Portuguese Empire

The Portuguese Empire (Portuguese: Império Português), also known as the

Portuguese Overseas (Ultramar Português) or the Portuguese Colonial Empire
(Império Colonial Português), was composed of the overseas colonies and territories
governed by Portugal. One of the longest-lived empires in world history, it existed for
almost six centuries, from the capture of Ceuta in 1415, to the handover of
Portuguese Macau to China in 1999. The empire began in the 15th century, and
from the early 16th century it stretched across the globe, with bases in North and
South America, Africa, and various regions of Asia and Oceania.[1][2][3]
 Portuguese Empire
Império Português
1415–1999

Coat of arms

Areas of the world that were once part of the Portuguese Empire

Capital Lisbon[a]

Common languages Portuguese

Religion Catholicism

Government Colonial empire

Monarchs  

• 1415–1433 (first) João I

• 1908–1910 (last) Manuel II

Presidents  

• 1911–1915 (first) Manuel de Arriaga

• 1996–1999 (last) Jorge Sampaio

History  

• Conquest of Ceuta 1415

• Sea route to India 1498

• Colonial Brazil 1500

• Iberian Union 1580–1640

• English-Spanish War 1580–1640

 • Dutch-Portuguese War 1588–1654

• Portuguese Restoration War 1640–1668

• Independence of Brazil 1822

• Loss of Indian provinces 1961

• Portuguese Colonial War 1961–1974

• Carnation Revolution 1974–1975

• Handover of Macau 1999

The Portuguese Empire originated at the beginning of the Age of Discovery, and the
power and influence of the Kingdom of Portugal would eventually expand across
the globe. In the wake of the Reconquista, Portuguese sailors began exploring the
coast of Africa and the Atlantic archipelagos in 1418–19, using recent
developments in navigation, cartography and maritime technology such as the
caravel, with the aim of finding a sea route to the source of the lucrative spice-trade.
In 1488 Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498 Vasco da
Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the crown's
secret design, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil on the South American coast.

Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and
islands of East Asia, establishing forts and factories as they went. By 1571 a string
of naval outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the
Middle East, India and South Asia. This commercial network and the colonial trade
had a substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth (1500–1800),
when it accounted for about a fifth of Portugal's per-capita income.

When King Philip II of Spain (Philip I of Portugal) seized the Portuguese crown in
1580 there began a 60-year union between Spain and Portugal known to
subsequent historiography as the Iberian Union. The realms continued to have
separate administrations. As the King of Spain was also King of Portugal,
Portuguese colonies became the subject of attacks by three rival European powers
hostile to Spain: the Dutch Republic, England, and France. With its smaller
population, Portugal found itself unable to effectively defend its overstretched
network of trading posts, and the empire began a long and gradual decline.
Eventually, Brazil became the most valuable colony of the second era of empire
(1663–1825), until, as part of the wave of independence movements that swept the
Americas during the early 19th century, it broke away in 1822.
The third era of empire covers the final stage of Portuguese colonialism after the
independence of Brazil in the 1820s. By then, the colonial possessions had been
reduced to forts and plantations along the African coastline (expanded inland
during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century), Portuguese Timor, and
enclaves in India (Portuguese India) and China (Portuguese Macau). The 1890
British Ultimatum led to the contraction of Portuguese ambitions in Africa.

Under António Salazar (in office 1932–1968), the Second Portuguese Republic
made some ill-fated attempts to cling on to its last remaining colonies. Under the
ideology of Pluricontinentalism, the regime renamed its colonies "overseas
provinces" while retaining the system of forced labour, from which only a small
indigenous élite was normally exempt. In 1961 India annexed Goa and Dahomey
(now Benin) annexed Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá. The Portuguese Colonial
War in Africa lasted from 1961 until the final overthrow of the Estado Novo regime
in 1974. The so-called Carnation Revolution of April 1974 in Lisbon led to the hasty
decolonization of Portuguese Africa and to the 1975 annexation of Portuguese
Timor by Indonesia. Decolonization prompted the exodus of nearly all the
Portuguese colonial settlers and of many mixed-race people from the colonies.
Portugal returned Macau to China in 1999. The only overseas possessions to
remain under Portuguese rule, the Azores and Madeira, both had overwhelmingly
Portuguese populations, and Lisbon subsequently changed their constitutional
status from "overseas provinces" to "autonomous regions".

Background (1139–1415)

The Conquest of Ceuta, in 1415, was

led by Henry the Navigator and
initiated the Portuguese Empire.

The origin of the Kingdom of Portugal lay in the reconquista, the gradual reconquest
of the Iberian peninsula from the Moors.[4] After establishing itself as a separate
kingdom in 1139, Portugal completed its reconquest of Moorish territory by
reaching Algarve in 1249, but its independence continued to be threatened by
neighbouring Castile until the signing of the Treaty of Ayllón in 1411.[5]
Free from threats to its existence and unchallenged by the wars fought by other
European states, Portuguese attention turned overseas and towards a military
expedition to the Muslim lands of North Africa.[6] There were several probable
motives for their first attack, on the Marinid Sultanate (in present-day Morocco). It
offered the opportunity to continue the Christian crusade against Islam; to the
military class, it promised glory on the battlefield and the spoils of war;[7] and finally,
it was also a chance to expand Portuguese trade and to address Portugal's
economic decline.[6]

In 1415 an attack was made on Ceuta, a strategically located North African Muslim
enclave along the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the terminal ports of the trans-
Saharan gold and slave trades. The conquest was a military success, and marked
one of the first steps in Portuguese expansion beyond the Iberian Peninsula,[8] but it
proved costly to defend against the Muslim forces that soon besieged it. The
Portuguese were unable to use it as a base for further expansion into the
hinterland,[9] and the trans-Saharan caravans merely shifted their routes to bypass
Ceuta and/or used alternative Muslim ports.[10]

First era (1415–1663)

Although Ceuta proved to be a disappointment for the Portuguese, the  

decision was taken to hold it while exploring along the Atlantic African
coast.[10] A key supporter of this policy was Infante Dom Henry the
Navigator, who had been involved in the capture of Ceuta, and who took
the lead role in promoting and financing Portuguese maritime
exploration until his death in 1460.[11] At the time, Europeans did not
know what lay beyond Cape Bojador on the African coast. Henry wished
to know how far the Muslim territories in Africa extended, and whether it was
possible to reach Asia by sea, both to reach the source of the lucrative spice trade
and perhaps to join forces with the fabled Christian kingdom of Prester John that
was rumoured to exist somewhere in the "Indies".[7][12] Under his sponsorship, soon
the Atlantic islands of Madeira (1419) and Azores (1427) were reached and started
to be settled, producing wheat for export to Portugal.[13]
  

 Pêro da Covilhã and Afonso de Paiva's common

 
route to Aden in 1487–1488 (green)
 Covilhã's travel 1489–†1490 (orange)
 
 Covilhã's travel to Ethiopia 1490–†1530? (blue)
 
 Vasco da Gama's travel 1497–1499 (black)
 
The main Portuguese goal was trade, not colonization or conquest. Soon its ships
were bringing into the European market highly valued gold, ivory, pepper, cotton,
sugar, and slaves. The slave trade, for example, was conducted by a few dozen
merchants in Lisbon. In the process of expanding the trade routes, Portuguese
navigators mapped unknown parts of Africa, and began exploring the Indian Ocean.
In 1487, an overland expedition by Pêro da Covilhã made its way to India, exploring
trade opportunities with the Indians and Arabs, and winding up finally in Ethiopia.
His detailed report was eagerly read in Lisbon, which became the best informed
center for global geography and trade routes.[14]

