THERMOCHEMISTRY

Energy and Chemical Change
BIG Idea Chemical reactions

usually absorb or release energy.
O2
15.1 Energy
MAIN Idea Energy can
change form and flow, but it
is always conserved.
15.2 Heat
MAIN Idea The enthalpy change
for a reaction is the enthalpy of
the products minus the
enthalpy of the reactants.
15.3 Thermochemical
Equations
MAIN Idea Thermochemical
equations express the amount
of heat released or absorbed
by chemical reactions.
H2
15.4 Calculating Enthalpy
Change
MAIN Idea The enthalpy change
for a reaction can be calculated
using Hess’s law.
15.5 Reaction Spontaneity
MAIN Idea Changes in enthalpy
and entropy determine whether
a process is spontaneous.
ChemFacts
• The three main engines of the
space shuttle use more than
547,000 kg of liquid oxygen
and approximately 92,000 kg
of liquid hydrogen.
• The engines lift a total
6
mass of 2.04 × 10 kg.
• In about eight minutes, the space
H O
shuttle accelerates to a speed of 2
more than 17,000 km/h.
514
©Purestock/Getty Images
Start-Up Activities
LAUNCH Lab
Gibbs Free Energy
How can you make a cold Equation
pack? Make the following
Foldable to organize your
Chemical cold packs are used for fast relief of pain due to
study of the energy
injury. Some chemical cold packs contain two separate
equation.
compounds that are combined in a process that absorbs heat.
Which compound would make the best chemical cold pack?
STEP 1 Fold a sheet
of paper in half length-
wise. Make the back
edge about 2 cm
longer than the front
edge.
the temperature change.
Procedure
1. Read and complete the lab safety form.
2. Use a graduated cylinder to place 15 mL of
distilled water into each of three test tubes.
3. Use a nonmercury thermometer to find the
temperature of the distilled water. Record
the initial temperature of the water in a data
table.
4. Use a balance to measure the mass of 1.0 g
of potassium nitrate (KNO 3). Add the KNO 3
to Test Tube 1. WARNING: Keep all
chemicals used in this lab away from heat
sources.
5. Mix, and record the maximum or minimum
tempera-ture reached by the solution.
6. Repeat Steps 4 and 5 with samples of calcium chlo-
ride (CaCl 2) and ammonium nitrate (N H 4NO 3).
Analysis
1. Analyze and Conclude Which is the best
chemical for a chemical cold pack?
2. Describe an alternate use better suited
for one of the other chemicals used in the
lab.
Inquiry Investigate a change that you could
make in the procedure that would increase
STEP 2 Fold into thirds.
Visit glencoe.com to:
▶ study the entire chapter online
STEP 3 Unfold and cut ▶ explore

along the folds of the top ▶ take Self-Check Quizzes
▶ use the Personal Tutor to
flap to make three tabs.
work Example Problems step-
by-step
▶ access Web Links for more
STEP 4 Label the tabs information, projects, and
as follows: ∆G, ∆H and ∆ ∆ -∆ activities
-T∆S. G H T S ▶ find the Try at Home Lab,
Observing Entropy
&/,$!",%3 Use this Foldable with Section 15.5. As

you read this section, summarize what each term Chapter 15 • Energy and Chemical
means and how it relates to reaction spontaneity. Change
515
Matt Meadows
Section 15.1
Objectives
Define energy.
Energy
Distinguish between MAIN Idea Energy can change form and flow, but it is always
potential and kinetic energy. conserved.
Relate chemical potential
Real-World Reading Link Have you ever watched a roller coaster
energy to the heat lost or
zoom up and down a track, or experienced the thrill of a coaster
gained in chemical
reactions. ride? Each time a coaster climbs a steep grade or plunges down
Calculate the amount of heat the other side, its energy changes from one form to another.
absorbed or released by a substance
as its temperature changes. The Nature of Energy
You are probably familiar with the term energy. Perhaps you have heard
Review Vocabulary someone say, “I just ran out of energy,” after a strenuous game or a
temperature: a measure of the difficult day. Solar energy, nuclear energy, energy-efficient automobiles,
average kinetic energy of the and other energy-related topics are often discussed in the media.
particles in a sample of matter Energy cooks the food you eat and propels the vehicles that trans-port
New Vocabulary you. If the day is especially hot or cold, energy from burning fuels helps
maintain a comfortable temperature in your home and school. Electric
energy
energy provides light and powers devices from computers and TV sets to
law of conservation of
cellular phones, MP3 players, and calculators. Energy was involved in
energy chemical
potential energy heat the manufacture and delivery of every material and device in your home.
calorie Your every movement and thought requires energy. In fact, you can think
joule of each cell in your body as a miniature factory that runs on energy
specific derived from the food you eat.
heat What is energy? Energy is the ability to do work or produce heat. It
exists in two basic forms: potential energy and kinetic energy. Potential
energy is energy due to the composition or position of an object. A
macroscopic example of potential energy of position is a downhill skier
poised at the starting gate for a race, as shown in Figure 15.1a. After the
starting signal is given, the skier’s potential energy changes to kinetic
energy during the speedy trip to Figure 15.1b. Kinetic energy is energy of motion. You can observe kinetic
the finish line, as shown in energy in the motion of objects and people all around you.
■ Figure15.1 At the top of the course, the skier in a has high potential energy because of her position. In b, the skier’s potential energy
changes to kinetic energy.
Compare How is the potential energy of the skier different at the starting gate and at the finish line?
a b
516 Chapter 15 • Energy and Chemical Change

(l)©Agence Zoom/Getty Images, (r)©Donald Miralle/Getty Images
a b
a bank and you
transfer funds
from one
account to the
other. Although
Reservoir the amount of
money in each
account has
changed, the
total amount of
your money in
the bank
Water remains the
intake Turbine same. When
applied to
energy, this
analogy
embodies the
Chemical systems contain both law of
kinetic energy and potential conservation of
energy. Recall from Chapter 13 energy. The law
that the kinetic energy of a of conservation
substance is directly related to the of energy states
constant random motion of its that in any
representative particles and is chemical
proportional to temperature. As reaction or
temperature increases, the motion physical
of submicroscopic particles process, energy
increases. The potential energy of can be converted
a substance depends on its from one form
to another, but it
composition: the type of atoms in
is neither
the substance, the number and
created nor
type of chemical bonds joining the
destroyed. This
atoms, and the particu-lar way the is also known as
atoms are arranged. the first law of
Law of conservation of thermodynamics
energy When water rushes .
through turbines in the Chemical
hydroelectric plant shown in potential
Figure 15.2a, some of the water’s
energy The
kinetic energy is converted to
energy that is
electric energy. Propane (C 3H 8) is stored in a sub-
an important fuel for cooking and stance because
heating. In Figure 15.2b, propane of its
gas combines with oxygen to form composition is
carbon dioxide and water. Potential called
energy stored in the propane bonds chemical
is given off as heat. In both of
potential
these examples, energy changes
energy.
from one form to another, but
energy is con-served—the total Chemical
amount of energy remains potential
constant. To better under-stand the energy plays an
conservation of energy, suppose important role
you have money in two accounts at in chemical
reac-tions. For example, the
chemical potential energy of
propane results from the
arrangement of the carbon and
hydrogen atoms and the strength
of the bonds that join them.
Reading Check State
the law of
conservation of
energy in your own
words.
■ Figure 15.2
Energy can change
from one form to
another but is
always conserved.
In a, the potential
energy of water is
converted to kinetic
energy of motion as it
falls through the
intake from its high
position in the
reservoir. The rushing
water spins the
turbine to generate
electric energy. In b,
the potential energy
stored in the bonds of
propane molecules is
converted to heat.
Section 15.1 •
Energy 517
©Alan Sirulnikoff/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Heat The principle component of

Relationships
gasoline is octane (C 8H18). When
Table Among
15.1 gasoline burns in an automobile’s
Energy Units
engine, some of octane’s chemical
potential energy is converted to the
Relationship work of moving the pistons, which
ultimately moves the wheels and
propels the automobile. However,
1 J = 0.2390 cal much of the chemical potential
energy of octane is released as heat.
The symbol q is used to represent
heat, which is energy that is in the
1 cal = 4.184 J process of flowing from a warmer
object to a cooler object. When the
warmer object loses energy, its
temperature decreases. When the
1 Calorie = 1 kcal cooler object absorbs energy, its
temperature rises.
Measuring Heat
The flow of energy and the resulting
change in temperature are clues to
how heat is measured. In the metric
system of units, the amount of
energy required to raise the
temperature of one gram of pure
water by one degree Celsius (1°C) is
defined as a calorie (cal). When your
body breaks down sugars and fats to
form carbon dioxide and water, these
exothermic reactions generate heat
that can be measured in Calories.
Note that the nutritional Calorie is
capitalized. That is because one
nutritional Calorie equals 1000
calories, or one kilocalorie (kcal).
1000 cal
Recall that the prefix kilo- means
1 Calorie
1000. For example, one tablespoon
of butter contains approximately 100
Calories. This means that if the
butter was burned completely to
produce carbon dioxide and water,
100 kcal (100,000 cal) of heat would
be released.
The SI unit of of energy and
of heat is the joule (J). One joule
is the equivalent of 0.2390
calories, and one calorie equals
4.184 joules. Table 15.1
summarizes the relationships
between calories, nutritional
Calories, joules, conversion factors you can use to
and kilojoules convert from one unit to another.
(kJ) and the
EXAMPLE Problem 15.1

Math
Convert Energy Units A breakfast Hand
of cereal, orange juice, and milk might book
contain 230 nutritional Calories. Unit
Express this energy in joules. Conv
ersio
1 Analyze the Problem n
pag
You are given an amount of energy in
es
nutritional Calories. You must convert 957
nutritional Calories to calories and then –
convert calories to joules. 958
Known Unknown
amount of energy = 230 Calories
amount of energy
2 Solve for the Unknown

Convert nutritional Calories
to calories.
Apply the relationship 1 Calorie
230 Calories × = 2.3 × 105 cal = 1000 cal.
Convert calories to joules.

