Drilling and Completion of Well

Drilling is a process whereby a hole is bored using a drill bit to create a well
for oil and natural gas production. There are various kinds of oil wells with
different functions:
• Exploration wells (or wildcat wells) are drilled for exploration purposes in new
areas. The location of the exploration well is determined by geologists.
• Appraisal wells are those drilled to assess the characteristics of a proven petroleum
reserve such as flow rate.
• Development or production wells are drilled for the production of oil or gas in fields
of proven economic and recoverable oil or gas reserves.
• Relief wells are drilled to stop the flow from a reservoir when a production well has
experienced a blowout. Specialized liquid, such as heavy (dense) drilling mud
followed by cement, can then be pumped down the relief well in order to stop the
flow from the reservoir in the damaged well.
well
• An injection well is drilled to enable petroleum engineers to inject steam, carbon
dioxide and other substances into an oil producing unit so as to maintain reservoir
pressure or to lower the viscosity of the oil, allowing it to flow into a nearby well.
Importance of drilling:
 Primarily for the production of oil and gases.
 Used to assess the characteristics of a proven hydrocarbon accumulation.
 For
or information gathering in a new area.
 Its purpose is to discover new petroleum reservoir.
 Produce geothermal resources (natural heat or energy) below the earth surfaces.

Directional drilling is defined as the practice of controlling the direction and deviation
of a wellbore to a predetermined underground target or location located at a given
lateral distance and direction from vertical.
The process of drilling an oil and natural gas production well involves several
important steps:
• Boring: a drill bit and pipe are used to create a hole vertically into the
ground. Sometimes, drilling operations cannot be completed directly above
an oil or gas reservoir, for example, when reserves are situated under residential
areas. Fortunately, a process called directional drilling can be done to bore a well at
an angle. This process is done by boring a vertical well and then angling it towards
the reservoir.
• Circulation: drilling mud is circulated into the hole and back to the surface for
various functions including the removal of rock cuttings from the hole and the
maintenance of working temperatures and pressures.
• Casing: once the hole is at the desired depth, the well requires a cement casing to
prevent collapse.
• Completion: after a well has been cased, it needs to be readied for production. Small
holes called perforations are made in the portion of the casing which passed through
the production zone, to provide a path for the oil or gas to flow.
• Production: this is the phase of the well's life where it actually
produces oil and/or gas.
• Abandonment: when a well has reached the end of its useful life (this is usually
determined by economics), it is plugged and abandoned to protect the surrounding
environment.
Types of holes:
• Celler hole: The initial hole is called the "cellar" and is five to ten feet wide and five
to ten feet deep. This hole is lined with steel corrugated pipe. The cellar is used to
capture drilling fluids and drainage water during the drilling process and to
accommodate the blow-out preventer and ultimately the wellhead equipment if the
well is successful.
• Conductor hole: A second hole approximately 28 inches in diameter is then drilled
from the center of the cellar to a depth of 60 to 90 feet to accommodate the
"conductor". The conductor is the guide or starter hole used by the large drilling rig
to do its drilling. To secure this hole from cave-in and to facilitate well control, steel
casing is lowered into the hole and cemented in place.
• Mouse hole: The mouse hole is an opening in the rig floor that allows for the fast
connection of a single joint of drill pipe to the drill string during drilling. A new joint
of drill pipe is lowered into the mouse hole where it waits for the next connection.
• When the bit drills down and the kelly is near the rotary table, another piece of
drillpipe must be added for drilling to continue.
continue Then the kelly and the joint of pipe
in the mousehole are raised to remove the pipe from the mousehole, the mousehole
pipe screwed onto the rest of the drillstring,
drillstring and the drillstring lowered, rotated, and
pumped through to continue drilling.
• Rat hole: A storage place for the kelly, consisting of an opening in the rig floor fitted
with a piece of casing with an internal diameter larger than the outside diameter of
the kelly, but less than that of the upper kelly valve so that the kelly may be lowered
into the rathole until the upper kelly valve rests on the top of the piece of casing.
Main rig system components:
1. Power system
2. Hoisting system
3. Rotary system
4. Fluid circulation system
5. Well control system
6. Well monitoring system

