In case studies the whole process has
lasted from 3 months to 1 year until architectural design has been started.

9.13 Workplace Planning in Relation of other Production Operations of Construction

Workplace planning, when part of project definition, is normally seen as a

preceding phase of the other building phases, i.e. the design and construction
phases. Empiric experiments have shown that workplace planning is rather a
visual angle than a chronological stage of a construction project. Although it is
mostly used in the initial stages, it can be used anytime new commitment is
needed. Construction is no longer managed in a straightforward manner using
steps such as define goals, design and construct or by target costing steps
such as define goals, budget goals, design to budget. Today it is often the
case that the customer simply changes the goals, which he of course has the
right to do at any stage, as long as the customer organization accepts the
consequences of the new decision. If commitment to the same goals must be
changed e.g. in the design phase, it is simple matter of doing some workplace
planning concerning those goals and then to continue designing.
78

A practical example in a Arcada case study

Arcada is a Swedish speaking education institution in Finland. It serves the
needs of the Swedish speaking community particularly in the Helsinki
metropolitan area. The Arcada Strategic body was a board made up of a
collection of notable persons from the Helsinki business community. This was
a voluntary board that developed the interests of this particular community.
This body was tasked with developing a central campus for the Arcada
Polytechnic. Other stakeholders associated with the body included:
- The Swedish literature institution;
- The Swedish education friends; and
- The Swedish Cultural association.
The main strategy for Arcada was to create a centralized campus area.
Currently their real estate stock is distributed over Helsinki. A centralized
campus was seen to create a cohesive identity for the Swedish education
community.

Haahtela workplace planning started in late 2000. Ari Pennanen interviewed

the operative sectors that included:
- Technical teaching.
- Health sector and social work (nurses, therapy, social work) – This sector
was considered important to preserve Swedish culture among aging
citizens.
- Business education.

The health sector had activities that needed the support of a therapy pool. In
workplace planning it became apparent that the inclusion of a therapy pool
would not be possible due to financial constraints (very expensive and low
utilization degree). Architectural and engineering design was started.

When design had, after one year, reached the production design phase
(drawings for procurement), the workplace planning group found a private
sector body willing to cooperate with Arcada. The Folkhälsan institute
announced that they were ready to invest in therapy pool activities in Arcada if
they could use the pool in their service purposes (e.g. they are ready to
commit to a long term rent agreement). This group provides senior citizen
services e.g. living communities and services. This business development was
a group discussion with the Arcada network. Ari Pennanen was asked to clarify
whether this new activity i.e. the therapy pool activity, could be added to
Arcada.

First the workplace planner (Ari Pennanen) and the architect (Stefan Ahlman)
negotiated under which terms activities could be integrated into the present
 79

design. The alternatives were extension now, extension later or replacing

present activities with therapy pool activities. Their suggestion to the board
was that some car parking in the cellar, close to main entrance, could be
replaced by therapy pool activities. Design was stopped in this area but
continued in other areas.

Ari contacted Folkhälsan’s therapy operative manager and started workplace

planning. This took 2 weeks and 3 versions. Folkhälsan’s operative manager
started with 480 netm2, but this was not accepted by the management of
Folkhälsan. The Version on 28.2.2002 was 385 netm2 and 1,200 000 euros. It
was accepted by Folkhälsan. Ari Pennanen informed the Arcada board of the
proposed therapy activities that included:
- Pool activities
- Clothes changing
- Sauna activities
- Refreshment
The supporting activities were removed leaving only core activities. The
teaching classes were to have access to these facilities in education and
practical training.

The investment cost for Folkhälsan would have been 1,2 million euros (if they
had bought else where). The rent was typically 6% of investment at that time. It
increased Arcada building costs by less than 1 million euros, but car parking
was replaced by therapy activities. The car parking was traded off in this case.

The Board demanded commitment from Folkhälsan within a week. By

committing they would promise to pay the rent. The design team could no
longer wait for the business developments, and so started design work to add
therapy activities at Arcada’s risk. If commitment could not be reached, the
group would go on with the present design situation (car parking).

On 4.4.2002 Folkhälsan committed to the business development and the

Board accepted therapy activities in Arcada. The design solution already
existed and was in accordance with the workplace planning program. Ari
Pennanen introduced a new budget at the next meeting. The Board accepted
the new budget in which the Therapy activities raised costs by 740 000 euros.
On 26.5.2002, Haahtela group confirmed that the design solution was now
within the budget.

This case study entity is published in Michael Whelton’s dissertation (Whelton

2004)
80

10 THE WORKPLACE PLANNING PROCEDURE

The Workplace planning Theory, principles and testing were presented in Ari
Pennanen’s licentiate thesis 25.9.1998 approved by Tampere University of
Technology. The licentiate was published in 1999 under the name ”Space
Quantification in Building Enterprises” (Ari Pennanen 1999). In this
presentation the earlier licentiate has not been presented in its entirety. The
focus is on the logic of the procedure. Architect Ilkka Niukkanen has taken part
in the development of the system plan application. The programming has been
carried out by Haahtela- kehitys Oy’s programming group. The Web-based
application has been produced by Haahtela-kehitys Oy under the supervision
of Ari Pennanen.

Fig 17. Haahtela Wop, Workplace planning application. Police security

department patrol activity description
 81

10.1 General

Workplace planning could be done by choosing a simple unit of measurement

for the functions of a desired field of operations, and by connecting this
measurement unit, through the process of statistical sampling, to the
extensiveness of the Space Program. The measurement unit for a school
could be the number of students, and the measurement unit for an office, the
number of employees. These types of instructions for the quantification
procedure were removed from use in Finland in 1980 for comprehensive
schools and high schools (Tilantarve erikokoisissa peruskoulun ala-asteen ja
yläasteen kouluissa sekä erillisissä lukioissa 1987) , as well as, daycare
centers (Suunnitelaan päiväkoti 1991).

The advantage of this procedure is its simplicity. A disadvantage is that it does

not describe differences in the statistical information used in the spatial
programs, nor does it allow for the opinion of the individual or party to be
heard, in regard to spatial resources. The method would state that for a 600
student junior high school one 60 m2 computer science teaching area will be
needed, but it could not explain why some schools have requested three
teaching areas. Nor does it take into account functional variability. The number
of classrooms for computer sciences is based upon the amount of teaching to
be carried out in the subject. What if a school specializes in computer sciences
and increases the amount of teaching? Due to the fixed methods lack of ability
to describe information, standards would have to be created for so called
building types: typical schools, typical office building, typical day care center,
quantifying a library, e.g. Then one should to assume that the users internal
functions are identical. The problem would have been ”tamed”.

Experience of project budgeting procedures has shown, that fixed methods

linked to building types do not result in a large user pool. In Finland a more
widely used budgeting procedure is the Target price –procedure (Haahtela &
Kiiras 2003) that allows for the classification of space independent of the type
of the building. Currently, pure building types are seldom built; an office
building can include production spaces, storage spaces, a restaurant, day care
center e.g. Also, within pure building types there is a notable functional
variability; in an office there can be a lot or a little negotiation, personnel
training may or may not take place there, eating can take place in the building
or in the surrounding restaurants, the long-term archives can be kept in the
office or at head office, the school can specialize in visual arts, music, or
physics, e.g.
82

10.2 Activity Based Accounting and Workplace Planning Procedure

The structure of activity based accounting (see chapter 6) is suitable for

studying the working environment and the resources spent on it. The working
environment and it’s expenses are widely considered as indirect overheads for
an organization.

Product
An organization’s business plan is normally divided into sectors. A university’s
sectors might be the construction engineering faculty, the electrical
engineering faculty, the medical faculty and the social faculty, which are more
or less independent. A rehabilitation center might be divided into brain injury
and spinal core injury sectors. These sectors are considered to be products of
an organization.

Activity
The business sector’s operational work is carried out by activities, core
activities and supporting activities. These activities realize the business
sector’s goals,

Resource
The rooms are the resources that are demanded by activities and thus can be
traced to the activities.

Finally, by understanding why the activities are being performed, the activity’s
use of resources can be related to the demands for the activities by the
individual products. Activity drivers are used to identify the linkage between
activities and cost objects, such as products, services and customers. They
serve as quantitative measures of the output of activities.
 83

Product Activities Drivers Resources

Construction eng Core:
Faculty Language learning students lecturing rooms
Mechanics learning students laboratories
… …
teaching planning teachers office environment
…
Supporting
Administration activ. Employees office environment
Dining students+empl. Kitchen, restaur.
…

Brain injury Core

Rehabilitation speech therapy therapists office environment
Accommodation patients hotel rooms
…
Support
Accounting employees office environment
Ref. Library volumes shelves area

10.3 Factors Affecting Spatial Requirements

The wide applicability of the workplace planning procedure requires a theory of

spatial requirements, which adequately describes the variability in the usage of
space. Such a theory should encompass as widely as possible factors that
cause differences in the amount of space required.

In the research hypotheses, such influencing factors are sought which can be
modeled. Modeling requires that the factors can be described as
measurements. The following human factors, for example, that most probably
have some affect, but are difficult to measure, have not been included in the
hypothesis (Pennanen 1999):
- People have a tendency in a new situation to desire space, which
resembles the space in which they previously worked. It is difficult to
begin working at a blank page.
- In organizations, spatial quantification may reflect organizational
hierarchy. It has been the assumption of this presentation, that even
traditionally hierarchical structures can be functionally described.
Accordingly, the manager’s office is described as being larger than other
offices because it must support the negotiating- and customer functions. If
it is noted, that these functions are not needed, then these assumptions
included, the managers office does not need to be larger than other
workspaces.
84

The hypothesis is, that horizontal geometric quantification can be made

accurately enough with the help of the following factors (Pennanen 1999):
- the total volume of the functional sector
- the activity bill programmed for the sector
- the time strain of activities and targets for the use of time in the space
- the geometry of the people working and the objects to be placed in the
space
- legislation, instructions, norms.

Each hypothesis is described below using the example of the teaching sector

10.3.1 The Volume of the Sector

The product of the logistics engineering sector is learning, and to describe the
volume of this sector, the number of students to be taught in a particular time
span has been set. In the administrative sector the product can be described
as the size of the organization and in manufacturing the number of items to be
produced (Pennanen 1999).

If there are 400 students in a junior high school, one 80 m2 teaching area for
physics is needed. If the student body grows to 500 students, one more
teaching area will be needed, and eating-places will need to be creased etc.

10.3.2 The Activity Bill to be Programmed to the Sector

The activity bill to be defined depends on the strategic choices made by

management. The choice of bill describes with which core activities the goals
of the sector are realized, and to what extent support activities are needed. For
eating and food preparation, spaces can be programmed, or personnel may
also use luncheon services in the neighborhood. A regular exercise hall can be
reserved, or providing the school with a gym and aerobic hall can raise the
activity level. Teachers can plan their curriculum at home, or in the staff room,
or a workplace can be programmed for them. Personnel who come to work by
bicycle may be provided with washing- and changing room facilities. There is
great variance in activities programmed to sectors and the criteria is very often
subjective (Pennanen 1999).

10.3.3 Temporal Load of Activities and Goals for Operating Degree

Operations take up a space or part of that space for a definite period of time. A
meeting is scheduled for two hours and afterwards that space will be available
for another meeting. The expected level of efficiency affects the quantity of
space and the flexibility of activities. If the four one-hour meetings of a work
shift are held after one another, one conference space is sufficient. If parts of
 85

the meetings are to overlap, then two conference spaces are needed, both
having a low utilization degree. The temporal requirements are named the
temporal functional load. The capacity of the space to accommodate the strain
is referred to as the potential utilization degree (Pennanen 1999).

Load
At the police investigative department 11 interviews are organized in a day.
The interviews take an average of 2 hours. The activity’s load on the
conference spaces is 22 hours.

At the university, leadership is taught for 26 credits during a period of three

years, each credit includes 20 hours of supervised teaching. The yearly intake
is 110 students and leadership is usually taught in groups of 10. The load of
the leadership groups on the teaching space are during a time span of three
years 6 864 hours.

Utilization Degree
In the post occupancy evaluation of conference spaces of Compaq in their
office building in Finland, measurements show that with a utilization degree of
50 % there is usually access without waiting for a conference space
(Pennanen 1999). If a 50 % target utilization degree is set for the space used
by the police, the space allocated for interviews can accommodate 4 hours of
functions a day. Then six interview spaces will be needed. If a schedule can be
made for the interviews, and the space for the interview is booked in advance,
the utilization degree can be raised to 75 %. Four spaces to conduct interviews
will then be needed.

During a period of three years the university spaces can accommodate 4 320
hours. Experience in schools has shown, that if the utilization degree exceeds
80 %, there seems to be a shortage of space. If the target utilization degree of
the space used for teaching leadership is set at 75 %, then three teaching
areas will be needed.

10.3.4 The Geometry of the People and Objects to be Placed in the Space

People use space as their workplace, production processes are organized in

space, things are stored in spaces and people sleep in spaces. Each
performance action requires the space planned for it. The minimum width of
the seating space needed for an adult is 0,45 m. The measurement of a
seated adult from the back to the knees is about 0,60 m. In offices, most
folders and magazines are size A4, and fit in an about 330 mm of free shelf
space. A walking person needs approximately a 700 mm wide space in front
of the document shelf. On clothes hangers, outdoor clothes require a depth of
86

600 mm and each hanger a width of 150 mm (Pennanen 1999).

The company manager requires a work station of approximately 5 m2. If the

manager wants to store documents in the room, 10 m of shelf space can be
reserved, which will increase the size of the room to approximately 7 m2. The
two wardrobes placed in the room will increase the room’s surface-area to 8
m2. The manager wishes to place a conference point for six persons in the
room, which will increase the surface-area to 17 m2. If a screen for viewing is
required, the manager will need a 22 m2 room.

Physics can be taught in groups of 32 students, with 12 regular student seats

and 20 workspaces for examinations. In addition to this, 14 m2 of bookcases
should be reserved for storing collections nearby as well as the teacher
presentation area. In all an area of 80 m2 is required.

10.3.5 Legislation, Instructions, Norms

Society defines workplace planning through legislation, instructions and norms.

Legislation dictates, for example, the surface-area of an air-raid shelter in
relation to square footage per floor or population. The Department of the
Environment has standards for the minimum requirement size of storage
space in apartments. An example of standard practice is the size of a
basketball field.

10.4 The Structure of the Workplace Planning Procedure

10.4.1 General

The spatial resources are traced to the activities and to the functional sectors
by a structure similar to activity based accounting. Creating the model is
basically creating functions that set the default values to linking drivers,
between sector, activity and spaces. When operating the model the
information goes the other way around, the model traces the need for
resources (spaces) to sector, based on default or desired driver values. In
order to use efficient drivers, the quantities of the sectors, activities and actions
must be described quantitatively. A quantitative description often seems forced
and unaccommodating of slight variations, but it is necessary for the purpose
of a calculative model.

The workplace planning procedure model can be constructed using interviews

without any initial information, but the procedure is much quicker and thus
more usable when it is supported by registers and the default values of drivers.
 87

Registers of sectors, activities and rooms are created to meet observed

reasonable practice. The registers do not necessarily define what a particular
organization wants, but by modifying drivers, deleting and inserting activities
and reshaping spaces they can quickly be altered.

Functional Sector
Sector Driver

Sector Function
defines the Bill of Activities
by setting Activity Drivers

Activity …
Activity Driver

Activity 2
Activity Driver

Activity 1
Activity Driver

Driver Functional load

Sub-
activity Space Function

Register Capacity to bear load

Activity Working Environment

Function Space
sets the Space
Sub-act. Space
Drivers …

Driver Functional load

Sub-
activity Space Function

Register Capacity to bear load

Working Environment
Space
Space
Space
…

Fig. 18. Hierarchy of the Workplace Planning Procedure

88

10.4.2 Project

A project is a group of functional sectors that are planned to be located in the

same site or building (sector, see next). In today’s world a project is something
other than a building type, it is often a multi-user working environment. The
project is considered to serve as an “umbrella” for one or many functions, e.g.
an office combined with a library.

In the workplace planning process any functional sector can be combined with
any other sector. In an office there might be a day care center and a dentist’s
practice. By combining and optimizing (see later) The Workplace Planning
Procedure seeks synergies among sector activities.