5 4.184 J Apply the relationship 1 cal =
2.3 × 10 cal × 1cal = 4.184 J.
5
9.6 × 10 J
3 Evaluate the Answer

The minimum number of significant figures used in the
conversion is two, and the answer correctly has two
5 6
digits. A value of the order of 10 or 10 is expected
because the given number of kilocalories is of the order
2 3
of 10 and it must be multiplied by 10 to convert it to
calories. Then, the calories must be multiplied by a
factor of approximately 4. Therefore, the answer is
reasonable.

P Extra
R Practi
ce
A Page
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and
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C
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P
r
o
b
l
e
m
s
1. A fruit-and-oatmeal bar contains 142 nutritional
Calories. Convert this energy to calories.
2. An exothermic reaction releases 86.5 kJ. How many
kilocalories of energy are released?
3. Challenge Define a new
energy unit, named after
yourself, with a magnitude
of one-tenth of a calorie.
What conversion factors
relate this new unit to
joules? To Calories?
Specific Heat
You have read
that one calorie,
or 4.184 J, is
required to raise
the tem-
perature of one
gram of pure
water by one
degree Celsius
(1°C). That
quantity, 4.184
J/(g·°C), is
defined as the
specific heat (c)
of water. The
specific heat of
any substance is
the amount of
heat required to
raise the
temperature of
one gram of
that substance
by one degree
Celsius.
Because
different
substances have
different
compositions,
each substance
has its own
specific heat.
To raise the
temperature of
water by one
degree Celsius,
4.184 J must be
absorbed by
every gram of
water. Much less
energy is required
to raise the
temperature of an
equal mass of
concrete by one
degree Celsius.
You might have
noticed that
concrete
sidewalks get hot
during a sunny
summer day.
How hot depends
on the specific
heat of concrete,
but other factors
are also
important. The
specific heat of
concrete is 0.84 J/
(g·°C), which
means that the
temperature of
concrete
increases rough-
ly five times
more than water’s
temperature when
equal masses of
con-crete and
water absorb the
same amount of
energy. You can
see in Figure 15.3
that people who
have been
walking on hot
concrete surfac-
es might want to
cool their feet in
the water of a
fountain.
Figur
e 15.3
The
cooler
waters
of the
fountai
n are
welco
me
after
walkin
g on
the hot
concre
te
sidewa
lk. The
water
is
cooler
becau
se
water
must
absorb
five
times
the
numbe
r of
joules
as
concre
te to
reach
an
equival
ent
temper
ature.
Infe
r
How
wou
ld
the
tem
pera
ture
cha
nge
of
the
con
cret
e
com
pare
to
that
of
the
wat
er
over
the
cou
rse
of a
cool
nigh
t.
Section 15.1 • Energy 519
(l)©Stephen Chernin/Getty Images, (r)©Bob Krist/CORBIS
Gold(s) 0.129
Table
Specific
Heats at
15.2 2
9
8
K
(
2
5
°
C
)
Specific heat
Substance
Water(l)
Ethanol(l)
Water(s)
Water(g)
Beryllium(s)
Magnesium(s)
Aluminum(s)
Concrete(s)
Granite(s)
Calcium(s)
Iron(s)
Strontium(s)
Silver(s)
Barium(s)
Lead(s)
Calculating h
e
heat absorbed a
Suppose that the t
temperature of a
3 a
5.00 × 10 -g b
block of concrete s
o
sidewalk r
increased by b
6.0°C. Would it e
d
be possible to
calculate the o
amount of heat it r
had absorbed?
r
Recall that the e
specific heat of a l
substance tells e
a
you the amount s
of heat that must e
be absorbed by 1 d
.
g of a substance
to raise its c
temperature 1°C.
Table 15.2 shows r
e
the specific heats p
for some r
common e
s
substances. The e
specific heat of n
concrete is 0.84 t
s
J/(g·°C), so 1 g
of concrete t
absorbs 0.84 J h
when its e
temperature
s
increases by 1°C. p
To determine the e
c
heat absorbed by i
3
5.00 × 10 g f
i
of concrete c
you must
multiply the h
0.84 J by 5.00 e
3 a
× 10 . Then, t
because the
concrete’s o
temperature f
changed by the substance. m represents the mass of the
6.0°C, you sample in grams. ∆T is the
change in temperature in °C, or
must multiply T final - T initial.
the product of
the mass and The quantity of heat absorbed or
the specific released by a substance is equal to
heat by 6.0°C. the product of its specific heat, the
mass of the substance, and the
Equation for change in its temperature.
Calculating
Heat You can use this equation to
calculate
q represents the the heat absorbed by the
concrete block. absorbed more than five times
q = the amount of heat absorbed by
× ∆ the concrete block.
Calculating heat released
q concrete =
Substances can both absorb and
0.84 J release heat. The same equation
(g ·°C)
× (5.00 × for q, the quantity of heat, can be
3 used to calculate the energy
10 g) × released by substances when they
6.0°C = 3
25,000 J or cool off. Suppose the 5.00 × 10 -
25 kJ g piece of concrete reached a
temperature of 74.0°C during a
The total sunny day and cooled down to
amount of 40.0°C at night. How much heat
heat absorbed was released? First calculate ∆T.
by the ∆T = 74.0°C -
concrete block 40.0°C =
is 25,000 J or 34.0°C
25 kJ.
For Then, use the equation for quantity
comparison, how of heat.
much heat would
be absorbed by q=c×
3 m × ∆T
5.00 × 10 g of
the water in the 0.84 J
q concrete = (g ·°C) × (5.00 ×
fountain when
3
its temperature is 10 g) × 34.0°C = 140,000 J or 140
increased by kJ
6.0°C?
The calculation
for q water is the
same as it is for
concrete except
that you must
use the specific
heat of water,
4.184 J/(g·°C).
q water =
4.184 J
(g·°C) ×
3
(5.00 × 10 g)
× 6.0°C = 1.3
5
× 10 J or 130
kJ
If you
divide the heat
absorbed by the
water (130 kJ)
by the heat
absorbed by the
concrete (25 J),
you will find
that for the
same change in
temperature,
the water
q
Calculat u
e a
Specific n
Heat In t
the i
constructi t
on of y
bridges
and o
skyscrape f
rs, gaps
must be h
left e
between a
adjoining t
steel
beams to r
allow for e
the l
expansion e
and a
contractio s
n of the e
metal due d
to heating .
and
cooling.
Y
The
o
temperatu
u
re of a
sample of
iron with a c
mass of a
10.0 g n
changed
from c
50.4°C to a
25.0°C l
with the c
release of u
114 J. l
What is a
the t
specific e
heat of
iron? t
h
1 Analyze e
the
Problem s
You are p
given the e
mass of c
the i
sample, f
the initial i
and final c
temperat
ures, h
and the e
at of iron s
by t
rearrangi a
ng the t
equation e
that d
relates w
these it
variables h
to solve t
for c. h
r
Known e
energy e
released = d
114 J i
50.4°C g
mass of iron it
= 10.0 g Fe s
.
T
Unknown
h
specific heat e
of iron, c = ? v
J/(g·°C)
a
l
2 Solve for u
the e
Unknown o
Calculate f
∆T. t
h
∆T = 50.4°C
e
- 25.0°C =
d
25.4°C
e
Write the n
equation for o
calculating m
the quantity i
of heat. n
a
q = c × m × ∆T
t
c × m × ∆T o
= r
m × ∆T m
q o
c= f
m × ∆T t
114 J h
c= e
(10.0 g)(25.4°C)
e
c = 0.449 J/(g·°C) q
u
3 Evaluate a
the Answer ti
o
The values
n
used in the
i
calculation
s
have three
a
significant
p
figures, so
p
the answer
r
is correctly
o
ximately C
two times
the value of t
the o
numerator,
so the 4
final 0
result, .
which is 0
approxi °
mately C
0.5, is .
reasona
ble. The I
calculat n
ed
t
value is
h
the
e
same
as that
p
recorde r
d for o
iron in c
Table e
15.2. s
s
,
PRACTICE
Problems t
h
986 and e
glencoe.com
4. If the s
temperature u
of 34.4 g of b
ethanol s
t
increases
a
from 25.0°C
n
to 78.8°C,
c
how much e
heat has
been a
absorbed by b
the ethanol? s
Refer to o
Table 15.2. r
5. A 155- b
g e
sampl d
e of
an 5
unkno 6
wn 9
subst 6
ance
was J
heate
d from o
25.0° f
energ
y.
What
is the
specifi
c heat
of the
subst
ance?
Identif
y the
subst
ance
amon
g
those
listed
in
Rea
Table l-
15.2.
Wor
6. Challenge A
4.50-g ld
nugget of Che
pure gold
absorbed mis
276 J of try
heat. Spe
The initial
temperatur cific
e was Heat
25.0°C.
What was
the final
temperatur
e?
Abso
rbing
heat
You
might
have
wrapp
ed
your
hands
around
a cup
of hot
chocol
ate to
stay
warm
at a fall
football
game.
In
much
the same way,
long ago, children
sometimes walked
to school on wintry
days carrying hot,
baked potatoes in
their pockets. The
potatoes provided
warmth for cold
hands, but by the
time the school
bell rang, the
potatoes had
cooled off. At
lunchtime, the
cold potatoes
might have been
placed in or on the
schoolhouse stove
to warm them
again for eating.
Section 15.1 •
Energy 521
Matt Meadows
■ Figure 15.4 Each photoelectric cell
on this panel absorbs the Sun’s
radiation and converts it to electricity
quietly and without causing pollution.
Using the Sun’s energy Because of its high specific heat, water is
sometimes used to harness the energy of the Sun. After water has been
heated by solar radiation, the hot water can be circulated in homes and
businesses to provide heat. Radiation from the Sun could supply all the
energy needs of the world and reduce or eliminate the use of carbon
dioxide-producing fuels, but several factors have delayed the develop-
ment of solar technologies. For example, the Sun shines for only a part
of each day. In some areas, clouds often reduce the amount of available
radiation. Because of this variability, effective methods for storing ener-
gy are critical.
A more promising approach to the use of solar energy is the devel-
opment of photovoltaic cells, such as those shown in Figure 15.4.
These devices convert solar radiation directly to electricity.
Photovoltaic cells supply power for astronauts in space, but they are
not used extensively for ordinary energy needs. That is because the
cost of supplying electric-ity by means of photovoltaic cells is high
compared to the cost of burning coal or oil.
Section 15.1 Assessment

