Schaubs Wilson4 PDF

Economic Geology
Vol. 97, 2002, pp. 351–370
The Relative Roles of Folding and Faulting in Controlling Gold Mineralization

along the Deborah Anticline, Bendigo, Victoria, Australia
PETER M. SCHAUBS*,† AND CHRISTOPHER J.L. WILSON
School of Earth Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
Abstract
Gold mineralization along the Deborah anticline, Bendigo, Australia, occurs in quartz veins that are catego-
rized into two main groups: those associated with folds and those associated with faults. The relative chronol-
ogy of the structural development and quartz vein emplacement is characterized by the initial development of
the fold and the subsequent formation of bedding- and cleavage-parallel veins. Saddle reefs may have devel-
oped at this stage; reverse faults and their associated veins formed after folds had locked up. Major gold-host-
ing structures include saddle reefs, reverse faults, and composite fold-fault structures where reverse faults have
disrupted saddle reefs. Some reverse faults are interpreted to have propagated along preexisting structures,
such as bedding-parallel veins. Although gold is hosted in fold-related structures, the majority is found in veins
associated with later faults. Folds and fold-related veins strongly controlled the location of these later formed
reverse faults and their associated veins. A fault-based fracture system was superimposed on preexisting dila-
tional sites, such as bedding-parallel veins and saddle reefs, and it is possible that this allowed for the intro-
duction of a larger volume of fluids during faulting than was possible during folding.
Introduction events, including folding, faulting, vein emplacement, and in-

THE BENDIGO GOLD FIELD is the second largest (684 metric trusion of lamprophyre dikes, is also presented.
tons) in Australia and has produced over 35 percent of the Geologic Setting
gold within the Bendigo-Ballarat zone of the Western Lach-
lan fold belt, Australia (VandenBerg et al., 2000; Fig. 1). Prior The Bendigo gold field of central Victoria lies in the west-
to the 1990s, in the majority of the literature pertaining to the ern region of the Lachlan fold belt (Fig. 1A), which, itself, is
turbidite-hosted gold deposits of Bendigo, the gold field is one of five Paleozoic structural zones within the Tasman fold
characterized as being the premier site for the formation of belt of eastern Australia (Gray, 1988). The Lachlan fold belt
spectacular saddle reefs and, therefore, there has been the is recognized as having been deformed in a thin-skinned tec-
misconception that these are the major gold-bearing struc- tonic regime where major faults are steep at the surface but
tures (i.e., Herman, 1914; Hills, 1940, p. 84). Where saddle become listric and feed into a probable detachment at depth
reefs have significant gold mineralization, they have generally (Gray et al., 1991). The Western Lachlan fold belt has been
been breached by subsequent faulting and massive quartz interpreted to be a propagating oceanic thrust system within
vein emplacement to form neck reefs. Much of the gold is lo- an accretionary wedge, where both the sedimentary rocks and
cated in a variety of vein types other than saddle reefs, with the deformation events to which they have been subjected
faults and their related veins containing the majority of gold become progressively younger to the east (Gray, 1995; Gray
mineralization (Cox et al., 1991). Despite the misconception and Foster, 1997). The metasedimentary rocks, which form
concerning saddle reefs, early workers in the field, such as the bulk of these areas, are typified by the Bendigo-Ballarat
Rickard (1892) and Pabst (1919), did recognize the impor- zone and are predominantly quartz-rich turbidites consisting
tance of faults as sources of gold. The major difference be- of lower greenschist facies sandstone, slate, and siltstone.
tween the Bendigo gold field and the next two largest gold The Bendigo-Ballarat zone is an 110-km-wide belt, bounded
fields (Ballarat and Castlemaine) is the presence of saddle by the Avoca and Heathcote faults on the west and east, re-
reefs. The Ballarat and Chewton-Castlemaine gold fields spectively (Fig. 1B). Major reverse faults within the zone in-
(Fig. 1B) have a more obvious association between reverse clude the Leichardt, Muckleford, Sebastian, Whitelaw, and
faults and gold mineralization, and saddle reefs are not Fosterville faults. The area has been described as being
prominent (Willman, 1995). made up of a “monotonous” sequence of Ordovician tur-
This paper analyses the various quartz vein types and their bidites, which have been folded into one generation of tight,
relationship to folds, deformation fabrics and faults, based on upright chevron folds (Cas and VandenBerg, 1988; Vanden-
field observations made in underground workings of the Deb- Berg et al., 2000). The Stawell zone to the west, is made up
orah anticline, Bendigo. Descriptions of these quartz veins of Cambrian turbidites and greenstones, in which six defor-
and related fabrics, faults, and major quartz gold structures mation events have been recognized (Watchorn and Wilson,
are presented, as well as interpretations of the processes and 1989). To the east of the Bendigo-Ballarat zone, in the Mel-
conditions under which they formed and how the structures bourne zone, the rocks are predominantly Silurian- to De-
relate to gold mineralization. A relative chronology of geologic vonian-age turbidites, the folds are generally open (Gray,
1995), and steep reverse faults are less common than they
† Corresponding
are in the Bendigo-Ballarat zone. It has been estimated that
author, e-mail: Peter.Schaubs@csiro.au
*Present address: CSIRO Exploration and Mining, Australian Resources the shortening was up to 70 percent in the Bendigo-Ballarat
Research Centre, P.O. Box 1130, Bentley, Western Australia 6102, Australia. zone (Gray and Willman, 1991a) and up to 50 percent in the
0361-0128/01/3234/351-20 $6.00 351

352 SCHAUBS AND WILSON
FIG. 1. Regional maps. A. The Lachlan fold belt (LFB). B. The location of the Bendigo-Ballarat zone. Adapted from Gray
and Willman (1991a).
Melbourne zone (Gray, 1995). Granitic rocks in the Bendigo- (Ch1-2), and Castlemanian (Ca1) biostratigraphic zones that
Ballarat zone are of Early and Late Devonian age, with the have been based on graptolite assemblages. Together, these
largest bodies being the Late Devonian Harcourt and Cobaw biostratigraphic units constitute a section approximately
Granites (Fig. 1B). The fact that the Harcourt Granite cross- 1,450 m thick (Cas and VandenBerg, 1988). The dominant
cuts mineralized anticlines and reverse faults places a mini- units in the area, where the most intensive mining occurred
mum age of Late Devonian (360 Ma, Richards and Singleton, in Bendigo (including the Deborah anticline, Fig. 3) are those
1981) on the deformation and mineralization in the Bendigo of the sand-rich Bendigonian biostratigraphic unit (in partic-
area. In the Bendigo gold field, 40Ar/ 39Ar ages from the ular, Be3 and Be2) that consists of <2 m sand units with in-
Whitelaw fault range from 443 to 417 Ma (Foster et al., 1999, tercalated green to purple weathering slates (Willman and
and references therein) and vein sericite associated with gold Wilkinson, 1992). In general, the shale units become more
has been dated at 439 ± 2 Ma (Foster et al., 1998). More de- abundant up section.
tailed geochronological information on the area may be found The Bendigo gold field lies in the hanging wall of the west-
in Bücher et al. (1996), Foster et al. (1996, 1998), and Bier- dipping Whitelaw fault, which is situated ~5 km to the east of
lein et al. (1999). Lamprophyre dikes which crosscut folds, the Deborah anticline (Figs. 1 and 2). The Sebastian fault lies
the dominant cleavage and quartz veins, have been dated at 5 km to the west of the city of Bendigo. Willman and Wilkin-
155 Ma using the K-Ar whole-rock method (McDougall and son (1992) divided the Bendigo gold field into two structural
Wellman, 1976). These dikes are generally found in the hinge domains. The Goldfield structural domain on the western
region of the folds and intruded along preexisting reverse side is characterized by the exposure of mostly Bendigonian
faults. (Be2-Be4) and Chewtonian units, which form asymmetric
The stratigraphy of the Bendigo-Ballarat zone consists of chevron folds with wavelengths of 300 to 400 m and interlimb
Ordovician metasedimentary rocks of the Castlemaine Super- angles of 40°, and together form a synclinorium. The Eastern
group (Fig. 2), including unbioturbated, but graptolitic, shale structural domain is bounded on the east by the Whitelaw
and mudstone, along with quartz-rich sandstone to granule- fault and is characterized by the exposure of the lowermost
stones (Cas and VandenBerg, 1988). In the Bendigo area, the Bendigonian (Be1) and Lancefieldian biostratigraphic units,
rocks are part of the Sandhurst Group, which is made up of which form tight asymmetric folds, and have an enveloping
the Lancefieldian (La3), Bendigonian (Be1-4), Chewtonian surface that dips to the west.
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Au MINERALIZATION ALONG THE DEBORAH ANTICLINE, BENDIGO, VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA 353
FIG. 2. Map of Bendigo area, showing major biostratigraphic units and

faults. Map lies within a portion of the 1:100000 map accompanying the
Bendigo, and part of Mitiamo, Geological Survey of Victoria Report 99
(Cherry and Wilkinson, 1994).
FIG. 3. Map of the Deborah anticline, showing more detail of the bios-
tratigraphic units and anticlines. Map modified from a portion of the Golden
Square 1:10000 map accompanying the Bendigo gold field, Geological Sur-
vey of Victoria Report 93 (Willman and Wilkinson, 1992).
The Deborah Anticline