Initial African coastline excursions

Fears of what lay beyond Cape Bojador, and whether it was possible to return once
it was passed, were assuaged in 1434 when it was rounded by one of Infante
Henry's captains, Gil Eanes. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it
became easier to probe further along the coast.[15] In 1443 Infante Dom Pedro,
Henry's brother and by then regent of the Kingdom, granted him the monopoly of
navigation, war and trade in the lands south of Cape Bojador. Later this monopoly
would be enforced by the papal bulls Dum Diversas (1452) and Romanus Pontifex
(1455), granting Portugal the trade monopoly for the newly discovered lands.[16] A
major advance that accelerated this project was the introduction of the caravel in
the mid-15th century, a ship that could be sailed closer to the wind than any other in
operation in Europe at the time.[17] Using this new maritime technology, Portuguese
navigators reached ever more southerly latitudes, advancing at an average rate of
one degree a year.[18] Senegal and Cape Verde Peninsula were reached in 1445.[19]
  

Map of Western Africa by Lázaro Luis

(1563). The large castle in West Africa
represents the São Jorge da Mina (Elmina
Castle).

The first feitoria trade post overseas was established in 1445 on the island of
Arguin, off the coast of Mauritania, to attract Muslim traders and monopolize the
business in the routes travelled in North Africa. In 1446, Álvaro Fernandes pushed
on almost as far as present-day Sierra Leone, and the Gulf of Guinea was reached in
the 1460s.[20] The Cape Verde Islands were discovered in 1456 and settled in 1462.

Expansion of sugarcane in Madeira started in 1455, using advisers from Sicily and
(largely) Genoese capital to produce the "sweet salt" rare in Europe. Already
cultivated in Algarve, the accessibility of Madeira attracted Genoese and Flemish
traders keen to bypass Venetian monopolies. Slaves were used, and the proportion
of imported slaves in Madeira reached 10% of the total population by the 16th
century.[21] By 1480 Antwerp had some seventy ships engaged in the Madeira sugar
trade, with the refining and distribution concentrated in Antwerp. By the 1490s
Madeira had overtaken Cyprus as a producer of sugar.[22] The success of sugar
merchants such as Bartolomeo Marchionni would propel the investment in future
travels.[23]

In 1469, after prince Henry's death and as a result of meagre returns of the African
explorations, King Afonso V granted the monopoly of trade in part of the Gulf of
Guinea to merchant Fernão Gomes.[24] Gomes, who had to explore 100 miles
(160 km) of the coast each year for five years, discovered the islands of the Gulf of
Guinea, including São Tomé and Príncipe and found a thriving alluvial gold trade
among the natives and visiting Arab and Berber traders at the port then named Mina
(the mine), where he established a trading post.[25] Trade between Elmina and
Portugal grew throughout a decade. During the War of the Castilian Succession, a
large Castilian fleet attempted to wrest control of this lucrative trade, but were
decisively defeated in the 1478 Battle of Guinea, which firmly established an
exclusive Portuguese control. In 1481, the recently crowned João II decided to build
São Jorge da Mina in order to ensure the protection of this trade, which was held
again as a royal monopoly. The Equator was crossed by navigators sponsored by
Fernão Gomes in 1473 and the Congo River by Diogo Cão in 1482. It was during this
expedition that the Portuguese first encountered the Kingdom of Kongo, with which
it soon developed a rapport.[26] During his 1485–86 expedition, Cão continued to
Cape Cross, in present-day Namibia, near the Tropic of Capricorn.[27]

Portuguese possessions in Morocco (1415–1769)

In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope on the southern tip of
Africa, proving false the view that had existed since Ptolemy that the Indian Ocean
was land-locked. Simultaneously Pêro da Covilhã, traveling secretly overland, had
reached Ethiopia, suggesting that a sea route to the Indies would soon be
forthcoming.[28]

As the Portuguese explored the coastlines of Africa, they left behind a series of
padrões, stone crosses engraved with the Portuguese coat of arms marking their
claims,[29] and built forts and trading posts. From these bases, they engaged
profitably in the slave and gold trades. Portugal enjoyed a virtual monopoly on the
African seaborne slave trade for over a century, importing around 800 slaves
annually. Most were brought to the Portuguese capital Lisbon, where it is estimated
black Africans came to constitute 10 percent of the population.[30]

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

  

The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas meridian divided the

world between the crowns of Portugal and of
Castile.

In 1492 Christopher Columbus's after-discovery for Spain of the New World, which
he believed to be Asia, led to disputes between the Spanish and Portuguese.[31]
These were eventually settled by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the
world outside of Europe in an exclusive duopoly between the Portuguese and the
Spanish along a north–south meridian 370 leagues, or 970 miles (1,560 km), west
of the Cape Verde islands.[32] However, as it was not possible at the time to correctly
measure longitude, the exact boundary was disputed by the two countries until
1777.[33]

The completion of these negotiations with Spain is one of several reasons proposed
by historians for why it took nine years for the Portuguese to follow up on Dias's
voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, though it has also been speculated that other
voyages were in fact taking place in secret during this time.[34][35] Whether or not
this was the case, the long-standing Portuguese goal of finding a sea route to Asia
was finally achieved in a ground-breaking voyage commanded by Vasco da
Gama.[36]

Portuguese enter the Indian Ocean

Vasco da Gama's departure to India in

1497

The squadron of Vasco da Gama left Portugal in 1497, rounded the Cape and
continued along the coast of East Africa, where a local pilot was brought on board
who guided them across the Indian Ocean, reaching Calicut (the capital of the native
kingdom ruled by Zamorins (This city also known as Kozhikode) in south-western
India in May 1498.[37] The second voyage to India was dispatched in 1500 under
Pedro Álvares Cabral. While following the same south-westerly route as Gama
across the Atlantic Ocean, Cabral made landfall on the Brazilian coast. This was
probably an accidental discovery, but it has been speculated that the Portuguese
secretly knew of Brazil's existence and that it lay on their side of the Tordesillas
line.[38] Cabral recommended to the Portuguese King that the land be settled, and
two follow up voyages were sent in 1501 and 1503. The land was found to be
abundant in pau-brasil, or brazilwood, from which it later inherited its name, but the
failure to find gold or silver meant that for the time being Portuguese efforts were
concentrated on India.[39] In 1502, to enforce its trade monopoly over a wide area of
the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese Empire created the cartaz licensing system,
granting merchant ships protection against pirates and rival states.[40]

Portuguese discoveries and explorations: first

arrival places and dates; main Portuguese spice
trade routes (blue)

Profiting from the rivalry between the ruler of Kochi and the Zamorin of Calicut, the
Portuguese were well-received and seen as allies, as they obtained a permit to build
the fort Immanuel (Fort Kochi) and a trading post that were the first European
settlement in India. They established a trading center at Tangasseri, Quilon (Coulão,
Kollam) city in (1503) in 1502, which became the centre of trade in pepper,[41] and
after founding manufactories at Cochin (Cochim, Kochi) and Cannanore (Canonor,
Kannur), built a factory at Quilon in 1503. In 1505 King Manuel I of Portugal
appointed Francisco de Almeida first Viceroy of Portuguese India, establishing the
Portuguese government in the east. That year the Portuguese also conquered
Kannur, where they founded St. Angelo Fort, and Lourenço de Almeida arrived in
Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), where he discovered the source of cinnamon.[42]
Although Cankili I of Jaffna initially resisted contact with them, the Jaffna kingdom
came to the attention of Portuguese officials soon after for their resistance to
missionary activities as well as logistical reasons due to its proximity with
Trincomalee harbour among other reasons.[43] In the same year, Manuel I ordered
Almeida to fortify the Portuguese fortresses in Kerala and within eastern Africa, as
well as probe into the prospects of building forts in Sri Lanka and Malacca in
response to growing hostilities with Muslims within those regions and threats from
the Mamluk sultan.[44]
  

The Santa Catarina do Monte Sinai

carrack exemplified the might and the
force of the Portuguese Armada.