Section Summary 7. MAIN Idea Explain how energy changes from one form to
another in an
Energy is the capacity to do
exothermic reaction. In an endothermic reaction.
work or produce heat.
8. Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy in the following examples: two
Chemical potential energy is energy
separated magnets; an avalanche of snow; books on library shelves; a mountain
stored in the chemical bonds of a sub-
stream; a stock-car race; separation of charge in a battery.
stance by virtue of the arrangement of
the atoms and molecules. 9. Explain how the light and heat of a burning candle are related to
chemical potential energy.
Chemical potential energy is released
or absorbed as heat during chemical 10. Calculate the amount of heat absorbed when 5.50 g of aluminum is heated
processes or reactions. from 25.0ºC to 95.0ºC. The specific heat of aluminum is 0.897 J/(g∙ºC).
11. Interpret Data Equal masses of aluminum, gold, iron, and silver were left to sit in
the Sun at the same time and for the same length of time. Use Table 15.2
to arrange the four metals according to the increase in their
temperatures from largest increase to smallest.
522 Chapter 15 • Energy and Chemical Change Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com
©Eurelios/Phototake
Section 15.2
Objectives
Describe how a calorimeter
Heat
is used to measure energy MAIN Idea The enthalpy change for a reaction is the enthalpy of
that is absorbed or released. the products minus the enthalpy of the reactants.
Explain the meaning of enthalpy
and enthalpy change in chemical
Real-World Reading Link Think about standing under a hot shower,
reactions and processes.
relaxing as your body absorbs heat from the water. When you jump into
a cold pool, you might shiver as your body loses heat. In a similar way,
Review Vocabulary some chemical reactions absorb heat whereas others release heat.
pressure: force applied per unit area
Calorimetry
New Vocabulary Have you ever wondered how food chemists obtain the Calorie infor-
calorimeter mation that appears on packaged food? The packages record the results of
thermochemistry combustion reactions carried out in calorimeters. A calorimeter is an
system
insulated device used for measuring the amount of heat absorbed or
surroundings
released during a chemical or physical process. A known mass of water is
universe
enthalpy
placed in an insulated chamber to absorb the energy released from the
enthalpy (heat) of reaction reacting system or to provide the energy absorbed by the system. The data
to be collected is the change in temperature of this mass of water. Figure
15.5 shows the kind of calorimeter, called a bomb calo-rimeter, that is used
by food chemists.
Determining specific heat Satisfactory results can be obtained in
your calorimetry experiments using the much simpler foam-cup calo-
rimeter. These calorimeters are open to the atmosphere, so reactions
carried out in them occur at constant pressure. You can use them to
determine the specific heat of an unknown metal.
Suppose you put 125 g of water into a foam-cup calorimeter and
find that its initial temperature is 25.60°C. Then you heat a 50.0-g
sample of the unknown metal to 115.0°C and put the metal sample
into the water. Heat flows from the hot metal to the cooler water, and
the temperature of the water rises. The flow of heat stops only when
the temperature of the metal and the water are equal.
■ Figure 15.5 A sample is positioned in a steel inner Ignition terminals
chamber called the bomb, which is filled with oxygen
Stirrer Thermometer
at high pressure. Surrounding the bomb is a
measured mass of water stirred by a low-friction
stirrer to ensure uniform temperature. The reaction is Water
initiated by a spark, and the temperature is recorded
until
it reaches its maximum. Insulation
Infer Why is it important that the stirrer
does not create friction?
Sealed reaction chamber
containing substance and
oxygen (the bomb)
Interactive Figure To see an animation of Bomb Calorimeter

calorimetry, visit glencoe.com.
Section 15.2 • Heat 523

a b c
26 30
25 29
24 28
■ Figure 15.6 a. An initial

temperature of 25.60°C is
recorded for the 125 g of water
in the calorimeter. b. A 50.0-g
sample of an unknown metal is
heated to 115.0°C and placed in
the calorimeter. c. The metal
transfers heat to the water until
metal and water are at the same
temperature. The final
temperature is 29.30°C.
qwater = 4.184 J/(g·°C) × 125 g × (29.30°C -
25.60°C)
Figure 15.6 shows the qwater = 4.184 J/(g·°C) × 125 g × 3.70°C
experimental procedure. Note qwater = 1940 J
that the tempera-ture in the
calorimeter becomes constant The heat gained by the water, 1940 J, equals the
at 29.30°C, which is the final heat lost by the metal, q metal, so you can write this
temperature attained by both equation.
the water and the metal. =q
Assuming no heat is lost to the
q metal water
surroundings, the heat gained qmetal = −1940 J

by the water is equal to the c metal × m × ∆T = −1940 J
heat lost by the metal. This Now, solve the equation for the specific heat of
quantity of heat can be the metal, c metal, by dividing both sides of the
calculated using the equation equation by m × ∆T.
you learned in Section 15.1. -1940 J
q= c =
metal m × ∆T
c × The change in temperature for the metal, ∆T, is the
m difference between the final temperature of the water and
× the initial temperature of the metal (29.30°C - 115.0°C =
∆T
−85.7°C). Substitute the known values of m and ∆T (50.0 g
Reading Check Define and −85.7°C) into the equation and solve.
the four variables in the -1940 J
equation above. c = = 0.453
metal (50.0 g)(-85.7°C)
First, calculate the heat J/(g·°C)
gained by the water. To do
this, you need the specific The unknown metal has a specific heat of 0.453
heat of water, 4.184 J/(g·°C). Table 15.2 shows that the metal could be
J/(g·°C). iron.
©Tom Pantages

Math
Using Specific Heat A piece of metal with a mass of 4.68 g absorbs Handbook
256 J of heat when its temperature increases by 182°C. What is the Solving
specific heat of the metal? Could the metal be one of the alkaline Algebraic
earth metals listed in Table 15.2? Equatio
ns pages
1 Analyze the Problem 954–955
You are given the mass of the metal, the amount of heat it
absorbs, and the temperature change. You must calculate the
specific heat. Use the equation for q, the quantity of heat, but solve
for specific heat, c.
Known Unknown
mass of metal, m = 4.68 g specific heat, c = ? J/
(g·°C)
quantity of heat absorbed, q = 256 J
∆T = 182°C
c = (4.68 g)(182°C) = 0.301 J/(g·°C)
q = c × m × ∆T
q
c=
m × ∆T
256 J
Solve for c.
Substitute q = 256 J, m = 4.68 g, and ∆T

State the equation for the quantity of heat, q.
= 182°C.
Table 15.2 indicates that the metal could be strontium.

The three quantities used in the calculation have three significant figures, and the answer is
correctly stated with three digits. The calculations are correct and yield the expected unit.
PRACTICE Extra Practice Page 986

Problems and glencoe.com
12. A 90.0-g sample of an unknown metal absorbed 25.6 J of heat as its

temperature increased 1.18°C. What is the specific heat of the metal?
13. The temperature of a sample of water increases from 20.0°C to 46.6°C as it
absorbs 5650 J of heat. What is the mass of the sample?
3
14. How much heat is absorbed by a 2.00 × 10 -g granite boulder (c granite = 0.803
J/(g·ºC)) as its temperature changes from 10.0ºC to 29.0ºC?
15. Challenge If 335 g of water at 65.5°C loses 9750 J of heat, what is the final
temperature of the water?
Chemical Energy and the Universe

Virtually every chemical reaction and change of physical state either releases
or absorbs heat. Thermochemistry is the study of heat changes that
accompany chemical reactions and phase changes. The burning
of fuels always produces heat. Some products have been engineered to
produce heat on demand. For example, soldiers in the field use a highly
exothermic reaction to heat their meals. You might have used a heat pack to
warm your hands on a cold day. The energy released by a
heat pack is produced by the following reaction and is shown in
the equation as one of the products.
4Fe(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Fe 2O3(s) + 1625 kJ

