Magnetic Flux, Induction, and Faraday’s Law

Induced EMF and Magnetic Flux

Faraday’s law of induction states that an electromotive force is induced by a change in
the magnetic flux.

Learning Objectives

Explain the relationship between the magnetic field and the electromotive force

Key Takeaways

Key Points

 It is a change in the magnetic field flux that results in an electromotive force (or
voltage).
 The magnetic flux (often denoted Φ or Φ B) through a surface is the component of
the magnetic field passing through that surface.
 In the most general form, magnetic flux is defined as ΦB=∬AB⋅dA

 . It is the integral (sum) of all of the magnetic field passing through infinitesimal
area elements dA.

Key Terms

 vector area: A vector whose magnitude is the area under consideration, and
whose direction is perpendicular to the surface area.
 galvanometer: An analog measuring device, denoted by G, that measures
current flow using a needle deflection caused by a magnetic field force acting
upon a current-carrying wire.

Induced EMF

The apparatus used by Faraday to demonstrate that magnetic fields can create currents
is illustrated in the following figure. When the switch is closed, a magnetic field is
produced in the coil on the top part of the iron ring and transmitted (or guided) to the coil
on the bottom part of the ring. The galvanometer is used to detect any current induced
in a separate coil on the bottom.
Faraday’s Apparatus: This is Faraday’s apparatus for demonstrating that a magnetic
field can produce a current. A change in the field produced by the top coil induces an
EMF and, hence, a current in the bottom coil. When the switch is opened and closed,
the galvanometer registers currents in opposite directions. No current flows through the
galvanometer when the switch remains closed or open.

It was found that each time the switch is closed, the galvanometer detects a current in
one direction in the coil on the bottom. Each time the switch is opened, the
galvanometer detects a current in the opposite direction. Interestingly, if the switch
remains closed or open for any length of time, there is no current through the
galvanometer. Closing and opening the switch induces the current. It is the change in
magnetic field that creates the current. More basic than the current that flows is the
electromotive force (EMF) that causes it. The current is a result of an EMF induced by a
changing magnetic field, whether or not there is a path for current to flow.

Magnetic Flux

The magnetic flux (often denoted Φ or Φ B) through a surface is the component of the
magnetic field passing through that surface. The magnetic flux through some surface is
proportional to the number of field lines passing through that surface. The magnetic flux
passing through a surface of vector area A is

ΦB=B⋅A=BAcosθ

where B is the magnitude of the magnetic field (having the unit of Tesla, T), A is the
area of the surface, and θ is the angle between the magnetic field lines and the normal
(perpendicular) to A.

For a varying magnetic field, we first consider the magnetic flux dΦB
through an infinitesimal area element dA, where we may consider the field to be
constant:

Varying Magnetic Field: Each point on a surface is associated with a direction, called
the surface normal; the magnetic flux through a point is then the component of the
magnetic field along this normal direction.

dΦB=B⋅dA

A generic surface, A, can then be broken into infinitesimal elements and the total
magnetic flux through the surface is then the surface integral

ΦB=∬AB⋅dA

Faraday’s Law of Induction and Lenz’ Law

Faraday’s law of induction states that the EMF induced by a change in magnetic flux is
EMF=−NΔΦΔt

, when flux changes by Δ in a time Δt.

Learning Objectives

Express the Faraday’s law of induction in a form of equation

Key Takeaways

Key Points

 The minus in the Faraday’s law means that the EMF creates a current I and
magnetic field B that oppose the change in flux Δthis is known as Lenz’ law.
 Faraday’s law of induction is the fundamental operating principle of transformers,
inductors, and many types of electrical motors, generators, and solenoids.
  Faraday’s law states that the EMF induced by a change in magnetic flux depends
on the change in flux Δ, time Δt, and number of turns of coils.

Key Terms

 electromotive force: (EMF)—The voltage generated by a battery or by the

magnetic force according to Faraday’s Law. It is measured in units of volts, not
newtons, and thus, is not actually a force.
 solenoid: A coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an electric current flows
through it.
 flux: The rate of transfer of energy (or another physical quantity) through a given
surface, specifically electric flux or magnetic flux.

Faraday’s Law of Induction

Faraday’s law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism that predicts how a

magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force
(EMF). It is the fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors, and many
types of electrical motors, generators, and solenoids.

Faraday’s experiments showed that the EMF induced by a change in magnetic flux
depends on only a few factors. First, EMF is directly proportional to the change in flux Δ.
Second, EMF is greatest when the change in time Δt is smallest—that is, EMF is
inversely proportional to Δt. Finally, if a coil has N turns, an EMF will be produced that is
N times greater than for a single coil, so that EMF is directly proportional to N. The
equation for the EMF induced by a change in magnetic flux is

EMF=−NΔΦΔt

This relationship is known as Faraday’s law of induction. The units for EMF are volts, as
is usual.