The Deborah anticline, which is the focus of this paper, is
located within the Goldfield structural domain of the Bendigo Gold-bearing structures and quartz veins
gold field and includes biostratigraphic units Be2-Be4 (Figs. There are three major types of quartz and gold-bearing
3 and 4). An unofficial stratigraphy has been established by structures present along the Deborah anticline, as there are
Bendigo Mining N.L. (Turnbull and McDermott, 1998; Fig. along most other anticlines in the Bendigo gold field: (1) bed-
4) for units along the Deborah anticline. It is a north-north- ding-parallel veins and associated saddle reefs, (2) reverse
west-trending, doubly plunging anticline with a length of >10 faults, and (3) fault-modified saddle reefs (also known as neck
km and a width of 200 to 300 m (measured from adjacent syn- reefs). These structures have been divided into two major
clines). The axial surface is steeplydipping to the east-north- groups of quartz-bearing structures along the Deborah anti-
east. Mining was concentrated in the northern 3 to 4 km, cline (Figs. 4 and 5; Johansen, 1998). The first (Q1) includes
which coincides with the domal culmination of the anticline the Inner and Outer reefs (saddle reefs) and the Upper Deb-
and where biostratigraphic unit Be3 is exposed on the sur- orah fault. The second (Q2) is made up of the Kingsley’s Lode
face. At its northern termination, the Deborah anticline coa- and Rowe’s reefs (saddle reefs modified by reverse faults), the
lesces with a minor syncline, where both become parasitic Deborah fault (reverse fault with associated quartz veins),
folds on the larger Garden Gully anticline to the east (Fig. 3, and the Deborah Back (an east-dipping reactivated bedding-
Willman and Wilkinson, 1992). The Deborah anticline is parallel laminated quartz vein). Making up these mine-scale
bounded on the east by the Sheepshead anticline and lies in structures are a number of different vein types (Fig. 6) in-
the center of the main gold-producing anticlines of the cluding bedding-parallel veins, saddle reefs, steeply dipping
Bendigo region. The anticline itself is offset by a number of extension veins, cleavage-parallel veins, fault veins, subhori-
both west- and east-dipping reverse faults, including the zontally dipping extension veins, and en echelon veins. These
Upper Deborah and Deborah faults. veins will be discussed in greater detail later in the paper. The
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TABLE 1. Size, Relative Timing, and Gold Content of Vein Types Which Occur along the Deborah Anticline
(for a detailed description of the nature of the gold, sulfide, and gangue mineralogy in these veins see Schaubs, 1999)
Vein type Size (mm thick) Timing Gold content

Early folding and
Bedding-parallel veins 50–300 Moderate to high
reactivation during faulting
Middle-late folding, modified
Saddle reefs 300–1000 Moderate to high
by faulting
Steeply dipping
30–200 Middle-late folding Low to moderate
extension veins (BC)
Cleavage-parallel
50–500 Middle-late folding Moderate
veins
East-west striking
10–300 Syn-post folding Low to moderate
veins (AC)
Fold related en
10–30 Middle-late folding Barren to low
echelon veins
Neck-reefs and fault
300–1000 Faulting Moderate to high
parallel veins
Gently-dipping
10–300 Faulting Moderate to high
extension veins
En echelon veins 10–300 Faulting Barren
Undeformed
10–50 Post-faulting Barren
carbonate veins
emphasis for this paper is placed on the second group (Q2), The major fault along the Deborah anticline is the Deborah
where the majority of the fieldwork was undertaken. Abbre- fault, which is locally associated with Kingsley’s Lode, a mod-
viations for localities and levels within the underground work- ified saddle reef (Fig. 4). The Upper Deborah fault is of a
ings may be used in the text and figures (e.g., L13 ND=level scale similar to that of the Deborah fault and is located above
13 of the North Deborah mine, CD=Central Deborah mine, the Outer reef (Fig. 4).
D=Deborah mine). Fieldwork was carried out along an ap- An oblique fault that lies at a high angle to the strike of bed-
proximately 800-m strike length between the Central Debo- ding occurs at the north end of the Deborah anticline (South
rah, North Deborah, and Deborah shafts (Figs. 3 and 5) and Deborah cross course; Fig. 5) and also sporadically through-
concentrated on the major gold-bearing structures that are lo- out the Bendigo gold field. These faults, referred to as “cross
cated in close proximity to the hinge of the anticline. Further courses” in the literature (Sharpe and MacGeehan, 1990) are
structural data south of the Deborah mine were collected commonly not mineralized and are interpreted to have
from drill core data. formed late in the deformation sequence.
Faults along the Deborah anticline may be either east or
Faulting west dipping with a reverse sense of displacement. Faults de-
Within the Western Lachlan fold belt, there are at least form the dominant S1 cleavage and commonly offset exten-
three orders of faults present. Tectonic zone bounding faults, sional quartz veins but rarely offset lamprophyre dikes. Cleav-
such as the Heathcote and Avoca faults (Fig. 1), represent the age is commonly dragged into faults, and kink bands in
first order, and intrazone faults, such as the Whitelaw and Se- cleavage are interpreted to be the result of motion between
bastian faults (Fig. 2), represent the second order. Faults two west-dipping reverse faults. West-dipping faults and all
within individual anticlines, such as the Deborah fault, repre- other structures are commonly offset by east-dipping faults in
sent the third order and contain the majority of mineraliza- a stepwise fashion.
tion in the Bendigo gold field. Zones of brecciation and cataclasis occur at the margins of
Mine-scale faults along the Deborah anticline may be some laminated quartz veins and lamprophyre dikes. These
grouped into three general categories: (1) those that occur breccia zones may contain coarse clasts (0.5 mm) of slate,
along bedding-parallel laminated quartz veins, (2) those that sandstone, deformed quartz, and thin carbonate veins, within
are also generally bedding-parallel but are more discrete, are a fine groundmass of carbonate. The presence of some unde-
not associated with bedding-parallel veins, and commonly formed quartz and carbonate along the same margins sug-
occur along the interfaces between fissile slate layers and gests that open spaces were also present.
more cohesive sandstone units, and (3) discordant faults that Slickenlines on fault surfaces are predominantly subparallel
crosscut bedding. Discordant faults offset folds, extend for with the maximum dip, indicating that dip-slip was the prin-
hundreds of meters, and show displacements of up to 20 m. cipal direction of movement. Slickenlines on different
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then slickenlines record both dextral and sinistral transpres-