5. Using crucible tongs, carefully place
Determine Specific Heat the metal cylinder in the beaker on the
hot plate.
How can you determine the specific
heat of a metal? You can use a coffee- 6. Measure 90.0 mL of distilled
cup calorimeter to determine the specific water using a graduated
heat of a metal. cylinder.
7. Pour the water into a polystyrene
Procedure coffee cup nested in a second 250-
mL beaker.
1. Read and complete the lab safety
form. 8. Measure and record the
2. Make a table to record your data. temperature of the water using a
nonmercury thermometer.
3. Pour approximately 150 mL of
distilled water into a 250-mL
beaker. Place the beaker on a hot
plate set on high.
4. Use a balance to find the mass
of a metal cylinder.
water. The specific heat of H 2O is
9. When the water on the hot plate
4.184 J/g·°C. Because the density of
begins to boil, measure and record
water is 1.0 g/mL, use the vol-ume of
the temperature as the initial water as the mass.
temperature of the metal.
2. Calculate the specific heat of your
10. Carefully add the hot metal to the cool metal. Assume that the heat
water in the coffee cup with the absorbed by the water equals the
crucible tongs. Do not touch the hot heat lost by the metal.
metal with your hands.
3. Compare this experimental
11. Stir, and measure the maximum value to the accepted value for
temperature of the water after the your metal.
metal was added.
4. Describe major sources of error
Analysis in this lab. What modifications
could you make in this experiment
1. Calculate the heat gained by the to reduce the error?
Because you are interested in the heat given off

by the chemical reaction going on inside the pack, it
is convenient to think of the pack and its contents as
the system. In thermochemistry, the system is the
specific part of the universe that contains the
reaction or process you wish to study. Everything in
the universe other than the system is con-sidered the
■ Figure 15.7 In this surroundings. Therefore, the universe is defined as
endothermic reaction, the
reacting mixture draws
the system plus the surroundings.
enough energy from the universe = system + surroundings
water and the board to
lower the temperature of What kind of energy transfer occurs during the
the water and the board exothermic heat-pack reaction? Heat produced by
to freezing.
the reaction flows from the heat pack (the system) to
your cold hands (part of the surroundings).
What happens in an endothermic reaction or
process? The flow of heat is reversed. Heat flows
from the surroundings to the system. When barium
hydroxide and ammonium thiocyanate crystals,
shown in Figure 15.7, are placed in a beaker and mixed,
a highly endothermic reaction occurs. Placing the
beaker on a wet board allows heat to flow from the
water and board (the surroundings) into the beaker (the
sys-tem). The temperature change is great enough that
the beaker freezes to the board.
Enthalpy and enthalpy changes The total amount
of energy a substance contains depends on many factors,
some of which are still not completely understood.
Therefore, it is impossible to know the total energy
content of a substance. Fortunately, chemists are usually
526 Chapter 15 • Energy and
Chemical Change more interested in changes in energy during reactions
than in the absolute amounts of energy contained in the
reactants and products.
Matt Meadows
For many reactions, the amount of energy lost or atmospheric pressure; for
gained can be measured conveniently in a calorimeter at example, those that occur in
constant pressure, as shown in the experiment in Figure living organisms on Earth’s
15.6. The foam cup is not sealed, so the pressure is surface, in lakes and oceans,
constant. Many reactions take place at constant and those that take place in
open beakers and flasks in the laboratory. The energy Prod
released or evolved from reac-tions carried out at uct
constant pressure is sometimes given the symbol q p. To Ex
ot
more easily measure and study the energy changes that he
accompany such reactions, chemists have defined a rm
property called enthalpy. Enthalpy (H) is the heat ic
Re
content of a system at constant pressure.
ac
Although you cannot measure the actual energy or tio
enthalpy of a substance, you can measure the change in n
enthalpy, which is the heat absorbed or released in a ∆
chemical reaction. The change in enthalpy for a H
reaction is called the enthalpy (heat) of reaction (∆H <
rxn). You have already learned that a symbol preceded 0
by the Greek letter delta (∆) means a change in the
property. Thus, ∆H rxn is the difference between the
enthalpy of the substances that exist at the end of the
reaction and the enthalpy of the substances present at
the start.
∆H =H -H
rxn final initial
Because the reactants are present at the beginning of
the reaction and the products are present at the end,
∆H rxn is defined by this equation.
∆H =H -H
rxn products reactants
The sign of the enthalpy of reaction Recall
the heat-pack reaction.
4Fe(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Fe 2O3(s) +
1625 kJ
According to the equation, the reactants in this exothermic
reaction lose
heat. Therefore, H products < H reactants. When H reactants is
subtracted from the smaller H products, a negative value for
∆H rxn results. Enthalpy changes for exothermic reactions
are always negative. The equation for the heat-
pack reaction and its enthalpy change are usually
written as shown.
4Fe(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Fe 2O3(s) ∆H rxn =
-1625 kJ
A diagram of the enthalpy change is shown in Figure
15.8.
The Heat-Pack Reaction

Heat to
surroundings
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g)
Enthal Reactants
py ∆H = -1625 kJ
2Fe2O3(s)
Careers In chemistry
Heating and Cooling Specialist

Heating and cooling system mechan- ■ Figure 15.8 The downward
ics install, maintain, and repair arrow shows that 1625 kJ of heat
is released to the surround-ings
refrigeration and heating equipment
in the reaction between iron and
in homes and in industry. They must
oxygen to form Fe2O3. A heat
understand how heat is exchanged
pack utilizing this reaction of iron
by means of exothermic and endo- and oxygen provides energy for
thermic processes. They must be able warming cold hands.
to read blueprints and use a wide Explain how the diagram
range of tools, from pipe cutters to shows that the reaction is
computerized diagnostic devices. exothermic.
Such mechanics might specialize in
one aspect of this field, or become
proficient in all areas. For more infor-
mation on chemistry careers, visit
glencoe.com.

Tim Fuller
The Cold-Pack Process

Heat from surroundings
+ -
NH4 (aq) + NO3 (aq)
Products
E
nt ∆H = +27 kJ
ha
lp
y NH4NO3(s)
MAIN Idea
Reactant
Endothermic Process
∆H > 0
■ Figure 15.9 The upward arrow

shows that 27 kJ of heat is Now, recall the cold-pack process.
absorbed from the sur-roundings
+ -
in the process of dissolving N H 27 kJ + NH 4NO3(s) → NH4 (aq) + NO3
4NO3. This reaction is the basis (aq)
for the cold pack. When the cold
pack is placed on a person’s For this endothermic process, H products > H reactants.
ankle, his ankle supplies the
required heat and is itself cooled.
Therefore, when H reactants is subtracted from the larger H
Determine How many products, a positive value for ∆H rxn is obtained. Chemists
kilojoules per mol of write the equation for the cold-pack process and
ammonium nitrate are its enthalpy change in the following way.
released when a cold pack
+ -
is activated? NH 4NO3(s) → NH4 (aq) + NO3 (aq) ∆H rxn
= 27 kJ
Figure 15.9 shows the and all endothermic reactions and processes is
energy change for the positive. Recall that the sign of ∆H rxn for all
cold-pack process. In this exothermic reactions is negative.
process, the enthalpy of The enthalpy change, ∆H, is equal to q p, the heat
the products is 27 kJ
greater than the enthalpy
gained or lost in a reaction or process carried out at
of the reactant because constant pressure. Because all reac-tions presented
energy is absorbed. Thus, in this textbook occur at constant pressure, you
the sign of ∆H rxn for this might assume that q = ∆H rxn.

Section Summary
16. Describe how you would calculate the amount of heat absorbed
In thermochemistry, or
the universe is defined
as the system plus the released by a substance when its temperature
surroundings. changes.
The heat lost or gained by a 17. Explain why ∆H for an exothermic reaction always has
system during a reaction or a negative value.
process carried out at 18. Explain why a measured volume of water is an essential part of
constant pressure is called a calorimeter.
the change in enthalpy 19. Explain why you need to know the specific heat
(∆H). of a substance in order to calculate how much
When ∆H is positive, the heat is gained or lost by the substance as a
reaction is endothermic. result of a temperature change.
When ∆H is negative, the 20. Describe what the system means in
reaction is exothermic. thermodynamics, and explain how the system is
related to the surroundings and the universe.
21. Calculate the specific heat in J/(g∙ºC) of an unknown
substance if a 2.50-g sample releases 12.0 cal as its
temperature changes from 25.0ºC to 20.0ºC.
22. Design an Experiment Describe a procedure you
could follow to determine the specific heat of a 45-g
piece of metal.
528 Chapter 15 • Energy and Chemical Change Self-

Check Quiz glencoe.com
©Phil Degginger/Alamy
in a chemical reaction.
Section
Review Vocabulary
15.3 combustion reaction: a chemical reaction that occurs when a
substance reacts with oxygen, releasing energy in the form of
Objectives heat and light
Write thermochemical New Vocabulary

equations for chemical thermochemical equation enthalpy (heat) of combustion
reactions and other molar enthalpy (heat) of vaporization molar enthalpy (heat) of
processes. fusion
Describe how energy
is lost or gained
during changes of
state.
Calculate the heat
absorbed or released
3O2(g) → 2Fe 2O3(s) ∆H= -1625 kJ
+ -
NH4NO3(s) → NH4 (aq) + NO3 (aq) ∆H=
27 kJ
Thermoch A thermochemical equation is a balanced
emical chemical equation that includes the physical states
of all reactants and products and the energy change,
Equations usually expressed as the change in enthalpy, ∆H.
The highly exothermic combustion of glucose (C
MAIN Idea
6H12O6) occurs in the body as food is metabolized to
Thermochemical
produce energy. The thermochemi-cal equation for the
equations express the
combustion of glucose is shown below.
amount of heat
released or absorbed C6H12O6(s) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) ∆H
by chemical
comb = -2808 kJ
reactions.
Real-World Reading The enthalpy (heat) of combustion (∆H comb) of
Link Have you ever a substance is the enthalpy change for the complete
been exhausted after a burning of one mole of the substance. Standard
hard race or other enthalpies of combustion for several substances are
strenuous activity? If given in Table 15.3. Standard enthalpy changes have
you felt as if your body the symbol ∆H°. The zero superscript tells you that the
had less energy than enthalpy changes were determined with all reactants
before the event, you and products at standard conditions. Standard
were right. That tired conditions are 1 atm pressure and 298 K (25°C) and
feeling relates to should not be confused with stan-dard temperature and
combustion reactions pressure (STP).
that occur in the cells
of your body, the same Standard Enthalpies
combustion you might Table 15.3 of Combustion
observe in the burning
of a campfire.
Writing
Thermochemic
al Equations
The change in
energy is an
important part of
chemical
reactions, so
chemists include
∆H as part of
many chemical
equations. The
heat-pack and
cold-pack
equations are
called
thermochemical
equations when
they are written as
follows.
4Fe(s) +
Substance Formula ∆H ° (kJ/mol)
comb
C H O (s)
Sucrose (table sugar) 12 22 11 -5644
Octane (a component of gasoline) C 8H18(l) -5471
Glucose (a simple sugar found in fruit) C 6H12O6(s) -2808
Propane (a gaseous fuel) C 3H8(g) -2219
Methane (a gaseous fuel) CH 4(g) -891
Section 15.3 • Thermochemical Equations 529
H2O(l)
∆Hfus = +6.01 kJ
∆Hsolid = -6.01 kJ
H2O(s)
Interactive Figure To see an animation of heat flow in endothermic and

exothermic reactions, visit glencoe.com.
■ Figure 15.10 The upward

arrows show that the energy of
the system increases as water
melts and then vaporiz-es. The
downward arrows show that
the energy of the system
decreases as water condenses
and then solidifies.
Phase Changes for