10.4.3 Functional Sector

The functional sector is a group of activities programmed to achieve a

particular independent goal. An independent goal means that it is possible to
program as an independently functioning building entity. In a day care center,
for example, independent goals or sector definitions are the day care of 1-2
year olds, 3-6 year olds and children’s preschool. By combining the above
sectors in a desired way the Day care center type of building is obtained. In the
police building, the sectors are security, investigation, license management
and mobile police. In a school the sectors are elementary school, junior high
school and the high school class years. In a polytechnic the sectors might be
studies in finance, catering studies, health care studies etc. In the church the
sectors might be the service, social work, youth work and family events.

For each defined sector a sector-function is created. The sector-function uses

as its value of origin the sector-driver chosen to describe the volume of the
sector and returns the drivers of the activities (activity functions, see later).
 89

Sector: Polytechnic University, Health Care Faculty

Sector Driver: 495 students

Sector Function
defines the Bill of Activities
by setting Activity Drivers

Supporting Activity; Food and Eating

600 people/ shift

Supporting Activity; Meetings

12 meetings/ day

Core Activity; Professional Studies

495 students

Fig. 19 Heath Care Faculty and some activities

10.4.4 Activity

An activity is internal to the sector and has an established task- or product

concept as a part of the core meaning of the company/plant. For example, the
activity of catering produces both food for personnel and the eating
environment, the archive activity provides both short-term and long-term
archive facilities, the accounting activity is responsible for internal and external
accounting, the building maintenance activity is responsible for maintenance
etc. The entire function of the sector is completely and totally described as
being produced by activities.

For each defined activity an activity-function is created. An activity-function

uses as its value of origin the activity-driver, and returns the drivers of the sub-
activities defined to the activity.

10.4.5 Sub-activity
It is useful to describe activity in terms of sub-activities, so that the activities
important in strategic decision-making do not become too large. The sub-
activity is an isolated task that produces the output of the activities. For
example, the nutrition activity requires the following sub activities:
• food preparation
• eating

In the sub-activity the information about the load a function puts on the spaces
is recorded. Their load on the spaces is temporal (the police security
90

department consists of six patrols and the leader of each patrol reports in
writing two hours in a shift) and non-temporal (20 000 volumes need space in
a library).

To the sub-activities space or spaces are connected as a working

environment. The organizations sets goals for the potential utilization of its
spaces. A meeting room is in use from 8.00 a.m. to 5.00 p.m. and higher
utilization than 60 % causes queues. In the spaces the information about the
required utilization degree is recorded. Based on the above the space function
returns the quantity of space or spaces with a standardized measurement unit
(for example 5 one person offices, a 120 person eating space, 100 shelve
meters of storage, 3 units of conference space, a 10 person’s landscape office
etc).
 91

Core Activity; Professional Studies

495 students

165 students 6 credits

Acute 20 hours/ credit
Ward
Course Space Function

Register 6 years, 38 weeks/y

8 h/ day, 75% utiliz.
Activity Working Environment
Function - Acute Ward Lab
sets the - Physical exam. Lab
Sub-act. - Ambulance Simul.
Drivers - General Lecturing
- Outside School

495 students 2 credits

Physical 20 hours/ credit
Education
Space Function

Register 6 years, 38 weeks/y

8 h/ day, 75% utiliz.
Working Environment
- Gymnasium
Space
Space
…

Fig. 20. Example of activities and sub-activities

10.4.6 Space
Ordinarily, space means the general concept of space used in the building
industry (a specified area and use, for example an office of 12 m2, a doctor’s
reception area of 15 m2 e.g.). In the larger meaning, it also means the same
use, but without the previously described boundaries (for example: 160m2 of
near storage is needed, the manner of placement and the size of places are
defined in conjunction with the planning).

In the Workplace Planning Procedure space is approached from two

perspectives.
1. The number of spaces is defined through observation of the functional
load on the space and the capacity of the space to accommodate that load
2. The size of the space is defined through observation of the performance
results (actions), that take place in the space.
92

Sub activity
Meetings Load:
10 meetings/ day
2 h/ meeting average

Space Function

Register 8 h/day
50% utilization
Working Environment
Meetings, 6 persons 2 pc 28 m2
Meetings, 12 persons 3 pc 75 m2
Coat hangers 20 pc 4 m2
People in a foyer 15 pc 12 m2
Wc 1 pc 5 m2
Usable area for meetings 124 m2

Circulation 56 m2
Plant room area 13 m2
Net area for meetings 193 m2

Sub activity
Library Load:
Aduld lending 60 000 volumes
0,025 m/ volume in average

Space Function

Register
80% utilization
Working Environment
Shelves for volumes 1875 m 465 m2
PC:s for enquiries 15 pc 23 m2
Service staff 5 wp 4 m2

Usable area for adult lending 492 m2

Circulation 90 m2
Plant room area 25 m2
Net area for adult lending 607 m2

Fig. 21. Some examples of Sub-activity and Working environment

 93

The working environment is defined within the target utilization (if set). If the
load is small compared to the time capacity of the space, the realized
utilization degree might be much lower than the target. It is shown in the
output data.

Fig. 22. Logistics engineering laboratories’ realized utilization degrees are low.
Few courses (activities) demand this particular resource and even then only for
a period of a few weeks. The actual load is low compared with the potential
load on the spaces.

10.4.7 Action

The action describes the basic performance activity and its plane geometrical
space requirements. A fixed register has been compiled of the actions, for
example, working whilst seated requires a 6 m2/work station. The register
follows the following classification:

Standing
Sitting
Seated working
Document Storage
Industrial and store warehousing
Clothes maintenance
Sanitary Facilities
Rest
Performing
Food preparation
Machines, equipment
Property Maintenance
94

The action function uses as the measurement of origin the default action
parameter, circulation parameters, and technical parameters and returns the
floor area of the space.

Space name
Office work and 6 persons meetings

Actions
Working at table & adjacent table 1 pers 6 m2
Storing in cupboards 1,8 m 2,3 m2
Book shelving 10 m 1,9 m2
Having meetings 6 pers 9,2 m2
Having performances 6 pers 4,6 m2
Usable area 24 m2

Circulation area 8,5 m2

Services area 1,9 m2
Net area 34,4 m2

Table 2. Example of a space and actions

The register of actions is based on

- the measurements in real working environments
- the measurement on the final design solutions among clients
- tests connected to the target price method (Haahtela & Kiiras 2003)
- some other sources (Neufert 1980)
4500 5000

6000 6000
9000

Fig. 23. Practical dimensions for meetings (Pennanen 1999)

 95

10.4.8 Parameters

In addition to drivers, functions also use parameters. They are recorded to the
registers as default values and are easy to change when customizing.

Load
Load is used to describe the resource that activity demands from the space(s).

Share of the load

The load can be allocated to the working environment with a share of the load-
factor, e.g. 60% of meetings are small (6 persons) and 40 % medium sized (12
persons).

Group size, functional

Group size affects space sizes and the number of spaces, e.g. one 50 person
space or two 25 person spaces.

Group size, actions

If this parameter is defined, it over-rides previous Group size when actions are
considered. For instance, it is possible to state that lectures will be held in 28
groups (defines number of spaces) but to increase flexibility rooms will be
provided for 32 groups.

Swap-parameter
Normally group size is a given value and the quantity of spaces is an outcome.
The swap-parameter fixes the number of spaces and the group size is an
outcome. For instance if 300 dining spaces are needed, with a swap-value 2
it will be defined as two spaces for 150 persons.

Target utilization
The factor defines the maximum utilization degree that can not be exceeded.

Delivery circulation parameter

This defines the need for delivering circulation space, i.e. circulation flow
between spaces. When small spaces are considered, circulation occurs in
corridors. As spaces become bigger, part of the circulation is removed to the
usable area.

Sector-circulation parameter
This defines the requirement for stairways.
96

Services area parameter

This defines the requirement for services areas.

Time model
The time model expresses the period during which the spaces are in use. The
temporal load is studied against the chosen time model. The time model’s
parameters could be 8 hours a day or 3 years, 38 weeks, 5 days a week or 8
hours a day (high school model).

Parent parameter
The parent parameter indicates whether the activity can be combined with
another.
 97

10.4.9 Combining and Optimizing

Activities demand spaces due to their functional load. The load might lead to
low utilization of a space. The combining procedure seeks similar spaces with
low use. It suggests that some activities could be combined within the same
environment within the target utilization. The optimizing procedure finds
different sized (different group size) spaces which are similar by actions. It
suggests that if there are large and small spaces needed with low utilization,
only the large is needed and the smaller space’s activity can be held there.

An example
There are three sectors in a City Police Station that hold interrogations. They
have not previously defined interrogations as an activity. The office rooms
have been large enough to hold interrogations in. In spring 2003 City Police
started workplace planning in order to define its future working environment.

Interrogations were defined as an activity in the Workplace Planning

Procedure:
Sector Driver
- police security department 4 interrogations/ day
- police investigation department 10 interrogations/ day
- police criminal investigation department 17 interrogations/ day

The activities needed 350 m2 of net area (usable + circulation + services)

altogether. The optimizing procedure was used to test how much space was
needed if a common working environment was shared. To ensure flexibility a
50 % target utilization degree was set. The result was 272 m2 altogether. In
the workplace planning dialogue process the operational management started
to study if the interrogation working area really could be shared.

It was found that there were advantages and disadvantages:

- if the departments had their own interrogation areas, they would be closer
to the detectives’ working places
- if an “interrogation hotel” was designed, it could be located close to the
main entrance and close to the police jail cells.
- An interrogation hotel would be more efficient
- The organization is changing all the time. An interrogation hotel would be
conveniently situated even if the departments changed their position within
the building.

In summer 2003 it was decided that interrogations would be held in a shared

“interrogation hotel”.
98

Fig 24. Shared interrogation area, “interrogation hotel”

 99

11 CASE STUDY; CYGNAEUS HIGH SCHOOL

11.1 Introduction

Cygnaeus high school is located in Jyväskylä, Finland. The school was built in
the early 1960’s. At the moment it is somewhat substandard technically and
functionally:
- teaching methods have changed since the school was built
- regulations concerning hvace have changed since the school was built
The existing plan of the first floor appears in appendix 3.

A architectural programming was conducted in 1997 and again in 2002. This

did not lead to investment. The Haahtela Project Management Group was
employed in spring 2003 to undertake the workplace planning process using
the Steering Model of Workplace Planning. The Haahtela Group was led by Ari
Pennanen. The other members were architect Ilkka Niukkanen and Michael
Whelton.

Ph.D. Candidate Michael Whelton from University of California at Berkeley

worked during spring 2003 in the Haahtela project management group as a
workplace planner (Cygnaeus High School, Vantaa City Police, Stadia
Polytechnic). He made case studies of workplace planning as part of his thesis
(Whelton 2004)

Workplace planning of Cygnaeus high school is later presented in the context

of the workplace planning steering model (Fig 25).
100

Disturbance Controlled Outcome

- different values Organization defining Wishes and wants in
- different interests working environment - activities, rooms
- organizational changes - strategic visions - performances
- changing business - operative visions - consequenses in use
environment of resources
-…

Action Perception

Goal Agent Measurement Representation

Dialogue - Workplace Planning
- strategic and Procedure
operative - Target Price Method
management
Controller

Fig. 25. The workplace planning steering model

11.2 Stakeholders

11.2.1 Education Policy

The City Department of Education coordinates high school education in the
Jyväskylä city area. Economical planning and budgeting in all high schools are
the responsibility of the City Department of Education.

11.2.2 Real Estate Policy

Jyväskylä City’s real estate organization is responsible for building, renovating,
leasing and maintaining the high school property. Jyväskylä City Department
of Education pays rent per square meter for using buildings. The Cygnaeus
high school renovation/extension project was led by Jarmo Hulkko, head of the
project managers.

11.2.3 Education in Practice

Education is carried out by Cygnaeus high school teachers. The staff is led by
the principal and the vice principal and the principal of adult high school
education (adult education will be held in the same facility in the evenings).
Teachers plan education under the policy of the City Department of Education.
 101

11.2.4 Students

Pupils in Cygnaeus high school are represented by the Student’s Association.

11.3 Programs 1997…2002

Disturbance Controlled Outcome

- different values Organization defining Wishes and wants in
- different interests working environment - activities, rooms
- organizational changes - strategic visions - performances
- changing business - operative visions - consequenses in use
environment of resources
-…

Action Perception

Goal Agent Measurement Representation

Dialogue - Workplace Planning
- strategic and Procedure
operative - Target Price Method
management
Controller

The selected architectural programmer, specialized with renovations, was

commissioned to do the first programming draft in 1997 by the city real estate
organization. The planning team consisted of city real estate personnel, the
school headmaster and the architect. The architectural programmer’s working
method in the beginning was basically Problem Seeking, as described in
chapter 1. The city representatives also wanted a visualization (sketches and a
mass model). Later the city cost planner prepared the cost estimation. On
20.11. 2002 the program was updated by the same team. The program
consisted of a list of rooms, the requirements of the rooms, the existing
building condition survey, and the budget for investment. The extent of the
space program was 8 150 net m2 (usable space + circulation area + services
area, measured from the inner skin of the rooms). The program and budget
would amount to 800 000 € rent/year in spring 2003.

The program was cancelled, ”put on ice” (Whelton 2004).

- The principal felt that those in the City did not understand the role of
school.
- Teachers felt that they have a strong vision what they need but the city
was not very collaborative
- The city found that the program was too expensive. The investment would
raise the rent too much for the City Department of Education
- The real estate organization felt that the programmer had little control over
the budget and wishes
- The real estate organization (Jarmo Hulkko) felt that they had a policeman
role. They could only say that things were too expensive and could not see
102

how to reduce one need over the other. They lacked tools to rationally
decide what needs could be included in the program. The real estate
organization felt that the school was not very collaborative.
- The real estate organization felt that the users did not see that their space
would be unused

If we consider the organization as a complex social system, there was a lot of

disturbance that pushed the project out of balance. Commitment was not
achieved.

11.4 First Representation of Workplace Planning Steering Model

In spring 2003 the workplace planning process was started under the
management of the Haahtela Project Management Group using the Workplace
Planning Steering Model.

11.4.1 Organizing the Client

Disturbance Controlled Outcome

- different values Organization defining Wishes and wants in
- different interests working environment - activities, rooms
- organizational changes - strategic visions - performances
- changing business - operative visions - consequenses in use
environment of resources
-…

Action Perception

Goal Agent Measurement Representation

Dialogue - Workplace Planning
- strategic and Procedure
operative - Target Price Method
management
Controller

Operative managers were selected from the teachers and the staff responsible
for other activities (library, catering etc.). Every subject in the curriculum was
represented by a named teacher. The named teacher could ask colleagues for
assistance if desired.

Strategic management was formed from managers of the City Department of

Education and the City Real Estate Department.

The principal was represented in both strategic and operational management

groups.
 103

11.4.2 Bill of Activities and Drivers

Disturbance Controlled Outcome

- different values Organization defining Wishes and wants in
- different interests working environment - activities, rooms
- organizational changes - strategic visions - performances
- changing business - operative visions - consequenses in use
environment of resources
-…

Action Perception

Goal Agent Measurement Representation

Dialogue - Workplace Planning
- strategic and Procedure
operative - Target Price Method
management
Controller

The first proposal for the bill of activities was created by the operational
management group and was accepted by the strategic group. The bill of
activities determination was supported by the benchmark register of workplace
planning procedure.

Sector driver
It was decided to quantify the future volume of the core activity by the
predicted number of students studying at any one time. The City Department
of Education set the driver at 650 students (all classes present, forecast for 5
years).

Core activities
The core activities were set as the learning of the s. In order to characterize
the working environment in terms of transformations and flow, it was decided
to examine the students’ presence in various learning environments course by
course. Thus the activities were formed by courses and their temporal loads on
the learning environments. The sector driver was usually the driver of core
activities. Core activities are shown in appendix 1.