Lenz’ Law

The minus sign in Faraday’s law of induction is very important. The minus means that
the EMF creates a current I and magnetic field B that oppose the change in flux Δthis is
known as Lenz’ law. The direction (given by the minus sign) of the EMF is so important
that it is called Lenz’ law after the Russian Heinrich Lenz (1804–1865), who, like
Faraday and Henry, independently investigated aspects of induction. Faraday was
aware of the direction, but Lenz stated it, so he is credited for its discovery.
Lenz’ Law: (a) When this bar magnet is thrust into the coil, the strength of the magnetic
field increases in the coil. The current induced in the coil creates another field, in the
opposite direction of the bar magnets to oppose the increase. This is one aspect of
Lenz’s law—induction opposes any change in flux. (b) and (c) are two other situations.
Verify for yourself that the direction of the induced Bcoil shown indeed opposes the
change in flux and that the current direction shown is consistent with the right hand rule.

Energy Conservation

Lenz’ law is a manifestation of the conservation of energy. The induced EMF produces
a current that opposes the change in flux, because a change in flux means a change in
energy. Energy can enter or leave, but not instantaneously. Lenz’ law is a consequence.
As the change begins, the law says induction opposes and, thus, slows the change. In
fact, if the induced EMF were in the same direction as the change in flux, there would
be a positive feedback that would give us free energy from no apparent source—
conservation of energy would be violated.

Motional EMF
Motion in a magnetic field that is stationary relative to the Earth induces motional EMF
(electromotive force).

Learning Objectives
Identify process that induces motional electromotive force

Key Takeaways

Key Points

 Faraday’s law of induction can be used to calculate the motional EMF when a
change in magnetic flux is caused by a moving element in a system.
 That a moving magnetic field produces an electric field (and conversely that a
moving electric field produces a magnetic field) is part of the reason electric and
magnetic forces are now considered as different manifestations of the same
force.
 Any change in magnetic flux induces an electromotive force (EMF) opposing that
change—a process known as induction. Motion is one of the major causes of
induction.

Key Terms

 electromotive force: (EMF)—The voltage generated by a battery or by the

magnetic force according to Faraday’s Law. It is measured in units of volts, not
newtons, and thus, is not actually a force.
 magnetic flux: A measure of the strength of a magnetic field in a given area.
 induction: The generation of an electric current by a varying magnetic field.

As seen in previous Atoms, any change in magnetic flux induces an electromotive force
(EMF) opposing that change—a process known as induction. Motion is one of the major
causes of induction. For example, a magnet moved toward a coil induces an EMF, and
a coil moved toward a magnet produces a similar EMF. In this Atom, we concentrate on
motion in a magnetic field that is stationary relative to the Earth, producing what is
loosely called motional EMF.

Motional EMF

Consider the situation shown in. A rod is moved at a speed v along a pair of conducting
rails separated by a distance ℓ in a uniform magnetic field B. The rails are stationary
relative to B, and are connected to a stationary resistor R (the resistor could be anything
from a light bulb to a voltmeter). Consider the area enclosed by the moving rod, rails
and resistor. B is perpendicular to this area, and the area is increasing as the rod
moves. Thus the magnetic flux enclosed by the rails, rod and resistor is increasing.
When flux changes, an EMF is induced according to Faraday’s law of induction.
Motional EMF: (a) A motional emf=Bℓv is induced between the rails when this rod
moves to the right in the uniform magnetic field. The magnetic field B is into the page,
perpendicular to the moving rod and rails and, hence, to the area enclosed by them. (b)
Lenz’s law gives the directions of the induced field and current, and the polarity of the
induced emf. Since the flux is increasing, the induced field is in the opposite direction, or
out of the page. Right hand rule gives the current direction shown, and the polarity of
the rod will drive such a current.

To find the magnitude of EMF induced along the moving rod, we use Faraday’s law of
induction without the sign:

EMF=NΔΦΔt

In this equation, N=1 and the flux Φ=BAcosθ. We have θ=0º and cosθ=1, since B is
perpendicular to A. Now Δ=Δ(BA)=BΔA, since B is uniform. Note that the area swept
out by the rod is ΔA=ℓx. Entering these quantities into the expression for EMF yields:

EMF=BΔAΔt=BlΔxΔt=Blv
.

To find the direction of the induced field, the direction of the current, and the polarity of
the induced EMF we apply Lenz’ law, as explained in Faraday’s Law of Induction: Lenz’
Law. As seen in Fig 1 (b), F lux is increasing, since the area enclosed is increasing.
Thus the induced field must oppose the existing one and be out of the page. (The right
hand rule requires that I be counterclockwise, which in turn means the top of the rod is
positive, as shown. )

Electric Field vs. Magnetic Field

There are many connections between the electric force and the magnetic force. That a
moving magnetic field produces an electric field (and conversely that a moving electric
field produces a magnetic field) is part of the reason electric and magnetic forces are
now considered as different manifestations of the same force (first noticed by Albert
Einstein). This classic unification of electric and magnetic forces into what is called the
electromagnetic force is the inspiration for contemporary efforts to unify other basic
forces.