Water
H2O(g)
∆Hvap = +40.7 kJ
En
th
al
py ∆Hcond = -40.7 kJ
vaporization (∆H vap). Similarly, if you want a glass of
Standard
cold Enthalpies
water, you mightof drop an ice cube into it. The water
Table 15.4 Vaporization
cools as itand Fusion
provides the heat to melt the ice. The heat
required to melt one mole of a solid substance is called
Substance Formula
its molar enthalpy (heat) of fusion (∆H fus ). Because
Water H2O vaporizing a liquid and melting a solid are endother-mic
processes, their ∆H values are positive. Standard molar
Ethanol C2H5OH enthalpies of vaporization and fusion for five common
CH3OH
compounds are shown in
Methanol
Table 15.4.
Acetic acid CH 3COOH
Thermochemical equations for changes of
Ammonia NH3 state The vaporization of water and the melting of
ice can be described by the following equations.
Changes of H2O(l) → H 2O(g) ∆H vap = 40.7 kJ

State H2O(s) → H2O(l) ∆H fus = 6.01 kJ
Many processes other The first equation indicates that 40.7 kJ of energy is
than chemical absorbed when one mole of water is converted to one
reactions absorb or mole of water vapor. The second equation indicates
release heat. For that 6.01 kJ of energy is absorbed when one mole of
example, think about ice melts to form one mole of liquid water.
what happens when What happens in the reverse processes, when water
you step out of a hot vapor condenses to liquid water or liquid water freezes to
shower. You shiver as ice? The same amounts of ener-gy are released in these
water evaporates from exothermic processes as are absorbed in the endothermic
your skin. That is processes of vaporization and melting. Thus, the molar
because your skin enthalpy (heat) of condensation (∆H cond) and the molar
provides the heat enthalpy of vaporization have the same numerical value but
needed to vaporize the opposite signs. Similarly,
water. the molar enthalpy (heat) of solidification (∆H solid)
As heat is taken from and the molar enthalpy of fusion have the same
your skin to vaporize the numerical value but opposite signs.
water, you cool down. ∆H vap = -∆H cond
The heat required to
∆H = -∆H
vaporize one mole of a fus solid
liquid is called its molar These relationships are illustrated in Figure 15.10.
enthalpy (heat) of

Compare the following equations for the condensation and
freezing of water with the equations on the previous page for the
vaporization and melting of water.
H2O(g) → H2O(l) ∆H cond = -40.7 kJ
H2O(l) → H2O(s) ∆H solid = -6.01 kJ
Some farmers make use of the heat of fusion of water to protect
fruit and vegetables from freezing. If the temperature is predicted to
drop to freezing, they flood their orchards or fields with water. When
the water freezes, energy (∆H fus) is released and often warms the
surrounding air enough to prevent frost damage. In the Problem-
Solving Lab that follows, you will draw the heating curve of water
and interpret it using the heats of fusion and vaporization.
Reading Check Categorize condensation, solidification, vaporization,
and fusion as exothermic or endothermic processes.
water molecules.
2. Calculate the amount of
heat required to pass
Problem-solving through each region of the
graph (180 g H 2O = 10 mol
lab
H 2O, ∆H fus = 6.01 kJ/mol,
Make and Use ∆H vap = 40.7 kJ/mol, c =
4.184 J/(g · °C)). How does
Graphs the length of time needed to
How can you derive the pass through each region
relate to the amount of heat
heating curve for water? absorbed?
Water molecules have a strong
attrac-tion to one another
because they are polar. They
form hydrogen bonds that affect
water’s proper-ties. The polarity
of water accounts for its high
specific heat and relatively high
enthalpies of fusion and
vaporization.
Analysis
Use the data in the table to plot
a heating curve of temperature
versus time for a 180-g sample
of water as it is heated at a
constant rate from -20°C to
120°C. Draw a best-fit line
through the points. Note the
time required for water to pass
through each segment of the
graph.
Think Critically
1. Analyze each of the five
regions of the graph, which
are distinguished by an
abrupt change in slope.
Indicate how the absorption
of heat changes the energy
(kinetic and potential) of the
6.0 58 19.0 100
7.0 71 20.0 100
8.0 83 21.0 100
9.0 92 22.0 100
10.0 98 23.0 100
11.0 100 24.0 100
Time and Temperature Data 12.0 100 25.0 120
for Water
3. Infer What would the heating
Time Temperature Time curve of etha-nol look like?
(min) (°C) (min) Ethanol melts at -114°C and
0.0 -20 13.0 boils at 78ºC. Sketch
1.0 0 14.0 ethanol’s curve from -120°C
to 90°C. What factors
2.0 0 15.0 determine the lengths of the
3.0 9 16.0 flat regions of the graph and
the slope of the curve
4.0 26 17.0 between the flat regions?
5.0 42 18.0
Section 15.3 • Thermochemical Equations 531

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 15.4
Math
The Energy Released in a Reaction A bomb Handboo
calorimeter is useful for measuring the energy released k
in combustion reactions. The reaction is carried out in a Unit
constant-volume bomb with a high pressure of oxygen. Convers
ion
How much heat is evolved when 54.0 g glucose (C 6H
pages
12O 6) is burned according to this equation? 957–
958
C 6H 12O 6(s) + 6O 2(g) → 6CO 2(g) + 6H
2O(l) ∆H comb = -2808 kJ
1 Analyze the Problem

You are given a mass of glucose, the equation for the
combustion of glucose, and ∆H comb. You must convert
grams of glucose to moles of glucose. Because the
molar mass of
glucose is more than three times the mass of
glucose burned, you can predict that the energy
evolved will be less than one-third ∆H comb.
Known
Unknown
mass of glucose = 54.0 g C 6H 12O 6 q = ? kJ
∆H comb = -2808 kJ

Convert grams of C 6H 12O 6 to moles of C 6H 12O 6.
1 mol C 6H 12O 6 1 mol
.
54.0 g C 6H 12O 6 × 180.18 g C 6H 12O 6 = 0.300 mol C 6H 12O 6 Multiply by the inverse of molar mass, 180.18 g
Multiply moles of C 6H 12O 6 by the enthalpy of combustion, ∆Hcomb.

2808 kJ 2808 kJ
0.300 mol C 6H 12O 6 × 1 mol C 6H 12O 6 = 842 kJ Multiply moles of glucose by 1 mol C 6H 12O 6 .

All values in the calculation have at least three
significant figures, so the answer is correctly
stated with three digits. As predicted, the
released energy is less than one-third ∆Hcomb.
PRA Extra Practice

CTIC Page 986 and
glencoe.com
E
Probl
ems
23. Calculate the heat required to melt

25.7 g of solid methanol at its
melting point. Refer to Table 15.4.
24. How much heat evolves when 275 g of
ammonia gas condenses to a liquid at its
boiling point? Use Table 15.4 to determine
∆H cond.
25. Challenge What mass of methane (CH 4)
must be burned in order to liberate 12,880
kJ of heat? Refer to Table 15.3 on page
529.
Connection B iology
When a
mole of glucose is burned in a
bomb calorimeter, 2808 kJ of
energy is released. The same
amount of energy is produced in
your body when an equal mass of
glucose is metabolized in the
process of cellular respiration. The
process takes place in every cell of
your body in a series of complex
steps in which glucose is broken
down and carbon dioxide and water
are released. These are the same
products produced by the
combustion of glucose in a
calorimeter. The energy released is
stored as chemical potential energy
in the bonds of molecules of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
When energy is needed by any part
of the body, molecules of ATP
release their energy.

Combustion trates some of the many foods
that contain glucose as well as
Reactions other foods that contain
Combustion is the reaction of a fuel carbohydrates that are readily
with oxygen. In biological systems, converted to glucose in your
food is the fuel. Figure 15.11 illus- body. You also depend on
other combustion reactions to keep shuttle into space, as
you warm or cool, and to transport illustrated on the opening
you in vehicles. One way you might page of this chapter.
heat your home or cook your food is
by burning methane gas. The
combustion of one mole of methane
produces 891 kJ according to this
equation.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) +
2H2O(l) + 891 kJ
Most vehicles—cars, airplanes,
boats, and trucks— run on the
combustion of gasoline, which is
mostly octane (C8H18). Table 15.3
on page 529 shows that the
burning of one mole of octane
produces 5471 kJ. The equation
for the combustion of gasoline is
as follows.
25
C8H18(l) + 2 O2(g) → 8CO2(g) +
9H2O(l) + 5471 kJ
Another combustion
reaction is the reaction
between hydrogen and
oxygen.
H2(g) + O2(g) → H
2O(l) + 286 kJ
The combustion of hydrogen
provides the energy to lift the
CH2OH
C
H O H
H
C OH HC
HO C C OH
H OH ■ Figure 15.11 These foods are
Glucose fuels for the body. They provide
the glucose that is burned to
produce 2808 kJ/mol to carry on
the activities of life.