Other activities
Supporting activities, activities for staff and activities for building management
are shown in appendix 1.
104

11.4.3 Interviews

Disturbance Controlled Outcome

- different values Organization defining Wishes and wants in
- different interests working environment - activities, rooms
- organizational changes - strategic visions - performances
- changing business - operative visions - consequenses in use
environment of resources
-…

Action Perception

Goal Agent Measurement Representation

Dialogue - Workplace Planning
- strategic and Procedure
operative - Target Price Method
management
Controller

Operational management was interviewed in order to connect the learning

environment (spaces) to the activities. The teachers’ vision was a modern high
school without permanent classes. Teachers were asked to define their
teaching methods in various teaching environments. Because the spaces
could be designed in numerous different locations in the existing building, the
teachers were asked to concentrate on teaching methods and learning
environments, not on their locations in the existing building.

The curriculum determined the temporal load (it’s maximum). Spaces and
actions defined what environment. For the learning environment a 75 % target
utilization degree was set to ensure flexible scheduling (meaning 6 hours/
day). Some examples:

Core activity: Optional courses

Driver: 650 students
Sub activity: Physics learning
Driver: 300 students
Load: 3 courses, 38 hours/ course
Desired learning environment: groups share of the load
- general lecturing 200 stud 10 %
- studying in natural science classroom 32 stud 50 %
- studying in it-class 32 stud 40 %

Supporting activity: Library

Driver: 13 000 volumes
Sub activity: Material process support
Driver: 3 employees
Load: not handled
Desired working environment: groups share of the load
- work at table landscape 100 %
- material stored at workplace landscape 100 %
 105

Sub activity: Reference library

Driver: 13 000 volumes
Load: 0,025 m/volume
Desired working environment: groups share of the load
- magazines landscape not handled
- volumes on shelves landscape 100 %

Internal operation in spaces was transformed to Workplace Planning

Procedure’s standard actions. An example:

Space: Music class

Driver: 44 students
Actions:
- lecturing 44 stud 13 m2
- working at table 44 stud 68 m2
- band/chorus, sitting or standing 22 stud 18 m2
- piano playing 2 stud 6 m2
- storing in cupboards 11 m 15 m2
Usable area 120 m2
Circulation area 22 m2
Services area 7 m2
Total net area 149 m2

11.4.4 The Representation

Disturbance Controlled Outcome

- different values Organization defining Wishes and wants in
- different interests working environment - activities, rooms
- organizational changes - strategic visions - performances
- changing business - operative visions - consequenses in use
environment of resources
-…

Action Perception

Goal Agent Measurement Representation

Dialogue - Workplace Planning
- strategic and Procedure
operative - Target Price Method
management
Controller

The workplace planning procedure calculated spaces needed for activities,

their sizes, their utilization degrees and the total net area. Some examples of
output data are presented in Figure 26. According to the activity survey, the
clay and design room for 11 students requires a 22 m2 space. The space will
be in use for two hours a day on average (27 % x 8 h).
106

Figure 26. Examples of the output data of the Workplace planning procedure.

To ensure transparency and to support commitment, the presentation was re-

submitted to operative management. The workplace planning procedure is a
web application. Teachers were able to access the model and check that all
information was understood and handled properly. The set of issues raised
were as follows (Whelton 2004):
- an average group size was set at 32 pupils. This size did not satisfy
teachers and they were able to adjust sizes course by course
- the principal noted that the oldest pupils leave school in late spring. It is
hard to force other classes to work longer on that time. Thus the utilization
degrees are lower at that time. It was decided to use lower targets for
utilization degrees (75 > 73 %)
 107

11.5 Discussions with the Users

Disturbance Controlled Outcome

- different values Organization defining Wishes and wants in
- different interests working environment - activities, rooms
- organizational changes - strategic visions - performances
- changing business - operative visions - consequenses in use
environment of resources
-…

Action Perception

Goal Agent Measurement Representation

Dialogue - Workplace Planning
- strategic and Procedure
operative - Target Price Method
management
Controller

Teachers were asked to acquaint themselves with the perceptions of activities

and spaces in the meetings 6.3. – 15.4. 2003. Many of the meetings were held
internally, without the workplace planner. The operative representatives were
familiar with the representation, could describe it to their colleagues, gather
new information and transfer it to the workplace planners by phone and e-mail:
- in the representation only one music-teaching area was deemed
necessary with maximum utilization (75 %). Cygnaeus high school
emphasizes music- teaching. More flexibility and lower utilization were
required. Action: A second music space was allocated.
- the vice-principal noted that the initial workplace model did not take into
account the teacher’s desire to use several classrooms at the same time.
The teachers wanted to have lessons in one classroom for half an hour
and then split the pupils into two classes for the rest of the hour, so the
teachers would need two classrooms for one group session. The
workplace planner suggested that this could be taken into account only by
using a lower utilization degree. The principal acknowledged that this
request would lead to lower utilization. Action: The principal said
that such low utilization would not be wise.
- there were comments concerning almost every specialized classroom by
teachers

The corrected representation (version 3) was 6 926 m2 net area. It would

result in 670 000 € rent/year.
108

11.6 Discussions with Strategic Management

Disturbance Controlled Outcome

- different values Organization defining Wishes and wants in
- different interests working environment - activities, rooms
- organizational changes - strategic visions - performances
- changing business - operative visions - consequenses in use
environment of resources
-…

Action Perception

Goal Agent Measurement Representation

Dialogue - Workplace Planning
- strategic and Procedure
operative - Target Price Method
management
Controller

The representation was introduced to the City Department of Education and

the City Real Estate Department by phone and e-mail during 8.4.-14.4.2003.
The workplace planner was asked to prepare a suggestion on how the school
program could be further reduced without losing functions and activities.
Action: Haahtela prepared a program version 3.1 by optimizing all the
utilization degrees of the classroom close to the target of 73 %. Sometimes it
was possible only by combining diverse activities within the same spaces.
Version 3.1 gave a space size of 6089 net m2 It would result in 580 000 €
rent/year

11.7 Strategic Project Meeting

Disturbance Controlled Outcome

- different values Organization defining Wishes and wants in
- different interests working environment - activities, rooms
- organizational changes - strategic visions - performances
- changing business - operative visions - consequenses in use
environment of resources
-…

Action Perception

Goal Agent Measurement Representation

Dialogue - Workplace Planning
- strategic and Procedure
operative - Target Price Method
management
Controller

Once Haahtela had a consensus on the nature of user needs, they were in a
position to approach strategic stakeholders with new information at a strategic
client meeting in Jyväskylä city on 15.4.2003. This meeting included the school
principal, the vice-principal, the city real estate management, the city
management of schools and the Haahtela team. At this meeting the principal
said that the workplace planning program was acceptable with minor
 109

corrections and that the teachers understood and accepted it. They said that
they would prefer the program version 3 which had a greater spatial area of
6926 net m2.

The city proposed a target cost that would make the project feasible for further
development. Through the use of the workplace information, they had a
dialogue on different approaches to make the project work financially. After
much discussion the city and school agreed. The group negotiated a target
between versions 3 and 3.1. This decision to create a target allowed the
project to proceed. The city left it to Haahtela to work with the school groups to
make the necessary spatial changes without losing user functions. Haahtela
agreed to work with the school operation stakeholders to establish a revised
program based on this agreed target.

11.8 Further Dialogues

11.8.1 Operative Managers Meeting 6.5.2003, started at 9.00 am

Disturbance Controlled Outcome

- different values Organization defining Wishes and wants in
- different interests working environment - activities, rooms
- organizational changes - strategic visions - performances
- changing business - operative visions - consequenses in use
environment of resources
-…

Action Perception

Goal Agent Measurement Representation

Dialogue - Workplace Planning
- strategic and Procedure
operative - Target Price Method
management
Controller

Haahtela arranged a final workshop with the teaching group leaders to make
the necessary changes to the workplace on 6.5.2003. This meeting included
the school principal, the vice-principal, the principal of adult education, and the
Haahtela Workplace Planners. In this meeting the group had a clear target;
i.e., a mean value target of program versions 3 and 3.1 which meant achieving
6508 m2 net area of program space. The city management had agreed that the
operative managers of the school make decisions to achieve this target. In this
meeting Haahtela had to allocate spatial resources to the user activities. The
group had several discussions during the day to seek a means of reducing the
program space demand.
110

Fig. 27. Workplace Planning Meeting in Cygnaeus school 6. 5. 2003

Haahtela began the workshop by examining spaces with low utilization in core
activities.

Discussion about the auditorium.

There was an auditorium for 220 students (270 m2) in version 3.
- Workplace planner: The need for the auditorium for education is very low,
it is almost unused (2 % utilization, if someone opened the door 100 times
on any given day, the auditorium would prove to be in use on two
occasions and it would be empty on 98 occasions). Furthermore, the
auditorium would use a lot of resources.
- Principal: This is true, but the auditorium is needed for large groups
undertaking final examinations before graduation. Smaller groups need too
many teachers for supervision which then disturbs education during their
exam period. Examinations use few temporal and many spatial resources.
- Workplace planner: We can combine three 80 m2 classrooms for such
occasions. We should invest in portable walls with good sound insulation
to make classrooms flexible.
- The idea was accepted by the teachers and the auditorium was removed
 111

The discussion about computer labs.

- Workplace planner: The teachers had stated that much education occurs
in the computer teaching areas. They have a high degree of utilization but
they are bigger than normal lecture areas.
- Teachers: The aim was to enable computer work and normal class work
with manuals, writing etc. to occur at the same time.
- The vice- principal: In future the students would use laptops, which are
more portable and that normal classrooms would also be used for internet
work.
- This conversation created the option of relocating temporal load from
computer areas to normal lecture areas

The discussion about music workplaces

- Workplace planner: Music teaching areas must be discussed again. There
are currently two large music workplace areas with rather low utilization in
the present perception (2 x 45 pupils, 250 m2 + 250 m2, 37 % + 37 %
utilization degrees). Would it be possible to manage with one area, as
acknowledged utilization would be rather high (74%)?
- Principal: The school aims to provide a high standard of music education,
so low utilization would ensure higher flexibility.
- Workplace planner: There is a music studio in both music classes. The
utilization degree of these should be investigated. Are group sizes really
so large?
- It was decided, that there would be two music classes, but that teaching
would be reorganized so that the one classroom would serve for maximum
40 pupil groups and the other would serve 20 pupil groups. Only one
music studio would be needed.

The meeting moved the group discussion to the issues of supporting activities
in the school.

Discussion about teachers workplaces

In the existing model, the teachers used a dense hot-desk landscape office as
their working area (70 teachers, 35 workstations).
- Vice-principal: All teachers would like to have their own workstations.
- Workplace planner: It would lead to an even bigger net area. The
workstations would be in very low use. A teacher uses that that kind of
workstation for less than 2 hours a day (as observed during the day).
- Principal: Teachers want their own workstations, but the they could be
smaller
- Workplace planner: Could the teachers’ work area function like computer
classrooms or like meeting areas
112

- Principal: Yes
- It was agreed that every teacher would have a workstation with quite a low
utilization degree (18 %). The actions would be changed as follows (Fig 28
and Fig 29):

Fig. 28. Teachers workplaces, previous model

Fig. 29. Teachers workplaces, new model

Discussion about kitchen operations

It was found that the school could remove the kitchen operations and operate
with a food distribution space only. The city representatives and the principal
had earlier discussed bringing food in from a city-run central kitchen. A
 113

catering expert from the city was invited to the meeting. Together members of
the group defined a restaurant environment. They made new changes to the
operation of food preparation by planning for a distribution kitchen, and not a
preparation kitchen; the serving of food could use line distribution only. A
smaller eating area was considered adequate. The new area was modeled
using the workplace planning procedure. The new catering area was 170 m2
smaller than before.

Discussion with pupils association

The pupils association representatives came to the meeting. They stated that:
- The existing dining area is too small
- The association needed a club; a meeting area for 10 persons +
workstations for two
- group work areas should be added
- pupils would like to have sofas in the entrance lobby
The dining area and group work areas were already modeled to be larger in
the present representation. The meeting agreed to add a club for the pupils
association.

Other decisions
Core activities
- Half of the biology education hours originally planned in the biology area
were transferred to a normal lecturing space
Supporting activities
- One tutorial more was needed for the education staff to support operations
- Shelf storage was reduced to 10 m/teacher
- A shower/dressing area for teachers was added

At 12.00 Ilkka Niukkanen transferred the new data to the Web-based

Workplace Planning Procedure and then printed the results review with the
representatives (based on group dialogues, the planner does not know the
exact state of the new program. There are many decisions concerning
teaching methods, time used in different environments and changes in
actions). The workplace plan was named Version 4. The emergent result was
that the new net area would be 6104 net m2. The result was closer to version
3.1 and the group found that approximately 400 m2 could be added to the
program to achieve the negotiated target.

Some changes were made instantly, but the meeting ran out of time. It was
decided that workplace planning would be continued so that the principal
would have meetings in school with teachers and that the Haahtela group and
the principal would have telephone-meetings.
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11.8.2 Decisions 6.5.-14.5.2003

Core activities:
- Examination areas were needed in the natural science education areas
- Stores for students instruments were added to the music area
- Two normal classrooms were planned to be enlarged in order to add
flexibility (32 pupils > 40 pupils)

Supporting activities:
- The vice-principal’s room was planned to have a meeting area for 4 people
- The waiting area for pupils would need to be situated close to the teachers
working area

11.9 Commitment

The Haahtela team finalized the workplace planning on 14.5.2003. It was

named Version 4.2. The net area was 6 574 m2 (usable area + circulation +
services area). The school operative managers accepted the workplace
planning.

Ari Pennanen of Haahtela team calculated the budget for renovation,

extension and maintenance costs assuming that the activities would be located
in the present building and site (investment 8 020 000 €, vat 0%). The City
Real Estate Organization accepted the budget.

Jyväskylä City Real Estate Organization calculated the rent of spaces (capital
+ maintenance) and presented it to the City Department of Education. The
rent was accepted.

The participants agreed that architectural design could be started. The

accepted bill of activities and room schedule are presented in Appendix 1 and
2.

11.10 What happened next ?

What happened next is related to Jyväskylä City’s Corporate Real Estate

policy and to design steering. These are not the focus of this dissertation and
thus are outside the limits of the research. However, by further describing the
project’s history, workplace planning in relation to other construction activities
will be clarified.
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11.10.1 Corporate Real Estate Strategy Planning

In Corporate Real Estate the need is observed from the organization’s

business point of view, rather than from the building’s point of view. We now
know the working environment needed and the stakeholders are satisfied.
Programming is valuable whatever real estate(s) we use. Discussions about a
suitable location were initiated.

Jarmo Hulkko from the City Real Estate Organization phoned Ari Pennanen at
Haahtela Oy in July and asked for help with real estate strategy. The
organization was satisfied with the program, and wanted to test two buildings
for Cygnaeus high school purposes
- the existing Cygnaeus school building in the center of Jyväskylä
- another school building named Wilhelmstreet 2

11.10.2 Budgets for Investment and Maintenance

Wilhelmstreet 2 real estate was quite new, it was designed in 1991 as a school
for social education. It was about the same size as the present Cygnaeus
school. It was in good condition, the room distribution suited Cygnaeus school
well. The budget was calculated using the Target Price Method and for
investment it was 5,5 million €. The renovation degree was 29 % (cost
compared to a similar new building) and a 2 770 m2 extension was needed. It
was located slightly further from the city center.

The budget for the present Cygnaeus school building was 8 020 000 €. The
renovation degree was 77 % and a 2 300 m2 extension was needed. The real
estate was located in the city center.

The budgets for maintenance costs were about the same in both cases.

Wilhelmstreet 2 was cheaper in terms of investment because it was newer and

in better condition (especially the hvace-systems).

11.10.3 Discussion about Locations in Jyväskylä City

If Jyväskylä City needed both buildings, it did not matter financially whether the
present building or Wilhelmstreet 2 building was used. The financial value of
the present building was low because the City had not invested in it in for a
long time. If they invested now, they would have to have used more money but
this would have increased its financial value. In that case City would have had
to decide what location would have better suited Cygnaeus school.
116

If both buildings were not required one could be sold. In that case it might be
easier to sell the present Cygnaeus school real estate. The location was
conveniently situated in the center of the city. The value of the building was
low, the buyer would probably demolish it and build e.g. apartments. The
Wilhelmstreet 2 real estate represented high financial value, but its functional
value was high only for the City (private companies do not need schools. A
school building’s value as an apartment or office is low).