1. Power system: Most rig power is consumed by hoisting and fluid circulation
system. Modern rig are powered by internal combustion diesel engine or turbine.
2. Hoisting system: The function of the hoisting system is to provide a means of lowering or
raising drill strings, casing strings and other subsurface equipment into or out of the hole.
The principle components are:
• Derrick and substructure
• Crown block
• Traveling block
• Draw works
• Drilling line
Two routine drilling operations performed with the hoisting systems are:
• Making a connection: refers to the periodic process of adding a new joint of drill pipe
as the hole deepens
• Making a trip: refers to the process of removing the drill string from the hole to
change a portion of the downhole assembly.
assembly A trip is usually made to change a dull
bit.
Hoisting system

Substructure: is the supporting base for the derrick, the draw works and the rotary
table, which constitutes the working floor for operation. It is a reticular structure of
steel beams that can easily be dismantled.
Derrick or portable mast:
 A large load-bearing structure, usually of bolted construction. In drilling, the
standard derrick has four legs standing at the corners of the substructure and
reaching to the crown block. The substructure is an assembly of heavy beams used
to elevate the derrick and provide space to install blowout preventers, casing
heads, and so forth.
 The function of the derrick is to provide the vertical height required to raise a
section of pipe from and lower them into the hole. The greater the height the
longer section of pipe that can be handled and, thus, the faster along string of pipe
can be inserted in or removed from the hole.
hole
 Derricks are rated by API according to their ability to withstand compressive load
& wind load.
Hoisting system
Hoisting system
Crown block: A crown block is the stationary section of a block and tackle that
contains a set of pulleys or sheaves through which the drill line (wire rope) is
threaded or reeved and is opposite and above the traveling block. The crown block
bears the load applied at the hook and its function is to reduce the wire rope tension
required to pull the tubular material used to drill the well.
A block and tackle is a system of two or more pulleys with a rope or cable threaded
between them, usually used to lift heavy loads.
loads
Traveling block: consists of another set of sheaves mounted on an axis connected to
the hook. The number of sheaves in the crown and travelling block is chosen on the
basis of the rated capacity of the tower and the rate of pulling, which is inversely
proportional to the number of lines of wire rope connecting the travelling block and
the crown block.
Hook: The hook is attached to the bottom of the traveling block and provides a way
to pick up heavy loads with the traveling block.
Hoisting system

Fig: Derrick and Substructure

Hoisting system
Draw works: A draw-works is the primary hoisting machinery that is a component
of a rotary drilling rig. Its main function is to provide a means of raising and
lowering the traveling blocks. The wire-roperope drilling line winds on the draw works
drum and extends to the crown block and traveling blocks, allowing the drill string
to be moved up and down as the drum turns.
turns
The segment of drilling line from the draw-works
draw to the crown block is called the
"fast line". The drilling line then enters the sheaves of the crown block and it makes
several passes between the crown block and traveling block pulleys for mechanical
advantage. The line then exits the last sheave on the crown block and is fastened to
a derrick leg on the other side of the rig floor.
floor This section of drilling line is called
the "dead line".
The basic components of the draw works are an engine, one or more drums
containing a steel cable, and the brakes.
i. Drum: the spool-shaped
shaped cylinder in the draw works around which drilling line is
wound or spooled that transmits the torque required for hoisting or braking.
ii. Brakes: must have the capacity to stop and sustain great weights imposed when
lowering a string of pipe into the hole.
Hoisting system

Fig: Hoisting drum Fig: Drilling line

Hoisting system
Drilling line: A wire rope hoisting line, reeved on sheaves of the crown block and
traveling block (in effect a block and tackle).
tackle) Its primary purpose is to hoist or lower
drill pipe or casing from or into a well. Also, a wire rope used to support the drilling
tools.

3. Fluid circulating system: Major function of the fluid circulating system is to

remove the rock cuttings from the hole as drilling progresses.
Principle components are:
i. Mud pumps: Reciprocating positive displacement pump are usually used.
ii. Stand pipe: The vertical pipe rising along the side of the Derrick or Mast, which
joins mud pump manifold to the rotary hose
iii. Rotary hose
iv. Mud return: The passageway of the drilling fluid as it comes out of the well.
Fluid circulating system
V. Shale shaker: An equipment the uses a vibrating screen to
remove cuttings from the circulating fluid in rotary drilling operations.
VI. Desander: A centrifugal device for removing sand from the drilling fluid to
prevent abrasion of the pumps.
VII. Desilter: Also a centrifugal device for removing free particles of silt from the
drilling fluid to keep the amount of solids in the fluid at the lowest value.
VIII. Mud gas separator
IX. Mud pit
X. Mud mixing equipment
Fluid circulating system