Section Summary
26. Write a complete thermochemical equation for
A thermochemical the combustion of
equation includes
the physical states ethanol (C2H5OH). ∆H comb = -1367
of the reactants and kJ/mol
products and 27. Determine Which of the following processes
specifies the are exothermic? Endothermic?
change in enthalpy. a. C2H5OH(l) → C2H5OH(g) d. NH3(g)
The molar enthalpy → NH 3(l)
(heat) of vaporiza-tion,
b. Br2(l) → Br2(s) e.
∆H vap, is the amount NaCl(s) → NaCl(l)
of energy required to
c. C5H12(g) + 8O2(g) → 5CO2(g) +
evaporate one mole of
a liquid. 6H2O(l)
28. Explain how you could calculate the heat
The molar enthalpy
released in freezing 0.250 mol water.
(heat) of fusion, ∆H
fus,is the amount of 29. Calculate How much heat is released by
the combustion of 206 g of hydrogen
energy need-ed to
melt one mole of a gas? ∆H comb = -286 kJ/mol
solid. 30. Apply The molar heat of vaporization of
ammonia is 23.3 kJ/mol. What is the
molar heat of condensation of
ammonia?
31. Interpret Scientific Illustrations The reaction
A
A → C is shown in the enthalpy diagram at right.
Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic? Enthalp
Explain your answer. y ∆H
Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com Section 15.3 •

Thermochemical Equations 533
©Janet Horton Photography
Objectives
Section
Apply Hess’s law to calculate the enthalpy
15.4 change for a reaction.
Explain the basis for the table of standard
enthalpies of formation.
Calculate
∆H rxn
using
Calculating
thermoch
emical
Enthalpy Change
equations
.
Determine the
MAIN Idea The enthalpy change for a
enthalpy
reaction can be calculated
change for a
using Hess’s law.
reaction using
standard Real-World Reading Link Maybe you have
enthalpies of watched a two-act play or a two-part TV show.
formation data. Each part tells some of the story, but you have to
see both parts to understand the entire story.
Review Like such a play or show, some reactions are
Vocabulary
best understood when you view them as the sum
allotrope: one of
of two or more simpler reactions.
two or more forms
of an element with
different structures
Hess’s Law
and properties Sometimes it is impossible or impractical
when they are in to measure the ∆H of a reac-tion by using
the same state a calorimeter. Consider the reaction in
Figure 15.12, the conversion of carbon in
New Vocabulary its allotropic form, diamond, to carbon in
Hess’s law its allotropic form, graphite.
standard enthalpy
(heat) of formation C(s, diamond) → C(s,
graphite)
This reaction occurs so slowly that
measuring the enthalpy change is
impossible. Other reactions occur under
conditions difficult to dupli-cate in a
laboratory. Still others produce products
other than the desired ones. For these
reactions, chemists use a theoretical
way to determine ∆H.
Suppose you are studying the
formation of sulfur trioxide in the
atmosphere. You would need to
determine ∆H for this reaction.
2S(s) + 3O2(g) →
2SO3(g) ∆H = ?
■ Figure 15.12 The Unfortunately, laboratory experiments to
expression “dia-monds produce sulfur trioxide and determine its
are forever” suggests
∆H result in a mixture of products that is
the durability of
diamonds and tells you mostly sulfur dioxide (SO2). In situations
that the conver-sion of such as this, you can calculate ∆H by
diamond to graphite is using Hess’s law of heat summation.
so slow that it would Hess’s law states that if you can add two
be impossible to
or more thermochemical equations to
measure its enthalpy
change.
produce a final equation for a reaction,
then the sum of the enthalpy changes for
the individual reac-tions is the enthalpy
change for the final reaction.

(l)©Royalty-Free/Corbis, (r)©Mark A. Schneider/Visuals Unlimited
■ Figure 15.13 The arrow
on the left indi-cates the
release of 594 kJ as S and
The Synthesis of
O 2 react to form SO 2
Sulfur Trioxide
(Equation c). Then, SO2
and O2 react to form SO3
2S(s) + 2O2(g)
(Equation d) with the
Equation c release of 198 kJ (middle
arrow). The overall energy
E
nt ∆H = -594 kJ change (the sum of the two
processes) is shown by the
ha
arrow on the right.
lp
y Determine the
enthalpy change for
the decomposition of
SO 3 to S and O 2.
2SO2(g) 2SO2(g) +
O2(g)
Equation d ∆H = -198 kJ
2SO3(g
)
Applying Hess’s law How can Hess’s law be used to calculate the
energy change for the reaction that produces SO 3?
2S(s) + 3O2(g) → 2SO3(g) ∆H = ?
Step 1 Chemical equations are needed that contain the substances
found in the desired equation and have known enthalpy changes.
The following equations contain S, O 2, and SO3.
a. S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) ∆H = -297 kJ
b. 2SO3(g) → 2SO 2(g) + O2(g) ∆H = 198 kJ
Step 2 The desired equation shows two moles of sulfur reacting, so
rewrite Equation a for two moles of sulfur by multiplying the
coefficients by two. Double the enthalpy change, ∆H because twice
the energy will be released if two moles of sulfur react. With these
changes, Equation a becomes the following (Equation c).
c. 2S(s) + 2SO 2(g) → 2SO 2(g) ∆H = 2(-297 kJ) = -594 kJ
Step 3 In the desired equation, sulfur trioxide is a product rather than a
reactant, so reverse Equation b. When you reverse an equation, you must
also change the sign of its ∆H. Equation b then becomes Equation d.
d. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g) ∆H = -198 kJ
Step 4 Add Equations c and d to obtain the desired reaction. Add
the corresponding ∆H values. Cancel any terms that are common to
both sides of the combined equation.
2S(s) + 2O2(g) → 2SO 2(g) ∆H = -594 kJ
2SO 2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g) ∆H = -198 kJ
2SO2(g) + 2S(s) + 3O2(g) → 2SO2(g) + 2SO3(g) ∆H = -792 kJ
The thermochemical equation for the burning of sulfur to form sulfur
trioxide is as follows. Figure 15.13 diagrams the energy changes.
2S(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2SO3(g) ∆H = -792 kJ
Section 15.4 • Calculating Enthalpy Change 535

Thermochemical equations are usually written and balanced for one
mole of product. Often, that means that fractional coefficients must
be used. For example, the thermochemical equation for the reaction
between sulfur and oxygen to form one mole of sulfur trioxide is the
following.
3
S(s) + 2 O2(g) → SO3(g) ∆H = -396 kJ
Reading Check Compare the equation above with the thermochemical

equation developed on the previous page. How are they different?

Hess’s Law Use thermochemical Equations a and b below to determine ∆H for the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H 2O 2), a compound that has many uses
ranging from bleaching hair to powering rocket engines.
2H 2O 2(l) → 2H 2O(l) + O 2(g)
a. 2H 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2H 2O(l) ∆H = -572 kJ

b. H 2(g) + O 2(g) → H 2O 2(l) ∆H = -188 kJ

You have been given two chemical equations and their enthalpy changes. These
two equations contain all the substances found in the desired equation.
Known Unknown
a. 2H 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2H 2O(l) ∆H = -572 kJ ∆H = ? kJ
b. H 2(g) + O 2(g) → H 2O 2(l) ∆H = -188 kJ

H 2O 2 is a reactant.
H 2O 2(aq) → O 2(g) + O 2(g) ∆H = 188 kJ Reverse Equation b and change the sign of ∆H.
Two moles of H 2O 2 are needed.
c. 2H 2O 2(aq) → 2H 2(g) + 2O 2(g) Multiply the reversed Equation b by two to obtain Equation c.
∆H for Equation c = (188kJ)(2) Multipy 188 kJ by two to obtain ∆H for Equation c.
= 376 kJ
c. 2H 2O 2(aq) → 2H 2(g) + 2O 2(g) ∆H = 376 kJ Write Equation c and ∆H.
Add Equations a and c, canceling any terms common to both sides of the combined
equation. Add the enthalpies of Equations a and c.
a. 2H 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2H 2O(l) ∆H = -572 kJ Write Equation a.
c. 2H 2O 2(l) → 2H 2(g) + 2O 2(g) ∆H = 376 kJ Write Equation c.
2H 2O 2(l) → 2H 2O(l) + O 2(g) ∆H = -196 kJ Add Equations a and c. Add the enthalpies.

The two equations produce the desired equation. All values are accurate to the
ones place, so ∆H is correctly stated.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 986 and glencoe.com
32. Use Equations a and b to determine ∆H for the following
reaction. 2CO(g) + 2NO(g) → 2CO 2(g) + N 2(g) ∆H = ?
a. 2CO(g) + O 2(g) → 2CO 2(g) ∆H = -566.0 kJ
b. N 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2NO(g) ∆H = -180.6 kJ
33. Challenge ∆H for the following reaction is -1789 kJ. Use this and Equation a to
determine ∆H for Equation b.
4Al(s) + 3MnO 2(s) → 2Al 2O 3(s) + 3Mn(s) ∆H = -1789 kJ
a. 4Al(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Al 2O 3(s) ∆H = -3352 kJ
b. Mn(s) + O 2(g) → MnO 2(s) ∆H = ?
Standard Enthalpy (Heat) of Formation

Hess’s law allows you to calculate unknown ∆H values using known
reactions and their experimentally determined ∆H values. However,
recording ∆H values for all known chemical reactions would be a huge and
unending task. Instead, scientists record and use enthalpy changes for only
one type of reaction—a reaction in which a compound is formed from its
elements in their standard states. The standard state of a substance means
the normal physical state of the substance at 1 atm and 298 K (25°C). For
example, in their standard states, iron is a solid, mercury is a liquid, and
oxygen is a diatomic gas.
The ∆H value for such a reaction is called the standard enthalpy
(heat) of formation of the compound. The standard enthalpy (heat) of
formation (∆H °f) is defined as the change in enthalpy that accompa-
nies the formation of one mole of the compound in its standard state
from its elements in their standard states. A typical standard heat of for-
mation reaction is the formation of one mole of SO 3 from its elements.
3
S(s) + 2 O2(g) → SO3(g) ∆H °f = -396 kJ
The product of this equation is SO 3, a suffocating gas that produces
acid rain when mixed with moisture in the atmosphere. The
destructive results of acid precipitation are shown in Figure 15.14.
■ Figure 15.14 Sulfur trioxide combines with

water in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid
(H2SO 4), a strong acid, which reaches Earth
as acid precipitation. Acid precipitation slowly
destroys trees and property.