Cygnaeus school wanted to stay in its present convenient location. Potential

pupils valued the central location of the school and so the school easily
attracted talented pupils. For the school the existing location represented
better functional value.

So in that case it would be necessary to decide whether private business or

public education would eventually use this prime city center location.

11.10.4 Steering the Design

In August 2003 the City decided that Cygnaeus high school would be located
at its present site. They had negotiated with an institute for vocational
education and agreed to sell Wilhelmstreet 2 real estate to the institute. Ari
Pennanen was asked to steer the design in the sketch design phase in order
to ensure that the targets set in workplace planning would be achieved.

The financial target was based on:

- room schedule commitment (appendix 2)
- survey of the existing net area
- commitment to the requirements set on the rooms (internal climate, lighting
etc.)
- survey of existing buildings condition
- survey of room sizes needed and existing room sizes

The existing building was smaller the required area, so an extension was
needed. It was agreed when budgeting that an extra 10 % provision area for
adjusting the room schedule to the existing building would be accepted (it
made it possible for the architect to utilize existing structures, e.g. partitions).
As a result there were two simple targets for sketch design:
- all spaces in workplace planning were needed
- the extension should not be larger than 2 300 m2 net area.
If those targets could be achieved, an elemental estimate should be done to
ensure that the project would remain in budget.

Ari Pennanen and the architect had a meeting before the design was started to
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exchange information and to find a strategy for starting design. An example.

- The form of the existing building was of adjacent tower blocks. The
functional absence was that the corridors were not connected. Moving
horizontally would require first going downstairs, then moving horizontally
before going back upstairs again. It was found in the meeting that where
connections were lacking, they should be incorporated into the extension.
If the corridors were connected inside the existing building, the existing
classrooms would be demolished (and the renovation degree would rise).

The architect made several design solutions. The accepted one (by teachers)
is presented in appendix 4. The extension net area was 2 291 m2, about the
same as the target. It was not a coincidence because that was where the
architect aimed. He retained many existing classrooms (and structures). The
elemental estimate had not yet been completed (in fall 2003) but there was
confidence that the project would remain in budget with this proposal.

11.11 The other Case Studies

Several workplace planning problems were handled using the Workplace

Planning Steering Model in 2003-2003. Ph.D. Candidate Michael Whelton from
University of California at Berkeley worked in spring 2003 in the Haahtela PM
project management group as a researcher and workplace planner. He
introduced and analyzed four more Workplace Planning case studies in his
dissertation “The Development of Purpose in the Project Definition Phase of
Construction Projects. Implications for Project Management” .The research
was done an University of California at Berkeley (Whelton 2004). His case
study findings have been referred to in the case study analysis of this
research. The four case studies are Stadia Polytechnic, Vantaa Police Station,
Arcada Polytechnic and Synapsia Rehabilitation Centre.

Stadia Polytechnic
This project encompassed a large set of appraisal studies of operational
functions and user activities. The case reveals the capacity of the workplace
planning system to manage needs data for large scale facility owners. The
case shows how owner strategy personnel require a complete description of
the workplace system prior to making a decision on strategic action (Whelton
2004).

Vantaa Police Station

This case study is about the Vantaa Police workspace strategy and project
development. Vantaa is a metropolitan area of Helsinki. Vantaa police occupy
an old existing building which was identified as functioning poorly. The building
had poor technical performance issues and no longer operated effectively to
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support service functions. The building was also thought to lack space for
activities. Haahtela were employed by a state owned property developer to do
workplace planning on the user organizations. At the time of study, the process
was iterating through the early planning phases of the Haahtela planning
process. The research focused on a strategy meeting where the initial results
of the workspace quantification model were presented and feedback and
action directives were issued by the client. Haahtela completed an initial
appraisal of operations and users. Haahtela presented the state of the system
to the owner strategy group. The purpose of the meeting was to develop
options for the client based on the existing state of facility needs. The case
study represents the strategic views of the owner and how the workplace
information supported the development of further study. The case study also
reveals how the constraints of the existing structure and site are an integral
part of the conversation for action (Whelton 2004).

Arcada Polytechnic
This case study is a workspace planning process for Arcada Polytechnic, a
Swedish speaking education institution in Finland. The institution serves the
needs of the Swedish speaking community particularly in the Helsinki
metropolitan area. Prior to the project the Arcada real estate stock was
distributed over Helsinki. The main planning strategy for Arcada was to create
a centralized campus area. A centralized campus was seen to create a
cohesive identity for the Swedish education community. Haahtela performed
the workplace planning process and acted as the main project managers. The
case study demonstrates the changes over time with respect to the project
purposes. The perspectives or problem frames of the principal stakeholders
are described. The case demonstrates how the workspace planning tool is
instrumental in guiding the group conversations. The case also reveals how
innovative dialogues occurred based on the results of the planning models.
The stakeholder network is collaboratively engaged and created innovative
means to incorporate emerging needs into their facility plans. The case shows
how stakeholders are reliant on the results of the workplace model when
basing and making their decisions (Whelton 2004).

The Synapsia Rehabilitation Centre

The Synapsia Rehabilitation Centre case study is about a complex multi-
faceted client organization with specialist needs. The project is run by the
Käpylä Rehabilitation Centre which in turn is owned by Invalidiliitto ry: the
Finnish Association of People with Mobility Disabilities. The project
demonstrates the ability of the Haahtela Workplace management system to
handle a specialist medical client. The empathic skills of the project manager
are particularly important in this case. The project represents a case where the
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workplace planner is required to have empathic skills capable of understanding

a specialist client with multiple medical and social living needs. The project
also demonstrates the existence of a collaborative network at the functional or
business level. The project group collaborated with a neighbouring project
sharing functional resources in the daily operations of the facilities. This
collaboration enabled greater client value. The facility was recently completed
and is in full operation (Whelton 2004).

12 CASE STUDY ANALYSIS

12.1 The Aim of the Research and the Theory of Workplace Planning

The aim of this research is to create a steering model for workplace planning
decision making. Spatial resource needs can be planned on the basis of the
organization's strategic and operational needs, and by using operational
measurement units as initial values. The steering model will enable dialogue
between strategic and operational bodies of a organization. It will support the
common understanding and commitment of these bodies.

In the research the Workplace Planning Theory was determined. It states that
a spatial investment in an operation competes for the same recourses as the
other investments in the operations. Workplace planning brings spatial
investments and values of the spaces into line with the other factors of
production. The product of workplace planning is the stakeholders’
commitment to the spatial needs of the operations. Commitment to common
values can be achieved via iterative steering concepts of social complex
systems.

The size of a space is dictated by the operations (transformations) taking place

within that space and these operations can be decomposed to sub-processes
which are also operations.

Spaces are the scene of a temporal flow of operations and non-use time. The
number of spaces is due to the temporal utilization of the spaces.

The principles of the theory seek to evaluate the importance of the spatial
investment in an operation in relation to the organization’s strategy. These
principles criticize the non-use-time of the spaces because non-use-time
increases the need for spaces. If waste of unrequired spaces for operations
and waste of non-use-time can be reduced, more resources would be
available for other investments in operations, spatial or non-spatial.
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12.2 Case Study Analysis Objectives

Case studies have been analyzed the following aspects:

1. Case study findings in relation to the Workplace Planning theory

2. Commitment as a product and process

- viewpoint of the stakeholders
- problems in commitment
- achieved commitment

3. The results when using the Workplace Planning Steering Model

- did the stakeholders achieve commitment ?
- identification of spatial needs and their affect on buggeting during
workplace planning
- history of the case studies after workplace planning
- stakeholders opinions of the Workplace Planning Steering Model

12.3 Case Study Findings in Relation to the Workplace Planning Theory

12.3.1 Spaces and Geometric Actions; Transformation View

Workplace planning theory states that the size of a space is dictated by the
operations taking place within the space. Decision making requires fast
feedback concerning that relation. In the workplace planning steering model
that feedback is provided by the Workplace Planning Procedure.

In the case of Cygnaeus High School an 11 m2 room for the vice-principal was
programmed before the 6.5.2003 meeting. It was agreed that he would need a
working place, storage facilities for books etc. and some guests would need to
be accommodated in his room. When it emerged after the meeting on 6.5. 03
and after new measurement of the state that there would be resources
available, the school decided to allocate resources to the vice-principals to
enable him to have four-person meetings in his room (pupil-meetings and
colleague-meetings. The need for space was related to the school in the
following way (Fig. 30, Fig. 31 and Fig. 32):
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Fig. 30. Vice-principals room before meeting 6.5.2003

Fig. 31. Vice-principals room after meeting 6.5.2003

122

Fig. 32. Financial modeling with the Target Price Method

This is a simple example of the use of the Workplace Planning Procedure’s

actions register. The spatial needs are not described by drawings but in an
operative way: “we allocate resources to enable the vice principal to have four-
person meetings”. The responsibility for that decision is described as
feedback: we need 4 a m2 larger room. By using the Target Price Method
(Haatela & Kiiras 2003) we can add more information to the feedback: “we
have to invest 3 100 € more (vat 0%) and maintenance costs will rise to 140
euros/year (not including capital interest)”.

There is much of evidence that previous actions can be designed within 11 m2

and if a meeting area is added it is possible to design it within 15 m2 (e.g.
Duffy et al 1976, p. 91…95). In practice the designed spaces distribute on both
sides of those values but 15 m2 is definitely within the distribution area, in the
possible area. The designers have been able to design all the case studies
within the programmed net volume and all the activities programmed have
been achieved. If the individual spaces are studied, some of them are larger
than programmed, some of them are smaller. The present classification of
actions is described in chapter 10.5.6. If other actions are required, they are
determined together with the customer based on other standards or
benchmarking measurements.

This method of presentation is very fast, the changing driver is operational

(possibility of holding the meetings) and it is quantifiable (four persons). It
would be more informative to also provide a graphic illustration, and
 123

sometimes this is in fact also used in workplace planning steering. In this

simple case there are graphic standards already available. But most of the
rooms are not repetitive. Graphic descriptions would require a lot of architect
design and this would be too slow for steering purposes. In the case of
Cygnaeus School, the principal also wanted visual descriptions. In further
development it would be wise to link visual objects to the Workplace Planning
Procedure’s operational dimensioning.

Space is not an area strictly outlined by partitions. It is an area where an

operation takes place. It has been worthwhile considering rooms, like
laboratory hall, church hall, assembly hall, sport hall etc. as operative spaces.
As an example Vuosaari Lutheran Church Ceremonies activities are described
below as operational areas for decision making. All the other operations apart
from events after mass will be held in the same room. Vuosaari church
workplace planning was made in fall 2003, and the hall was committed to be
designed in this way (Fig. 33). The percentages on the right are temporal
utilization degrees of the operational spaces.
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Fig. 33. Vuosaari church operational spaces for ceremonies.

12.3.2 Workplaces and Use of Time; Flow View

The Workplace Planning Theory states that spaces are a scene of temporal
flow of operations and non-use time. The number of spaces is due to the
temporal utilization of the spaces.

In the case of Arcada Polytechnic the health sector labs were deemed to be in
poor utilization as shown in Table. 3 (Whelton 2004).
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anatomy and physiology 60 m2 5%

2
music 70 m 24 %
2
drama 70 m 23 %
2
physical examination 260 m 20 %
2
exercising 60 m 4%
2
clinical treatment 60 m 22 %
polyclinic treatment 50 m2 8%
2
maternity ward teaching 24 m 15 %
2
gymnasium 300 m 6%

Table 3. Arcada Activity (select) Utilization Results

The health sector wanted nine labs as shown above. The utilization degree of
anatomy and psychology (5 %) means that if the door of the lab was opened
randomly at the observation time determined by the customer (36 weeks a
year, five days a week, eight hours a day), then on five occasions there would
be occupancy and on ninety-five occasions it would be empty. It was agreed
that the utilization degree should not be bigger than 75 % in order to enable
flexible time schedule programming. If the 75 % degree were exceeded,
another room would be needed. The flow expression of the determined state of
the three labs is shown in Fig. 34.
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Alternatives for Value Generation

- is the activity really needed ?
- are other activities needed?
Present State of - combine activities to the same
Commitment environment
Bill of Activities

Proposed temporal and geometric loads to the spaces

Space: Clinical treatment, 22 % utilization

Value Evaluation against Strategy

Social environ-
ment teaching

Activity 1
Psychotherapy
teaching

Size
not in use
Time
Ergotherapy Space: Polyclinic treatment, 8 % utilization
teaching Activity 2

Acuteward
teaching
Size

not in use
Time
Human ageing Space: Maternity ward, 15 % utilization
teaching
Act 3
Size

not in use
Nursery Time
teaching
…

Fig. 34. Flow expression of labs in Arcada polytechnic. The clinical treatment
lab, The polyclinic treatment lab and the maternity ward lab need altogether
134 m2 space.

According to the Workplace Planning Procedure the clinical treatment lab, the
polyclinic treatment lab and the maternity ward lab are all in less than 25 %
use. This means that a large part of investment in those activities would be
redundant.

12.3.3 Workplaces and Value Generation; Transformation-Flow-Value view

The Workplace Planning Theory states that a spatial investment in an

operation competes for the same recourses as the other investments in the
operations. If waste of unneeded spaces for operations and waste of non-use-
time can be reduced, more resources would be available for the other
investments in operations, spatial or non-spatial. Workplace planning is a
process whereby valuable requirements for workplace production are
determined through observing and evaluating the values of stakeholders
against the organization’s strategy.
 127

In the case of Arcada Polytechnic (see previous chapter) the Haahtela team
prepared a measurement of desired activities and workplaces of the faculties
in the new campus. The Haahtela team then met with the Arcada Board to
make suggestions on lowering building costs (Whelton 2004). The usable area
was then 14100 m2, and estimated building costs were 245 million FM (Finnish
Marks). The board informed Haahtela that the building costs should not
exceed 200 million Finnish marks including the cost of the car parking facility.
That meant that the usable area should not exceed 11 000 m2 which
corresponded to a 22 % reduction in spatial area for the project. Haahtela
made proposals to reduce the demand for space by: increasing spatial
utilization, reducing the value of the organizational function drivers; and
removing functions or activities from the Arcada project. The following
proposals, for example, were accepted by operative managers (Whelton
2004):
- Concerning the labs, a new goal of 75 % spatial utilization between 8 to
18hours (7.5 h/day) was set to increase utilization. The former goal was for
maximum utilization of 75 % between 8 to 16hours (6 h/day). By increasing
the facility operations time, the time strains by functions would be
accommodated.
- In order to remove activities from Arcada, the TV-studio work space was
omitted (very expensive and in quite low use). An external search by the
project team located a TV-studio close by, in a University of Art and
Design and Arcada created a facility sharing agreement with them. A
smaller multimedia studio was specified in Arcada.
- In healthcare education the workplace planning team started looking for
similar environments (actions) among the labs. The clinical treatment, the
polyclinic treatment and the maternity ward labs were similar (ward type,
people in beds, working at benches, need for water supplies…).
Healthcare education areas (ward-type) were planned to be integrated.
The actions were re-planned to suit all activities. The room size, (75 m2, 4
beds, storing capacity, workbenches, rocking chair for maternity ward)
were adequate. The activities were combined within that room
- Using the same kind of evaluation, the physical examination and
gymnasium were combined
- Many other decisions.

It became apparent that other activities would also increase the need for
space. Stakeholder groups in the Arcada community felt they needed a forum
for larger community events. Based on initial discussions among the Arcada
board and the president, the idea for an auditorium became important. A 300
person auditorium was finally included in the program (Whelton 2004).
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These changes were the result of a collaborative user-planner effort in effect to

define this environment. The final result was that a 10 900 m2 usable area was
required and the space program was estimated to be within the target budget.
Unresolved needs at this time were that the operative managers would like to
have, for example, a therapy pool and sacral room. These spaces could not be
added if Arcada wanted to maintain budget at this time (it was solved later)
(Whelton 2004).

Value generation of workplace planning in shown in fig. 35 concerning some of

the health care sector labs. Activities in the Clinical treatment lab, Polyclinic
treatment lab and Maternity ward lab were combined within the same Ward-
type activities lab. The need for space decreased from 134 m2 to 75 m2. All
the activities can still be supported; the utilization degree is 45 %.