Fig: Fluid circulating system Fig: Rotary hose

Fluid circulating system
Drilling fluid: Drilling fluid is most commonly a suspension of clay & other
materials in water & is called drilling mud..
Drilling fluid is used to:
i. Clean the rock fragments from beneath the bit and carry them to the surface.
ii. Exert sufficient hydrostatic pressure against subsurface formations to prevent
formation fluids from flowing into the well.
iii. Keep the newly drilled borehole open until still casing can be cemented in the
hole.
iv. Cool and lubricate the rotating drill string and bit.
Drilling fluid should not:
i. Have properties detrimental to the use of planned formation evaluation
techniques
ii. Cause any adverse effects upon the formation penetrated.
iii. Cause any corrosion of the drilling equipment and subsurface tubular.
Fluid circulating system
Classification of drilling fluid
Fluid circulating system
The main factors for selecting drilling fluid are:
1. the types of formations to be drilled
2. the range of temperature, strength, permeability, and pore fluid pressure
exhibited by the formations
3. formation evaluation procedure used
4. water quality available
5. ecological and environmental consideration
Drilling fluid additives: Drilling muds typically have several additives. (Air and
foam fluids typically do not contain many additives because the additives are
either liquid or solid, and will not mix with air and foam drilling fluids.) The
following is a list of the more significant additives
 Weighting materials: primarily barite (barium sulfate), may be used to increase
the density of the mud in order to equilibrate the pressure between the wellbore
and formation when drilling through particularly pressurized zones. Hematite
(Fe2O3) sometimes is used as a weighting agent in oil-based muds.
Fluid circulating system
 Corrosion inhibitors: such as iron oxide, aluminum bisulfate, zinc carbonate, and
zinc chromate protect pipes and other metallic components from acidic
compounds encountered in the formation.
formation
 Dispersants: including iron lignosulfonates,
lignosulfonates break up solid clusters into small
particles so they can be carried by the fluid.
fluid
 Flocculants: primarily acrylic polymers, cause suspended particles to group
together so they can be removed from the fluid at the surface.
 Surfactants: like fatty acids and soaps, defoam and emulsify the mud.
 Biocides: typically organic amines, chlorophenols,
chlorophenols or formaldehydes, kill bacteria
and help reduce the souring of drilling mud.
mud
 Fluid loss reducers: include starch and organic polymers and limit the loss of
drilling mud to under-pressurized or high-permeability
high formations.
Rotary system
1. Swivel: The rotary tool that is hung from the hook of the traveling block
to suspend the drill string and permit it to rotate freely. It also provide
connection for the rotary hose and provide passageway for the flow of drilling
fluid into the drill stem.
2. Kelly: The Kelly is a pipe of square or hexagonal section that transmits the
motion of the rotary table to the drill string. It receives this motion from the
Kelly, joined through sliding coupling, so that it can move vertically.
3. Kelly or drive bushing: A device that when fitted to master bushing transmits
torque to the Kelly and simultaneously permits vertical movement of the Kelly
to make hole.
4. Master bushing: A device that fits into the rotary table to accommodate the slips
and drive the Kelly bushing so that the rotating motion of the rotary table can be
transmitted to the Kelly.
5. Rotary Table: The rotary table makes the drill string rotate and supports its
weight during operations or during the connection of a new drill pipe.
Rotary system