sion, because the lineations are subhorizontal. In central Vic-
toria, Gray and Willman (1991b) have documented both dex-
tral strike-slip (D2) and sinistral strike-slip (D3) motion from
overprinting crenulation cleavages in and adjacent to major
fault zones.
Host-rock fabric development
Turbidites in the Bendigo area are characterized by the
presence of close to tight upright chevron folds and a well-de-
veloped axial surface cleavage. Bedding is north-south strik-
ing and has dip angles of 18° to 88° but is generally 60° (Fig.
8A). The earliest tectonic fabric (S*), observed along the Deb-
orah anticline, predates this dominant axial surface fabric
(S1), which is commonly a crenulation cleavage (Fig. 9A). In
many other cases, large muscovite grains are consistently
aligned subparallel to bedding and at an angle to S1 (Fig. 9B).
Although it is generally parallel to bedding, the fabric is not
bedding but rather an early weakly developed tectonic (?)
fabric which is not very widespread. The dominant axial pla-
nar cleavage is referred to as S1 throughout the literature.
Therefore we have chosen the notation S*.
The dominant, penetrative S1 fabric is axial planar to the
major folds in the area but varies in its morphology between
the two major rock types. In slate and siltstone, S1 is a closely
spaced, pervasive cleavage defined by muscovite, graphite,
and carbonate. The orientation of this cleavage is variable be-
tween sandstone and slate with a dip angle of 45° to 90° (Fig.
8B). In sandstone, this cleavage is less obvious and is com-
monly spaced and discontinuous. Refraction of S1 from slate
to sandstone can be quite significant (up to 40°).
In slates adjacent to reverse faults and lamprophyre dikes,
there is evidence for the development of a spaced cleavage
(S2) that is quite variable in its orientation and morphology,
indicating that it is not a regional-scale deformation event but
is the result of very local faulting (only present within a few
meters of a fault zone). In some cases, this fabric is defined by
stringers of carbonate that define a fracture-type cleavage. In
other samples adjacent to lamprophyre dikes, a crenulation
cleavage is defined by muscovite and opaque minerals (Fig.
9B) and is associated with weakly deformed quartz-carbonate
FIG. 4. Cross section of the North Deborah shaft. Modified from Turnbull veinlets. A spaced, discontinuous crenulation cleavage is also
and McDermott (1998). Units Be2, Be3, and Be4 refer to the biostrati- observed at a high angle to S1 in slate adjacent to an ankerite
graphic units of Cas and VandenBerg (1988); L = level, Q = major quartz and
gold-bearing structures.
cataclasite on the margin of a lamprophyre dike. In some
cases, slate units adjacent to bedding-parallel veins contain
shear fabrics and crenulations, which offset bedding.
The Bendigo-Ballarat zone is thought to have undergone
graphitic layers within the same laminated quartz vein have one major period of deformation (Gray and Willman, 1991a,
different orientations, thus indicating that faulting occurred 1991b; Yang and Gray, 1994); however, the relative timing of
in slightly varying directions during the slip history. Up to fabric formation with respect to gold mineralization is not
three different slickenline orientations were recorded on well constrained. Forde (1991) and Forde and Bell (1994)
west-dipping faults: north, south, and west pitching. These recognized four fabrics in the area between Bendigo and Bal-
variable orientations are rare and were only recorded in three larat; they link gold mineralization to the formation of an S4,
places on nonbedding-parallel faults. The variable pitch of east-west-striking vertical cleavage. This is not supported by
slickenlines on fault surfaces indicates that some faults were this investigation where we have recognized one major defor-
affected by a strike-slip component of movement in between mation fabric (S1) and two less prevalent fabrics.
or following dip-slip movements (Fig. 7). Gently pitching S* along the Deborah anticline is not pervasive and is sub-
slickenlines were assumed to represent oblique-reverse parallel to bedding, suggesting that it might be related to lo-
movement, because there is little evidence for normal move- calized thrusting or early buckling, which occurred at the
ment on faults along the Deborah anticline. If this is the case, initiation of the major folding event (e.g., Fowler, 1996).
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UPPER DEBORAH FAULT Q1

OUTER REEF
INNER REEF
BD4 DFDDH01
DFDDH02
L12ND
L13ND
L14ND
L15CD
Q2
0 100 200 m
Longitudinal projection of the
Deborah Anticline
FIG. 5. Longitudinal cross section of major mineralized areas and historic workings along the Deborah anticline. Black
dots represent where drill holes intersect cross section. Light gray areas are delineated ore reserves. BD = Big Deborah
mine, CD = Central Deborah mine, DFDDH = Deborah fault diamond drill hole, ND = North Deborah mine, Q = major
quartz and gold-bearing structures.
Windh (1995) reports evidence for possible thrusting at the thrusting stages of folding, just prior to the formation of the
initiation of the main deformation event in the Hill End gold dominant axial surface cleavage (S1).
field of New South Wales, based on the relationships between
laminated veins and their surrounding host rocks. Early bed- Characteristics of the Major Gold-Bearing Structures
ding-parallel fabrics have also been recognized in the Eastern The following sections relate to structures that are located
Lachlan fold belt but are more distinct than those recognized within the second group of quartz-bearing structures (Q2) of
in Bendigo (Powell and Rickard, 1985; Wilson and de the Deborah anticline (Figs. 4 and 5). These structures range
Houdeville, 1985). Wilson and de Houdeville (1985) interpret from being either fold controlled or fault dominated but are
this fabric to have formed during the initial buckling and commonly a combination of both. In many cases, the quartz
FIG. 6. A. Three-dimensional diagram of a doubly plunging anticline with a reverse fault intersecting the crest of the an-
ticline showing the major vein types identified along the Deborah anticline. B. Three-dimensional cartoon of relationships
between fold and faults at Rowe’s reef, level 14 ND.
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A) B)
FIG. 7. Lower hemisphere equal-area projections of (A) fault orientations

(n = 78, π girdle 088/79) and (B) lineations observed on fault and bedding-
parallel vein surfaces.
A) B)
FIG. 8. Lower hemisphere equal-area projections of (A) bedding (n = 73,

π girdle 084/78) and (B) S1 cleavage (n = 58, π girdle 087/71).
FIG. 9. Photomicrographs of fabrics in host rocks. A. Well-developed S1
crenulation cleavage in graphitic slate. B. Discontinuous S2 crenulation cleav-
age in slate.
lodes are made up of a range of structures that change along
strike. In general there is a greater volume of quartz associ-
ated with faults than with folds. In the following sections on disrupted by the Deborah fault. The major structure is Kings-
vein formation, observations concerning the presence of gold ley’s West leg (a reactivated bedding-parallel vein) and associ-
as well as interpretations on its precipitation are made. The ated east-dipping extension veins, as well as near-vertical,
reader is referred to Schaubs (1999) for a detailed description cleavage-parallel veins up to 40 cm thick. This area is compli-
on the nature of gold and sulfide minerals in the various vein cated by at least three east-dipping faults that offset Kingsley’s
types. West leg. As reported by Turnbull and McDermott (1998),
reduction of the interlimb angle within Kingsley’s Lode from
Kingsley’s Lode 70° to 55° is coincident with reverse faulting.
Kingsley’s Lode is a composite structure that is made up of
saddle reefs, reactivated bedding-parallel veins, cleavage-par- Rowe’s reef
allel veins, and steeply dipping extension veins. There is a Rowe’s reef is exposed on the lower levels of the North and
strong control of the Kingsley’s Lode architecture by the Central Deborah mines. On level 14 of the North Deborah
Deborah fault in some areas. The structures that make up mine, a west-dipping laminated quartz vein is partially brec-
Kingsley’s Lode extend for ~1,200 m from an area south of ciated by massive quartz (up to 30 mm), “dragged” up by an
the South Deborah shaft to approximately 300 m north of the east-dipping fault, which has reactivated along Rowe’s East
North Deborah shaft (Fig. 5). At drill hole DFDDH02 near leg (Fig. 6B). The originally west-dipping bedding-parallel
the South Deborah shaft, Kingsley’s Lode is made up of two vein (~30 cm thick) is then offset by minor east-dipping re-
crescent-shaped, bedding-parallel quartz veins, which lack verse faults (~1 m in length). The major east-dipping fault
any related faults. At drill hole BD4 (Fig. 10), a west-dipping splays into a number of gently dipping faults as it enters the
fault is rooted on the western limb of the upper lode. This hinge zone. Gold is concentrated in the east-dipping lami-
fault becomes more pronounced at drill hole DFDDH01 nated quartz vein and fault.
(Fig. 10) and is crosscut by an east-dipping fault, which is
rooted on the eastern limb. Kingsley’s Lode is exposed be- Deborah Back vein
tween levels 14a and 13b of the North Deborah mine and on The Deborah Back is a fault-reactivated bedding-parallel
levels 12 and 13 of the Deborah mine, where it has been vein that is exposed on the middle to lower levels of the North
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48450m E
48500m E
48450m E
48500m E
48400m E
48400m E
A) B)
-50m MRL Deborah