Alternatives for Value Generation

- is the activity really needed ?
- are other activities needed?
Present State of - combine activities to the same
Commitment environment
Proposed temporal and geometric loads to the spaces

Bill of Activities

Value Evaluation against Strategy

Social environ-
ment teaching

Psychotherapy
teaching Space: Combined lab for ward-type activities
utilization degree 45 %
Act 3

Ergotherapy
teaching
Actions 2
Actions 1

Acuteward
teaching
Size

not in use
Human ageing Time
teaching

Nursery
teaching

Fig. 35. Example of value generating in workplace planning.

Value generation with workplace planning is evident in all case studies. In the
case of Cygnaeus High School this can be seen in the chapters “Discussion
with users”, “Discussion with strategic management”, “Strategic project
meeting” and “Further dialogues”.
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12.3.4 Allocating Resources to Activities

According to the Theory of Workplace Planning, finding alternatives in value

generation is an allocation process. Allocation deals with the questions
- can activities be combined within the same environment
- is the activity really needed ? Compared to the others ?
- are other activities needed?
Some examples of those questions in case studies.

Can diverse activities be combined within the same working

environment?
- the Arcada Health Care lab problem in the previous chapter is an example
of this.

Should actions in the environment be made more flexible so that

activities can be combined within the same environment?
- the Arcada Health Care lab problem in the previous chapter is an example
of this.

Combine similar Activities of separate Operational Departments.

- In the Vantaa police workplace planning case, several departments
(security dep., investigation dep., police jail dep.) had their own
interrogation rooms. This led to low utilization. It was decided to create “an
interrogation hotel”, an area close to the main entrance and jail where all
interrogations would be held. Utilization was improved. The HR manager
felt that the new plan was better when reorganizing the staff (Whelton
2004).

Is there somewhere else in the existing environment where the activity

can take place?
- In the Arcada case the client had TV-studio activities. It emerged that in
the nearby University of Art and Design in Helsinki was a full-scale TV-
studio environment. Arcada created a new co-operation with them and a
smaller multimedia studio is to be developed in Arcada (Whelton 2004).

Is that activity really needed?

- In the Neuron Research Center case, the sauna activities and half of the
accommodation activities were removed to balance need for core activities

Are other activities needed?

- In the Arcada case, the stakeholders (financier) asked for the possibility to
support community meeting. An auditorium was added.
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12.4 Commitment as a Product

The Theory of Workplace Planning states that a significant product of

workplace planning is commitment of the stakeholders to investment in
workplaces. Commitment to common values can be achieved via iterative
steering concepts of social complex systems.

Decision making requires fast feedback for complex social systems. Modeling
methods are needed to show responsibilities that are due to the proposed
needs. Participants must obtain information about operations, spaces, sizes,
their temporal utilization degrees, investment costs, life cycle costs and
possibilities of combining operations within the same spaces.

To support the commitment process of the stakeholders the steering model of

workplace planning has to:
- support and stimulate strategic and operative mangers to participate in
decision making
- decentralize decision making to the levels where responsibilities are met
- be transparent in terms of information handling
- be fair so that that all information is treated equitably

These characteristics must be constructed in an iterative steering model

because committed stakeholders need an opportunity to re-commit towards
common goals.

12.4.1 Stakeholders in the Case of Cygnaeus High School

The stakeholders in the case of Cygnaeus School:

- The City Department of Education is responsible for the education
policy. It coordinates the high school education in the Jyväskylä city area.
Economic planning and budgeting among all high schools is under the
City Department of Education’s responsibility.
- The City Real Estate Organization is responsible of the real estate
policy. It coordinates building, renovating, leasing and maintenance of
high school property. Jyväskylä City Department of Education pays rent
per square meter for using buildings. The Cygnaeus high school
renovation/extension project was led by the head of the project managers.
- High school teachers carry out education in practice. The staff is led by
the principal, vice principal and principal of adult high school education
(adult education will be held in the same facility in the evenings).
Teachers plan the education under the policy of the City Department of
Education.
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- The students’ association represent the students in Cygnaeus high

school.

12.4.2 Why did the Stakeholders not Commit to the Common Goals before Workplace Planning ?

In the case of Cygnaeus High School the Haahtela team was asked to do
workplace planning because the architectural programming had failed a year
ago. Programming actually started in 1997 and was completed in 2002. The
programmer finalized a result but it was not accepted. The stakeholders did
not commit to the same values.

The selected architectural programmer, specializing in renovations, was

commissioned by the city real estate organization. The planning team
comprised the city real estate personnel, the school headmaster and the
architect. The architectural programmer’s working method was close to
Problem Seeking, described in chapter 1.2. The city representatives also
wanted a visualization (sketches and mass model) for better understanding.
Later, the city cost planner prepared the cost estimation. The program
consisted of a list of rooms, requirements of the rooms, the existing building
condition survey, and the budget for investment.

The program was cancelled, ”put on ice”. The reasons the stakeholders did not
commit to common goals have been noted in the case study (Whelton 2004).
The reasons can be classified according to commitment drivers mentioned in
the workplace planning theory.

Lack of transparency
- The real estate organization felt that they had a policeman role. They
could only say that things were too expensive and could not see how to
reduce one need over the other.
- The real estate organization felt that the users did not see that their space
was unused.
- The school felt that the city was not very collaborative.
- The real estate organization felt that the school was not very collaborative.
- The real estate organization managers often found themselves at the
mercy of the users and the architects (Whelton 2004).

Inability to bring spatial investments and values in to line with other

factors of production.
- The city found that the program was too expensive. The investment would
raise the rent too much for the City Department of Education. The initial
program was seen by the city to waste time and resources
- The real estate organization felt that the programmer had little control over
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the budget and wishes.

- The real estate organization felt that the architects normally do not critisize
needs, and often lacked knowledge on costs.
- The real estate organization lacked the tools to rationally decide what
needs could be included in the program (Whelton 2004).

Inability to support participants decision making

- Teachers felt that they had a strong vision of what they needed. The
principal felt that those in the City did not understand the role of the
school.
- The city felt that the school’s vision looked too far into the future, whereas
the principal saw the city department looking too much back at history and
what traditional education was.
- The architect doing programming had difficulties making clients decide
(Whelton 2004).

12.4.3 Commitment Process in the Cygnaeus School case

An individuals commitment changes continually (see chapter 5.8.2). The

individual stakeholders are committed to their various different goals during the
initial stage, so there may be conflicts between goals, personnel etc. To find a
new target for mutual commitment, new approaches must be identified.
Achieving a final commitment of an organization is an iterative process of
commitments, withdrawals and new approaches (Fig 36).

Identification of an
Conflicts alternative approach
for continuing

Making new
Making initial Ensuing Withdrawal of Ensuing commitment to
commitment events commitment events new approach

A B C D E

Figure 36. The dynamic commitment model (Newman & Sabherwal 1996)

The stakeholders were initially committed in the Cygnaeus school case;

- teachers were committed to the program that was done before workplace
planning
- the Real Estate Department was committed to a certain rent related to the
extent of the program. Since the City Department of Education was not
willing to pay that much, they were not willing to invest.
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- the City Department of Education was committed to treating all the high
schools equitably when allocating resources on workplace rent.
- student opinion was not asked for, nor recorded.

During the workplace planning process the school teachers and the real estate
department withdrew of their commitment due to ensuing events and looked
for alternative approaches to new commitment. The common commitment was
eventually found. The City Department of Education stayed in quite a passive
role during the process. The students had their first chance to take part in
decisions. They committed to the final workplace planning.

The new withdrawals and new commitments occurred as follows (the headings
are the same as in the case study):

First discussion with users. Examples of decisions:

- a second music space was allowed
- low utilization of spaces to split groups was not allowed
- commitment to Version 3

Discussions with strategic management. Examples of decisions:

- better utilization of spaces was required
- an alternative program was planned by optimizing low use spaces
- commitment to Version 3.1

Strategic project meeting. Examples of decisions:

- commitment that a target between Versions 3 and 3.1 would be
acceptable
- agreement that operative management would have the first option to try to
plan activities and workplaces to the goal

Further dialogues
- many decisions and measurements
- commitment to Version 4.2

The commitment
Teachers and students committed to Version 4.2
The Real Estate Department committed to the budget for investment and
maintenance
The City Department of Education committed to Version 4.1 as the new
learning environment and to the rent of the spaces
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12.4.4 Commitment Drivers in the Cygnaeus High School Case

According to the Workplace Planning Theory, to support the commitment

process of the stakeholders, the steering model of workplace planning has to:
- support and stimulate strategic and operative mangers to participate in
decision making
- decentralize decision making to the levels where responsibilities are met
- be transparent in terms of information handling
- be fair so that that all information is treated equitably
To test if the steering model of the workplace planning method can support
mutual commitment, the Cygneaus High School case is analyzed against
those factors (all following cases refer to Whelton 2004):

Supporting and stimulating strategic and operative mangers to

participate in decision making
- The main idea or vision of the school was that learning does not happen in
the class room alone. Different learning environments, and more self-
empowerment for students were needed. The main change was to allow
students to get information more easily. The teaching role would also be
changing, and now more related with mentoring and overseeing. The idea
was to decentralize teaching and create a diverse education as the
essence of the new vision. This included a variety of new ideas. There
would be a new learning environment, but not in the traditional sense of a
school facility. It envisioned students spending their spare time in the
facility. This created the initiative for a vision of education into the next
century.
- The school teachers felt that Haahtela’s direct focus on the student as a
needs driver was a positive issue, an aspect on which they previously
lacked explicit focus. This issue is notable as teachers who serve students,
lacked an operational focus for the student and normally approached the
problem from their teaching perspective.
- When Haahtela came in, they asked the questions who, when, where, how
and what. They found that it was good to formalize the needs of the
students and teachers using this process. The school staff were surprised
by the initial results from the program model and how the spaces were
being used (Whelton 2004).

Decentralizing the decision making to the levels where responsibilities

are met
- The school teachers felt that Haahtela’s direct focus on the student as a
needs driver was a positive issue, an aspect on which they previously
lacked explicit focus. This issue is notable as teachers who serve students,
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lacked an operational focus for the student and normally approached the
problem from their teaching perspective (Whelton 2004).

Being transparent in terms of information handling

- The city project manager felt that the Haahtela system was an effective
management tool. The Haahtela methodology acted as a means to
communicate with other project participants.
- The city project manager felt that the reliability of the project was increased
because ”the client can request everything in this world”, but now they felt
that they could trace the origin of the need and resolve it.
- As an education group the school staff themselves began to understand
that their needs had to combine themselves with money into a program
(Whelton 2004).

Being equitable in information handling

- The architect felt that Haahtela had more control and could hold the client
accountable. He pointed out that it is difficult to tell clients that they cannot
have what they want. He remarked that: ”the ball is now in the client’s
court”. Previously we (the architects) lacked a steering mechanism that
Haahtela now provides”. The architects felt their job became easier as they
“can start from here” (the program statement) once preliminary discussions
were over.
- Overall the school management felt that the process was effective. They
felt that Haahtela had more control over the process.
- At the end of the workplace planning process, the teachers felt that the city
and other stakeholders had a good understanding of their needs.
”Everybody sees something they need in the program and the city looks
for costs. The city now has a rationale to work with” (Whelton 2004).

12.5 The Results when Using The Workplace Planning Steering Model

12.5.1 Generation of Spatial Needs and Financial Resources during Workplace Planning

In the Stadia case and in the Vantaa City Police case workplace planning is
not yet complete. In the Stadia case the customer wanted to widen workplace
planning to include also other programs apart from technical education (health
care, social programs etc.). They re-scheduled the work so that the first
functions to come to the new campus would be Building construction and
Mechanical engineering. The other technical programs would be next and
finally other programs would be planned in relation to existing spaces and the
new campus. The work started in spring 2003 and it will last until summer
2004. Vantaa City Police are waiting for the comments of one important
136

stakeholder, namely the Ministry of the Interior, and its decision on the
financing schedule among Finnish police organizations. Vantaa City Police and
the Senate Property Services have stated that they are committed to the
result.

Other case studies have been completed (February 2004). Synapsia has been
constructed and it has been in use for almost a year. Cygnaeus High school is
in the design phase. The sketch design solution has been accepted (see
appendix 4). Arcada polytechnic is in the construction phase. The analysis of
the generation of the needs for space and financial resources has been
studied using the Synapsia, Arcada and Cygnaeus cases. One case is added,
Jyväskylä polytechnic. It has not been described earlier and it will be used only
in this chapter. Jyväskylä polytechnic workplace planning consisted of
technical, economical, pedagogical and clothing design programs (about
20 000 net m2). This case has been added because there is a parallel
program to compare with. There was an architectural program made half a
year earlier, but the stakeholders also wanted to use the steering model of
workplace planning (they had heard the results in the Arcada case). Jyväskylä
polytechnic is in the design phase, sketch solutions have been accepted.

In all cases using the workplace planning steering model value generation has
led to lower use of spaces and to lower budgets. The activities important to the
customer have been produced during value generation. In two cases
(Jyväskylä polytechnic and Cygnaeus high school) there were independent
conditions to test. In both cases parallel programming had been already done
by traditional methods.

The Cygnaeus high school case (Whelton 2004):

- In the High school case the net area (usable + corridors + services)
needed was 8 150 m2 in traditional programming. After workplace
planning the need was 6 504 m2 without loss of activities. The reduction
was 20 %.
- means: activities were re-allocated (in relation to spaces) and there was
better utilization.

The Jyväskylä polytechnic case

- In the Jyväskylä Polytechnic case the initial accepted program budget was
25 000 000 €. The budget after workplace planning was 20 700 000 €.
Activities were increased during the process. Cost reduction was 17 %.
- means: low utilization spaces were made more flexible to allow more
activities, better utilization, new strategy to centralize language teaching in
the campus area
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The Arcada case (Whelton 2004):

- The initial need was 14 100 usable m2 and the budget was 40 million
euros including a car parking building (not in the usable area), site
investment and financing costs.
- At the Arcada board meeting 11.6.2001, the board stated that 34 million
euros could be allocated
- At the beginning of 2002 version 5d was accepted. The size was 11 020
m2 usable area. The reduction was 22 %.
- means: low utilization spaces were made more flexible to allow more
activities, better utilization, renting time of nearby TV-studio, new
collaboration with other firms

The case of Synapsia rehabilitation centre (Whelton 2004)

- first planning 15.10.1998 was 9 030 usable m2. The board did not accept it
because it led to too expensive patient places
- the accepted version 26.3.1999 was 7 673 usable m2. The reduction was
15 %.
- means: some activity drivers were lowered, e.g. occupational therapy
workplaces from 10 to 6. Meeting areas were removed from social
workers’ rooms. Collaboration with the Neuron research center and private
magnetic photo/ tomography service provider.

In the Synapsia case the first financial estimates were not available. But if the
needs for financial resources are approximately in relation to use of space, the
generation of the building costs during the workplace planning can be
represented as in Table 4.

The Case Cost reduction during

Workplace Planning

Cygnaeus High School 20 %

Jyväskylä Polytechnic 17 %
Arcada 22 %
Synapsia 15 %

In average 18,5 %

Table 4. Generation of building costs during workplace planning

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12.5.2 History of the Case Studies after Workplace Planning

Synapsia
Synapsia has been constructed and it has been in use since spring 2002. The
architect was able to design the spaces within the workplace planning space
program and it was constructed within the budget. The building was cited as
“one of the best pieces of Finnish architecture during 1998…2002” (Building
Information 2002). Post occupancy evaluation has not been done in a
measurable way. The managing doctor has confirmed that the building works
in the manner envisioned during planning.

Arcada
Arcada is in construction phase in january 2004. The architect was able to
design the spaces within the workplace planning space program and within the
budget. The construction will be completed in june 2004. According to the
completed procurements Arcada will be constructed within the budget.

Cygnaeus High School

Cygnaeus High School is in the design phase. The architect was able to
design the sketches within the workplace planning space program. The
teachers have approved the sketches. The cost estimation has not been done
yet.

Jyväskylä Polytechnic
Jyväskylä Polytechnic is in the design phase. The architect was able to design
the sketches within the workplace planning space program. The teachers
have approved the sketches. The cost estimation has been done from the
sketches and it is within the budget.