Back EMF, Eddy Currents, and Magnetic Damping

Back EMF, eddy currents, and magnetic damping are all due to induced EMF and can
be explained by Faraday’s law of induction.

Learning Objectives

Explain the relationship between the motional electromotive force, eddy currents, and
magnetic damping

Key Takeaways

Key Points

 Input EMF that powers a motor can be opposed by the motor’s self-generated
EMF, called the back EMF of the motor.
 If motional EMF can cause a current loop in the conductor, the current is called
an eddy current.
 Eddy currents can produce significant drag, called magnetic damping, on the
motion involved.

Key Terms

 electromotive force: (EMF)—The voltage generated by a battery or by the

magnetic force according to Faraday’s Law. It is measured in units of volts, not
newtons, and thus, is not actually a force.
  Faraday’s law of induction: A basic law of electromagnetism that predicts how
a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive
force (EMF).

Back EMF

Motors and generators are very similar. (Read our Atoms on “Electric Generators” and
“Electric Motors. “) Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy,
whereas motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Furthermore, motors
and generators have the same construction. When the coil of a motor is turned,
magnetic flux changes, and an electromotive force (EMF), consistent with Faraday’s law
of induction, is induced. The motor thus acts as a generator whenever its coil rotates.
This will happen whether the shaft is turned by an external input, like a belt drive, or by
the action of the motor itself. That is, when a motor is doing work and its shaft is turning,
an EMF is generated. Lenz’ law tells us the induced EMF opposes any change, so that
the input EMF that powers the motor will be opposed by the motor’s self-generated
EMF, called the back EMF of the motor.

Eddy Current

As discussed in “Motional EMF,” motional EMF is induced when a conductor moves in a

magnetic field or when a magnetic field moves relative to a conductor. If motional EMF
can cause a current loop in the conductor, we refer to that current as an eddy current.
Eddy currents can produce significant drag, called magnetic damping, on the motion
involved.

Consider the apparatus shown in, which swings a pendulum bob between the poles of a
strong magnet. If the bob is metal, there is significant drag on the bob as it enters and
leaves the field, quickly damping the motion. If, however, the bob is a slotted metal
plate, as shown in (b), there is a much smaller effect due to the magnet. There is no
discernible effect on a bob made of an insulator.
Device for Exploring Eddy Currents and Magnetic Damping: A common physics
demonstration device for exploring eddy currents and magnetic damping. (a) The
motion of a metal pendulum bob swinging between the poles of a magnet is quickly
damped by the action of eddy currents. (b) There is little effect on the motion of a slotted
metal bob, implying that eddy currents are made less effective. (c) There is also no
magnetic damping on a nonconducting bob, since the eddy currents are extremely
small.

shows what happens to the metal plate as it enters and leaves the magnetic field. In
both cases, it experiences a force opposing its motion. As it enters from the left, flux
increases, and so an eddy current is set up (Faraday’s law) in the counterclockwise
direction (Lenz’ law), as shown. Only the right-hand side of the current loop is in the
field, so that there is an unopposed force on it to the left (right hand rule). When the
metal plate is completely inside the field, there is no eddy current if the field is uniform,
since the flux remains constant in this region. But when the plate leaves the field on the
right, flux decreases, causing an eddy current in the clockwise direction that, again,
experiences a force to the left, further slowing the motion. A similar analysis of what
happens when the plate swings from the right toward the left shows that its motion is
also damped when entering and leaving the field.

Conducting Plate Passing Between the Poles of a Magnet: A more detailed look at
the conducting plate passing between the poles of a magnet. As it enters and leaves the
field, the change in flux produces an eddy current. Magnetic force on the current loop
opposes the motion. There is no current and no magnetic drag when the plate is
completely inside the uniform field.

When a slotted metal plate enters the field, as shown in, an EMF is induced by the
change in flux, but it is less effective because the slots limit the size of the current loops.
Moreover, adjacent loops have currents in opposite directions, and their effects cancel.
When an insulating material is used, the eddy current is extremely small, and so
magnetic damping on insulators is negligible. If eddy currents are to be avoided in
conductors, then they can be slotted or constructed of thin layers of conducting material
separated by insulating sheets.

Eddy Currents Induced in a Slotted Metal Plate: Eddy currents induced in a slotted
metal plate entering a magnetic field form small loops, and the forces on them tend to
cancel, thereby making magnetic drag almost zero.