©Will & Deni McIntyre/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Standard Heats of Formation

+33.2 NO2(g) Where do standard heats of formation come
from? When you state the height of a mountain, you
∆H°f (NO2) do so relative to some point of reference—usually sea level.
0.0 N2(g), O2(g), S(s) In a similar way, standard enthalpies of formation are stated
based on the following assumption: Elements in their
standard state have a ∆H °f of 0.0 kJ. With zero as the starting
point, the experimentally determined enthal-pies of formation
of compounds can be placed on a scale above and below the
elements in their standard states. Think of the zero of the
(kJ/mol)
H°
enthalpy scale as being similar to the arbitrary assignment of
f
0.0°C to the freezing point of water. All substances warmer
∆ than freezing water have a temperature above zero. All
∆H°f (SO3) substances colder than freez-ing water have a temperature
below zero.
Enthalpies of formation from experiments
Standard enthalpies of formation of many compounds
have been measured experimentally. For example,
consider the equation for the formation of nitrogen
dioxide.
-396 SO3(g) 1
2 N2(g) + O2(g) → NO 2(g) ∆H °f = +33.2 kJ
The elements nitrogen and oxygen are diatomic gases in
■ Figure 15.15 ∆H°f for the elements N 2, O2, and S is 0.0 kJ. their standard states, so their standard enthalpies of for-
When N 2 and O 2 react to form 1 mole of NO 2, 33.2 kJ is
mation are zero. When nitrogen and oxygen gases react to
absorbed. Thus, ∆H°f for NO 2 is +33.2 kJ/mol. When S and O 2
form one mole of nitrogen dioxide, the experimentally
react to form one mole of SO 3, 396 kJ is released.
determined ∆H for the reaction is +33.2 kJ. That means
Therefore, ∆H°f for SO 3 is -396 kJ/mol.
Predict Describe the approximate location of water that 33.2 kJ of energy is absorbed in this endothermic
on the scale. The heat of formation for the reaction H reaction. The energy content of the product NO 2 is
1 33.2 kJ greater than the energy content of the reactants. On
2(g) + 2 O 2(g) → H 2O(l) is ∆H°f = -286 kJ/mol.
a scale on which ∆H °f of reactants is 0.0 kJ, ∆H °f of NO2
is +33.2 kJ. Figure 15.15 shows that on the scale of
standard enthalpies of formation, NO 2 is placed 33.2 kJ
above the elements from which it was formed. Sulfur
trioxide (SO3) is placed 396 kJ below zero on the scale
because the formation of SO 3(g) is an exothermic reac-
tion. The energy content of the sulfur trioxide, ∆H °f, is
-396 kJ. Table 15.5 lists standard enthalpies of forma-tion
for some common compounds. A more complete list is in
Table R-11 on page 975.
Table Standard Enthalpies

15.5 of Formation
Compound Formation Equation ∆H°f(kJ/mol)
H2S(g) H2(g) + S(s) → H 2S(g) -21
1 1
HF(g) H2(g) + F2(g) → HF(g) -273
2 2
3
SO3(g) S(s) + 2 O2(g) → SO 3(g) -396
SF6(g) S(s) + 3F 2(g) → SF 6(g) -1220

■ Figure 15.16 Sulfur hexafluoride is used
to etch minute and sometimes intricate
patterns on silicon wafers in the production
semiconductor devices. Semiconductors
are important components of modern
electronic equipment, including computers,
cell phones, and MP3 players.
Using standard enthalpies of formation Standard enthalpies of

formation can be used to calculate the enthalpies of many reactions
under standard conditions ∆H ° using Hess’s law. Suppose you want to
rxn
calculate ∆H ° for a reaction that produces sulfur hexafluoride. Sulfur
rxn
hexafluoride is a stable, unreactive gas with some interesting
applica-tions, one of which is shown in Figure 15.16.
H2S(g) + 4F2(g) → 2HF(g) + SF6(g) ∆H ° = ?
rxn
Step 1 Refer to Table 15.5 to find an equation for the formation of each
of the three compounds in the desired equation—HF, SF 6, and H 2S.
1 1
a. H2(g) + F2(g) → HF(g) ∆H f° = -273 kJ
2 2
b. S(s) + 3F2(g) → SF6(g) ∆H f° = -1220 kJ
c. H2(g) + S(s) → H2S(g) ∆H f° = -21 kJ
Step 2 Equations a and b describe the formation of the products HF
and SF6 in the desired equation, so use Equations a and b in the
direc-tion in which they are written.
Equation c describes the formation of a product, H 2S, but in the
desired equation, H2S is a reactant. Reverse Equation c and change
the sign of its ∆H °f.
H2S(g) → H2(g) + S(s) ∆H °f = 21 kJ
Step 3 Two moles of HF are required. Multiply Equation a and
its enthalpy change by two.
H2(g) + F2(g) → 2HF(g) ∆H °f = 2(-273) = -546 kJ
Step 4 Add the three equations and their enthalpy changes. The elements
H 2 and S cancel.
H2(g) + F 2(g) → 2HF(g) ∆H f° = -546 kJ
S(s) + 3F2(g) → SF6(g) ∆H f° = -1220 kJ
H2S(g) → H 2(g) + S(s) ∆H f° = 21 kJ
H
2S(g) + 4F2(g) → 2HF(g) + SF 6(g) ∆H ° = -1745 kJ
rxn

©Jeff Maloney/Getty Images
The summation equation The stepwise procedure you have just
read about shows how standard heats of formation equations combine
to produce the desired equation and its ∆H ° . The procedure can be
rxn
summed up in the following formula.
Summation Equation
∆H ° = Σ∆H °(products) - Σ∆H °(reactants)
rxn f f
∆H ° represents the standard enthalpy of the reaction.
rxn
Σ represents the sum of the terms.
∆H °f(products) and ∆H °f(reactants) represent the standard enthalpies of
formation of all the products and all the reactants.
∆H ° is obtained by subtracting the sum of heats of formation of the reactants from the
rxn
sum of the heats of formation of the products.
You can see how this formula applies to the reaction between
hydrogen sulfide and fluorine.
H2S(g) + 4F2(g) → 2HF(g) + SF6(g)
∆H ° = [(2)∆H ° (HF) + ∆H °(SF 6)] - [∆H °(H2S) + (4)∆H °(F6)]
rxn f f f f
∆H ° = [(2)(-273 kJ) + (-1220 kJ)] - [-21 kJ + (4)(0.0 kJ)]
rxn
∆H ° = -1745 kJ
rxn

Math
Enthalpy Change from Standard Enthalpies of Handbo
Formation Use standard ok
enthalpies of formation to calculate ∆H ° for the
combustion of methane. Solving
rxn Algebra
ic
CH 4(g) + 2O 2(g) → CO 2(g) + 2H 2O(l) Eq
uatio
ns
page
s
954–
955

You are given an equation and asked to calculate the change in
enthalpy. The formula
∆H ° = Σ∆H ° (products) - Σ∆H °(reactants) can be used with data from Table R-11
rxn rxn f
on page 975.
Known Unknown
∆H °(CO 2) = -394 kJ ∆H ° = ? kJ
f rxn
∆H
°f(H
2O)
=
-286
kJ
∆H
°f(C
H 4)
=
-75
kJ
∆H
°f(O
2) =
0.0
kJ

Use the formula ∆H ° = Σ∆H °(products) - Σ∆H °(reactants).
rxn f f
Expand the formula to include a term for each reactant and
product. Multiply each term by the coefficient of the substance in
the balanced chemical equation.
∆H ° = [∆H °(CO 2) + (2)∆H °(H 2O)] - [∆H Substitute CO 2 and H 2O
°(CH 4) + (2)∆H °(O 2)] for the products, CH 4 and
rxn f f f O 2 for the reactants.
f
Multiply H 2O and O 2 by
two.
∆H ° = [(-394 kJ) + (2)(-286 kJ)] - [(-75 kJ) Substitute ∆H °f(CO 2) =

+ (2)(0.0 kJ)] -394 kJ,
rxn ∆H °f(H 2O) = -286 kJ, ∆H
°f(CH 4) = -75 kJ, and ∆H
°f(O 2) = 0.0 kJ into the
equation.
∆H ° = [-966 kJ] - [-75 kJ] = -966 kJ + 75 kJ = -891 kJ
rxn
The combustion of 1 mol CH 4 releases 891 kJ.