12.5.3 Stakeholders’ Opinions of the Workplace Planning Steering Model

12.5.3.1 Strategic Management

Cygnaeus high school

The city project manager felt that the Haahtela system was an effective
management tool. The manager did acknowledge that he did not know how
the tool actually operates, but from initial results, the tools have gained his
trust. The Haahtela methodology acted as a means to communicate with other
project participants. The reliability of the project is increased because ”the
client can request everything in this world”, but now they feel that they can
trace the origin of the need and resolve it (Whelton 2004).
 139

Arcada
The real estate manager felt that the Haahtela Planning system helped to build
trust through the constant dialogues. Constant reference to the Haahtela
information supported reliable decision making (Whelton 2004).

A risk in the Haahtela system is that people should not copy present activities
into future building programs. There is a risk that groups may simply copy what
they do today. The real estate manager thinks that there is an enormous
potential to create changes at the outset of a project and needs should always
be questioned and challenged through the course of project definition (Whelton
2004).

For a complex project with many stakeholders, each with their own decision
processes, it is vital to have a transparent system. The client leadership
demands that the budget is followed, but then the operations have many
needs. Ideally client operations, client leadership, the designer and Haahtela
are all important to have in the group forum (Whelton 2004).

The demands on the Haahtela management system are high as the workplace
planner needs prior knowledge of client business practice or services. In
certain instances, the real estate manager would like more examples of new
trends or benchmarks in the industry (Whelton 2004).

Synapsia
Overall the managing doctor felt that there was active communication between
Haahtela and the group. The general feeling was that there was active
listening and open communication on all parts. The viewpoints of the staff were
very important to consider (Whelton 2004).

12.5.3.2 Operative Management and Users

Cygnaeus High School

Overall the school management felt that the process was effective. They felt
that Haahtela took more control of the process. Haahtela’s direct focus on the
student as a needs driver was a positive issue, an aspect on which they
previously lacked explicit focus (Whelton 2004).

Articulating the vision and putting it into operation was difficult for the school
staff. The principal would have preferred to work visually and at times all these
numbers were difficult to work with and base decisions on. The vice principal
felt that school groups had initial difficulties to get Haahtela to understand them
and they to understand the Haahtela working language. They felt that perhaps
Haahtela could articulate their system better (Whelton 2004).
140

Synapsia
The empathic nature of Haahtela’s inquiry process was regarded as highly
valued in the process of understanding the functional workplace. The shared
understanding was established around many specialists communicating about
a problem (Whelton 2004).

12.5.3.3 Architects
Cygnaeus High School
The architect felt that there was value in the Haahtela management system.
Haahtela has more control and can hold the client accountable. He made the
point that it is difficult to tell clients that they cannot have what they want.
“Previously we (the architects) lacked a steering mechanism that Haahtela
now provides”. The architects felt their job becomes easier as they “can start
from here” (the program statement) once preliminary discussions are over.
Balancing cost with a good design solution is the potential benefit this
management system provides (Whelton 2004).

Should the future design development contradict the final program statement,
then the architects would feel it necessary to voice the issues. If they get new
value generating ideas, they will offer it to the group, explore new special
ideas, and perhaps generate new value (Whelton 2004).

Arcada
In architectural practice there is an element of artistic skill which merges with
technical and management knowledge. For the project architect, Haahtela is
an excellent co-driver. The need for a common language is based on common
purpose. There is absolute transparency in the Haahtela process. They do not
use information against us (Whelton 2004).

The Haahtela planning system may not define certain limitations on space and
so the spatial layout concepts require further analysis by the architect (Whelton
2004).

He perceived that the Haahtela model is based primarily on hard values. It is a

basic ground or platform for the designer to play on, but as the main designer
of the building, he feels he needs to understand the feelings and soft values of
the client (Whelton 2004).
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13 SUMMARY

13.1 The Aim of the Research

The aim of this research is to create a steering model for workplace planning
decision making. Spatial resource needs will be planned on the basis of the
organization's strategic and operational needs, and by using operational
measurement units as initial values. The steering model will enable dialogue
between strategic and operational bodies of an organization. It will support the
common understanding and commitment of these bodies, and it will produce
new information and new viewpoints which when reviewed will assist the
company in strategic workplace planning and project definition.

For this purpose

- the workplace planning theory was constructed
- the steering model for workplace planning was planned
- methods needed for workplace planning were created and determined

13.2 The Workplace Planning Theory

The workplace planning theory links workplace planning to production, not only
construction production but also to the organization’s general strategy. The
theory consists of a concept, principles and methodologies.

13.2.1 The Concept

A spatial investment in an operation competes for the same resources as the

other investments in the operations. Workplace planning brings spatial
investments and the values of the spaces into line with the other factors of
production.

Workplace planning is a process where valuable requirements for workplace

production are determined through observing and evaluating the values of
stakeholders against the organization’s strategy. The product of workplace
planning is the stakeholders’ commitment to the spatial needs of the
operations.

The size of a space is determined by the operations (transformations) taking

place within that space. Spaces are a scene of temporal flow of operations and
non-use time. The number of spaces is determined by the temporal utilization
of the spaces.
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13.2.2 Principles

Spatial investments in operations that are not needed for the organization’s
strategy are not value-adding and therefore are waste. The operations’ time is
value adding and the non-use time is non-value adding with regard to the
strategy. Non-value adding time is waste and should be reduced or eliminated.
Temporal waste can be eliminated in the following ways:
- Combine diverse activities within the same working environment.
- Plan spaces to be flexible enough to support diverse activities.
- Combine similar activities of separate operational departments
within same environment

If waste of unneeded spaces for operations and waste of non-use-time can be

reduced, more resources will be available for the other investments in
operations, spatial or non-spatial.

The value of a spatial investment in an operation can not be predicted based

on the initial information, as decision making is linked to complex economical-
technical-social systems. Commitment to common values can be achieved via
iterative steering concepts of social complex systems.

Alternatives for Value Generation

- is the activity really needed ?
- are other activities needed?
Present State of - combine activities within the same
Commitment environment
Proposed temporal and geometric loads to the spaces

Bill of Activities

Activity 1 Value Evaluation against Strategy

Space 1

Activity 2
Activity 1

Activity 2
Size

Not in use Not in use

Activity 3 Time

Space 2
Activity 4
Activity 3
Size

Not in use Not in use

Time
Activity 5

Activity … Space …

Fig. 37. Workplaces as a transformation/ flow /value generation process.

 143

13.2.3 Methods
A significant product of workplace planning is commitment of the stakeholders
concerning investment in workplaces. Decision making for commitment
requires fast feedback in a complex social system. Modeling methods are
needed to show responsibilities that are due to the proposed needs.
Participants must have information on operations, spaces, sizes, their temporal
utilization degrees, investment costs, life cycle costs and possibilities to of
combining operations within the same spaces.

To support the commitment process of the stakeholders the steering model of

workplace planning must:
- support and stimulate strategic and operative mangers to participate in
decision making
- decentralize the decision making to the levels where responsibilities are
met
- be transparent in terms of information handling
- be fair so that that everybody’s all information is treated equitably

13.3 The Steering Model for Workplace Planning

13.3.1 General
The developed steering model is a mode of action that systemizes the
organization’s decision making actions, produced information and specific
methods in accordance with workplace planning theory. By following this
model different types of organizations are able to manage their workplace
needs on the basis of strategic and operational information.

The Steering model consist of methods that help in the current-state

measurement. For cost modeling it uses the Target Price Method (Haahtela &
Kiiras). For space dimensioning of the activities a new mathematical model,
the Workplace Planning Procedure has been created as part of this research.

13.3.2 The Structure of the Steering Model

The steering process aims to develop spatial quantification of the workplace

environment. The process is supported by a management steering model and
the workplace planning procedure. The workplace processes are managed by
the workplace planner through a dialogue between the facility owner
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organization that include strategic and operational management, and facility

users.

Workplace planning is linked to a very complex system; a set of goals, a wide

range of needs, different viewpoints of the owner and user etc. Even though in
strategic workplace management there is no right answer, there are certain
limitations on decision making that can not be exceeded. The most important
points are economic and temporal limitations. The steering model is based on
feedback-loop control where the feedback is a description of the current or
desired state (use of resources) due to the client’s needs and values (Fig. 38).
The model identifies disturbance in the system as the variety of needs and
interests based on changes occurring in the work environment. What is
controlled is the organization defining its spatial requirements. The outcome is
a set of needs and solutions to satisfy those requirements.

Disturbance Controlled Outcome

- different values Organization defining Wishes and wants in
- different interests working environment - activities, rooms
- organizational changes - strategic visions - performances
- changing business - operative visions - consequenses in use
environment of resources
-…

Action Perception

Goal Agent Measurement Representation

Dialogue - Workplace Planning
- strategic and Procedure
operative - Target Price Method
management
Controller

Fig. 38. Closed loop control adjusted to workplace management

The Controller is formed by the dialogue process that is supported by a

representation of the present state of the controlled system. The states of the
workplace requirements are measured by first defining a list of user functions
and activities with the users and operations management. The workplace
planner then defines the temporal and geometric requirements of the facility
operations. This leads to a definition of the working environment which
includes room schedules, performances, details of the potential use and
temporal utilization degrees. The solutions are budgeted and associated costs
are traced the back to activities through the use of activity-based cost
 145

management.

The workplace planner identifies four primary stakeholder groups in the project
definition environment: owner strategy, owner operations management, facility
users and external agents. These stakeholder groups inform the workplace
planning process.

The owner strategy group consists of personnel that have overall responsibility
for workplace planning strategy. This group comprises a board of directors that
have a vested interest in understanding the importance of building facilities in
relation to the overall goals of the organization. The operations management
group may consist of personnel that have responsibility for designing and
operating organizational functions and activities. They are normally
responsible for ensuring that the facility supports their functions.

The user groups consist of personnel that actually use the facility workplaces.
They are concerned that the facilities have the necessary capability to allow
them to perform their actions. Finally external agents may consist of personnel
that have knowledge or influence enough to provide information on the state of
owner functions or facility performance. They may include design and
regulation specialists, or specialists in owner functions.

Once the workplace planner has presented the workplace measurements, the
facility owner develops an understanding of the present or desired state of the
system; i.e., what kind of working environment the owner groups need and
value, and what the subsequent consequences will be to their resources. The
information presentation allows transparency in that the client stakeholder can
trace organizational activities to their origin.

Typically during the process, stakeholders reflect on their needs and propose
new methods which can reshape the organization’s activities and improve their
work practices. The workplace planner and project management as controllers
are aware of the new goals and then steer the process to search for solutions
to reach the new targets. Additional changes can be added to the workplace
planning model to create new learning. The process reaches a conclusion
once there is group consensus that the desired state has been reached.

13.3.3 The Workplace Planning Procedure

Wide applicability of the workplace planning procedure requires a theory of

spatial requirements, which adequately describes the variability in the usage of
space. The horizontal geometric quantification can be made accurately with
146

the help of the following factors (Pennanen 1999):

- the total volume of the functional sector
- the activity bill programmed for the sector
- the time strain of activities and targets for the use of time in the space
- the geometry of the people working and the objects to be placed in the
space
- legislation, instructions, norms.

The quantification of space determines the quantity of a single space category

and the required floor area to perform a function. The space quantification
model begins by describing the organization’s function that takes place within
the space. The modeling procedure uses operations-based accounting to
associate functions with the organizational goal or product. These functions
are both core functions and supporting functions that enable the organization
to achieve its goals.

Table 5 illustrates the nature of the quantitative model. Consider an education

institution that operates in a teaching facility. The volume for the sector is the
number of students learning in the facility. This serves as the driver for
determining service levels for the learning space. The Activity bill is a
description of the core and supporting activities that are employed to ensure
that the organizational goal is fulfilled. The core and supporting function take
form in operations; e.g., teaching and research functions. These operations
occupy a space or a part of a space for a unit of time. The time strain on a
teaching classroom may be two hours per class. The space may have a
number of classes scheduled during a specified operating period. An expected
level of efficiency for the space affects the quantity of spaces and the flexibility
of functions requiring the use of the space. The operating degree specifies
how flexible the space needs to be. Low operating degrees provide good
flexibility but require extra spaces to accommodate the strain. Functions are
defined in appropriate hierarchies to define activities and actions occurring in
the space area or volume. A student may require 1m2 of study space to
perform his/her actions. Regulatory specifications are included in this model as
necessary. These regulations may incorporate minimum circulation
dimensions.
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Quantification Variable Description Example of Education

Institution
The total volume of the No. Of Customers or Products. Two hundred design
sector. Floor space per group size. students.

The activity bill Core Services. Teaching & Research.

programmed for the Supporting Services. Administrative activities.
sector. Dining.
The temporal strain of Temporal Strain. Teaching Design Theory 2
functions and goals for hours per class, three times
the use of time in the Operating Degree. a day equals a 6 hr
space i.e. operating temporal strain on the
degree. classroom.
If the teaching class has a
50% operating degree, then
4 hours are available.
Another classroom will be
required.
The people working and Each function requires space Lecturer requires 10sq.
the geometrics of the expressed as a performance result. Meters of lecture area.
objects to be placed in Students require standard
the space. seating and 1sq. meter
workspace.
Regulations. Regulatory society defines the A basketball court have
quantification of space. certain dimensions

Table 5. Space Quantification Example

The quantification model is automated in a web-based application, which

supports the workplace planner in defining the workplace environment.
Activities demand space due to their functional load. The load might lead to
low utilization of a space. The combining procedure seeks similar spaces with
low use. It suggests that activities could be combined within the same
environment within the target utilization. The optimizing procedure identifies
different sized (different group size) spaces which are similar in terms of
actions. It suggests that if there are both large and small spaces needed with
low utilization, the large one will be needed and the smaller activity can take
place there.
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Fig. 39. Logistics engineering laboratories’ realized utilization degrees are low.
Few courses (activities) demand that resource and even then only for a few
weeks at a time. The load is low compared with the possibility of using spaces.

13.4 The Workplace Steering Model in Practical Use

The Workplace Planning Steering Model has been tested in five cases. One of
them, Cygnaeus High School is described in this research. The others are
introduced in M. Whelton’s research “The Development of Purpose in the
Project Definition Phase of Construction – Implications for Project
Management”, done at the University of California at Berkeley (Whelton 2004).

13.5 Value generation

13.5.1 The Principles of the Workplace Planning Theory in Case Studies

The Workplace Planning Theory states that a spatial investment in an

operation competes for the same recourses as the other investments in the
operations. If waste of unneeded spaces for operations and waste of non-use-
time can be reduced, more resources will be available to the other investments
for operations, spatial or non-spatial. Seeking for alternatives in value
generation is an allocation process. Allocation deal with the questions
- can activities be combined within the same environment?
- is the activity really needed ? Compared to the others ?
- are other activities necessary?

There are many examples in the case studies of various types of allocations
during value generation. An example of combining activities within the same
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environment is the case of Arcada Health Care Labs. The health sector
wanted a clinical treatment lab, a polyclinic treatment lab and a maternity ward
lab, which would all be in very low use according to the Workplace Planning
Procedure feedback. Much of the investment would have been wasted, as
there would have been a great deal of temporal waste. The flow expression of
the determined state of the three labs is shown in Fig. 40.

Alternatives for Value Generation

- is the activity really needed ?
- are other activities needed?
Present State of - combine activities to the same
Commitment environment
Bill of Activities
Proposed temporal and geometric loads to the spaces

Space: Clinical treatment, 22 % utilization

Value Evaluation against Strategy

Social environ-
ment teaching
Activity 1

Psychotherapy
teaching
Size

not in use
Time
Ergotherapy Space: Polyclinic treatment, 8 % utilization
teaching
Activity 2

Acuteward
teaching
Size

not in use
Time
Human ageing Space: Maternity ward, 15 % utilization
teaching
Act 3
Size

not in use
Nursery Time
teaching
…

Fig. 40 Flow expression of labs in Arcada polytechnic. The clinical treatment

lab, the polyclinic treatment lab and the maternity ward lab require altogether
134 m2 of space.