Changing Magnetic Flux Produces an Electric Field

Faraday’s law of induction states that changing magnetic field produces an electric field:
ε=−∂ΦB∂t
Learning Objectives

Describe the relationship between the changing magnetic field and an electric field

Key Takeaways

Key Points

 Faraday’s law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism that predicts how a

magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive
force.
 An alternative, differential form of Faraday’s law of induction is express in the
equation ∇×→E=−∂→B∂t

 .
 Faraday’s law of induction is one of the four equations in Maxwell’s equations,
governing all electromagnetic phenomena.
Key Terms

 vector area: A vector whose magnitude is the area under consideration and
whose direction is perpendicular to the plane.
 Maxwell’s equations: A set of equations describing how electric and magnetic
fields are generated and altered by each other and by charges and currents.
 Stokes’ theorem: a statement about the integration of differential forms on
manifolds, which both simplifies and generalizes several theorems from vector
calculus.

We have studied Faraday’s law of induction in previous atoms. We learned the

relationship between induced electromotive force (EMF) and magnetic flux. In a
nutshell, the law states that changing magnetic field (dΦBdt)

produces an electric field (ε), Faraday’s law of induction is expressed as ε=−∂ΦB∂t,

where ε is induced EMF and ΦB

is magnetic flux. (“N” is dropped from our previous expression. The number of turns of
coil is included can be incorporated in the magnetic flux, so the factor is optional. )
Faraday’s law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism that predicts how a
magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force
(EMF). In this Atom, we will learn about an alternative mathematical expression of the
law.

Faraday’s Experiment: Faraday’s experiment showing induction between coils of wire:

The liquid battery (right) provides a current which flows through the small coil (A),
creating a magnetic field. When the coils are stationary, no current is induced. But when
the small coil is moved in or out of the large coil (B), the magnetic flux through the large
coil changes, inducing a current which is detected by the galvanometer (G).

Differential form of Faraday’s law

The magnetic flux is ΦB=∫S→B⋅d→A

, where →A is a vector area over a closed surface S. A device that can maintain a
potential difference, despite the flow of current is a source of electromotive force. (EMF)
The definition is mathematically ε=∮C→E⋅d→s

, where the integral is evaluated over a closed loop C.

Faraday’s law now can be rewritten ∮C→E⋅d→s=−∂∂t(∫→B⋅d→A)

. Using the Stokes’ theorem in vector calculus, the left hand side
is∮C→E⋅d→s=∫S(∇×→E)⋅d→A.
Also, note that in the right hand side ∂∂t(∫→B⋅d→A)=∫∂→B∂t⋅d→A. Therefore,
we get an alternative form of the Faraday’s law of induction: ∇×→E=−∂→B∂t

This is also called a differential form of the Faraday’s law. It is one of the four equations
in Maxwell’s equations, governing all electromagnetic phenomena.

Electric Generators
Electric generators convert mechanical energy to electrical energy; they induce an EMF
by rotating a coil in a magnetic field.

Learning Objectives

Explain how an electromotive force is induced in electric generators

Key Takeaways

Key Points

 An electric generator rotates a coil in a magnetic field, inducing an EMF given as

a function of time by ε=NABw sinωt.
 Generators supply almost all of the power for the electric power grids which
provide most of the world’s electric power.
 A motor becomes a generator when its shaft rotates.

Key Terms

 electromotive force: (EMF)—The voltage generated by a battery or by the

magnetic force according to Faraday’s Law. It is measured in units of volts, not
newtons, and thus, is not actually a force.
 turbine: Any of various rotary machines that use the kinetic energy of a
continuous stream of fluid (a liquid or a gas) to turn a shaft.
Electric generators are devices that convert mechanical energy to electrical energy.
They induce an electromotive force (EMF) by rotating a coil in a magnetic field. It is a
device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electric
charge (usually carried by electrons) to flow through an external electrical circuit.
Possible sources of mechanical energy include: a reciprocating or turbine steam engine,
water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine, a wind
turbine, a hand crank, compressed air, or any other source of mechanical energy.
Generators supply almost all of the power for the electric power grids which provide
most of the world’s electric power.

Steam Turbine Generator: A modern steam turbine generator.

Basic Setup

Consider the setup shown in. Charges in the wires of the loop experience the magnetic
force because they are moving in a magnetic field. Charges in the vertical wires
experience forces parallel to the wire, causing currents. However, those in the top and
bottom segments feel a force perpendicular to the wire; this force does not cause a
current. We can thus find the induced EMF by considering only the side wires. Motional
EMF is given to be EMF=Bℓv, where the velocity v is perpendicular to the magnetic field
B (see our Atom on “Motional EMF”). Here, the velocity is at an angle θ with B, so that
its component perpendicular to B is vsinθ.
Diagram of an Electric Generator: A generator with a single rectangular coil rotated at
constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field produces an emf that varies
sinusoidally in time. Note the generator is similar to a motor, except the shaft is rotated
to produce a current rather than the other way around.