Fig: Rotary system

Rotary system
Well control system
Prevents the uncontrolled flow of formation fluids from the wellbore.
Kick: The flow of formation of fluids into the well in the presence of drilling fluid is
called kick.
Blowout: Failure of the well control system results in an uncontrolled flow of
formation fluids and is called a blowout. This is perhaps the worst disaster that can
occur during drilling operation. Blowout can cause loss of life, drilling equipment,
the well, much of oil & gas reserves in the underground reservoir & damage to the
environment near the well.
Blow out preventer (BOP): A blowout preventer (BOP) is a large,
specialized valve or similar mechanical device, used to seal, control and
monitor oil and gas wells to prevent blowouts, the uncontrolled release of crude oil
and/or natural gas from a well. Two categories of blowout preventer are most
prevalent: ram and annular. BOP stacks frequently utilize both types, typically with
at least one annular BOP stacked above several ram BOPs.
Well control system
 One or more valves installed at the wellhead to prevent the escape of pressure
either in the annular space between the casing and the drill pipe or in open hole
(for example, hole with no drill pipe) during drilling or completion operations
called BOP
 Multiple BOP’s used in a series are referred to collectively as BOP stack.
 BOPs and associated valves are installed on top of the casing head before drilling
ahead after rigging up. These high -pressure safety valves and associated
equipment are designed to shut off the well hole and prevent the escape of the
underground fluids and prevent a blowout from occurring.
 After installation, the BOP and associated valves are pressure tested to insure
integrity and proper operations.
Well control system
The primary functions of a blowout preventer system are to:
• Confine well fluid to the wellbore
• Provide means to add fluid to the wellbore
• Allow controlled volumes of fluid to be withdrawn from the wellbore.
Additionally, and in performing those primary functions, blowout preventer systems
are used to:
• Regulate and monitor wellbore pressure;;
• Center and hang off the drill string in the wellbore;
• Shut in the well (e.g. seal the void, annulus, between drill pipe and casing);
• “Kill” the well (prevent the flow of formation fluid, influx, from the reservoir into
the wellbore) ;
• Seal the wellhead (close off the wellbore)
Well control system
BOP basically of two types:
1. Ram type BOP
2. Annular type BOP
Ram type BOP: A ram-type BOP is similar in operation to a gate valve, but uses a
pair of opposing steel plungers, rams. The rams extend toward the center of the
wellbore to restrict flow or retract open in order to permit flow. The inner and top
faces of the rams are fitted with packers (elastomeric seals) that press against each
other, against the wellbore, and around tubing running through the wellbore. There
are three types of Ram BOP:
 Pipe rams: Pipe rams close around a drill pipe, restricting flow in the annulus
(ring-shaped space between concentric objects) between the outside of the drill
pipe and the wellbore, but do not obstruct flow within the drill pipe. Pipe ram have
semicircular openings which match the diameter of pipe sizes.
Well control system
 Blind rams: Also known as sealing rams, which have no openings for tubing, can
close off the well when the well does not contain a drill string or other tubing, and
seal it.
 Shear rams: are intended to seal a wellbore, even when the bore is occupied by a
drill string, by cutting through the drill string as the rams close off the well. This
will cause the drill string to drop in the hole and will stop flow from the well.
Closed only when other rams failed to stop flow.
Annular type BOP: A large valve used to control wellbore fluids. In this type of
valve, the sealing element resembles a large rubber doughnut that is mechanically
squeezed inward to seal on either pipe (drill collar, drill pipe, casing, or tubing) or
the open hole. The ability to seal on a variety of pipe sizes is one advantage the
annular blowout preventer has over the ram BOP.
The choke line valve is used to redirect the mud from the well bore to the choke
manifold during a kick.
The kill line valve is used to direct drilling fluid to the BOP during a kick.
 Well control system

Fig: Ram type BOP Fig: Blind ram Fig: Pipe ram Fig: Shear ram
Well control system

Fig: Annular type BOP

Well monitoring system
Safe and efficient operation require constant monitoring of the well to detect drilling
problems quickly. Parameters that are monitored:
monitored
i. Depth
ii. Penetration rate
iii. Hook load
iv. Rotary speed
v. Rotary torque
vi. Pump rate
vii. Pump pressure
viii. Mud density
ix. Mud temperature
x. Mud salinity
xi. Gas content of mud
xii. Hazardous gas content of air
xiii. Pit level
xiv. Mud flow rate
Well completion system
Completion is the process of making a well ready for production (or injection)