The workplace planning team started to look for similar environments (actions)
among the labs. The clinical treatment, polyclinic treatment and maternity ward
labs were similar (ward type, people in beds, working at benches, need of for
water supplies…). Ward type activities were combined within the same
environment. The actions were re-planned to suit all activities. The room sizes,
(75 m2, 4 beds, storing capacity, workbenches, rocking chair for maternity
ward) were adequate. The activities were combined within that room

Value generation of workplace planning is shown in Fig. 41 concerning some

of the health care sector labs. Activities in the clinical treatment lab, polyclinic
150

treatment lab and maternity ward lab were combined within the same Ward-
type activities lab. The need for space decreased from 134 m2 to 75 m2. All
the activities can still be supported; the utilization degree is 45 %.

Alternatives for Value Generation

- is the activity really needed ?
- are other activities needed?
Present State of - combine activities to the same
Commitment environment

Proposed temporal and geometric loads to the spaces

Bill of Activities

Value Evaluation against Strategy

Social environ-
ment teaching

Psychotherapy
teaching Space: Combined lab for ward-type activities
utilization degree 45 %

Act 3
Ergotherapy
teaching

Actions 2
Actions 1

Acuteward
teaching
Size

not in use
Human ageing Time
teaching

Nursery
teaching

Fig. 41. Example of value generating in workplace planning.

The building costs have been reduced in all cases when allocating resources
to activities (even though it has not been always the aim of the workplace
planner). In the case studies the Workplace Planning Steering Model has
reduced waste.

13.5.2 Stakeholders Commitment to Common Goals

An individuals commitment changes continually. Stakeholders must be able to

withdraw from initial and isolated commitment and think about mutual interest
again. Affective commitment (Meyer & Allen 1997) to common goals can be
supported by:
- collaboration; supporting and stimulating strategic and operative mangers
to participate in decision making
- decentralizing the decision making to the levels where responsibilities are
met
 151

- being transparent in terms of information handling

- treating all information equitably

Two cases of the five cases are still in progress as of January 2004. All the
other cases have been completed and mutual commitment has been achieved.
One of them is in the design phase, one is in the construction phase and one
is already in use.

Before the workplace planning of Cygnaeus High School there was traditional
architectural programming process. It did not lead to commitment and was
cancelled, mainly because of a lack of the above factors. The Workplace
Planning Steering Model led to mutual commitment in a few months. The
steering model is collaborative, it supports decision making, it is transparent
and stakeholders feel that they can trust in the information that the Steering
Model produced.

13.5.3 Affect on Operational and Strategic Behavior

It was stated in the research hypothesis that the workplace planning concept
has an effect on strategic and operational decision-making. It has proved to
provide the customer with new information and therefore is a basis for decision
making in workplace planning (Whelton 2004). The case studies have shown
that the workplace planning concept has also affected strategic and
operational decision making in the way allowed for by CRE management:

Operational:
- there are many examples where the client has changed its operative
behavior. For instance Vantaa Police decided to centralize interrogations
in an “interrogation hotel” instead of having them in the investigators’
personal rooms. In almost in all cases in which the client has notably
changed his working environment this has affected operational behavior.

Strategic:
- in the Arcada case, physiotherapy activities also required a swimming pool
therapy environment. In the very early stages workplace planning proved
that those activities would be too expensive to be financed. Because of a
lack of time the activities were removed and the design was started.
Meanwhile a collaborative partner was sought. After a year the partner
was found; the Folkhälsan institute announced that they were ready to
invest in therapy pool activities in Arcada if they could use it for their
service purposes. Workplace planning was started with them and in a
month the therapy pool was successfully added in the production design
stage (Whelton 2004).
152

- in the Arcada case it emerged that automotive assembly activities were too
expensive in the Helsinki city area. The activity was relocated. Design was
carried out without that activity. Later the private Bilia Automotive company
was founded to collaborate. Bilia committed to pay rent for 5 years in
return for getting part of the service hall in their use. Prakticum is getting a
value generating rent price. Bilia is also sponsoring equipment. Bilia see
themselves as keeping in touch with talented students. Sharing of
resources will be beneficial to both. The automotive assembly hall will be
built on a nearby site (Whelton 2004).
- a notable feature of the Cygnaeus High School case was the user’s
changing perspective over time as they came to understand, or perhaps
better, as they created the real vision for the project. For example, the
initial vision of a standard renovation project changed to a vision of student
learning in the next century. The Haahtela management system facilitated
greater understanding of these emergent interests and included them in
the project definition (Whelton 2004).

13.6 Value realization: History of Case Studies after Workplace Planning

The functional value requirements for stakeholders are determined during

workplace planning Those values have been realized in all cases by design
and construction.

Synapsia (rehabilitation center) has been constructed and it has been in use
since spring 2002. The architect was able to design the spaces within the
workplace planning space program and it was constructed within the budget.
Post occupancy evaluation has not yet been done quantifiably. The managing
doctor has remarked that the building works as it was planned.

Arcada is in the construction phase as of January 2004. The architect was able
to design the spaces within the workplace planning space program and within
the budget. The construction will be completed in June 2004. According to the
completed procurements Arcada will be constructed within the budget.

Cygnaeus High School is in the design phase. The architect was able to
design the sketches within the workplace planning space program. The
teachers have approved the sketches. The cost estimation has not yet been
done.
 153

13.7 Workplace Planning Steering Model and Architectural Quality

If project management aimed to minimize price, the result could be poor

quality. But very soon when moving to average price production, the
correlation between quality and costs becomes very weak. When moving from
minimum to reasonable costs the quality can not be assured by allocating
more resources to production. A reasonable budget may just as well lead to
the best quality as to the poorest of quality. It seems that architectural quality is
linked to the creativity and artistry of the design group and how they interpret
our culture and it’s changes rather than to money. Quality is realized by
design, designers and the steering of the design. In the Synapsia case the
budget was steered to a reasonable level by the client. The chosen designer
has won many architectural competitions in Finland (Hannu Jaakkola). It was
difficult to find solutions suited to the requirements and to the financial
constrains, and many proposals were dismissed as too expensive. The
building was named “one of the best pieces of Finnish architecture during
1998…2002” (Building Information 2002). It is possible to deal with values,
money and activities during workplace planning and to create the best
architectural quality (see appendix 5 and front page).

13.8 Workplace Planning Steering Model and Generation of Building costs

The generation of the building costs during workplace planning is shown in

table 6. The building costs have been reduced in all cases when allocating
resources to activities.

The Case Cost reduction during

Workplace Planning

Cygnaeus High School 20 %

Jyväskylä Polytechnic 17 %
Arcada 22 %
Synapsia 15 %

In average 18,5 %

Table 6. Generation of building costs during workplace planning

154

13.9 Fit for the Use

The Workplace Planning Steering Model effectively supports stakeholder

collaboration. The workplace planning system acknowledges that facility owner
organizations are complex, and that owner groups often operate in isolation
from each other. The management system demonstrates a capability of
bringing fragmented owner groups together in a shared forum to discuss their
needs and values. The group dialogues communicate primarily through a
workplace planning language. The workplace planner facilitates these owner
group dialogues where common needs are identified and the means to share
resources are identified. The workplace planner manages this process through
understanding the operations of the owner groups and then representing their
needs in a workplace model. The workplace planner seeks to identify real
needs and discount unnecessary desires and wants that cannot be fulfilled
with available resources. The iterative problem solving approach is interactive,
with the owner groups providing frequent feedback. The group decisions are
made explicit and commitment is sought through verbal agreement and
documentation (Whelton 2004).

The Workplace Planning Procedure is usable, but it is somewhat awkward to

use. Workspace planning language requires an education module for the user
and client. Sometimes clients would have preferred to work visually and they
found that numbers were difficult to work with and base decisions on.

13.10 Conclusions

The constructed Theory of Workplace Planning is built on the basis of

Production Theory’s TFV combination (Koskela 2000). The Workplace
Planning Theory links workplace planning to production, not only construction
production but also to the organization’s general strategy.

The Workplace Planning Steering Model fulfills the theory’s principles in

practice. It supports strategic and operative management’s collaboration and
mutual commitment forming. It enables reduction of unnecessary investments
and thus releases resources for more important operations in the
organization’s strategy.
 155

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APPENDIX 1 JYVÄSKYLÄ HIGH SCHOOL. BILL OF ACTIVITIES
 Sivu 1/9

Project

Cygnaeus-lukio, ver 4.2

Ari Pennanen 14.5.2003

BILL OF ACTIVITIES

Line of activities Driver Group size Unit

Sch High school 650 32 stud

Total 650 stud

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 Sivu 2/9

Sch High school

CORE ACTIVITIES

Senior high school mandatory courses

Driver: 650,0 (stud)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

SH011 Litterature course 6 courses 38 h 228 h

(650/32 stud)
SH021 English 6 courses 38 h 228 h
(650/32 stud)
SH031 A-swedish 0,72 courses 38 h 27,36 h
(650/32 stud)
SH041 B-swedish 5 courses 38 h 190 h
(650/32 stud)
SH051 A-french 0,42 courses 38 h 15,96 h
(650/32 stud)
SH061 A-deutch 1,14 courses 38 h 43,32 h
(650/32 stud)
SH071 Languages, short 0 courses 38 h 0h
(650/32 stud)
SH081 Mathematics 8,4 courses 38 h 319,2 h
(650/32 stud)
SH091 Physics 1 courses 38 h 38 h
(650/32 stud)
SH101 Chemistry 1 courses 38 h 38 h
(650/32 stud)
SH111 Geography 2 courses 38 h 76 h
(650/32 stud)
SH121 Biology 2 courses 38 h 76 h
(650/32 stud)
SH131 History 6 courses 38 h 228 h
(650/32 stud)
SH141 Religion 3 courses 38 h 114 h
(650/32 stud)
LU151 Visual Arts 2 courses 38 h 76 h
(650/32 stud)
SH161 Music 2 courses 38 h 76 h
(650/32 stud)
SH171 Gymnastics 2 courses 38 h 76 h
(650/32 stud)
SH181 Health Knowledge 1 courses 38 h 38 h
(650/32 stud)
SH191 Philosophy 1 courses 38 h 38 h
(650/32 stud)
SH201 Psychology 1 courses 38 h 38 h
(650/32 stud)
SH211 Informantion technology 0 courses 38 h 0h
(650/32 stud)

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 Sivu 3/9

SH221 Other courses 0 courses 38 h 0h

(650/32 stud)
SH231 How to study 3 courses 38 114
(650/32 stud)

Senior high school optional courses

Driver: 650,0 (stud)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

SH011 Litterature course 1,58 courses 38 h 60,04 h

(650/32 stud)
SH021 English 2,56 courses 38 h 97,28 h
(650/32 stud)
SH031 A-swedish 0,2 courses 38 h 7,6 h
(650/32 stud)
SH041 B-swedish 2,08 courses 38 h 79,04 h
(650/32 stud)
SH051 A-french 0,1 courses 38 h 3,8 h
(650/32 stud)
SH061 A-deutch 0,3 courses 38 h 11,4 h
(650/32 stud)
SH071 Languages, short 4,64 courses 38 h 176,32 h
(650/32 stud)
SH082 Mathematics 3,9 courses 38 h 148,2 h
(650/32 stud)
SH091 Physics 2,84 courses 38 h 107,92 h
(650/32 stud)
SH101 Chemistry 1,02 courses 38 h 38,76 h
(650/32 stud)
SH111 Geography 0,72 courses 38 h 27,36 h
(650/32 stud)
SH121 Biology 1,14 courses 38 h 43,32 h
(650/32 stud)
SH132 History 1,6 courses 38 h 60,8 h
(650/32 stud)
SH141 Religion 0,52 courses 38 h 19,76 h
(650/32 stud)
LU151 Visual Arts 0,4 courses 38 h 15,2 h
(650/32 stud)
SH161 Music 1,88 courses 38 h 71,44 h
(650/32 stud)
SH171 Gymnastics 1,26 courses 38 h 47,88 h
(650/32 stud)
SH181 Health Knowledge 0,14 courses 38 h 5,32 h
(650/32 stud)
SH191 Philosophy 0,64 courses 38 h 24,32 h
(650/32 stud)
SH201 Psychology 1,78 courses 38 h 67,64 h
(650/32 stud)
SH211 Informantion technology 1,28 courses 38 h 48,64 h
(650/32 stud)
SH221 Other courses 0,72 courses 38 h 27,36 h
(650/32 stud)

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 Sivu 4/9

Spontaneous studying
Driver: 650,0 (stud)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

SH501 Group studies 3 courses 38 h 114 h

(650/32 stud)

SUPPORTING ACTIVITIES

Storing
Driver: 455,0 (shelve m)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Gen Storing teaching material 1- 1- 1-

(455/32 shelve m)

Gen Office support

Driver: 52,0 (persons)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Post service 1 persons 1h 1h

(52/32 persons)
Goods entrance 1 persons 0,1 shelvem 0,1 shelvem
(52 persons)
Gen Storing officematerial 1 shelve m 0,5 hylly m 0,5 hylly m
(52/32 persons)
Gen Copying 40 copies 0,00167 h 0,0668 h
(52/32 persons)
Gen Post delivery fot personel 1 persons 1 cupboardm./pers 1 cupboardm./pers
(52/32 persons)
Gen Printers 1 persons 0,05 pc 0,05 pc
(52/32 persons)

Gen Entrance
Driver: 162,5 (persons)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Gen Lobby activities 1 persons 1- 1-

(162,5/32 persons)

Teachers individual work

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 Sivu 5/9

Driver: 52,0 (teachers)

Group size: 1,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

CsGen Preparing teaching 1 workdays 1h 1h

(52 teachers)

Gen Storing, nearby

Driver: 156,0 (shelve m)
Group size: 1,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Gen Storing teaching material 1- 1- 1-

(156 shelve m)

Gen Permanent storing, sliding shelves

Driver: 130,0 (shelve m)
Group size: 1,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Gen Permanent storing 1- 1- 1-

(130 shelve m)

Gen Meetings
Driver: 0,2 (meetigs)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Gen Meetings 1 meetings 2h 2h

(0,2/32 meetigs)
Gen Meetings foyer 1- 1- 1-
(0/32 meetigs)

Com computer servers and switchboards

Driver: 2,9 (servers)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Gen Computer servers 1 servers 1- 1-

(2,925/32 servers)
Gen Computer swicthboards 0,67 racks 1- 0,67 -
(2,925/32 servers)

Headmasters, comprehensive and senior high school

Driver: 2,0 (persons)
Group size: 1,0

Total

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 Sivu 6/9

Activity Load Factor load

Personnel in rooms, 4 pers. meetings 1 persons 6 6

(0 persons)
Personnel in rooms, 6 pers meeting 1 persons 6 6
(1 persons)
Officework in rooms 1 persons 6 6
(0 persons)
Personnel in rooms 1 persons 6 6
(1 persons)

Welfare officer, psychologist, tutor

Driver: 2,0 (persons)
Group size: 1,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Personnel in rooms, 4 pers. meetings 1 persons 6 6

(2 persons)
Personnel in rooms, 6 pers meeting 1 persons 6 6
(0 persons)
Officework in rooms 1 persons 6 6
(0 persons)
Personnel in rooms 1 persons 6 6
(0 persons)

Chancellery, comprehensive and senior high school

Driver: 1,0 (persons)
Group size: 1,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Personnel in rooms, 4 pers. meetings 1 persons 1 1

(100 persons)
Personnel in rooms, 6 pers meeting 1 persons 6 6
(0 persons)
Officework in rooms 1 persons 6 6
(0 persons)
Personnel in rooms 1 persons 6 6
(1 persons)

Workplace activities, comprehensive and senior high school

Driver: 0,7 (persons)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Personnel in rooms 1 persons 6 6

(0/32 persons)
Gen Janitor 1- 6- 6-
(0,65 persons)

Library, comprehensive and senior high school

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 Sivu 7/9

Driver: 13 000,0 (volume)

Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Library, material process support 1 persons 1 1

(2,3842/32 volume)
Reference library 1 volume 0,025 0,025
(13000/32 volume)

School Health Care

Driver: 1,0 (nurse)
Group size: 1,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Waiting school health care 1 1 1

(3 nurse)
School health care 1 1 1
(1 nurse)

Gen Storing, furniture

Driver: 715,0 (chair)
Group size: 1,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Gen Storing, furniture 1- 1 1

(715 chair)

SERVICES FOR STAFF

Gen Food and eating

Driver: 585,0 (persons)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Gen Eating in dinig-room 1h 1h 1h