16th century Portuguese illustration

from the Códice Casanatense,
depicting a Portuguese nobleman with
his retinue in India

A Portuguese fleet under the command of Tristão da Cunha and Afonso de

Albuquerque conquered Socotra at the entrance of the Red Sea in 1506 and Muscat
in 1507. Having failed to conquer Ormuz, they instead followed a strategy intended
to close off commerce to and from the Indian Ocean.[45] Madagascar was partly
explored by Cunha, and Mauritius was discovered by Cunha whilst possibly being
accompanied by Albuquerque.[46] After the capture of Socotra, Cunha and
Albuquerque operated separately. While Cunha traveled India and Portugal for
trading purposes, Albuquerque went to India to take over as governor after
Almeida's three-year term ended. Almeida refused to turn over power and soon
placed Albuquerque under house arrest, where he remained until 1509.[47]

Although requested by Manuel I to further explore interests in Malacca and Sri

Lanka, Almeida instead focused on western India, in particular the Sultanate of
Gujarat due to his suspicions of traders from the region possessing more power.
The Mamlûk Sultanate sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri along with the Gujarati
sultanate attacked Portuguese forces in the harbor of Chaul, resulting in the death
of Almeida's son. In retaliation, the Portuguese fought and destroyed the Mamluks
and Gujarati fleets in the sea Battle of Diu in 1509.[48]

Along with Almeida's initial attempts, Manuel I and his council in Lisbon had tried to
distribute power in the Indian Ocean, creating three areas of jurisdiction:
Albuquerque was sent to the Red Sea, Diogo Lopes de Sequeira to South-east Asia,
seeking an agreement with the Sultan of Malacca, and Jorge de Aguiar followed by
Duarte de Lemos were sent to the area between the Cape of Good Hope and
Gujarat.[49] However, such posts were centralized by Afonso de Albuquerque after
his succession and remained so in subsequent ruling.[50]

Trade with Maritime Asia, Africa and the Indian Ocean

Goa, Malacca and Southeast Asia

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Portuguese

Empire of the East, or Estado da Índia ("State of
India"), with its capital in Goa, included possessions
(as subjected areas with a certain degree of
autonomy) in all the Asian sub-continents, East
Africa, and Pacific.

By the end of 1509, Albuquerque became viceroy of the Portuguese India. In

contrast to Almeida, Albuquerque was more concerned with strengthening the
navy,[51] as well as being more compliant with the interests of the kingdom.[52] His
first objective was to conquer Goa, due to its strategic location as a defensive fort
positioned between Kerala and Gujarat, as well as its prominence for Arabian horse
imports.[48]

The initial capture of Goa from the Bijapur sultanate in 1510 was soon countered by
the Bijapuris, but with the help of Hindu privateer Timoji, on November 25 of the
same year it was recaptured.[53][54] In Goa, Albuquerque began the first Portuguese
mint in India in 1510.[55] He encouraged Portuguese settlers to marry local women,
built a church in honor of St. Catherine (as it was recaptured on her feast day), and
attempted to build rapport with the Hindus by protecting their temples and reducing
their tax requirements.[54] The Portuguese maintained friendly relations with the
south Indian Emperors of the Vijayanagara Empire.[56]

In April 1511 Albuquerque sailed to Malacca in Malaysia,[57] the largest spice market
of the period.[58] Though the trade was largely dominated by the Gujurati, other
groups such as the Turks, Persians, Armenians, Tamils and Abyssinians traded
there.[58] Albuquerque targeted Malacca to impede the Muslim and Venetian
influence in the spice trade and increase that of Lisbon.[59] By July 1511,
Albuquerque had captured Malacca and sent Antonio de Abreu and Francisco
Serrão (along with Ferdinand Magellan) to explore the Indonesian archipelago.[60]
  

Iberian 'mare clausum' in the Age of

Discovery. Afonso de Albuquerque's
strategy to encircle the Indian Ocean
is shown.

The Malacca peninsula became the strategic base for Portuguese trade expansion
with China and Southeast Asia. A strong gate, called the A Famosa, was erected to
defend the city and still remains.[61] Learning of Siamese ambitions over Malacca,
Albuquerque immediately sent Duarte Fernandes on a diplomatic mission to the
Kingdom of Siam (modern Thailand), where he was the first European to arrive,
establishing amicable relations and trade between both kingdoms.[62][63]

The Portuguese empire pushed further south and proceeded to discover Timor in
1512. Jorge de Meneses discovered New Guinea in 1526, naming it the "Island of
the Papua".[64] In 1517, João da Silveira commanded a fleet to Chittagong,[65] and by
1528, the Portuguese had established a settlement in Chittagong.[66] The
Portuguese eventually based their center of operations along the Hugli River, where
they encountered Muslims, Hindus, and Portuguese deserters known as Chatins.[67]

China and Japan

The Portuguese visited the city of Nagasaki, Japan.

Jorge Alvares was the first European to reach China by sea, while the Romans were
the first overland via Asia Minor.[68][69][70][71] He was also the first European to
discover Hong Kong.[72][73] In 1514, Afonso de Albuquerque, the Viceroy of the
Estado da India, dispatched Italian Rafael Perestrello to sail to China in order to
pioneer European trade relations with the nation.[74][75]

In spite of initial harmony and excitement between the two cultures, difficulties
began to arise shortly afterwards, including misunderstanding, bigotry, and even
hostility.[76] The Portuguese explorer Simão de Andrade incited poor relations with
China due to his pirate activities, raiding Chinese shipping, attacking a Chinese
official, and kidnappings of Chinese. He based himself at Tamao island in a fort.
The Chinese claimed that Simão kidnapped Chinese boys and girls to be molested
and cannibalized.[77] The Chinese sent a squadron of junks against Portuguese
caravels that succeeded in driving the Portuguese away and reclaiming Tamao. As a
result, the Chinese posted an edict banning men with caucasian features from
entering Canton, killing multiple Portuguese there, and driving the Portuguese back
to sea.[78][79]

A depiction, from 1639, of the Macau

Peninsula, during the golden age of
colonization of Portuguese Macau

After the Sultan of Bintan detained several Portuguese under Tomás Pires, the
Chinese then executed 23 Portuguese and threw the rest into prison where they
resided in squalid, sometimes fatal conditions. The Chinese then massacred
Portuguese who resided at Ningbo and Fujian trading posts in 1545 and 1549, due
to extensive and damaging raids by the Portuguese along the coast, which irritated
the Chinese.[78] Portuguese pirating was second to Japanese pirating by this period.
However, they soon began to shield Chinese junks and a cautious trade began. In
1557 the Chinese authorities allowed the Portuguese to settle in Macau, creating a
warehouse in the trade of goods between China, Japan, Goa and Europe.[78][80]

Spice Islands (Moluccas) and Treaty of Zaragoza

Portugal was the first European nation

to establish trade routes with Japan
and China.