Thus in this case the EMF induced on each side is EMF=Bℓvsinθ, and they are in the
same direction. The total EMF ε

around the loop is then:

ε=2Blvsinθ

This expression is valid, but it does not give EMF as a function of time. To find the time
dependence of EMF, we assume the coil rotates at a constant angular velocity ω. The
angle θ is related to angular velocity by θ=ωt, so that:

ε=2Blvsinωt

Now, linear velocity v is related to angular velocity by v=rω. Here r=w/2, so that
v=(w/2)ω, and:

ε=2Blw2ωsinωt=(lw)Bωsinωt
Noting that the area of the loop is A=ℓw, and allowing for N loops, we find that:

ε=NABw sinωt
is the EMF induced in a generator coil of N turns and area A rotating at a constant
angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field B.

Generators illustrated in this Atom look very much like the motors illustrated previously.
This is not coincidental. In fact, a motor becomes a generator when its shaft rotates.

Electric Motors
An electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Learning Objectives

Explain how force is generated into electric motors

Key Takeaways

Key Points

 Most electric motors use the interaction of magnetic fields and current -carrying
conductors to generate force.
 Current in a conductor consists of moving charges. Therefore, a current-carrying
coil in a magnetic field will also feel the Lorentz force.
 In a motor, a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a force on both
sides of the coil, which creates a twisting force (called a torque) that makes it
turn.

Key Terms

 Lorentz force: The force exerted on a charged particle in an electromagnetic

field.
 torque: A rotational or twisting effect of a force; (SI unit newton-meter or Nm;
imperial unit foot-pound or ft-lb)

The basic principles of operation for a motor are the same as those for a generator,
except that a motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (motion). (Read
our atom on electric generators first. ) Most electric motors use the interaction of
magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force. Electric motors are
found in applications as diverse as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools,
household appliances, power tools, and disk drives.

Lorentz Force

If you were to place a moving charged particle in a magnetic field, it would experience a
force called the Lorentz force:
F=q×v×B

Right-Hand Rule: Right-hand rule showing the direction of the Lorentz force

where v is the speed of the moving charge, q is the charge, and B is the magnetic field.
Current in a conductor consists of moving charges. Therefore, a current-carrying coil in
a magnetic field will also feel the Lorentz force. For a straight current carrying wire that
is not moving, the Lorentz force is:

F=I×L×B

where F is the force (in newtons, N), I is the current in the wire (in amperes, A), L is the
length of the wire that is in the magnetic field (in m), and B is the magnetic field strength
(in teslas, T). The direction of the Lorentz force is perpendicular to both the direction of
the flow of current and the magnetic field and can be found using the right-hand rule,
shown in. Using your right hand, point your thumb in the direction of the current, and
point your first finger in the direction of the magnetic field. Your third finger will now be
pointing in the direction of the force.

Torque: The force on opposite sides of the coil will be in opposite directions because
the charges are moving in opposite directions. This means the coil will rotate.

Mechanics of a Motor
Both motors and generators can be explained in terms of a coil that rotates in a
magnetic field. In a generator the coil is attached to an external circuit that is then
turned. This results in a changing flux, which induces an electromagnetic field. In a
motor, a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a force on both sides of
the coil, which creates a twisting force (called a torque) that makes it turn. Any coil
carrying current can feel a force in a magnetic field. This force is the Lorentz force on
the moving charges in the conductor. The force on opposite sides of the coil will be in
opposite directions because the charges are moving in opposite directions. This means
the coil will rotate.

Inductance
Inductance is the property of a device that tells how effectively it induces an emf in
another device or on itself.

Learning Objectives

Describe properties of an inductor, distinguishing mutual inductance and self-inductance

Key Takeaways

Key Points

 Mutual inductance is the effect of two devices in inducing emfs in each other. A
change in current ΔI1/Δt in one induces an emf emf2 in the seccond: EMF2=
−M ΔI1/Δt, where M is defined to be the mutual inductance between the two
devices.
 Self-inductance is the effect of the device inducing emf in itself.
 A device that exhibits significant self-inductance is called an inductor, and the
EMF induced in it by a change in current through it is EMF = −L ΔI/Δt.
Key Terms

 Faraday’s law of induction: A basic law of electromagnetism that predicts how

a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive
force (EMF).
 transformer: A static device that transfers electric energy from one circuit to
another by magnetic coupling. Their main use is to transfer energy between
different voltage levels, which allows choosing most appropriate voltage for
power generation, transmission and distribution separately.

Induction is the process in which an emf is induced by changing magnetic flux.

Transformers, for example, are designed to be particularly effective at inducing a
desired voltage and current with very little loss of energy to other forms (see our Atom
on “Transformers. “) Is there a useful physical quantity related to how “effective” a given
device is? The answer is yes, and that physical quantity is called inductance.

Mutual Inductance

Mutual inductance is the effect of Faraday’s law of induction for one device upon
another, such as the primary coil in transmitting energy to the secondary in a
transformer. See, where simple coils induce emfs in one another.