Saddle reef Back
contiguous with the
Deborah Fault -50m MRL
along strike
-100m MRL
-100m MRL
-150m MRL
48450m E
48400m E
D)
Lad dstone
Kingsley's
San
Lode
y Fi
ona
48450m E
48400m E
C) -50m MRL L11

Lad
Northern end
y Fio
of Deborah
na S
Fault structure
Inne
and
L12
r Sh
ston
L13b
e
Stopes on west
al e
Stopes on the
0m MRL leg of L13a Deborah Back
Kingsley’s
Lode L13
-100m MRL
C e nt
Sand
ral
Deborah
s
Deb stone
t
San
Back
o
Deborah
ne
lt
Row
Vi tal
orah
au
d
Fault
Kin atio
F
F or
structure ah
es S
r
gsl
S
Inne
bo
Bac
m
-50m MRL De
eys n
al e
hal e
k
r Sh
-150m MRL
al e
Ce dston
San
ntra
l
e
V it ale
Sh
al
-100m MRL
Sandstone Quartz
De ndsto
Sa
bo
rah ne
Kingsley's
Lode Interlayered
Ba
Shale
ck
shale/sandstone
FIG. 10. Cross sections through the Deborah anticline showing how major gold-bearing structures change along strike. A.
Cross section at drill hole DFDDH02. B. Cross section at drill hole BD4. C. Cross section at drill hole DFDDH01. D. Cross
section near shaft of North Deborah mine. See Figure 3 for locations.
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and Central Deborah mines (Fig. 10). On the sublevel above Fold-Related Veins
level 15 of the Central Deborah mine, massive quartz veining
occurs in the hinge area, where the host structure is a rela- Bedding-parallel veins
tively thin east-dipping, bedding-parallel vein. On level 13 of Bedding-parallel veins (Fig. 11A, B) are approximately 5 to
the North Deborah mine, steeply dipping extension veins 30 cm thick and most commonly occur within slate units or at
occur on the inner side of the Deborah Back. The fact that a the contact between slate and sandstone. Host-rock remnants
large area has been mined out indicates that these extension within these veins occur as straight, thin (<1 mm) laminations
veins, as well as the bedding-parallel vein itself, were quite or as wavy stylolites of irregular thickness. At least four mor-
rich in gold. The Deborah Back is different from other major phological variations of bedding-parallel veins have been rec-
gold-bearing structures along the Deborah anticline because ognized along the Deborah anticline. These are termed (I)
it does not have an associated saddle reef at the hinge area planar laminated, (II) roughly laminated to stylolitic, (III)
nor is it associated with a major discordant reverse fault. massive-brecciated, and (IV) slaty carbonate (Fig. 12A-D).
The first three types may be considered to have formed in
Deborah fault chronological order, may be found in the same vein, and are
The Deborah fault is a reverse fault hosted within the not mutually exclusive. Straight laminations are commonly
Kingsley’s Formation (slate) and the Deborah Back sand- crosscut by stylolites and both may be brecciated. Slaty car-
stone, along its 800-m strike length. Unlike Rowe’s and Kings- bonate bedding-parallel veins are generally not associated
ley’s reefs, quartz veining associated with the Deborah fault is with the other morphological variations.
the result of a discordant west-dipping fault, as it intersects Type 1: This type of bedding-parallel vein is a laminated
the hinge of the Deborah anticline. Both Rowe’s reef and vein with very straight, regular laminations and few stylolites
Kingsley’s Lode are saddle reefs that have been disrupted by (Fig. 12A). Where laminations are closely spaced, quartz is
west- and east-dipping faults. fine grained (0.01–0.3 mm) and anhedral masses of carbon-
At the South Deborah shaft (Fig. 10A) diamond drill data ate are a common association. Where laminations are less
(DFDDH02) show that in this area, the Deborah fault does closely spaced, quartz is coarse grained (up to 20 mm). All
not exist as a fault. The structure present here is a bedding- quartz grains have been variably deformed, which is indi-
parallel quartz vein (~30 cm) with associated extension veins, cated by the presence of undulose extinction, subgrains, and
which is offset by an east-dipping fault. Whether this struc- deformation bands. Laminations in these veins have two dif-
ture is, in fact, the continuation of the Deborah fault or a co- ferent orientations (Fig. 12E). The first set is thicker rela-
incident structure is unknown. Farther to the north, where tive to the second, is parallel to the vein wall, and commonly
drill hole BD4 (Fig. 10) intersects the structure, the Deborah contains distinguishable phyllosilicate grains that are
fault exists as a discrete discordant fault on the east limb of aligned at roughly 45° to the lamination itself. The second
the anticline. In its hanging wall are a number of crescent- type of lamination lies at an angle of approximately 30° to
shaped, bedding-parallel quartz veins that are truncated by a the first, more dominant lamination and is quite thin (<0.1
splay of east-dipping faults. At DFDDH01 (just north of mm). Coarse quartz grains are aligned into deformation
Deborah shaft), the Deborah fault is composed of at least two bands at roughly 30° to the laminations and their boundaries
splays (Fig. 10C). The upper splay is steep (dip ~70°) and are offset at the laminations. The offsets are consistent with
contains a massive amount of quartz in its footwall (4–5 m a reverse sense of movement on the bedding-parallel veins.
thick), whereas the lower splay in the east limb of the anti- Blocks of straight laminations are often separated and ro-
cline is gently dipping, discrete, and not associated with much tated by later, more massive quartz introduction and brec-
quartz (Fig. 10C). ciation. Later dissolution in the form of stylolites commonly
At the North Deborah shaft, the Deborah fault and Kings- offsets laminations.
ley’s Lode are closely associated, which is not the case farther Type II: The most common bedding-parallel vein type is a
to the south. Above level 17 of the Central Deborah mine it roughly laminated to stylolitic vein (Fig. 12B) that is also com-
appears that the Deborah fault is rooted in Rowe’s reef, monly brecciated. Laminations vary in thickness (0.1–0.5
where an east-dipping fault is also present. On level 13 of the mm) and are irregular and undulating in nature (Fig. 12F).
North Deborah mine the Deborah fault is closely associated Quartz grain boundaries are coincident with stylolitic seams,
with Kingsley’s Lode. As the fault approaches the hinge area whereas, in laminated veins, quartz grains are continuous
on level 12 of the North Deborah mine, the Deborah fault across the laminations. Host-rock inclusions lack quartz, are
has splayed and becomes gently dipping. At this level, mas- rich in graphite, and appear to have been boudinaged in a di-
sive, en échelon, and extensional quartz veins are associated rection parallel to the vein margin. Arsenopyrite, with lesser
with the Deborah fault. Gentle (~25°) and more steeply amounts of pyrite, is common and is associated with carbon-
(~45°) east-dipping quartz veins lie in the footwall of the ate along graphite-rich stylolitic seams.
Deborah fault and are synchronous with faulting. The more Type III: Both types (I) and (II) bedding-parallel veins may
gently dipping veins appear to have been folded. En échelon be contained within the same vein along strike, and both are
veins are both east and west dipping in this same area. Within characterized by the periodic introduction of thick (up to 30
the east limb of the anticline, the Deborah fault becomes a cm), coarse-grained, massive quartz that contains few stylo-
discrete structure again and then terminates (Turnbull and lites or crack-seal laminations; they constitute type III bed-
McDermott, 1998). At the north end of level 12 of the North ding-parallel veins (Fig. 12C). Inclusions of host rock are gen-
Deborah mine, the Deborah fault is offset by at least two erally surrounded by 3- to 4-mm-thick selvedges of ankerite
east-dipping faults. and coarse arsenopyrite.
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FIG. 11. A. Box-folded bedding-parallel vein. B. Thin planar-laminated bedding-parallel vein (type I) which has been off-
set by some minor faults. Level 15, Central Deborah mine. View to the south. C. Steeply dipping tapered extension vein
“hanging off” laminated bedding-parallel vein. Level 13, North Deborah mine. View to the north. D. i = reactivated bedding-
parallel vein; ii = steeply dipping extension vein. E. Thick concentration of cleavage-parallel veins on level 13. View to the
south.
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FIG. 12. Bedding-parallel veins. A. Planar-laminated vein (type I). B. Roughly laminated-stylolitic vein (type II). C. Thick
massive, brecciated vein (type III) with disrupted carbonate laminations on margin. D. Slaty-carbonate vein (type IV). E.
Photomicrograph of two orientations of inclusion traces in bedding-parallel type I. Sample is from the west limb of the an-
ticline and the photograph is oriented such that the hinge of the anticline is to the right. F. Stylolites which crosscut straight
inclusion traces in a bedding-parallel vein. G. Photomicrograph of “S-C-type” fabrics in bedding-parallel vein under plane-
polarized light. H. Photomicrograph of “S-C-type” fabrics in bedding-parallel vein under crossed-polars. Note variation in
angle between α and β planes and fine-grained quartz in between α plane host-rock inclusion traces.
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Type IV: Slaty carbonate-rich bedding-parallel veins are veins,” using the terminology of Hancock (1985). Extension