Completion components:
• Wellhead
• Christmas tree
• Tubing hanger
• Production tubing
• Casing hanger
• Casing string
• Cementing casing.
• Packer
• Perforations
Well completion system
Christ mas tree: Many times, the words Christmas Tree and Wellhead are used
interchangeably; however, a wellhead and X-mas tree are entirely separate pieces of
equipment. A wellhead must be present in order to utilize a Christmas tree and is
used without a Christmas tree during drilling operations. A Christmas Tree is an
assembly of valves, spools, and fittings used for an oil well, gas well, water
injection well, water disposal well, gas injection well, condensate well, and other
types of wells. It is named for its resemblance to Christmas tree.
• The two lower valves are called the master valves (upper and lower respectively).
Master valves are normally in the fully open position and are never opened or
closed when the well is flowing (except in an emergency) to prevent erosion of the
valve sealing surfaces. The lower master valve will normally be manually
operated, while the upper master valve is often hydraulically actuated, allowing it
to be used as a means of remotely shutting in the well in the event of emergency.
Hydraulic operated wing valves are usually built to be fail safe closed, meaning
they require active hydraulic pressure to stay open. This feature means that if
control fluid fails the well will automatically shut itself in without operator action.
Well completion system
• The upper master valve is used on a routine basis, with the lower master valve
providing backup or contingency function in the event that the normal service
valve is leaking and needs replacement.
• The right hand valve is often called the flow wing valve or the production wing
valve, because it is in the flow path the hydrocarbons take to production facilities
(or the path water or gas will take from production to the well in the case of
injection wells).
• The left hand valve is often called the kill wing valve (KWV). It is primarily used
for injection of fluids such as corrosion inhibitors or methanol to prevent hydrate
formation and to kill or abandon the well when it is run off the hydrocarbon.
• The valve at the top is called the swab valve and lies in the path used for well
interventions like wireline and coiled tubing. This valve is typically manually
operated.
Well completion system
Cement is used to:
i. Protect and support the casing.
ii. Prevent the movement of fluid through the annular space outside the casing.
iii.Stop the movement of fluid into vugular or fractured formations.
iv. Close an abandoned portion of the well.
well
They usually consist of portland or pozzolanic cement with special organic retarders
to prevent the cement from setting too quickly.
Well stimulation: Sometime,, petroleum exists in a formation but is unable to flow
readily into the well because the formation has very low permeability.
1. Natural low permeability formation.
2. Formation damage: Alteration of the far--field or virgin characteristics of
a producing formation, usually by exposure to drilling fluids. The water or solid
particles in the drilling fluids, or both, tend to decrease the pore volume and
effective permeability of the producible formation in the near-wellbore region.
Well stimulation
Hydraulic fracturing: A stimulation treatment routinely performed on oil and gas
wells in low-permeability reservoirs. Specially engineered fluids are pumped at
high pressure and rate into the reservoir interval to be treated, causing a
vertical fracture to open. The wings of the fracture extend away from the wellbore in
opposing directions according to the natural stresses within the formation. Proppant,
such as grains of sand of a particular size, is mixed with the treatment fluid to keep
the fracture open when the treatment is complete.
complete Hydraulic fracturing creates high-
conductivity communication with a large area of formation and bypasses
any damage that may exist in the near-wellbore
wellbore area.
Matrix acidizing: The treatment of a reservoir formation with a stimulation fluid
containing a reactive acid. In sandstone formations, the acid reacts with the soluble
substances in the formation matrix to enlarge the pore spaces.
In carbonate formations, the acid dissolves the entire formation matrix. In each case,
the matrix acidizing treatment improves the formation permeability to enable
enhanced production of reservoir fluids.. Matrix acidizing operations are ideally
performed at high rate, but at treatment pressures below the fracture pressure of the
formation. This enables the acid to penetrate the formation and extend the depth of
treatment while avoiding damage to the reservoir formation.
Well stimulation
Fracture acidizing: A well-stimulation operation in which acid, usually hydrochloric acid
(HCl), is injected into a carbonate formation at a pressure above the formation-fracturing
pressure. Flowing acid tends to etch the fracture faces in a nonuniform pattern, forming
conductive channels that remain open without a propping agent after the fracture closes.
Properties of a fracturing fluid
The ideal fracturing fluid should:
• Be able to transport the propping agent in the fracture
• Be compatible with the formation rock and fluid
• Generate enough pressure drop along the fracture to create a wide fracture
• Minimize friction pressure losses during injection
• Be formulated using chemical additives that are approved by the local environmental
regulations.
• Exhibit controlled-break to a low-viscosity
viscosity fluid for cleanup after the treatment
• Be cost-effective.
• Do not react with formation fluid.
Well stimulation
The most critical parameters for hydraulic fracturing are:
• Formation permeability
• The in-situ stress distribution
• Reservoir fluid viscosity
• Skin factor
• Reservoir pressure
• Reservoir depth
• The condition of the wellbore
Well logging
Well logging, also known as borehole logging is the practice of making a detailed
record (a well log) of the geologic formations penetrated by a borehole. The log may
be based either on visual inspection of samples brought to the surface (geological
logs) or on physical measurements made by instruments lowered into the hole
(geophysical logs). Well logging is done during all phases of a well's development;
drilling, completing, producing and abandoning.
abandoning Mostly in the oil and gas,