Mutual Inductance in Coils: These coils can induce emfs in one another like an
inefficient transformer. Their mutual inductance M indicates the effectiveness of the
coupling between them. Here a change in current in coil 1 is seen to induce an emf in
coil 2. (Note that “E2 induced” represents the induced emf in coil 2. )

In the many cases where the geometry of the devices is fixed, flux is changed by
varying current. We therefore concentrate on the rate of change of current, ΔI/Δt, as the
cause of induction. A change in the current I 1 in one device, coil 1, induces an EMF 2 in
the other. We express this in equation form as

EMF2=−MΔI1Δt
where M is defined to be the mutual inductance between the two devices. The minus
sign is an expression of Lenz’s law. The larger the mutual inductance M, the more
effective the coupling.

Nature is symmetric here. If we change the current I2 in coil 2, we induce an emf1 in coil
1, which is given by
EMF1=−MΔI2Δt
where M is the same as for the reverse process. Transformers run backward with the
same effectiveness, or mutual inductance M.

Self-Inductance

Self-inductance, the effect of Faraday’s law of induction of a device on itself, also exists.
When, for example, current through a coil is increased, the magnetic field and flux also
increase, inducing a counter emf, as required by Lenz’s law. Conversely, if the current is
decreased, an emf is induced that opposes the decrease. Most devices have a fixed
geometry, and so the change in flux is due entirely to the change in current ΔI through
the device. The induced emf is related to the physical geometry of the device and the
rate of change of current. It is given by

EMF=−LΔIΔt

where L is the self-inductance of the device. A device that exhibits significant self-
inductance is called an inductor. Again, the minus sign is an expression of Lenz’s law,
indicating that emf opposes the change in current.

A Quantitative Interpretation of Motional EMF

A a motional EMF is an electromotive force (EMF) induced by motion relative to a
magnetic field B.

Learning Objectives

Formulate two views that are applied to calculate the electromotive force

Key Takeaways

Key Points

 Motional and induced EMF are the same phenomenon, just observed in different
reference frames. Equivalence of the two phenomena is what triggered Einstein
to work on special relativity.
 The EMF produced due to the relative motion of the loop and magnet is given as
εmotion=vB×L
 (Eq. 1), where L is the length of the object moving at speed v relative to the
magnet.
  The EMF can be calculated from two different points of view: 1) in terms of the
magnetic force on moving electrons in a magnetic field, and 2) in terms of the
rate of change in magnetic flux. Both yield the same result.

Key Terms

 special relativity: A theory that (neglecting the effects of gravity) reconciles the
principle of relativity with the observation that the speed of light is constant in all
frames of reference.
 magnetic field: A condition in the space around a magnet or electric current in
which there is a detectable magnetic force, and where two magnetic poles are
present.
 frame of reference: A coordinate system or set of axes within which to measure
the position, orientation, and other properties of objects in it.

An electromotive force (EMF) induced by motion relative to a magnetic field B is called a

motional EMF. You might have noticed that motional EMF is very similar to the induced
EMF caused by a changing magnetic field. In this Atom we see that they are indeed the
same phenomenon, shown in different frame of reference.

Motional EMF

In the case where a conductor loop is moving into magnet shown in (a), magnetic force
on a moving charge in the loop is given by evB

(Lorentz force, e: electron charge).

Conductor Loop Moving Into a Magnet: (a) Motional EMF. The current loop is moving
into a stationary magnet. The direction of the magnetic field is into the screen. (b)
Induced EMF. Current loop is stationary, and the magnet is moving.

Due to the force, electrons will keep building up on one side (bottom end in the figure)
until enough of an electric field opposing the motion of electrons is established across
the rod, which is eE
. Equating the two forces, we get E=vB

Therefore, the motional EMF over the length L of the side of the loop is given by
εmotion=vB×L
(Eq. 1), where L is the length of the object moving at speed v relative to the magnet.

Induced EMF

Since the rate of change of the magnetic flux passing through the loop is BdAdt

(A: area of the loop that magnetic field pass through), the induced EMF εinduced=BLv

(Eq. 2).

Equivalence of the Motional and Induced EMF

From Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 we can confirm that motional and induced EMF yield the same
result. In fact, the equivalence of the two phenomena is what triggered Albert Einstein to
examine special relativity. In his seminal paper on special relativity published in 1905,
Einstein begins by mentioning the equivalence of the two phenomena:

“…… for example, the reciprocal electrodynamic action of a magnet and a conductor.
The observable phenomenon here depends only on the relative motion of the conductor
and the magnet, whereas the customary view draws a sharp distinction between the
two cases in which either the one or the other of these bodies is in motion. For if the
magnet is in motion and the conductor at rest, there arises in the neighbourhood of the
magnet an electric field with a certain definite energy, producing a current at the places
where parts of the conductor are situated. But if the magnet is stationary and the
conductor in motion, no electric field arises in the neighbourhood of the magnet. In the
conductor, however, we find an electromotive force, to which in itself there is no
corresponding energy, but which gives rise—assuming equality of relative motion in the
two cases discussed—to electric currents of the same path and intensity as those
produced by the electric forces in the former case. “

Mechanical Work and Electrical Energy

Mechanical work done by an external force to produce motional EMF is converted to
heat energy; energy is conserved in the process.