less common and contain a much higher percentage of slaty veins are generally more abundant near the hinges of anti-
(graphitic) material than do the other types of bedding-paral- clines but are not restricted to these areas. These veins are
lel veins (Fig. 12D). They are rich in carbonate and poor in commonly associated with the bedding-parallel veins and
quartz, quite fissile, and relatively thin (<5 cm). Arsenopyrite taper convergently inward toward the core of an anticline.
is absent and pyrite occurs as 1- to 2-mm euhedral grains. Quartz is quite coarse grained in extension veins associated
This vein type has not been observed to be contiguous or as- with folding, whereas sulfides and alteration minerals are
sociated with the other bedding-parallel vein morphologies. sparse. Quartz grains are up to 10 mm in diameter, are mod-
Other fabrics: In a number of bedding-parallel veins, S-C- erately to strongly deformed, and exhibit undulose extinction
type fabrics were observed within the host rock inclusions and but are not as strongly deformed as quartz in bedding-paral-
dissolution seams. Areas in bedding-parallel veins that exhibit lel veins. Quartz grains are never fibrous, but are elongate-
these fabrics are characterized by one set of planes (α) that blocky and show little evidence of alignment. There is some
parallel the vein wall with the other fabric (β) lying approxi- evidence for minor recrystallization.
mately 15° to 30° to the margin of the vein (Fig. 12G). These
are roughly the same orientations observed for host-rock lam- East-west-striking veins (AC veins)
inations in planar-laminated veins; however, the difference is North-dipping veins are common on level 12 of the North
that samples exhibiting these fabrics contain fine-grained Deborah mine, striking perpendicular to the axial surface of
quartz between the β planes (Fig. 12H), whereas the inclu- the major folds and having a dip of approximately 60° to 80°.
sion traces in normal planar-laminated veins are contained Unfilled steeply north-dipping (60°–80°) AC fractures are
within areas of coarse-grained quartz. also present in this area. Whereas other extensional veins are
commonly wedge shaped, these veins are quite straight and
Saddle reefs regular, do not vary much in thickness down-dip, and are gen-
Massive quartz veins, traditionally named “saddle reefs,” erally no thicker than 10 cm. East-west-striking veins on lev-
occur as dilational sites in the hinges of anticlines, resulting els 2 and 3 of the Central Deborah mine are up to 30 cm thick
partly from flexural slip and space problems created by the and are truncated by bedding-parallel veins on either side of
competency contrast between sandstone and shale, during the anticline.
chevron folding (Ramsay, 1974). Saddle reefs and bedding-
parallel veins are commonly part of the same overall struc- Cleavage-parallel veins
ture. True, undisrupted saddle reefs occur within Q1 along Subvertically oriented, cleavage-parallel veins (Fig. 11E)
the Deborah anticline (Inner and Outer reefs; Figs. 3 and 4). are almost exclusively encountered within slates in the core of
Kingsley’s Lode is a major saddle reef that is both undis- the anticline where a strong cleavage is developed. They are
rupted and modified by later reverse faulting at different most prominent on level 14a and level 13 of the North Deb-
points along its strike length (Fig. 10). Examples of bedding- orah mine and are associated with Kingsley’s Lode (Fig. 11E).
parallel veins that have not developed into saddle reefs can be Cleavage-parallel veins range in thickness from 5 to 50 cm
found on levels 2 and 3 of the Central Deborah mine, where and individual veins vary in thickness giving the veins an anas-
bedding has a relatively gentle dip (40°) and the fold has an tomosing nature. Quartz is generally coarse grained and sul-
interlimb angle of 100° (Fig. 11). Although they may contain fide minerals including pyrrhotite, pyrite, sphalerite, and
gold, where saddle reefs are fairly crescentic they are not galena are common and are associated with siderite and
major gold-bearing structures. More triangular-shaped saddle ankerite.
reefs which have been modified by later faulting are com-
monly more auriferous. En échelon veins
Sigmoidal-shaped arrays of en échelon veins related to fold-
Steeply to moderately dipping extension veins (BC veins) ing are rare along the Deborah anticline but are found in
Extension veins related to folds have historically been some sandstone units. On level 2 of the Central Deborah
termed “spur” veins in the Victorian gold fields (e.g., Stillwell, mine, they occur near the hinge as 20-mm-thick individual
1918). They are typically 3 to 20 cm thick, are generally mas- veins up to 30 cm in length. En échelon veins which comprise
sive, and lack laminations and fragments of host rocks. They planar sets and are not sigmoidal occur on level 2 of the Cen-
have a high length to thickness ratio, may be gently to steeply tral Deborah mine. Carbonate is the only common accessory
dipping (Fig. 11C, B), and are found either as single veins or mineral found in en échelon veins, and gold is absent.
as sets of subparallel veins, most commonly in the outer arcs
of sandstone units. Although they are generally planar and Fault-Related Veins
undeformed, open to ptygmatically folded variations also
exist. The orientation of extension veins is quite variable, Neck reefs and massive fault-parallel veins
ranging from west to southwest dipping and east to north dip- Veins that are associated directly with faults may occur in
ping with generally steep dips; however, dip angles are as low the footwall of major reverse faults as partially laminated
as 15° (Fig. 11D). The orientation of these veins is commonly veins (Fig. 13A) and as veins that have been termed neck
subperpendicular to bedding, depending on whether they reefs; these are areas of massive quartz, which extend above
have been subjected to subsequent shortening. Moderately saddle reefs. Massive to partially laminated veins also occur
dipping extension veins are commonly ptygmatically folded. parallel to faults where they do not intersect saddle reefs.
Based on this observation, these veins may be called “BC These veins contain stylolites and host-rock remnants from
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FIG. 13. A. Typical nature of fault-parallel veins in the footwall of the Deborah fault. View to the west. B. Subhorizontally
dipping extension veins in the footwall of the Deborah fault. Level 12, North Deborah mine. View to the south. C. View to
the south of en échelon veins in the footwall of the Deborah fault. Level 12 ND. Field of view is ~3 m. D. View to the south
of a centipede vein from level 13.
which much of the quartz has been removed. Massive veins, dipping reverse faults (dip angles ~40°–50°) on level 13 of the
which sometimes have a stockworklike appearance, occur on mine.
level 12 and level 12i of the North Deborah mine, where they
contain blocks of host rock up to 50 cm in length. On level Moderately to gently dipping extension veins
13A of the mine, a massive, 1-m-thick quartz vein is oriented Extension veins related to reverse faulting have a wide
parallel to a moderately dipping reverse fault (dipping ~50°). range in dip (17°–82°, Fig. 14B) but are generally moderate
Shear veins up to 10 cm thick and up to 1 m long are rare but to gently dipping and are most commonly observed in the
are found in close proximity and subparallel to moderately footwall of the Deborah fault (Fig. 13B). On level 12 of the
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A) B) C)
Bedding parallel veins n=20 Extension veins n=26 Exension veins n=56
En echelon veins n=7 En echelon veins n=2
Shear veins n=3
FIG. 14. Lower hemisphere equal-area projections of vein orientations. A. Bedding-parallel veins. B. fold-related veins.
C. Fault-related veins.
North Deborah mine, they occur in arrays, as 10- to 30-cm- Mechanisms for Vein Formation
thick by up to 3-m-long veins that dip gently to the east and
west, and also moderately to the east. These veins also occur Fold-related veins
where bedding-parallel veins have been reactivated, such as Bedding-parallel veins: The processes by which bedding-
at Rowe’s reef. parallel veins form has been the subject of recent research
and debate (Jessell et al., 1994; Fowler, 1996; Fowler and
Winsor, 1997); a comprehensive overview is presented in
En échelon veins Fowler (1996). Jessell et al. (1994) report two types of bed-
En échelon veins related to faulting are 2 to 20 cm thick, ding-parallel quartz veins in the Bendigo-Castlemaine area
may be up to 2 m wide, and occur as stepped arrays. These based on both hand specimens and microstructural observa-
vein sets may extend for 10 m along strike but have a variable tions. Jessell’s type I veins are composed predominantly of
orientation in their enveloping surface and vary in both their nonfibrous quartz and contain minute, secondary minerals,
thickness and spacing (Fig. 13C). The best examples and ma- which define inclusion surface traces that show a repeated
jority of en échelon veins are present between levels 13 and ramp-flat geometry. Jessell’s type II veins have a less regular
12 of the North Deborah mine, within the massive Deborah nature and contain a high proportion of host-rock material
Back sandstone, where the Deborah fault intersects the hinge and do not contain inclusion surface traces. These are the