Portuguese operations in Asia did not go unnoticed, and in 1521 Magellan arrived in
the region and claimed the Philippines for Spain. In 1525, Spain under Charles V
sent an expedition to colonize the Moluccas islands, claiming they were in his zone
of the Treaty of Tordesillas, since there was no set limit to the east. The expedition
of García Jofre de Loaísa reached the Moluccas, docking at Tidore. With the
Portuguese already established in nearby Ternate, conflict was inevitable, leading to
nearly a decade of skirmishes. A resolution was reached with the Treaty of
Zaragoza in 1529, attributing the Moluccas to Portugal and the Philippines to
Spain.[81] The Portuguese traded regularly with the Bruneian Empire from 1530 and
described the capital of Brunei as surrounded by a stone wall.

South Asia, Persian Gulf and Red Sea

Portuguese Fort, one of the best-

preserved forts in Bahrain

Persian portrait of a Portuguese

nobleman (16th century)

The Portuguese empire expanded into the Persian Gulf, contesting control of the
spice trade with the Ajuran Empire and the Ottoman Empire. In 1515, Afonso de
Albuquerque conquered the Huwala state of Hormuz at the head of the Persian Gulf,
establishing it as a vassal state. Aden, however, resisted Albuquerque's expedition in
that same year and another attempt by Albuquerque's successor Lopo Soares de
Albergaria in 1516. In 1521 a force led by António Correia captured Bahrain,
defeating the Jabrid King, Muqrin ibn Zamil.[82] In a shifting series of alliances, the
Portuguese dominated much of the southern Persian Gulf for the next hundred
years. With the regular maritime route linking Lisbon to Goa since 1497, the island
of Mozambique became a strategic port, and there was built Fort São Sebastião and
a hospital. In the Azores, the Islands Armada protected the ships en route to
Lisbon.[83]

In 1534, Gujarat faced attack from the Mughals and the Rajput states of Chitor and
Mandu. The Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was forced to sign the Treaty of
Bassein with the Portuguese, establishing an alliance to regain the country, giving in
exchange Daman, Diu, Mumbai and Bassein. It also regulated the trade of Gujarati
ships departing to the Red Sea and passing through Bassein to pay duties and allow
the horse trade.[84] After Mughal ruler Humayun had success against Bahadur, the
latter signed another treaty with the Portuguese to confirm the provisions and
allowed the fort to be built in Diu. Shortly afterward, Humayun turned his attention
elsewhere, and the Gujarats allied with the Ottomans to regain control of Diu and lay
siege to the fort. The two failed sieges of 1538 and 1546 put an end to Ottoman
ambitions, confirming the Portuguese hegemony in the region,[84][85] as well as
gaining superiority over the Mughals.[86] However, the Ottomans fought off attacks
from the Portuguese in the Red Sea and in the Sinai Peninsula in 1541, and in the
northern region of the Persian Gulf in 1546 and 1552. Each entity ultimately had to
respect the sphere of influence of the other, albeit unofficially.[87][88]

Sub-Saharan Africa

Portuguese carracks unload cargo in

Lisbon. Original engraving by Theodor
de Bry, 1593, coloured at a later date

After a series of prolonged contacts with Ethiopia, the Portuguese embassy made
contact with the Ethiopian (Abyssinian) Kingdom led by Rodrigo de Lima in
1520.[89][90] This coincided with the Portuguese search for Prester John, as they
soon associated the kingdom as his land.[91] The fear of Turkish advances within
the Portuguese and Ethiopian sectors also played a role in their alliance.[89][92] The
Adal Sultanate defeated the Ethiopians in the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, and
Islam spread further in the region. Portugal responded by aiding king Gelawdewos
with Portuguese soldiers and muskets. Though the Ottomans responded with
support of soldiers and muskets to the Adal Sultanate, after the death of the Adali
sultan Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi in the battle of Wayna Daga in 1543, the joint
Adal-Ottoman force retreated.[93][94][95]

The Portuguese also made direct contact with the Kongolose vassal state Ndongo
and its ruler Ngola Kiljuane in 1520, after the latter requested missionaries.[96]
Kongolese king Afonso I interfered with the process with denunciations, and later
sent a Kongo mission to Ndongo after the latter had arrested the Portuguese
mission that came.[96] The growing official and unofficial slave trading with Ndongo
strained relations between Kongo and the Portuguese, and even had Portuguese
ambassadors from Sao Tome support Ndongo against the Kingdom of Kongo.[97][98]
However, when the Jaga attacked and conquered regions of Kongo in 1568,
Portuguese assisted Kongo in their defeat.[99] In response, the Kongo allowed the
colonization of Luanda Island; Luanda was established by Paulo Dias de Novais in
1576 and soon became a slave port.[99][100] De Novais' subsequent alliance with
Ndongo angered Luso-Africans who resented the influence from the Crown.[101] In
1579, Ndongo ruler Ngola Kiluanje kia Ndamdi massacred Portuguese and
Kongolese residents in the Ndongo capital Kabasa under the influence of
Portuguese renegades. Both the Portuguese and Kongo fought against Ndongo, and
off-and-on warfare between the Ndongo and Portugal would persist for
decades.[102]

Missionary expeditions

St. Francis Xavier requesting John III

of Portugal for a missionary
expedition in Asia

In 1542, Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier arrived in Goa at the service of King John
III of Portugal, in charge of an Apostolic Nunciature. At the same time Francisco
Zeimoto, António Mota, and other traders arrived in Japan for the first time.
According to Fernão Mendes Pinto, who claimed to be in this journey, they arrived at
Tanegashima, where the locals were impressed by firearms, that would be
immediately made by the Japanese on a large scale.[103] By 1570 the Portuguese
bought part of a Japanese port where they founded a small part of the city of
Nagasaki,[104] and it became the major trading port in Japan in the triangular trade
with China and Europe.[105]

The Portuguese were soundly defeated in their attempt to capture wealthy Somali
harbor cities on the Somali coast such as Mogadishu, Merca, Barawa, Kismayo and
Hobyo by the powerful Somalis of the Ajuran Empire.[106][107][108]

Guarding its trade from both European and Asian competitors, Portugal dominated
not only the trade between Asia and Europe, but also much of the trade between
different regions of Asia and Africa, such as India, Indonesia, China, and Japan.
Jesuit missionaries, followed the Portuguese to spread Roman Catholicism to Asia
and Africa with mixed success.[109]

Colonization efforts in the Americas

Canada

The Portuguese mapped and claimed Canada in

1499 and the 1500s.

Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas, the Portuguese Crown, under the kings Manuel I,
John III and Sebastian, also claimed territorial rights in North America (reached by
John Cabot in 1497 and 1498). To that end, in 1499 and 1500, João Fernandes
Lavrador explored Greenland and the north Atlantic coast of Canada, which
accounts for the appearance of "Labrador" on topographical maps of the period.[110]
Subsequently, in 1500–1501 and 1502, the brothers Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Real
explored what is today the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, and
Greenland, claiming these lands for Portugal. In 1506, King Manuel I created taxes
for the cod fisheries in Newfoundland waters. Around 1521, João Álvares Fagundes
was granted donatary rights to the inner islands of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and also
created a settlement on Cape Breton Island to serve as a base for cod fishing.
Pressure from natives and competing European fisheries prevented a permanent
establishment and was abandoned five years later. Several attempts to establish
settlements in Newfoundland over the next half-century also failed.[111]

Brazil

Within a few years after Cabral arrived from Brazil, competition came along from
France. In 1503, an expedition under the command of Gonçalo Coelho reported
French raids on the Brazilian coasts,[112] and explorer Binot Paulmier de Gonneville
traded for brazilwood after making contact in southern Brazil a year later.[113]
Expeditions sponsored by Francis I along the North American coast directly violated
of the Treaty of Tordesilhas.[114] By 1531, the French had stationed a trading post off
of an island on the Brazilian coast.[114]

The increase in brazilwood smuggling from the French led João III to press an effort
to establish effective occupation of the territory.[115] In 1531, a royal expedition led
by Martim Afonso de Sousa and his brother Pero Lopes went to patrol the whole
Brazilian coast, banish the French, and create some of the first colonial towns –
among them São Vicente, in 1532.[116] Sousa returned to Lisbon a year later to
become governor of India and never returned to Brazil.[117][118] The French attacks
did cease to an extent after retaliation led to the Portuguese paying the French to
stop attacking Portuguese ships throughout the Atlantic,[114] but the attacks would
continue to be a problem well into the 1560s.[119]

A map from 1574 showing the 15

hereditary captaincy colonies of Brazil

Upon de Sousa's arrival and success, fifteen latitudinal tracts, theoretically to span
from the coast to the Tordesillas limit, were decreed by João III on 28 September
1532.[117][120] The plot of the lands formed as a hereditary captaincies (Capitanias
Hereditárias) to grantees rich enough to support settlement, as had been done
successfully in Madeira and Cape Verde islands.[121] Each captain-major was to
build settlements, grant allotments and administer justice, being responsible for
developing and taking the costs of colonization, although not being the owner: he
could transmit it to offspring, but not sell it. Twelve recipients came from
Portuguese gentry who become prominent in Africa and India and senior officials of
the court, such as João de Barros.[122]

Of the fifteen original captaincies, only two, Pernambuco and São Vicente,
prospered.[123] Both were dedicated to the crop of sugar cane, and the settlers
managed to maintain alliances with Native Americans. The rise of the sugar
industry came about because the Crown took the easiest sources of profit
(brazilwood, spices, etc.), leaving settlers to come up with new revenue sources.[124]
The establishment of the sugar cane industry demanded intensive labor that would
be met with Native American and, later, African slaves.[125] Deeming the capitanias
system ineffective, João III decided to centralize the government of the colony in
order to "give help and assistance" to grantees. In 1548 he created the first General
Government, sending in Tomé de Sousa as first governor and selecting a capital at
the Bay of All Saints, making it at the Captaincy of Bahia.[126][127]

Tomé de Sousa built the capital of Brazil, Salvador, at the Bay of All Saints in
1549.[128] Among de Sousa's 1000 man expedition were soldiers, workers, and six
Jesuits led by Manuel da Nóbrega.[129] The Jesuits would have an essential role in
the colonization of Brazil, including São Vicente, and São Paulo, the latter which
Nóbrega co-founded.[130] Along with the Jesuit missions later came disease among
the natives, among them plague and smallpox.[131] Subsequently, the French would
resettle in Portuguese territory at Guanabara Bay, which would be called France
Antarctique.[132] While a Portuguese ambassador was sent to Paris to report the
French intrusion, Joao III appointed Mem de Sá as new Brazilian governor general,
and Sá left for Brazil in 1557.[132] By 1560, Sá and his forces had expelled the
combined Huguenot, Scottish Calvinist, and slave forces from France Antarctique,
but left survivors after burning their fortifications and villages. These survivors
would settle Gloria Bay, Flamengo Beach, and Parapapuã with the assistance of the
Tamoio natives.[133]

The Tamoio had been allied with the French since the settlement of France
Antarctique, and despite the French loss in 1560, the Tamoio were still a threat.[134]
They launched two attacks in 1561 and 1564 (the latter event was assisting the
French), and were nearly successful with each.[135][136] By this time period, Manuel
de Nóbrega, along with fellow Jesuit José de Anchieta, took part as members of
attacks on the Tamoios and as spies for their resources.[134][135] From 1565 through
1567 Mem de Sá and his forces eventually destroyed France Antarctique at
Guanabara Bay. He and his nephew, Estácio de Sá, then established the city of Rio
de Janeiro in 1567, after Mem de Sá proclaimed the area "São Sebastião do Rio de
Janeiro" in 1565.[137] By 1575, the Tamoios had been subdued and essentially were
extinct,[134] and by 1580 the government became more of a ouvidor general rather
than the ouvidores.[138]

Iberian Union, Protestant rivalry, and colonial stasis (1580–1663)

The Luso-Hispanic (or Iberian) Empire in 1598,

during the reign of Philip I and II, King of Portugal
and Spain

In 1580, King Philip II of Spain invaded Portugal after a crisis of succession brought
about by King Sebastian of Portugal's death during a disastrous Portuguese attack
on Alcácer Quibir in Morocco in 1578. At the Cortes of Tomar in 1581, Philip was
crowned Philip I of Portugal, uniting the two crowns and overseas empires under
Spanish Habsburg rule in a dynastic Iberian Union.[139] At Tomar, Philip promised to
keep the empires legally distinct, leaving the administration of the Portuguese
Empire to Portuguese nationals, with a Viceroy of Portugal in Lisbon seeing to his
interests.[140] Philip even had the capital moved to Lisbon for a two-year period
(1581–83) due to it being the most important city in the Iberian peninsula.[141] All
the Portuguese colonies accepted the new state of affairs except for the Azores,
which held out for António, a Portuguese rival claimant to the throne who had
garnered the support of Catherine de Medici of France in exchange for the promise
to cede Brazil. Spanish forces eventually captured the islands in 1583.[142]

The Tordesillas boundary between Spanish and Portuguese control in South

America was then increasingly ignored by the Portuguese, who pressed beyond it
into the heart of Brazil,[140] allowing them to expand the territory to the west.
Exploratory missions were carried out both ordered by the government, the
"entradas" (entries), and by private initiative, the "bandeiras" (flags), by the
"bandeirantes".[143] These expeditions lasted for years venturing into unmapped
regions, initially to capture natives and force them into slavery, and later focusing on
finding gold, silver and diamond mines.[144]
  

The Recovery of São Salvador da

Bahia de Todos os Santos, by Philip III
of Portugal, from the Dutch Republic

However, the union meant that Spain dragged Portugal into its conflicts with
England, France and the Dutch Republic, countries which were beginning to
establish their own overseas empires.[145] The primary threat came from the Dutch,
who had been engaged in a struggle for independence against Spain since 1568. In
1581, the Seven Provinces gained independence from the Habsburg rule, leading
Philip II to prohibit commerce with Dutch ships, including in Brazil where Dutch had
invested large sums in financing sugar production.[146]

Spanish imperial trade networks now were opened to Portuguese merchants, which
was particularly lucrative for Portuguese slave traders who could now sell slaves in
Spanish America at a higher price than could be fetched in Brazil.[147] In addition to
this newly acquired access to the Spanish asientos, the Portuguese were able to
solve their bullion shortage issues with access to the production of the silver mining
in Peru and Mexico.[148] Manila was also incorporated into the Macau-Nagasaki
trading network, allowing Macanese of Portuguese descent to act as trading agents
for Philippine Spaniards and use Spanish silver from the Americas in trade with
China, and they later drew competition with the Dutch East India Company.[149]