Learning Objectives

Apply the law of conservation of energy to describe the production motional

electromotive force with mechanical work
Key Takeaways

Key Points

 Motional EMF produced by a moving conductor in a uniform field is given as

follows ε=Blv

 To keep the rod moving at a constant speed v, we have to apply an external

force Fext constantly on the rod along its motion.
 Lenz’ law guarantees that the motion of the rod is opposed, and therefore the law
of energy conservation is not violated.

Key Terms

 motional EMF: An EMF (electromotive force) induced by motion relative to a

magnetic field.
 Faraday’s law of induction: A basic law of electromagnetism that predicts how
a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive
force (EMF).

We learned about motional EMF previously (see our Atom on “Motional EMF”). For the
simple setup shown below, motional EMF (ε)

produced by a moving conductor (in a uniform field) is given as follows:

ε=Blv
where B is the magnetic field, l is the length of the conducting rod, and v is the
(constant) speed of its motion. (B, l, and v are all perpendicular to each other as shown
in the image below.)

Motional EMF: (a) A motional emf=Bℓv is induced between the rails when this rod
moves to the right in the uniform magnetic field. The magnetic field B is into the page,
perpendicular to the moving rod and rails and, hence, to the area enclosed by them. (b)
Lenz’s law gives the directions of the induced field and current, and the polarity of the
induced emf. Since the flux is increasing, the induced field is in the opposite direction, or
out of the page. Right hand rule gives the current direction shown, and the polarity of
the rod will drive such a current.

Conservation of Energy
In this atom, we will consider the system from the energy perspective. As the rod moves
and carries current i, it will feel the Lorentz force

FL=iBL
To keep the rod moving at a constant speed v, we must constantly apply an external
force Fext(equal to magnitude of FL and opposite in its direction) to the rod along its
motion. Since the rod is moving at v, the power P delivered by the external force would
be:

P=Fextv=(iBL)×v=iε
In the final step, we used the first equation we talked about. Note that this is exactly the
power dissipated in the loop (= current ×

voltage). Therefore, we conclude that the mechanical work done by an external force to
keep the rod moving at a constant speed is converted to heat energy in the loop. More
generally, mechanical work done by an external force to produce motional EMF is
converted to heat energy. Energy is conserved in the process.

Lenz’ Law

We learned in the Atom “Faraday’s Law of Induction and Lenz’ Law” that Lenz’ law is a
manifestation of the conservation of energy. As we see in the example in this Atom,
Lenz’ law guarantees that the motion of the rod is opposed because of nature’s
tendency to oppose a change in magnetic field. If the induced EMF were in the same
direction as the change in flux, there would be a positive feedback causing the rod to fly
away from the slightest perturbation.

Energy in a Magnetic Field

Magnetic field stores energy. The energy density is given as u=B⋅B2μ

Learning Objectives

Express the energy density of a magnetic field in a form of equation

Key Takeaways

Key Points

 Energy is needed to generate a magnetic field both to work against the electric
field that a changing magnetic field creates and to change the magnetization of
any material within the magnetic field.
  For linear, non-dispersive, materials (such that B = μH where μ, called the
permeability, is frequency-independent), the energy density is: u=B⋅B2μ=μH⋅H2

The energy stored by an inductor is Estored=12LI2

Key Terms

 permeability: A quantitative measure of the degree of magnetization of a

material in the presence of an applied magnetic field (measured in newtons per
ampere squared in SI units).
 inductor: A passive device that introduces inductance into an electrical circuit.
 ferromagnet: Materials that show a permanent magnetic property.

Energy is needed to generate a magnetic field both to work against the electric field that
a changing magnetic field creates and to change the magnetization of any material
within the magnetic field. For non-dispersive materials this same energy is released
when the magnetic field is destroyed. Therefore, this energy can be modeled as being
“stored” in the magnetic field.

Magnetic Field Created By A Solenoid: Magnetic field created by a solenoid (cross-

sectional view) described using field lines. Energy is “stored” in the magnetic field.

Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field

For linear, non-dispersive, materials (such that B = μH where μ, called the

permeability, is frequency-independent), the energy density is:

u=B⋅B2μ=μH⋅H2
.

Energy density is the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per
unit volume. If there are no magnetic materials around, μ can be replaced by μ0. The
above equation cannot be used for nonlinear materials, though; a more general
expression (given below) must be used.

In general, the incremental amount of work per unit volume δW needed to cause a small
change of magnetic field δB is:

δW=H⋅δB
.
Once the relationship between H and B is known this equation is used to determine the
work needed to reach a given magnetic state. For hysteretic materials such as
ferromagnets and superconductors, the work needed also depends on how the
magnetic field is created. For linear non-dispersive materials, though, the general
equation leads directly to the simpler energy density equation given above.