groundwater, minerals, geothermal, and for environmental and geotechnical studies.
Logging tools are inserted into the well to measure the electrical, acoustic,
radioactive and electromagnetic properties of the subsurface formations. Sometimes
the logging tools are incorporated into the drilling tool, and sometimes the drilling
tools are lowered into the well at regular intervals to collect data.
Engineers and drillers use well logs to measure depths of formation tops, thickness
of formations, porosity, water saturation, temperature, types of formations
encountered, presence of oil and/or gas, estimated permeability, reservoir pressures
and formation dip-ultimately determining whether a well is commercially viable or
not and whether casing, cementing and completion should be run on a well.
Well logging
Well logs show everything about a borehole. They examine and record data relating
to:
• Rock Composition: The type of elements and minerals present. Common strata
types include limestone, sandstone and shale. A log determines what rocks line the
borehole.
• Rock Characteristics: For instance, the presence of liquid. Fluids in rock fall
under the categories of permeability and porosity.
• Rock integrity: The strength of rocks regarding fracturing. Analysis of structural
liabilities and risk of cave-ins.
ins. Whether organic material is present in the hole.
• Liquid Presence: Type of fluids in the borehole. Their salinity, pressure and
saturation.
• Borehole Factors: Shape, size, angulations and trajectory of the borehole. How
the engineering aspects relate to the previous factors and whether any problems
will arise.
• Hydrocarbon Presence: In addition to valuable minerals, hydrocarbons such as
oil and gas represent another thing logs display. These resources stand as the main
reason to analyze boreholes.
Well logging
• Gamma Ray log
• Self Potential log
• Caliber log
• Density log
• Sonic log
• Neutron log
• Resistivity Log
• NMR log
• Spectrum log
Natural Gas Processing
Natural Gas Processing
Raw natural gas comes from three types of wells:
wells oil wells, gas wells, and condensate wells.
Natural gas that comes from oil wells is typically termed ‘associated gas’. This gas can exist
separate from oil in the formation (free gas), or dissolved in the crude oil (dissolved gas).
Natural gas from gas and condensate wells, in which there is little or no crude oil, is termed
‘nonassociated gas’. Gas wells typically produce raw natural gas by itself, while condensate
wells produce free natural gas along with a semi-liquid
semi hydrocarbon condensate.
Whatever the source of the natural gas, once separated from crude oil (if present) it
commonly exists in mixtures with other hydrocarbons;
hydrocarbons principally ethane, propane, butane,
and pentanes. In addition, raw natural gas contains water vapor, hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
carbon dioxide, helium, nitrogen, and other compounds.
compounds
Natural gas processing consists of separating all of the various hydrocarbons and fluids
from the pure natural gas, to produce what is known as ‘pipeline quality’ dry natural gas.
Natural Gas Processing
In fact, associated hydrocarbons, known as ‘natural gas liquids’ (NGLs) can be very
valuable by-products of natural gas processing.
processing NGLs include ethane, propane,
butane, iso-butane, and natural gasoline. These NGLs are sold separately and have a
variety of different uses; including enhancing oil recovery in oil wells, providing
raw materials for oil refineries or petrochemical plants, and as sources of energy.
Glycol dehydration process:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/glycol
com/topics/engineering/glycol-dehydration-process
Criteria of Liquid Desiccant for Dehydration
A number of liquids possess the capability to absorb water from a gas stream. Few liquids,
however, meet the criteria for a suitable commercial application. Some of the criteria of
commercial suitability are:
1. The absorbing liquid should be highly hygroscopic; that is, it must have a strong affinity for water.
2. The hydrocarbon components of natural gas should have a low solubility in the solvent to minimize the loss
of desired product and to reduce hydrocarbon emissions.
3. The desiccant should be easily regenerated to higher concentration for reuse, usually by the application of
heat, which drives off the absorbed water.
4. The desiccant should have a very low vapor pressure. This will reduce the amount of solvent losses due to
vaporization.
5. The desiccant should exhibit thermal stability, particularly in the high temperature ranges found in the
reboiler.
6. Suitable solutions should not solidify in the temperature ranges expected in the process of dehydration.
7. All liquids must be non-corrosive
corrosive to the selected metallurgy of all dehydration equipment, especially the
reboiler vapor space, the stripping column of the regenerator, and the bottom of the contactor.
8. The liquid desiccants should not chemically react with any of the natural gas constituents,
including carbon dioxide and sulfur compounds.
Criteria of Solid Desiccant for Dehydration
The following properties are desirable.
1. Large surface area for high capacity. Commercial adsorbents have a surface area of 500–800 m2/g
2. Good “activity” for the components to be removed, and good activity retention with time/use
3. High mass transfer rate(i.e., a high rate of removal)
4. Easy, economic regeneration
5. Small resistance to gas flow, so that the pressure drop through the dehydration system is small
6. High mechanical strength to resist crushing and dust formation. The adsorbent also must retain
enough strength when “wet.”
7. Cheap, non-corrosive, non-toxic, chemically inert, high bulk density, and small volume changes
upon adsorption and desorption of water.
Advantages of Solid Desiccant for Dehydration
The advantages of solid-desiccant dehydration include the following:
• Lower dew point, essentially dry gas (water content <1.0 lb/MMcf) can be produced
• Higher contact temperatures can be tolerated with some adsorbents
• Higher tolerance to sudden load changes, especially on start up
• Quick start up after a shutdown
High adaptability for recovery of certain liquid hydrocarbons in addition to dehydration functions
These types of dehydration systems are best suited for large volumes of gas under very high
pressure,
and are thus usually located on a pipeline downstream of a compressor station.