In 1592, during the war with Spain, an English fleet captured a large Portuguese
carrack off the Azores, the Madre de Deus, which was loaded with 900 tons of
merchandise from India and China estimated at half a million pounds (nearly half
the size of English Treasury at the time).[150] This foretaste of the riches of the East
galvanized English interest in the region.[151] That same year, Cornelis de Houtman
was sent by Dutch merchants to Lisbon, to gather as much information as he could
about the Spice Islands.[149][152]

The Dutch eventually realized the importance of Goa in breaking up the Portuguese
empire in Asia. In 1583, merchant and explorer Jan Huyghen van Linschoten (1563
– 8 February 1611), formerly the Dutch secretary of the Archbishop of Goa, had
acquired information while serving in that position that contained the location of
secret Portuguese trade routes throughout Asia, including those to the East Indies
and Japan. It was published in 1595; the text was then included in the larger volume
published in 1596 under the title "Itinerario: voyage, ofte schipvaert van Jan Huygen
van Linschoten naer Oost ofte Portugaels Indien, 1579–1592". Dutch and English
interests used this new information, leading to their commercial expansion,
including the foundation of the English East India Company in 1600, and the Dutch
East India Company in 1602. These developments allowed the entry of chartered
companies into the East Indies.[153][154]

The Portuguese victory at the Second

Battle of Guararapes ended Dutch
presence in Pernambuco.

The Dutch took their fight overseas, attacking Spanish and Portuguese colonies and
beginning the Dutch–Portuguese War, which would last for over sixty years (1602–
1663). Other European nations, such as Protestant England, assisted the Dutch
Empire in the war. The Dutch attained victories in Asia and Africa with assistance of
various indigenous allies, eventually wrenching control of Malacca, Ceylon, and São
Jorge da Mina. The Dutch also had regional control of the lucrative sugar-producing
region of northeast Brazil as well as Luanda, but the Portuguese regained these
territories after considerable struggle.[155][156]

Meanwhile, in the Arabian Peninsula, the Portuguese also lost control of Ormuz by a
joint alliance of the Safavids and the English in 1622, and Oman under the Al-
Ya'arubs would capture Muscat in 1650.[157] They would continue to use Muscat as
a base for repetitive incursions within the Indian Ocean, including capturing Fort
Jesus in 1698.[158] In Ethiopia and Japan in the 1630s, the ousting of missionaries
by local leaders severed influence in the respective regions.[159][160]

Second era (1663–1825)

Flag of Portugal (1667–1706). From

the 15th–19th centuries the
 the 15th 19th centuries the
Portuguese flags all looked similar to
this.

The loss of colonies was one of the reasons that contributed to the end of the
personal union with Spain. In 1640 John IV was proclaimed King of Portugal and the
Portuguese Restoration War began. Even before the war's final resolution, the crown
established the Overseas Council, conceived in 1642 on the short-lived model of the
Council of India (1604–1614), and established in 1643, it was the governing body
for most of the Portuguese overseas empire. The exceptions were North Africa,
Madeira, and the Azores. All correspondence concerning overseas possessions
were funneled through the council. When the Portuguese court fled to Brazil in 1807,
following the Napoleonic invasion of Iberia, Brazil was removed from the jurisdiction
of the council. It made recommendations concerning personnel for the
administrative, fiscal, and military, as well as bishops of overseas dioceses.[161] A
distinguished seventeenth-century member was Salvador de Sá.[162]

Portuguese India (1502–1961)

In 1661 the Portuguese offered Bombay and Tangier to England as part of a dowry,
and over the next hundred years the English gradually became the dominant trader
in India, gradually excluding the trade of other powers. In 1668 Spain recognized the
end of the Iberian Union and in exchange Portugal ceded Ceuta to the Spanish
crown.[163]

After the Portuguese were defeated by the Indian rulers Chimnaji Appa of the
Maratha Empire[164][165] and by Shivappa Nayaka of the Keladi Nayaka Kingdom[166]
and at the end of confrontations with the Dutch, Portugal was only able to cling onto
Goa and several minor bases in India, and managed to regain territories in Brazil and
Africa, but lost forever to prominence in Asia as trade was diverted through
increasing numbers of English, Dutch and French trading posts. Thus, throughout
the century, Brazil gained increasing importance to the empire, which exported
Brazilwood and sugar.[144]

Minas Gerais and the gold industry

In 1693, gold was discovered at Minas Gerais in Brazil. Major discoveries of gold
and, later, diamonds in Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso and Goiás led to a "gold rush",
with a large influx of migrants.[167] The village became the new economic center of
the empire, with rapid settlement and some conflicts. This gold cycle led to the
creation of an internal market and attracted a large number of immigrants. By 1739,
at the apex of the mining boom, the population of Minas Gerais was somewhere
between 200,000 and 250,000.[168]

The Portuguese Cortes

sought the disbandment of
the United Kingdom.

The gold rush considerably increased the revenue of the Portuguese crown, who
charged a fifth of all the ore mined, or the "fifth". Diversion and smuggling were
frequent, along with altercations between Paulistas (residents of São Paulo) and
Emboabas (immigrants from Portugal and other regions in Brazil), so a whole set of
bureaucratic controls began in 1710 with the captaincy of São Paulo and Minas
Gerais. By 1718, São Paulo and Minas Gerais became two captaincies, with eight
vilas created in the latter.[169][170] The crown also restricted the diamond mining
within its jurisdiction and to private contractors.[170] In spite of gold galvanizing
global trade, the plantation industry became the leading export for Brazil during this
period; sugar constituted at 50% of the exports (with gold at 46%) in 1760.[168]

Africans and Afro-Brazilians became the largest group of people in Minas Gerais.
Slaves labeled as 'Minas' and 'Angolas' rose in high demand during the boom. The
Akan within the 'Minas' group had a reputation to have been experts in extrapolating
gold in their native regions, and became the preferred group. In spite of the high
death rate associated with the slaves involved in the mining industry, the owners
that allowed slaves that extracted above the minimum amount of gold to keep the
excesses, which in turn led to the possibility of manumission. Those that became
free partook in artisan jobs such as cobblers, tailors, and blacksmiths. In spite of
free blacks and mulattoes playing a large role in Minas Gerais, the number of them
that received marginalization was greater there than in any other region in Brazil.[171]
Gold discovered in Mato Grosso and Goiás sparked an interest to solidify the
western borders of the colony. In the 1730s contact with Spanish outposts occurred
more frequently, and the Spanish threatened to launch a military expedition in order
to remove them. This failed to happen and by the 1750s the Portuguese were able
to implant a political stronghold in the region.[172]

In 1755 Lisbon suffered a catastrophic earthquake, which together with a

subsequent tsunami killed between 40,000–60,000 people out of a population of
275,000.[173] This sharply checked Portuguese colonial ambitions in the late 18th
century.[174]

According to economic historians, Portugal's colonial trade had a substantial

positive impact on Portuguese economic growth, 1500–1800. Leonor Costa et al.
conclude:

intercontinental trade had a substantial and increasingly positive impact on

economic growth. In the heyday of colonial expansion, eliminating the economic
links to empire would have reduced Portugal’s per capita income by roughly a fifth.
While the empire helped the domestic economy it was not sufficient to annul the
tendency towards decline in relation to Europe’s advanced core which set in from
the 17th century onwards.[175]