Energy Stored in the Field of a Solenoid

The energy stored by an inductor is equal to the amount of work required to establish
the current through the inductor, and therefore the magnetic field. This is given by:

Estored=12LI2
Proof: Power that should be supplied to an inductor with inductance L to run current I
through it it given as

P=VI=LdIdt×I
Therefore

Estored=∫T0P(t)dt=∫I0LI′dI′=12LI2

Transformers
Transformers transform voltages from one value to another; its function is governed by
the transformer equation.

Learning Objectives

Apply the transformer equation to compare the secondary and primary voltages

Key Takeaways

Key Points

 Transformers are often used at several points in the power distribution systems
and also in many household power adapters.
 Transformer equation states that the ratio of the secondary to primary voltages in
a transformer equals the ratio of the number of loops in their coils: VsVp=NsNp

Assuming, as we have, that resistance is negligible, the electrical power output of a

transformer equals its input. This leads us to another useful equation: IsIp=NpNs
  . If voltage increases, current decreases. Conversely, if voltage decreases,
current increases.

Key Terms

 magnetic flux: A measure of the strength of a magnetic field in a given area.

 Faraday’s law of induction: A basic law of electromagnetism that predicts how
a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive
force (EMF).

Transformers change voltages from one value to another. For example, devices such as
cell phones, laptops, video games, power tools and small appliances have a
transformer (built into their plug-in unit) that changes 120 V into the proper voltage for
the device. Transformers are also used at several points in power distribution systems,
as shown in. Power is sent long distances at high voltages, as less current is required
for a given amount of power (this means less line loss). Because high voltages pose
greater hazards, transformers are employed to produce lower voltage at the user’s
location.

Transformer Setup: Transformers change voltages at several points in a power

distribution system. Electric power is usually generated at greater than 10 kV, and
transmitted long distances at voltages over 200 kV—sometimes as great as 700 kV—to
limit energy losses. Local power distribution to neighborhoods or industries goes
through a substation and is sent short distances at voltages ranging from 5 to 13 kV.
This is reduced to 120, 240, or 480 V for safety at the individual user site.

The type of transformer considered here is based on Faraday’s law of induction, and is
very similar in construction to the apparatus Faraday used to demonstrate that magnetic
fields can create currents (illustrated in ). The two coils are called the primary and
secondary coils. In normal use, the input voltage is placed on the primary, and the
secondary produces the transformed output voltage. Not only does the iron core trap
the magnetic field created by the primary coil, its magnetization increases the field
strength. Since the input voltage is AC, a time-varying magnetic flux is sent to the
secondary, inducing its AC output voltage.
Simple Transformer: A typical construction of a simple transformer has two coils
wound on a ferromagnetic core that is laminated to minimize eddy currents. The
magnetic field created by the primary is mostly confined to and increased by the core,
which transmits it to the secondary coil. Any change in current in the primary induces a
current in the secondary. The figure shows a simple transformer with two coils wound
on either sides of a laminated ferromagnetic core. The set of coil on left side of the core
is marked as the primary and their number is given as N p. The voltage across the
primary is given by V p. The set of coil on right side of the core is marked as the
secondary and their number is represented as N s. The voltage across the secondary is
given by Vs. A symbol of the transformer is also shown below the diagram. It consists of
two inductor coils separated by two equal parallel lines representing the core.

Transformer Equation

For the simple transformer shown in, the output voltage V s depends almost entirely on
the input voltage Vp and the ratio of the number of loops in the primary and secondary
coils. Faraday’s law of induction for the secondary coil gives its induced output voltage
Vs as:

Vs=−NsΔΦΔt
where Ns is the number of loops in the secondary coil and Δ/Δt is the rate of change of
magnetic flux. Note that the output voltage equals the induced EMF (V s=EMFs),
provided coil resistance is small. The cross-sectional area of the coils is the same on
either side, as is the magnetic field strength, so /Δt is the same on either side. The input
primary voltage Vp is also related to changing flux by:

Vp=−NpΔΦΔt
Taking the ratio of these last two equations yields a useful relationship:

VsVp=NsNp
This is known as the transformer equation, which simply states that the ratio of the
secondary to primary voltages in a transformer equals the ratio of the number of loops
in their coils. The output voltage of a transformer can be less than, greater than or equal
to the input voltage, depending on the ratio of the number of loops in their coils. Some
transformers even provide a variable output by allowing connection to be made at
different points on the secondary coil. A step-up transformer is one that increases
voltage, whereas a step-down transformer decreases voltage.

Assuming, as we have, that resistance is negligible, the electrical power output of a

transformer equals its input. Equating the power input and output,

Pp=IpVp=IsVs=Ps
Combining this results with the transformer equation, we find:

IsIp=NpNs
So if voltage increases, current decreases. Conversely, if voltage decreases, current
increases.