of the Deborah anticline (Fig. 4). Two en échelon vein types, equivalent of the planar-laminated (type I) and roughly lami-
related to faulting, are present along the Deborah anticline nated-stylolitic (type II) classifications used in this study, re-
and their classification is based on Hodgson (1989). Sigmoidal spectively. Fowler (1996) also reports two types of bedding-
oblique shear veins are slightly curved, whereas rare cen- parallel veins in the Bendigo-Castlemaine region. Fowler’s
tipede veins are sigmoidal, closely spaced, and joined by a type I veins are composed of bedding-parallel inclusion trails,
central vein. (Fig. 13D). Centipede veins have a vertically ori- which he interprets to track the opening direction of the veins
ented enveloping surface and may be contiguous with dis- and involve bedding-parallel shear. Fowler’s type II veins are
crete, vertical faults. formed by a vein-normal opening component and consist of
quartz bands separated by stylolitic wall-rock seams.
Bedding-parallel, laminated quartz veins in Bendigo are in-
Undeformed carbonate veins terpreted to have formed concurrently with folding, as a re-
This vein type is also rare and occurs on level 9 of the sult of flexural slip and the simultaneous introduction of
Central Deborah mine, as a horizontally oriented vein in fluids. The presence of variable spaced and orientated lami-
close proximity to the West leg of the Inner reef. It is dis- nations and massive quartz in bedding-parallel veins is evi-
tinguished from all other vein types by the fact that is com- dence that these veins record a history of changing fluid pres-
posed entirely of undeformed comb-textured calcite. Vein- sure and shear stress which has resulted in repeated slip and
lets in close proximity to lamprophyre dikes also contain dilation. Bedding-parallel veins are interpreted to have
undeformed quartz and carbonate. All other vein types en- formed via the fault-valve process (Sibson et al., 1988; Sibson,
countered are composed primarily of quartz and have been 1989, 1992; Cox et al., 1991; Cox, 1995), which involves cycli-
variably deformed. cal changes in shear stress, fluid pressure, and permeability.
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As shear stress increases and material is precipitated within Extension veins related to folding: Extension veins are more
the fault zone, its permeability is decreased and causes an in- common in sandstone than in shale and are interpreted to
crease in fluid pressures. When the fault fails, shear stress is have formed via outer arc extension, as predicted by the
relieved, fluid pressure drops abruptly, and slip and dilation chevron-fold model of Ramsay (1974). Extension veins are
may occur (Cox et al., 1991). Millimeter-scale laminations of commonly folded, which suggests that they formed at differ-
dark, graphite-rich material represent cleaved layers of host ent times during folding and that some were buckled by con-
rock separated during each period of fault failure. This sug- tinued shortening and fold flattening.
gests that a episodic crack-seal process (Ramsay, 1980) took Cleavage-parallel veins: Cleavage-parallel veins only occur
place as opposed to a sustained and continuous period of within slate units in the hinge region of the fold where a well-
opening which might form fibrous-type veins which are un- developed cleavage exists; this indicates that the veins formed
common in Bendigo. The presence of stylolites indicates that as a result of this preexisting weakness. Mutually crosscutting
dissolution processes were competing with the aforemen- relationships between cleavage-parallel veins and steeply dip-
tioned precipitational and dilational processes. The presence ping extension veins suggest that they formed at roughly the
of folded, discontinuous, and ruptured laminations, along same time. Comparable veins have also been identified in the
with massive quartz (type III) in the center of bedding-par- Yilgarn craton of Western Australia, which are oriented paral-
allel veins, suggests that many laminated quartz veins have lel to a foliation and perpendicular to the maximum principal
been repeatedly reactivated during the slip history of reverse stress direction (σ1) and are interpreted to have formed due
faults. Reactivation was associated with dilation perpendicu- to the reactivation of preexisting weaknesses (Ridley, 1993;
lar to bedding and the simultaneous introduction of massive Vearncombe, 1998).
quartz (± carbonate) that brecciated some of the previously
formed laminations and stylolites. The origin of type IV slaty- Fault-related veins
carbonate veins is not well constrained. The fact that some In recent papers concerning orogenic gold deposits, there
bedding-parallel veins, which are composed primarily of has been an emphasis on the relationship and interdepen-
massive quartz, contain brecciated and contorted carbonate dencies of high (supralithostatic) fluid pressures and high-
laminations on their margin, suggests that they may have angle reverse faults in mesothermal gold deposits (Sibson et
originally been type IV veins but have been reactivated by al., 1988), such as the Wattle Gully mine in Victoria (Cox et
later faulting. S-C-type fabrics in bedding-parallel veins may al., 1991, 1995; Cox, 1995) and the Sigma mine in Quebec,
be the result of both ductile shearing during the initial for- Canada (Robert et al., 1995). In Bendigo, and specifically
mation of the vein, and subsequent reactivation at a later along the Deborah anticline, a reverse faulting and associated
stage. quartz vein structural regime is superimposed on or is an ex-
Some laminated quartz veins in the Bendigo area may be tension of an architecture dominated by preexisting dilational
traced around an anticline and into the next syncline, sug- sites in the form of bedding-parallel laminated quartz veins
gesting that they must, in part, predate the main folding and saddle reefs. Steeply dipping extension veins are inter-
episode (Dunn, 1896). If enough dilation due to flexural slip preted to be a result of fracturing during folding, where frac-
has occurred, bedding-parallel veins will develop into saddle tures have propagated at steep angles to bedding in stiff sand-
reefs in the hinge area (Ramsay, 1974). Gold occurs on level stone layers. Subhorizontal and thick en échelon extension
2 of the Central Deborah mine in a laminated quartz vein, veins are more likely to have formed during reverse faulting
which was folded and buckled by fold-related flattening but as a result of fluid pressures reaching the sum of the mini-
has not been subsequently deformed in a brittle manner. This mum principal stress and the intact tensile strength of the
indicates that some gold must have precipitated during fold- rock (Pf = σ3 + T, Cox et al., 1991; Cox, 1995). If the local min-
ing before the onset of reverse faulting. imum principal stress (σ3) is gently plunging, then the fluid
In many cases, bedding-parallel veins are not of equal pressure must be greater than the tensile strength plus the
thickness on both limbs of the anticline. Commonly, the vein near-field σ3, for these outer arc extension veins to open.
on one limb is thicker than the other because it has been the The wide range in dip angles of veins related to both folds
site of reverse fault reactivation, with renewed dilation, and and faults (Fig. 14B and C) indicates that, although there is a
the introduction of massive quartz. This process is exempli- general trend toward subhorizontal veins associated with
fied by the fact that Kingsley’s West leg is at least 30 cm thick faults and steep veins associated with folds, it is not the rule.
in some areas and is coincident with the Deborah fault. By In some cases, veins that are clearly related to folds are near
comparison, the east-dipping bedding-parallel vein on the op- horizontal. The mutually overprinting relationships between
posite limb is, at most, 10 cm thick and contains very little some of these vein types suggests that their timing of em-
gold. Bedding-parallel veins are therefore only of significant placement was closely linked. On level 13B of the North Deb-
thickness and gold content where they are exploited by later orah mine, however, steeply dipping veins appear to overprint
reverse faulting that probably relates to the introduction of gently dipping and wavy veins (Fig. 15A). One scenario that
greater volumes of gold-bearing fluids. Gold precipitation is allows steeply dipping veins to form within a reverse faulting
interpreted to have commenced during folding but increased regime is by a reversal in local stress directions due to over-
during the reactivation of bedding-parallel veins, as a result of shoot on the fault (Boullier and Robert, 1992; Sibson, 1992;
the initiation of reverse faults. Gold mineralization began Robert et al., 1995). This process may also explain why some
during folding and associated development of laminated veins en échelon vein arrays in the footwall of the Deborah fault
during flexural slip. This intensified when folds locked up show normal movement (Fig. 13C). Cox (1995) also states
causing faults to propagate (Cox et al., 1991). that subhorizontal extension vein arrays will occur if shear
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A)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-20 Extensional-shear failure