Operating problems with the solid-desiccant dehydration include:

• space adsorbents degenerate with use and require replacement
• dehydrating tower must be regenerated and cooled for operation before another tower approaches
exhaustion. The maximum allowable time on dehydration gradually shortens because desiccant
loses capacity with use
Introduction to well completion
General Procedure of well completion
Open hole well completion
Cased hole well completion
 Informal definition:
The high time of the well when engineer and
personnel comes to decide whether to install the
production casing in order to initiate the production at
the surface or it should be abandoned .

Technical Definition:
Well completion means to prepare the well for
production by installing the necessary
equipments into the well in order to allow the safe
and controlled flow of HCS at the surface.
In an open hole well completion the production casing is
just set above the pay zone, while the entire deepen bottom
of pay zone is left uncased.
•Maximum exposure of pay zone

•Less pressure drawdown during flow

•No formation damage occurs due to cementing
and perforation.
•Less formation damage
 •Inability to plug off water or gas zones

•Inability to stimulate the separate zones within the

productive zones
•For the most common type of well completion today
involves the cased hole completion, in which the
production casing and liner are cemented and
perforated subsequently.
•Select the sections of the pay zone we wish to produce
•Stimulate the separate pay zone from the well
•Multiple completion zones
•A Liner is installed across the pay zone
•It can be divided into two: Screen Liner and perforated
liner

•Screen Liner : Casing is set above the producing zone and

an uncemented screen and liner assembly is installed
across the pay zone
•Casing is set above the producing
zone and a liner assembly is installed
across the pay zone and cemented
in place. The liner is then perforated
selectively for production.
•Production casing is cemented through the
producing zone and pay section is selectively
perforated
•Production tubing is perforated and cemented
•Casing flow: large flow rate no tubing is required, used in middle
east.
•Tubing and Annulus flow: large flow rate flow segregation.
•Tubing flow: Used widely in Malaysia due to safety, may use one
more tubing strings.
•Simplest way of completing the well
•In this method well is completed by single zone with single
tubing
•In this multiple branches are drilled from a single zone
•It is used to improve productivity from closely spaced target zones.
1. What is Well Completion.
2. Setting Production Casing.
3. Installing the Tubing.
4. Installing the Christmas Tree
5. Types of Well Completion
6. Type of Flow
7. Perforating
8. Well Stimulation
WELL COMPLETION & STIMULATION
 What is Well Completion?

 After careful interpretation and consideration on well

test data (coring, logging etc), a decision is made
whether to set production casing and complete the well
or to plug and abandon it.
 Decision to abandon is made when the well is not
capable to produce oil or gas in commercial quantities.
 However, sometimes wells that were plugged and
abandoned at one time in the past may be reopened and
produced if the price of oil or gas has become more
favorable.
 “Completing a well” means installing equipment in the
well to allow a safe and controlled flow of petroleum
from the well.
 Setting Production Casing

 Production casing is the final

casing in a well.
 The hole is drilled beyond the
producing interval.
 Production casing is set and
cemented through the pay zone.
 The casing and cement actually
seal off the producing zone

Installing production
casing
Setting Production Casing
 Installing the Tubing

 Tubing is run into the well (smaller diameter

compared to production casing and removable) to
serve as a way for oil or gas to flow to the surface.
 Packer is attached to it just near the bottom.
 Packer is placed at a depth just above the producing
interval.
 When the packer is expanded, it grips the wall of
the production casing and forms a seal between
outside of tubing and inside of casing
Summary of Completion Process
 Installing the Christmas Tree

 A collection of valves called a

Christmas tree is installed on the
surface at the top of the casing
hanger.
 As the well’s production flows up
the tubing, it enters the christmas
tree.
 So, the production can be controlled
by opening or closing valves on the
christmas tree.
 Type of Well Completions

 Open Hole Completions.