(585/32 persons)
Gen Food servery and 1 meals 1- 1-
(585/32 persons)
Gen Cooking, full service 1 meals 1- 1-
(585/32 persons)

Gen Sanitary for tenants

Driver: 650,0 (persons)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

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 Sivu 8/9

CsGen Toilets for pupils 0,04 persons 1 0,04

(650/32 persons)

Gen Students personal storage

Driver: 650,0 (persons)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Lockers, cupboards 0,25 cupboards 1 0,25

(650/32 persons)

Gen Personnel personal storage

Driver: 52,0 (persons)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Lockers, cupboards 1 cupboards 1 1

(52/32 persons)

Recreation
Driver: 52,0 (teachers)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

CsGen Refreshning for teachers 1h 1 1

(52/32 teachers)

Students union
Driver: 650,0 (students)
Group size: 1,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Club for pupils, senior high school 1- 1 1

(650 students)

Sch Sanitary for personnel

Driver: 650,0 (persons)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

CsGen Toilets for pupils 0,1 persons 1 0,1

(650/32 persons)
Com Having a ducsh 1 showers 1- 1-
(26 persons)
Gen Changing clothes 1 persons 1- 1-
(97,5 persons)

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 Sivu 9/9

BUILDING MANAGEMENT

Gen Building maintenance

Driver: 0,0 (m2)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Gen Garbage disposal m2 1- 0-

(/32 m2)
Gen Maintenance m2 1- 0-
(/32 m2)
Gen Cleaning m2 1- 0-
(/32 m2)

Gen Air raid shelter

Driver: 0,0 (gross area)
Group size: 32,0
Total
Activity Load Factor load

Gen Vss-S1 air raid shelter by area 1- 1- 1-

(0/32 gross area)

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APPENDIX 2. JYVÄSKYLÄ HIGH SCHOOL. SPACE SCHEDULE
 Sivu 1/7

Project

Cygnaeus-high school, ver 4.2

Ari Pennanen 14.5.2003

ROOM SCHEDULE

Line of activities Driver Group size Unit

Sch Senior high school 650 32 stud

Sch Senior high school 520 stud

Total 1170 stud

 Sivu 2/7

Usable
Amount Unit area (m²) m²/Unit Utilization

CORE ACTIVITIES

Spontaneous studying / Sch Senior high school (650,0 stud)

Individual work
Team work, 19 stud 1 Pcs 31,7 31,7 73%
Team-work/ individual work, computers, 6 stud 1 Pcs 16,3 16,3 73%

Usable area: 48,0 m²

Senior high school mandatory courses / Sch Senior high school (650,0 stud)
Senior high school optional courses / Sch Senior high school (650,0 stud)
Drawing classroom, 40 stud 1 Pcs 112,7 112,7 23%
Storage for drawing classroom 1 Pcs 14,5 14,5 46%
Darkroom, 5 stud 1 Pcs 7,0 7,0 29%
Music classroom, 40 stud 1 Pcs 113,3 113,3 66%
Music classroom, 20 stud 1 Pcs 62,6 62,6 31%
Storage for music classroom 1 Pcs 37,0 37,0 37%
Clay and design classroom, 11 stud 1 Pcs 22,2 22,2 27%
Drawing teachers´ room, 1 pers 1 Pcs 11,0 11,0 23%
Studio for music classroom 1 Pcs 37,0 37,0 37%
Storage for music instruments 1 Pcs 18,1 18,1 37%
General teaching rooms
Classroom, general, 40 stud 5 Pcs 365,5 73,1 53%
Classroom, general, 32 stud 13 Pcs 774,8 59,6 60%
Classroom, general, 20 stud 3 Pcs 117,0 39,0 61%
It- classroom, 40 stud 1 Pcs 122,9 122,9 64%
Language laboratory, 40 stud 1 Pcs 119,9 119,9 45%
Team work, 8 stud 2 Pcs 26,7 13,3 58%
Team work, 5 stud 1 Pcs 8,3 8,3 37%
Mediaclassroom, 32 stud 1 Pcs 103,1 103,1 22%
Natural science teaching rooms
Physics-chemistry store room (Ty 1) 3 Pcs 105,0 35,0 60%
Natural Science classroom (type E) Biol/Geo, 40 stud 1 Pcs 94,8 94,8 53%
Natural Science classroom (type A) Phys/Chem, 40 stud 2 Pcs 252,4 126,2 38%
Sports rooms
Gymnastics hall 1 Pcs 300,0 300,0 50%
Dressing room, 24 persons 2 Pcs 65,8 32,9 62%
Gymnastics outside school 1 Pcs 0,0 0,0 62%
Dressing room, 14 persons 2 Pcs 28,1 14,1 71%
Storage for gymnastics 1 Pcs 35,0 35,0 62%
Stage, 200 persons 1 Pcs 85,7 85,7
Gymnastics teachers 2 Pcs 6,0 3,0 62%
Condition halli, 8 users 1 Pcs 41,7 41,7 25%

Usable area: 3 088,3 m²

 Sivu 3/7

SUPPORTING ACTIVITIES

Storing / Sch Senior high school (700,0 shelve m)

Spaces
Storage room, 700 shelve m 1 Pcs 156,0 156,0

Usable area: 156,0 m²

Gen Office support / Sch Senior high school (52,0 persons)

Spaces
Copy room 3 Pcs 18,0 6,0 14%
Printers and faxs 3 Pcs 4,6 1,5
Post boxes, 75 persons 1 Pcs 3,4 3,4

Storage room, 8 shelve m 1 Pcs 1,5 1,5

Storage room, 26 shelve m 1 Pcs 4,9 4,9

Storing, see shelves, 5 shelve m 1 Pcs 1,5 1,5

Material handling, 2 1 Pcs 3,6 3,6

Usable area: 37,4 m²

Gen Entrance / Sch Senior high school (153,0 persons)

Spaces
Public foyer, 153 persons 1 Pcs 144,0 144,0
Toilet for disabled 2 Pcs 10,0 5,0

Usable area: 154,0 m²

Teachers individual work / Sch Senior high school (70,0 teachers)

Spaces
Office Workplace, temporaty wrk, 70 persons 1 Pcs 230,4 230,4 18%

Usable area: 230,4 m²

Gen Storing, nearby / Sch Senior high school (0,0 shelve m)

Usable area: 0,0 m²

Gen Permanent storing, sliding shelves / Sch Senior high school (260,0 shelve m)
Spaces
Storing, sliding shelves, 260 shelve m 1 Pcs 24,4 24,4
 Sivu 4/7

Usable area: 24,4 m²

Gen Meetings / Sch Senior high school (0,2 meetigs)

Spaces
Meetingroom, 12 persons 1 Pcs 25,4 25,4 5%

Usable area: 25,4 m²

Com computer servers and switchboards / Sch Senior high school (2,9 servers)
Spaces
Computer server 3 Pcs 9,0 3,0
Computer switchboard 2 Pcs 3,0 1,5

Usable area: 12,0 m²

Library, comprehensive and senior high school / Sch Senior high school (13 000,0 volume)
Library, customer process
Reference library, 406 shelve m 1 Pcs 114,8 114,8
Library, material process
Storage room, 7 shelve m 1 Pcs 1,3 1,3
Material handling, 1 1 Pcs 1,8 1,8

Usable area: 117,9 m²

Workplace activities, comprehensive and senior high school / Sch Senior high school (0,7 persons)
Janitor, telephone central
Janitor, 1 persons 1 Pcs 11,0 11,0 75%

Usable area: 11,0 m²

Headmasters, comprehensive and senior high school / Sch Senior high school (2,0 persons)
Headmasters, comprehensive and senior high school / Sch Senior high school (2,0 persons)
Spaces
Office workplace+4 pers. meeting 2 Pcs 30,0 15,0 75%
Office workplace + 6 pers. meeting 2 Pcs 40,0 20,0 75%

Usable area: 70,0 m²

Welfare officer, psychologist, tutor / Sch Senior high school (3,0 persons)
Spaces
Office workplace+4 pers. meeting 3 Pcs 45,0 15,0 75%

Usable area: 45,0 m²

Chancellery, comprehensive and senior high school / Sch Senior high school (2,0 persons)
Chancellery, comprehensive and senior high school / Sch Senior high school (1,0 persons)
 Sivu 5/7

Spaces
Office workplace + seat for guests 3 Pcs 33,0 11,0 75%
Waiting room 1 Pcs 6,4 6,4

Usable area: 39,4 m²

School Health Care / Sch Senior high school (1,0 nurse)

Spaces
Health care room, 1 persons 1 Pcs 22,0 22,0
Dressing room for personel, 3 persons 1 Pcs 4,7 4,7
Small laboratory and instrument maintenance, 1 pc 1 Pcs 5,0 5,0
Waiting room, 3 persons 1 Pcs 3,8 3,8

Usable area: 35,5 m²

Special spaces for adult learnin center / Sch Senior high school (24,0 teachers)
Spaces
Storage in cupboards, 24 cupboards 1 Pcs 15,7 15,7
Childrens playroom, 12 children 1 Pcs 26,6 26,6

Usable area: 42,3 m²

Gen Storing, furniture / Sch Senior high school (715,0 chair)

Spaces
Storage room, chairs, 715 chairs 1 Pcs 38,6 38,6

Usable area: 38,6 m²

SERVICES FOR STAFF

Gen Food and eating / Sch Senior high school (585,0 persons)
Spaces
Eating area, 260 seats 1 Pcs 332,8 332,8 75%
Dish return, 260 meals 1 Pcs 7,2 7,2 75%
Food cooking and receiving, 585 meals 1 Pcs 55,0 55,0
Receiving goods, 585 meals 1 Pcs 11,4 11,4
Waste room for kitchen, 1 shelve m 1 Pcs 5,0 5,0
Dressing room for personel, 5 persons 1 Pcs 7,8 7,8
Food delivery , 260 meals 1 Pcs 21,0 21,0 75%

Usable area: 440,2 m²

Sch Sanitary for personnel / Sch Senior high school (650,0 persons)
Spaces
Toilet, 7 persons 1 Pcs 14,3 14,3
 Sivu 6/7

Cloak room cupbards, 10 pc 1 Pcs 9,0 9,0

Com Dusch, 2 showers 1 Pcs 4,7 4,7

Usable area: 28,0 m²

Recreation / Sch Senior high school (52,0 teachers)

Spaces
Canteen for personnel 1 Pcs 79,0 79,0 20%

Usable area: 79,0 m²

Gen Sanitary for tenants / Sch Senior high school (650,0 persons)
Spaces
Toilet, 1 persons 26 Pcs 65,0 2,5

Usable area: 65,0 m²

Gen Students personal storage / Sch Senior high school (650,0 persons)
Spaces
Storage in cupboards, 162 cupboards 1 Pcs 121,9 121,9
, 650 clothes 1 Pcs 42,8 42,8

Usable area: 164,7 m²

Gen Personnel personal storage / Sch Senior high school (52,0 persons)
Spaces
Storage in cupboards, 52 cupboards 1 Pcs 34,9 34,9

Usable area: 34,9 m²

Students union / Sch Senior high school (650,0 students)

Spaces
Student union room, senior high school 1 Pcs 31,0 31,0

Usable area: 31,0 m²

BUILDING MANAGEMENT

Gen Building maintenance / Sch Senior high school (6 135,0 m2)

Gen Building maintenance / Sch Senior high school (128,0 m2)
Spaces
Cleaning central 1 Pcs 10,0 10,0
Cleaning closet 9 Pcs 27,0 3,0
Waste sorting room, 6 263 m2 1 Pcs 17,8 17,8
Hvac-control room 1 Pcs 8,0 8,0
 Sivu 7/7

Caretakers room and storage 1 Pcs 13,9 13,9

Dressing room for personel, 8 persons 1 Pcs 12,6 12,6
Garbage bins inside 1 Pcs 1,1 1,1

Usable area: 90,2 m²

Gen Air raid shelter / Sch Senior high school (6 889,3 gross area)
Spaces
Air raid shelters S1, 138 m2 protected area 1 Pcs 165,2 165,2
Air raid shelter useful use 1 Pcs -110,2 -110,2

Usable area: 55,0 m²

GRAND TOTAL: Usable area: 5 164 m²

Circulation area
-delivery: 815 m²
-sections: 270 m²
Services area: 326 m²

Net area total: 6 574 m²

APPENDIX 3. JYVÄSKYLÄ HIGH SCHOOL. GROUND FLOOR AND FIRST
FLOOR PLANS BEFORE NEW DESIGN
APPENDIX 4. JYVÄSKYLÄ HIGH SCHOOL. ACCEPTED DESIGN
SOLUTION AFTER WORKPLACE PLANNING
Architect Jussi Kantonen
APPENDIX 5. SYNAPSIA REHABILITATION CENTER. GROUND-, FIRST-
AND SECOND FROOR PLANS
Architect Hannu Jaakkola
APPENDIX 6. CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVITIES
User Activity based Workplace Definition as an Instrument for Workplace
Management

Classification of Activities
Activity Driver
Sub-activity Driver

Core Activities
Core activities are linked to functional sector’s core business. They will be classified
sector by sector later.

Supporting core activities Driver

Administration activities Adm. empoyees
Board activities board members
Management activities management employees
Accounting activities accounting employees
Human resources activities HR employees
Marketing activities marketing employees
Sales activities sales employees
Facilities management activities FM employees
IT support activities IT support employees
workplace activity employees
workshop activity workbench meters

Other supporting core activities

Office support activities employees total
mail sending activity employees
mail delivery activity employees
office material storing activity shelve meters
off. material receiving activity square meters
copying activity copying machines
fax activity faxes

Storing (nearby) activities shelve meters

Permanent storing activities shelve meters or
square meters
Security filing activities shelve meters
Meeting activities meetings/ day
Meetings activity meetings/ day
meetings support activity meetings/ day
Education activities educ. hours/ year
Library activities volumes
aduld lending activity volumes
children’s lending activity volumes
reference library activity volumes
music activity seats
magazines activity volumes
reading/ workplace activity workplaces
material processing store activity volumes
personnel workplaces activity employees
Computer server activities server racks
Entrance activities max. people in entrance
Accommodation activities beds
Car parking activities cars
car parking activity cars
car service activity service places
car wash activity wash places

Supporting staff activities

Catering activities eaters/ shift
food preparation portions/ shift
food delivery persons eating
eating persons eating
personnel dressing activities seats in dressing room
Personnel break activities persons at break
personnel cafeteria activity persons at break
smoking activity persons smoking
personnel rest activity
Sanitary activities for staff employees
Toilets activity employees
shower/ dressing activity seats in dressing
Sauna activities seats in dressing
Swimming activities
Lockers activities lockers
Health care activities consulting workplaces

Building management activities

Garbage disposal activities total square meters
garbage collecting activity total square meters
waste sorting activity total square meters
Cleaning activities total square meters
cleaning closet activity total square meters
cleaning store activity total square meters
cleaning personnel dressing activity seats in dressing room
Maintenance activities total square meters
maintenance storage activity total square meters
maintenance workshop activity total square meters
hvac- control activity total square meters
Bomb shelter activities total square meters
Workplace Planning is a continually updated resource
allocation in relation to the working environment, its users
and the organization’s strategy. The systemization of a
workplace planning concept consists of three parts:

- the Theory of Workplace Planning

- the Steering Model of Workplace Planning
- The Workplace Planning Procedure

The Workplace Planning Theory links workplace planning

to production. A spatial investment in an operation
competes for the same recourses as the other invest-
ments in the operations. Workplace planning is a proc-
ess where valuable requirements for workplace produc-
tion are determined through observing and evaluating
the values of stakeholders against the organization’s
strategy.

The Workplace Planning Steering Model and Web-

application Workplace Planning Procedure fulfill the the-
ory’s principles in practice. The created steering model is
based on dialogue between strategic and operational
management. It encourages learning, group working,
transparency and the elicitation of viewpoints. It supports
strategic and operative management’s collaboration
and mutual commitment forming.

Cover: Synapsia Rehibilation Center.

- architect Hannu Jaakkola,
- photo Jussi Tiainen

HAAHTELA - KEHITYS OY
Tinasepäntie 45, FIN-00620 Helsinki
tel +358 9 777 1820, fax +358 9 777 18250
www.haahtela.fi
ISBN 952-5403-04-1