Extensional 20 M
Pa
0
10 M
Pa (S
ands
20 tone
)
1M
MPa
40 Pa (S
late)
60
Vertical Effective Stress

80
3
100
Shear
120
Extensional-
Shear
140
σ3
1
B) Extensional Extensional-
Shear
160
Shear
180
σ1 σ1 Reverse 200
movement B) v
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
σ3
σ1 Extensional and hybrid veins
-20
0
C)
σ3 σ3 20
Shear
Slight normal Z=2km
veins
40
movement
(back-slip) σ1 60
FIG. 15. A. Subhorizontal and shortened veins, crosscut by steeply dipping 4 80

veins to the east of Kingsley’s West leg. View to the south, level 13a, North
Deborah mine. B. Subhorizontal veins formed by reverse movement on fault. 100
C. Subvertical veins formed by slight normal movement or back-slip on the
same fault. 6 120
stress is not completely relieved by failure along a fault, or if 140

postfailure shear stress recovery is rapid relative to the fluid
pressure build-up. 8
160
Failure modes and fluid pressures during vein emplacement 180

Sibson (1998) has combined the Mohr-Coulomb and Grif- 10
fith failure criteria to relate the conditions by which different 200
failure modes may occur in rocks, with respect to depth and
fluid pressure (Fig. 16). Typically, veins formed by extensional MPa
failure should be oriented at 90° to the minimum principal
FIG. 16. Brittle failure plots for compressional tectonic regimes after Sib-
stress (σ3), shear veins should propagate at ~30° to σ1, and hy- son (1998). A. The solid lines show the failure conditions for intact rock at a
brid veins will form at some angle less than 30° to σ1 (Sibson, number of tensile rock strengths. The fields of different failure modes are in-
1998). The majority of veins along the Deborah anticline may dicated. Extensional failure occurs with negative vertical effective stress and
be classified as being extensional, including extension veins low differential stress, whereas shear failure may occur with positive vertical
related to folds and faults as well as cleavage-parallel veins. effective stress and higher differential stress. The sketch in the inset illus-
trates the expected orientation of the three types of veins. The dashed line
Sigmoidal en échelon veins may also be considered exten- indicates the reshear criteria for an optimally oriented cohesionless fault. B.
sional; however, their shape is progressively modified during Diagram illustrating values of pore fluid pressure and depths for different
shear. True shear veins are also less common and include vertical effective stresses. The shaded area indicates the range of conditions
fault-parallel veins. The fact that veins, which have been clas- under which the extensional and shear veins along the Deborah anticline are
interpreted to have formed. These diagrams assume that structures are opti-
sified by morphology to be extensional or shear veins, are not mally oriented structures; however, many of the faults along the Deborah an-
always oriented at 90° or 30° to the far-field maximum prin- ticline are severely misoriented for reshear and would require that pore fluid
cipal stress, respectively, indicates that stress orientations factors be greater than one to form the vein types discussed.
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were quite variable on a local scale. If it is assumed that the faults are optimally oriented for reactivation; however, a se-
coefficient of friction (µ–tan of friction angle ϕ) is 0.75 and vere misorientation, which is often the case, requires that
that the tensile strength is 10 MPa for sandstone and 1 MPa pore fluid factors be even greater. This is consistent with the
for shale, then the relative importance of fracturing in sand- work of Sibson et al. (1988) and Cox et al. (1991, 1995) who
stone and shale units may be interpreted in terms of the rel- have shown that many extension veins in these types of set-
ative tensile strengths of shale and sandstone. Based on the tings are formed under supralithostatic fluid pressures during
diagram (Fig. 16A) of Sibson (1998), sandstone with T = 10 fault-valve behavior. Conversely, shear veins may form with
MPa will undergo extensional failure, where differential lower pore fluid factors (>0.8). Therefore, the majority of
stresses (σ1–σ3) are below 40 MPa and effective vertical veins (extension) along the Deborah anticline required the
stresses (σ’v) are approximately –10 MPa (compressive formation of near-supralithostatic fluid pressures. Bedding-
stresses are positive). Shear failure in sandstone will only parallel veins exhibit evidence for having undergone a com-
occur if differential stresses are greater than 60 MPa and the plex history of shear and dilation via cyclic fault-valve behav-
effective vertical stress is greater than –10 MPa. A slate with ior (see section on bedding-parallel vein formation). The
T = 1 MPa will normally only undergo shear failure and only presence of extension veins in slates might also indicate that
form extension or hybrid extension-shear veins if both the dif- the tensile strength might have been closer to that of sand-
ferential stress and effective vertical stress are extremely low. stone or that the stress difference was transiently very low in
These values are roughly comparable to those of Etheridge the shale units during extension vein formation.
(1983), who states that the upper tensile strength limit for
most rocks is 10 MPa and is more likely to be 5 MPa for re- Relative Chronology of Geologic Events
gional metamorphosed rocks. Tensile failure will only occur if A relative chronology of deformation events, as observed
the differential stress is less than 4 MPa whereas an upper on the Deborah anticline, is summarized in Figure 17 and
limit of 20 MPa is more likely. Using the diagram (Fig. 16B) discussed below; however, the absolute age of these events is
of Sibson (1998), it is possible to give estimates for fluid pres- not well constrained. The ages of the dominant cleavage de-
sure or depth for the rocks in question, if the vertical stress is velopment and deformation in the Bendigo-Ballarat zone
known. If a depth of 6 to 10 km is assumed for the formation have been estimated to be Late Ordovician to Early Silurian
of extension veins in these rocks, then a pore fluid factor (λv (Benambran orogeny) using the 40Ar/ 39Ar method (Bücher et
= Pf /σv) greater than 1 may be assumed, based on an effective al., 1996). Gold mineralization and hydrothermal alteration
vertical stress of approximately –10 MPa. This assumes that have been estimated to have occurred at approximately 439
A) B) C)
Saddle
reef
D) E) F)
Reverse
fault
Reactivated
bedding-
parallel
vein
lamprophyre
dyke
FIG. 17. Relative chronology of geologic events along the Deborah anticline. See text for explanation.
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Ma by Foster et al. (1996), who dated hydrothermal sericite contained within the fault zone, suggests that most faults
using the 40Ar/ 39Ar method. were contemporaneous with quartz, as well as dike, emplace-
ment. Minor brittle faulting along reactivated laminated veins
Stage A and lamprophyre dike margins formed thin carbonate-rich
The first stage of deformation is represented by the buck- cataclastic zones. Minor gold, along with arsenopyrite and
ling of the turbidites in a compressional tectonic environ- pyrite mineralization, is found in these late brittle features,
ment. The mode of deformation is likely to have been flexural but it is likely to have resulted from remobilization of earlier
flow; however, flexural slip and the formation of bedding-par- precipitated sulfides. The presence of undeformed carbon-
allel veins may have also occurred at this time. Early bedding- ate-rich veins and lamprophyre dikes, which are character-
parallel fabrics (i.e., S*) may have also formed at this time, ized by the presence of carbonate, suggests that fluids associ-
concurrently with local small-scale thrusting. ated with lamprophyre dike emplacement were CO2 rich.
Stage B
As folding continued, a strong cleavage developed, and Discussion and Conclusions
flexural slip along bedding surfaces led to the formation of The establishment of the timing of faulting, with respect to
bedding-parallel quartz veins and saddle reefs with associated folding and the emplacement of different quartz vein mor-
gold mineralization (Fig. 17A). Bedding-parallel veins and phologies, is vital to the understanding of the mineralization
saddle reefs are often connected and most likely formed at along the Deborah anticline in Bendigo. Reverse faults, such
the same time. At this time, steeply dipping extensional as the Deborah fault, are a natural end member to folding
quartz veins developed in fractures formed during folding, and saddle reef formation due to flexural slip and dilation. Al-
whereas host rocks adjacent to quartz veins were hydrother- though saddle reefs are quite common in the Bendigo gold
mally altered (Fig. 17B). Cleavage-parallel quartz veins field (more so than in other Victorian gold fields), they are not
formed in the hinge area of folds, where the cleavage was best the major gold-bearing structures. Saddle reefs are most au-
developed (Fig. 17B). riferous where they have been modified by reverse faults to
become neck reefs, and therefore, the faults and their associ-
Stage C ated quartz veins are the source of the larger proportion of
During continued shortening and fold flattening, earlier gold mined in Bendigo.