 Production casing to be set
above the zone of interests.
Tubing
Production casing

Packer
 Type of Well Completions

 Liner Completions.
 A liner is install across the
pay zone. Tubing
 Can be divided into two:
Screen Liner and Perforated Production casing
Liner.
 Screen Liner: Casing is set Packer
above the producing zone,
and an uncemented screen
and liner assembly is
installed across the pay zone
Screen and
liner
assembly
Type of Well Completions

Open Hole and Screen

Liner Completion
Type of Well Completions

Screen Liner
Completion
 Type of Well Completions

 Perforated Liner
Completion: Casing is set
Tubing
above the producing zone,
and a liner assembly is Production casing
installed across the pay zone
and cemented in place. The
liner is then perforated Packer
selectively for production.

Liner

Perforation
 Type of Well Completions

 Perforated Casing
Completions.
 Production casing is Tubing
cemented through the
producing zone and the pay Production casing
section is selectively
perforated. Packer

Perforation
Perforated Casing Completions
 Type of Flow

 Three types of flow, namely casing flow, tubing and

annulus flow, and tubing flow.
 Casing Flow: Large flow rate. No tubing is required.
Used in Middle East.
 Tubing and Annulus Flow: Large flow rate. Flow
segregation.
 Tubing Flow: Used widely especially in Malaysia. Due
to safety. May use one tubing string or more.

Our future discussion will be based on the tubing

flow only in a perforated cased hole completion .
 Perforation

 Since the pay zone is sealed off by the production

casing and cement, perforations must be made in order
for oil or gas to flow into the wellbore.
 Hole made in the casing, cement, and formation,
through which formation fluids enter a wellbore.
Usually several perforation are made at a time.
 Perforating incorporates shaped-charge explosives
which creating a jet of high-pressure, high-velocity
liquid – jet perforation.
 It can be overbalance or underbalance perforation, and
wireline conveyed perforation (WCP) or tubing
conveyed perforation (TCP).
 Perforation

 Perforating gun (WCP type) is lowered into the hole at

the depth where the oil or gas formation is found (A).
 After the gun is lined up properly, powerful explosive
charges are fired (B) from the control panel at the
surface.  These explosives blast a hole in the steel
casing and cement, up to several feet out into the rock.
 Finally, the oil and gas fluids flow into the holes and
up the well to the surface (C).
 Well Stimulation

 Sometime, petroleum exists in a formation but is

unable to flow readily into the well because the
formation has very low permeability.
Natural low permeability formation.
Formation damage around the wellbore caused by
invasion of perforation fluid and charge debris.
 Acidizing or fracturing is a methods used to improve
the permeability near the wellbore.
 Acidizing

 If the formation is composed of

rocks that dissolve upon being
contacted by acid, such as
limestone or dolomite, then a
technique known as acidizing may
be required.
 Acidizing operation basically
consists of pumping from fifty to
thousands of gallons of acid down
the well.
 The acid travels down the tubing, Acidizing process
enters the perforations, and
contacts the formation.
 Acidizing

 Continued pumping forces the acid into the formation

where it produces channels.
 Channels will provide a way for the formation’s oil or
gas to enter the well through the perforations.
 The most common acid systems in use are:
 Hydrochloric Acid: This is the most widely used acid in
treatments, with concentrations ranging between 7.5% and
28%, the most common is 15%. It will dissolves Calcium
Carbonate (CaCO3), Dolomite (CaMgCO3), Siderite (FeCO3),
and Iron Oxide (Fe2O3).
 Fracturing

 The proppant enters the

fractures in the formation,
and, when pumping is
stopped and the pressure
decreased, the proppant
remains in the fractures.
 Since the fractures try to
close back together after the
pressure on the well is
released, the proppant is
needed to hold fractures
open.
 These propped-open fractures is permeable enough to
provide passages for oil or gas to flow into the well.
 Fracturing

 The proppant enters the

fractures in the formation,
and, when pumping is
stopped and the pressure
decreased, the proppant
remains in the fractures.
 Since the fractures try to
close back together after the
pressure on the well is
released, the proppant is
needed to hold fractures
open.
 These propped-open fractures is permeable enough to
provide passages for oil or gas to flow into the well.
Fracturing