Pombaline and post-Pombaline Brazil

Provinces of the Portuguese Empire in the

Americas by 1817
  

The Spanish and Portuguese empires

in 1790

Unlike Spain, Portugal did not divide its colonial territory in America. The captaincies
created there functioned under a centralized administration in Salvador, which
reported directly to the Crown in Lisbon. The 18th century was marked by increasing
centralization of royal power throughout the Portuguese empire. The Jesuits, who
protected the natives against slavery, were brutally suppressed by the Marquis of
Pombal, which led to the dissolution of the order in the region by 1759.[176] Pombal
wished to improve the status of the natives by declaring them free and increasing
the mestizo population by encouraging intermarriage between them and the white
population. Indigenous freedom decreased in contrast to its period under the
Jesuits, and the response to intermarriage was lukewarm at best.[177] The crown's
revenue from gold declined and plantation revenue increased by the time of Pombal,
and he made provisions to improve each. Although he failed to spike the gold
revenue, two short-term companies he established for the plantation economy
drove a significant increase in production of cotton, rice, cacao, tobacco, sugar.
Slave labor increased as well as involvement from the textile economy. The
economic development as a whole was inspired by elements of the Enlightenment
in mainland Europe.[178] However, the diminished influence from states such as the
United Kingdom increased the Kingdom's dependence upon Brazil.[179]

Encouraged by the example of the United States of America, which had won its
independence from Britain, the colonial province of Minas Gerais attempted to
achieve the same objective in 1789. However, the Inconfidência Mineira failed, its
leaders were arrested, and of the participants in the insurrections, the one of lowest
social position, Tiradentes, was hanged.[180] Among the conspiracies led by the
Afro- population was the Bahian revolt in 1798, led primarily by João de Deus do
Nascimento. Inspired by the French Revolution, leaders proposed a society without
slavery, food prices would be lowered, and trade restriction abolished. Impoverished
social conditions and a high cost of living were among reasons of the revolt.
Authorities diffused the plot before major action began; they executed four of the
conspirators and exiled several others were exiled to the Atlantic Coast of
Africa.[181] Several more smaller-scale slave rebellions and revolts would occur from
1801 and 1816 and fears within Brazil were that these events would lead to a
"second Haiti".[182]

In spite of the conspiracies, the rule of Portugal in Brazil was not under serious
threat. Historian A.R. Disney states that the colonists did not until the transferring of
the Kingdom in 1808 assert influence of policy changing due to direct contact,[183]
and historian Gabriel Paquette mentions that the threats in Brazil were largely
unrealized in Portugal until 1808 because of effective policing and espionage.[184]
More revolts would occur after the arrival of the court.[185]

Brazilian Independence

Brazilian independence crippled the

Portuguese Empire, both
economically and politically, for a long
time.

In 1808, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Portugal, and Dom João, Prince Regent in
place of his mother, Queen Maria I, ordered the transfer of the royal court to Brazil.
In 1815 Brazil was elevated to the status of Kingdom, the Portuguese state officially
becoming the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves (Reino Unido de
Portugal, Brasil e Algarves), and the capital was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de
Janeiro, the only instance of a European country being ruled from one of its
colonies. There was also the election of Brazilian representatives to the Cortes
Constitucionais Portuguesas (Portuguese Constitutional Courts), the Parliament
that assembled in Lisbon in the wake of the Liberal Revolution of 1820.[186]

Although the royal family returned to Portugal in 1821, the interlude led to a growing
desire for independence amongst Brazilians. In 1822, the son of Dom João VI, then
prince-regent Dom Pedro I, proclaimed the independence of Brazil on September 7,
1822, and was crowned Emperor of the new Empire of Brazil. Unlike the Spanish
colonies of South America, Brazil's independence was achieved without significant
bloodshed.[187][188]

Third era (1822–1999)

  

The façade of St. Paul's College in

Macau, 1854

At the height of European colonialism in the 19th century, Portugal had lost its
territory in South America and all but a few bases in Asia. During this phase,
Portuguese colonialism focused on expanding its outposts in Africa into nation-
sized territories to compete with other European powers there. Portugal pressed
into the hinterland of Angola and Mozambique, and explorers Serpa Pinto,
Hermenegildo Capelo and Roberto Ivens were among the first Europeans to cross
Africa west to east.[189][190]

British Ultimatum and end of Portuguese monarchy (1890–1910)

In the 19th century, Portugal launched

campaigns to solidify Portuguese
Africa.

The project to connect the two colonies, the Pink Map, was the main objective of
Portuguese policy in the 1880s.[191] However, the idea was unacceptable to the
British, who had their own aspirations of contiguous British territory running from
Cairo to Cape Town. The British Ultimatum of 1890 was imposed upon King Carlos I
of Portugal and the Pink Map came to an end.[191]

The King's reaction to the ultimatum was exploited by republicans.[191] On February

1, 1908, King Carlos and Prince Luís Filipe were assassinated in Lisbon by two
Portuguese republican activist revolutionaries, Alfredo Luís da Costa and Manuel
Buíça. Luís Filipe's brother, Manuel, became King Manuel II of Portugal. Two years
later, on October 5, 1910, he was overthrown and fled into exile in England in Fulwell
Park, Twickenham near London and Portugal became a republic.[192]
World War I

In 1914, the German Empire formulated plans to usurp Angola from Portuguese
control.[193] Skirmishes between Portuguese and German soldiers ensued, resulting
in reinforcements being sent from the mainland.[194] The main objective of these
soldiers was to recapture the Kionga Triangle, in northern Mozambique, the territory
having been subjugated by Germany. In 1916, after Portugal interned German ships
in Lisbon, Germany declared war on Portugal. Portugal followed suit, thus entering
World War I.[195] Early in the war, Portugal was involved mainly in supplying the Allies
positioned in France. In 1916, there was only one attack on the Portuguese territory,
in Madeira.[196] In 1917, one of the actions taken by Portugal was to assist Britain in
its timber industry, imperative to the war effort. Along with the Canadian Forestry
Corps, Portuguese personnel established logging infrastructure in an area now
referred to as the "Portuguese Fireplace".[197]

Throughout 1917 Portugal dispatched contingents of troops to the Allied front in

France. Midway in the year, Portugal suffered its first World War I casualty. In
Portuguese Africa, Portugal and the British fought numerous battles against the
Germans in both Mozambique and Angola. Later in the year, U-boats entered
Portuguese waters again and once more attacked Madeira, sinking multiple
Portuguese ships. Through the beginning of 1918, Portugal continued to fight along
the Allied front against Germany, including participation in the infamous Battle of La
Lys.[198] As autumn approached, Germany found success in both Portuguese Africa
and against Portuguese vessels, sinking multiple ships. After nearly three years of
fighting (from a Portuguese perspective), World War I ended, with an armistice
being signed by Germany. At the Versailles Conference, Portugal regained control of
all its lost territory, but did not retain possession (by the principle of uti possidetis)
of territories gained during the war, except for Kionga, a port city in modern-day
Tanzania.[199]

Portuguese territories in Africa eventually included the modern nations of Cape

Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe, Guinea-Bissau, Angola, and Mozambique.[200]

Turmoil and decolonization (1951–1999)

In the 20th century, Portugal no longer called

itself an empire but a pluricontinental nation
 itself an empire, but a pluricontinental nation
with overseas provinces.