formed, gently dipping, bedding-parallel and extension veins Although reverse faults are the major source of gold in
buckled (Fig. 17C). Bendigo, it is also true that saddle reefs and bedding-parallel
veins played an integral part in the overall structural scheme,
Stage D acting as dilational sites for quartz (and gold) precipitation
At a critical interlimb angle (~60°) chevrons folds locked themselves, and as structures that commonly dictated the lo-
and reverse faults were initiated along preexisting bedding- cation of reverse faults. This relationship between saddle
parallel veins (Fig. 17D). This led to the increased dilation of reefs and faults was also observed by Stillwell (1918, p. 102),
the laminated veins and the introduction of massive quartz. who noted that, “saddles often, but not always, form immedi-
Gently dipping extensional and massive quartz veining ac- ately under a strike fault as it crosses center country” (i.e., an-
companied reverse faulting at this time, and neck reefs de- ticlinal hinge). The opposite is more likely to be the case, be-
veloped by modifying saddle reefs. Spaced cleavages and cause faults often propagate where significant saddle reefs
crenulations were locally developed in host rocks adjacent to have formed.
faults. Major gold was associated with west-dipping faults and The effect of imposing a fault and fracture network upon a
their veins. preexisting folded area increases the overall permeability and
allows a larger volume of fluids to enter the area. During fold-
Stage E ing, fluid flow was generally restricted to bedding planes. At
Shortly after the major west-dipping faults had formed, this stage, slate units acted as impermeable barriers and
east-dipping faults reactivated preexisting laminated veins therefore most likely caused gold to precipitate near them.
and offset west-dipping structures in an en échelon fashion Later, discordant faults transected bedding and it is inter-
(Fig. 17E). In most cases, east-dipping faults offset larger preted that fluids were allowed to travel into areas that were
west-dipping faults along the Deborah anticline; however, inaccessible during the folding episode, by creating a suitable
along other anticlines, where east-dipping faults are the dom- fracture network (Sibson, 1996). The volume of quartz vein
inant structures, they are offset by smaller west-dipping associated with faults is generally greater than that with folds.
faults. Cox et al. (2001) describe fluid fracture network components
in terms of backbone, dangling, and isolated elements. At a
Stage F small scale, along the Deborah anticline, bedding-parallel
The final stage pertinent to gold mineralization is the in- veins and faults may be viewed as backbone elements that
trusion of lamprophyre dikes with an inferred age of ca. 155 carry the majority of fluids. Extension veins that are con-
Ma (McDougall and Wellman, 1976). These dikes intruded nected to either of these structures are examples of dangling
along preexisting faults and in the hinge area of folds along elements, because they are commonly dead end structures.
zones of strong cleavage development (Fig. 17F). Some dikes Backbone components carry much of the fluid but do not
are offset by reverse faults; the fact that this offset on dikes is contain much ore, whereas dangling elements allow for the
never very great, and that veins and dikes are generally interaction between ascending fluids and those in the host
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rocks and are therefore more likely to be mineralized. Exam- 6. Gold is interpreted to have precipitated throughout most
ples of isolated elements along the Deborah anticline are en of the deformation sequence. The fact that primary gold is lo-
échelon veins, which are not connected to backbone-type el- cated in bedding-parallel veins which have not been reacti-
ements such as bedding-parallel veins or faults. On a broader vated after fold lock up, indicates that some gold was precip-
scale, the Whitelaw fault and other intrazone faults may be itated during folding. The majority of gold is contained within
viewed as a backbone element with little or no mineralization, veins associated with faults, or in bedding-parallel veins that
whereas the third-order faults such as the Deborah fault may have been reactivated. The richest gold-bearing structures
be considered to be dangling elements because they have vis- are those where faults have intersected saddle reefs, forming
ible terminations and accordingly host the gold deposits. so-called “neck reefs.” Some gold was remobilized and con-
The following conclusions may be drawn: centrated in carbonate cataclasites along bedding-parallel
veins and lamprophyre dikes during late brittle deformation.
1. There are three types of major quartz and gold-bearing 7. A fault-based fracture system was superimposed on pre-
structures present along the Deborah anticline: saddle reefs, existing dilational sites, such as bedding-parallel and saddle
reverse faults and associated veins, and fault-modified saddle reefs, and may have allowed for the introduction of a larger
reefs. Saddle reefs formed during chevron folding, as a result volume of fluids during faulting than was possible during
of flexural slip and dilational sites created by the competency folding. Discordant faults allowed fluid to flow across bedding
contrast between stiff sandstone and less competent shale. planes to which fluid flow was restricted during most of the
Fault veins formed after folds had locked up, whereas fault- folding sequence. In the terminology of Cox (1999), bedding-
modified saddle reefs are structures where the two coincide. parallel veins and faults are backbone structures, which carry
2. There are three main fault types present along the Deb- most of the fluid but do not necessarily promote mineraliza-
orah anticline. Some bedding-parallel veins may be consid- tion, unless blocked. Extension veins are considered dangling
ered as faults. True fault types include (1) bedding-parallel elements and dead-end structures, which provide potential
faults that have initiated along bedding-parallel veins and for fluid mixing between ascending fluids and those in the
commonly become discordant as they cross the crest of the host rocks and therefore contain a large proportion of the
fold, (2) bedding-parallel faults with little or no quartz, and mineralization. En échelon veins are not strongly mineralized
(3) moderately dipping discordant faults with little associated because they are isolated structures, which are not connected
quartz. to the fracture network.
3. The Deborah anticline is a chevron fold composed of
slate, siltstone, and sandstone. The dominant fabric is a Acknowledgments
crenulation cleavage (S1), which is generally parallel to the The authors wish to thank Bendigo Mining N.L. for allow-
axial surface of the major folds. A rare bedding-parallel fabric ing us access to available workings of the Deborah anticline,
(S*) is also recorded and is interpreted to predate S1. A dis- for providing logistical support and samples, and for the use
continuous spaced crenulation cleavage (S2), oriented at high of some figures. P.S. acknowledges the receipt of an Overseas
angles to S1, is found in close proximity to reverse faults and Postgraduate Research Scholarship and Melbourne Univer-
some lamprophyre dikes. sity Postgraduate Scholarship while at the University of Mel-
4. Quartz veins include bedding-parallel, saddle reefs, and bourne. Reviews by Stephen Cox and Daniel Kontak helped
extension veins related to folding, and fault-parallel, en éche- greatly to improve this manuscript and Karina Jonasson is
lon, shear, and extension veins related to faulting. Subvertical thanked for her editorial comments.
extension veins related to fracturing during folding are much March 10, 2000; December 18, 2001
more common in the Bendigo gold field than are subhorizon-
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Economic Geology

Vol. 97, 2002, pp. 351–370

The Relative Roles of Folding and Faulting in Controlling Gold Mineralization

Introduction events, including folding, faulting, vein emplacement, and in-

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FIG. 2. Map of Bendigo area, showing major biostratigraphic units and

The Deborah Anticline

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Vein type Size (mm thick) Timing Gold content

En echelon veins 10–300 Faulting Barren

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then slickenlines record both dextral and sinistral transpres-

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UPPER DEBORAH FAULT Q1

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FIG. 7. Lower hemisphere equal-area projections of (A) fault orientations

FIG. 8. Lower hemisphere equal-area projections of (A) bedding (n = 73,

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-50m MRL Deborah

C) -50m MRL L11

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-20 Extensional-shear failure

Vertical Effective Stress

FIG. 15. A. Subhorizontal and shortened veins, crosscut by steeply dipping 4 80

stress is not completely relieved by failure along a fault, or if 140

Failure modes and fluid pressures during vein emplacement 180

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