In the wake of World War II, decolonization movements began to gain momentum in
the empires of the European powers. The ensuing Cold War also created
instabilities among Portuguese overseas populations, as the United States and
Soviet Union vied to increase their spheres of influence. Following the granting of
independence to India by Britain in 1947, and the decision by France to allow its
enclaves in India to be incorporated into the newly independent nation, pressure
was placed on Portugal to do the same.[201] This was resisted by António de Oliveira
Salazar, who had taken power in 1933. Salazar rebuffed a request in 1950 by Indian
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to return the enclaves, viewing them as integral
parts of Portugal.[202] The following year, the Portuguese constitution was amended
to change the status of the colonies to overseas provinces. In 1954, a local uprising
resulted in the overthrow of the Portuguese authorities in the Indian enclave of
Dadra and Nagar Haveli. The existence of the remaining Portuguese colonies in
India became increasingly untenable and Nehru enjoyed the support of almost all
the Indian domestic political parties as well as the Soviet Union and its allies. In
1961, shortly after an uprising against the Portuguese in Angola, Nehru ordered the
Indian Army into Goa, Daman and Diu, which were quickly captured and formally
annexed the following year. Salazar refused to recognize the transfer of sovereignty,
believing the territories to be merely occupied. The Province of Goa continued to be
represented in the Portuguese National Assembly until 1974.[203]

António de Oliveira Salazar

sought the preservation of a
pluricontinental Portugal.

The outbreak of violence in February 1961 in Angola was the beginning of the end of
Portugal's empire in Africa. Portuguese army officers in Angola held the view that it
would be incapable of dealing militarily with an outbreak of guerilla warfare and
therefore that negotiations should begin with the independence movements.
However, Salazar publicly stated his determination to keep the empire intact, and by
the end of the year, 50,000 troops had been stationed there. The same year, the tiny
Portuguese fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá in Ouidah, a remnant of the West
African slave trade, was annexed by the new government of Dahomey (now Benin)
that had gained its independence from France. Unrest spread from Angola to
Guinea, which rebelled in 1963, and Mozambique in 1964.[203]

The rise of Soviet influence among the Movimento das Forças Armadas's military
(MFA) and working class, and the cost and unpopularity of the Portuguese Colonial
War (1961–1974), in which Portugal resisted to the emerging nationalist guerrilla
movements in some of its African territories, eventually led to the collapse of the
Estado Novo regime in 1974. Known as the "Carnation Revolution", one of the first
acts of the MFA-led government which then came into power – the National
Salvation Junta (Junta de Salvação Nacional) – was to end the wars and negotiate
Portuguese withdrawal from its African colonies. These events prompted a mass
exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from
Angola and Mozambique), creating over a million Portuguese refugees – the
retornados.[204] Portugal's new ruling authorities also recognized Goa and other
Portuguese India's territories invaded by India's military forces, as Indian territories.
Benin's claims over São João Baptista de Ajudá were accepted by Portugal in
1974.[205]

According to one historian, Portuguese rulers were unwilling to meet the demands
of their colonial subjects (unlike other European powers) in part because
Portuguese elites believed that "Portugal lacked the means to conduct a successful
"exit strategy" (akin to the "neocolonial" approach followed by the British, the French,
or the Belgians)" and in part due to the lack of "a free and open debate [in Salazar's
dictatorial state] on the costs of upholding an empire against the anti-colonial
consensus that had prevailed in the United Nations since the early 1960s".[206]

Civil wars in Angola and Mozambique promptly broke out, with incoming communist
governments formed by the former rebels (and backed by the Soviet Union, Cuba,
and other communist countries) fighting against insurgent groups supported by
nations like Zaire, South Africa, and the United States.[207] East Timor also declared
independence in 1975 by making an exodus of many Portuguese refugees to
Portugal, which was also known as retornados. However, East Timor was almost
immediately invaded by neighbouring Indonesia, which later occupied it up until
1999. A United Nations-sponsored referendum resulted in a majority of East
Timorese choosing independence, which was finally achieved in 2002.[208]

In 1987, Portugal signed the Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration with the People's
Republic of China to establish the process and conditions for the transfer of
sovereignty of Macau, its last remaining colony. While this process was similar to
the agreement between the United Kingdom and China two years earlier regarding
Hong Kong, the Portuguese transfer to China was met with less resistance than that
of Britain regarding Hong Kong, as Portugal had already recognized Macau as
Chinese territory under Portuguese administration in 1979.[209] Under the transfer
agreement, Macau is to be governed under a one country, two systems policy, in
which it will retain a high degree of autonomy and maintain its capitalist way of life
for at least 50 years after the handover in 2049. The handover on December 20,
1999 officially marked the end of the Portuguese Empire and end of colonialism in
Asia.[210]

Legacy

Map of the Community of Portuguese

Language Countries; member states
(blue), associate observers (green),
and officially-interested countries &
territories (gold)

     Actual possessions

     Explorations
     Areas of influence and trade
     Claims of sovereignty
     Trading posts
     Main sea explorations, routes and
areas of influence

Presently, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) serves as the

cultural and intergovernmental successor of the Empire.[211]

Macau was returned to China on 20 December 1999, under the terms of an

agreement negotiated between People's Republic of China and Portugal twelve
years earlier. Nevertheless, the Portuguese language remains co-official with
Cantonese Chinese in Macau.[212]
  

The Se Cathedral in Goa, India, an

example of Portuguese architecture
and one of Asia's largest churches

Currently, the Azores, Madeira, and Savage Islands are the only overseas territories
that remain politically linked to Portugal. Although Portugal began the process of
decolonizing East Timor in 1975, during 1999–2002 was sometimes considered
Portugal's last remaining colony, as the Indonesian invasion of East Timor was not
justified by Portugal.[213]

Eight of the former colonies of Portugal have Portuguese as their official language.
Together with Portugal, they are now members of the Community of Portuguese
Language Countries, which when combined total 10,742,000 km2, or 7.2% of the
Earth's landmass (148 939 063 km2).[214] There are six associate observers of the
CPLP: Georgia, Japan, Mauritius, Namibia, Senegal, and Turkey. Moreover, twelve
candidate countries or regions have applied for membership to the CPLP and are
awaiting approval.[215]

Portuguese remains an official

language in Macau, alongside
Chinese.

Today, Portuguese is one of the world's major languages, ranked sixth overall with
approximately 240 million speakers around the globe.[216] It is the third most spoken
language in the Americas, mainly due to Brazil, although there are also significant
communities of lusophones in nations such as Canada, the US and Venezuela. In
addition, there are numerous Portuguese-based creole languages, including the one
utilized by the Kristang people in Malacca.[217]

For instance, as Portuguese merchants were presumably the first to introduce the
sweet orange in Europe, in several modern Indo-European languages the fruit has
been named after them. Some examples are Albanian portokall, Bulgarian портокал
(portokal), Greek πορτοκάλι (portokali), Macedonian портокал (portokal), Persian
‫( ﭘﺮﺗﻘﺎل‬porteghal), and Romanian portocală.[218][219] Related names can be found in
other languages, such as Arabic ‫( اﻟﺒﺮﺗﻘﺎل‬bourtouqal), Georgian ფორთოხალი
(p'ort'oxali), Turkish portakal and Amharic birtukan.[218] Also, in southern Italian
dialects (e.g., Neapolitan), an orange is portogallo or purtuallo, literally "(the)
Portuguese (one)", in contrast to standard Italian arancia.

In light of its international importance, Portugal and Brazil are leading a movement
to include Portuguese as one of the official languages of the United Nations.[220]

See also

Evolution of the Portuguese Empire

Lusotropicalism

Portuguese inventions

Portuguese in Africa

Portuguese Surinamese

Strait of Magellan

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Footnotes
a. From 1808 to 1821, the capital was the city of Rio de Janeiro.

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