All values are accurate to the ones place. Therefore, the answer is correct as stated.
The calculated value is the same as that given in Table 15.3. You can check your
answer by using the stepwise procedure on page 535.
PRACTICE Extra Practice Page 986

Problems and glencoe.com
34. Show how the sum of enthalpy of formation equations produces each of the
following reactions. You do not need to look up and include ∆H values.
a. 2NO(g) + O 2(g) → 2NO 2(g)
b. SO 3(g) + H 2O(l) → H 2SO 4(aq)
35. Use standard enthalpies of formation from Table R-11 on page 975 to calculate ∆H °
rxn
for the following reaction.
4NH 3(g) + 7O 2(g) → 4NO 2(g) + 6H 2O(l)
36. Determine ∆H ° for butanoic acid, C 3H 7COOH(l) + 5O 2(g) → 4CO 2(g) + 4H 2O(l).
comb
Use data in Table R-11 on page 975 and the following equation.
4C(s) + 4H 2(g) + O 2(g) → C 3H 7COOH(l) ∆H = -534 kJ
37. Challenge Two enthalpy of formation equations, a and b, combine to form the equation for
the reaction of nitrogen oxide and oxygen. The product of the reaction is nitrogen
dioxide: NO(g) + 1O
2
(g) → NO(g) ∆H ° = -58.1 kJ
2 2 rxn
1 1
a. 2 N 2(g) + 2 O 2(g) → NO(g) ∆H °f = 91.3 kJ
1
b. 2 N 2(g) + O 2(g) → NO 2(g) ∆H °f
= ? What is ∆H °f for Equation b?

Section Summary 38. MAIN Idea Explain what is meant by Hess’s law and how it
is used to deter-
The enthalpy change for a mine ∆H ° .
reaction can be calculated rxn
39. Explain in words the formula that can be used to determine
by adding two or more ∆H ° when using
rxn
thermochemical equations
Hess’s law.
and their enthalpy changes.
40. Describe how the elements in their standard states
Standard enthalpies of are defined on the scale of standard enthalpies of
formation
formations.
of compounds are
determined relative to 41. Examine the data in Table 15.5 on page 538. What
the assigned enthalpy of conclusion can you draw about the stabilities of the
formation of the compounds listed relative to the elements in their standard
elements in their states? Recall that low energy is associated with stability.
standard states. 42. Calculate Use Hess’s law to determine ∆H for the
reaction NO(g) + O(g) → NO2(g) ∆H = ? given the
following reactions. Show your work.
O2(g) → 2O(g)
∆H = +495 kJ
2O3(g) → 3O
2(g) ∆H = -427
kJ
NO(g) + O3(g) → NO2(g) + O2(g) ∆H = -199 kJ
43. Interpret Scientific Illustrations Use the data below to
draw a diagram of and use your diagram to determine the heat of vaporization
standard heats of of water at 298 K.
formation similar to
Liquid water: ∆H °f = -285.8 kJ/mol
Figure 15.15 on page 538
Gaseous water: ∆H °f = -241.8 kJ/mol
Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com Section 15.4 • Calculating Enthalpy

Change 541
Section
15.5
Reaction Spontaneity
Objectives
MAIN Idea Changes in enthalpy and entropy
Differentiate determine whether a
between process is spontaneous.
spontaneous and
nonspontaneous Real-World Reading Link How is it that some newer
processes. buildings appear to be falling apart when others that are
Explain how changes much older seem to stand forever? It might be the level of
in entropy and free maintenance and work put into them. Similarly, in chemistry,
energy determine the without a constant influx of energy, there is a natural
spontaneity of tendency toward disorder.
chemical reactions and
other processes. Spontaneous Processes
Review Vocabulary In Figure 15.17 you can see a familiar picture of what
vaporization: the happens to an iron object when it is left outdoors in
energy-requiring moist air. Iron rusts slowly accord-ing to the same
process by which a chemical equation that describes what happens in the
liquid changes to a gas heat pack you read about earlier in the chapter.
or vapor
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s) ∆H =
New Vocabulary -1625 kJ
spontan The heat pack goes into action the moment you
eous
activate it. Similarly, unprotected iron objects rust
process
entropy whether you want them to or not.
second law of Rusting is spontaneous. Any physical or chemical
thermodynamics change that once begun, occurs with no outside
free energy intervention is a spontaneous process. However, for
many spontaneous processes, some energy from the sur-
roundings must be supplied to get the process started. For
example, you might use a match to light a Bunsen burner
in your school lab.
Suppose you reverse the direction of the equation
for the rusting of iron. Recall that when you change
the direction of a reaction, the sign of ∆H changes.
The reaction becomes endothermic.
2Fe 2O3(s) → 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) ∆H =
1625 kJ
Reversing the equation will not make rust
decompose spontaneously into iron and oxygen
under ordinary conditions. The equation repre-
sents a reaction that is not spontaneous.
■ Figure 15.17 Left unattended, with abundant water and oxygen in the air, the iron in this boat
spontaneously converts to rust (Fe 2O3).

©Ton Koene/Visuals Unlimited
a b
O2 He
state of
maximum
entropy.
Entropy
(S) is a
measure
of the
The formation of number of
rust on iron is an possible
exothermic and ways that
spontaneous reaction. the energy
The reverse reaction of a
is endothermic and system
nonspontaneous. You can be
might conclude that distributed
all exothermic , and this
processes are is related
spontaneous and all to the
endothermic freedom
processes are of the
nonspontaneous. But system’s
remember that ice particles
to move
melting at room
and
temperature is a
number of
spontaneous,
ways they
endothermic process.
can be
Something other than
arranged.
∆H plays a role in
Consid
determining whether
er the two
a chemi-cal process
bulbs in
occurs spontaneously Figure
under a given set of 15.18.
conditions. That When the
something is called stopcock
entropy. is closed,
What is entropy? one bulb
You’re probably not contains a
surprised when the single
smell of brownies molecule
baking in the kitchen of oxygen.
wafts to wherever you The other
are in your home. And con-tains
you know that gases one atom
of helium.
tend to spread
When the
throughout Earth’s
stopcock
atmosphere. Why do
is opened,
gases behave this way?
the gas
When gases spread
parti-cles
out, a system reaches a
pass freely
between the bulbs. to be a
Each gas particle can measure
spread out into twice its of the
original volume. The disorder
particles might be or
found in any of the four randomne
arrangements shown. ss of the
The entropy of the particles
system is greater with that make
the stopcock open up a
because the number of system.
possible arrangements Particles
of the par-ticles and the that are
distribution of their more
energies is increased.
spread out
As the number of
are said to
particles increases, the
be more
number of possible
disordered
arrangements for a
, causing
group of particles
the system
increases dramatically.
to have
If the two bulbs
greater
contained a total of ten
entropy
particles, the number of
than when
possible arrange-ments
the
would be 1024 times
particles
more than if the
particles were confined
are closer
to a single bulb. In together.
general, the number of
possible arrangements
available to a system
increases under the
following conditions:
when volume increases,
when energy increases,
when the number of
particles increas-es, or
when the particles’
freedom of movement
increases.
The second law of
thermodynamics
The tendency toward
in-creased entropy is
summarized in the
second law of
thermodynamics,
which states that
spontaneous processes
always proceed in such
a way that the entropy
of the universe
increases. Entropy is
sometimes consid-ered
sys
tem
in
whi
ch
eve
ryo
■ Figure 15.18 In a, an ne
oxygen molecule and a wo
helium atom are each uld
confined to a sin-gle bulb. hav
When the stopcock is
e
opened in b, the gas
an
particles move freely into the
double vol-ume available.
equ
Four arrangements of the al
parti-cles, which represent op
an increase in entropy, are por
possible at any given time. tun
ity.
Per
son
al
Tut
or
VOCABULARY For
SCIENCE USAGE V. an
onli
COMMON USAGE ne
System tut
Science usage: the ori
particular reaction or al
process being studied on
The universe pro
bab
consists of the ility
system and the ,
surroundings. visi
t
Common usage: gle
an organized or nco
e.c
established
om.
procedure
She worked out a
Section 15.5 • Reaction Spontaneity

543
W
a
t
VOCABULA e
r
RY
WORD
ORIGIN m
Random o
comes l
from e
the c
Germa u
nic l
word e
rinnan, s
meanin
g to
run—a
haphaz
ard
course 544 Chapter 15 • Energy
and Chemical Change
■ Figure
15.19 In
the
bubbles,
the nitro-
gen and
oxygen
gas
molecules
that make
up most
of the air
can move
more
freely
than
when
dissolved
in the
aquarium
water.
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Predicting examining the
changes in equation for a
reaction or
entropy process.
Recall that 1. Entropy changes
the change in associated with
enthal-py for changes in state can
a reaction is be predicted.
equal to the In solids,
enthalpy of molecules have
the products limited
minus the movement. In
liquids, they have
enthalpy of
some freedom to
the reactants. move, and in
The change gases, molecules
in entropy can move freely
(∆S) during a within their
reaction or container. Thus,
process is entropy increases
similar.
as a substance
changes from a
∆ solid to a liquid
= and from a liquid
products to a gas. ∆S system
S is positive as
water vaporizes
If the and methanol
entropy of a melts.
system H2
increases
O(l
during a
)
reaction or
→
process,
S products > S H2
reactants and O(
∆S system is g)
positive. ∆S
Conversely,
if the syste
entropy of a m>
system
decreases 0
during a
reaction or CH3O
process, S H(s)
products < S → CH
reactants and
3OH(l
∆S system is
negative. ) ∆S
You system >
can 0
someti
mes 2. The dissolving of a
predict gas in a solvent
if ∆S always results in a
system is decrease in
positiv entropy. Gas
e or particles have more
negativ entropy when they
e by can move freely
than <
when 0
they are 3. Assuming no
dissolve change in physical
d in a state occurs, the
liquid or entropy of a system
solid that usually increases
limits when the number of
their gaseous product
moveme particles is greater
nts and than the number of
randomn gaseous reactant
ess. ∆S particles. For the
system is following reaction,
negative ∆S system is positive
for the because two
dissolvin molecules of gas
g of react and three
oxygen molecules of gas are
in water produced.
as shown 2SO
in Figure →
3(g)
15.19.
O 2SO2(g)
→ + O2(g)
O ∆S system
>0
∆
©Dinodia Photo Library/PixtureQuest
■ Figure 15.20 Sodium chloride and liquid
water are pure substances, each with a
degree of orderliness. When sodium chloride
dissolves in water, the entropy of the system
increases because sodium ions, chloride ions,
and water molecules mix together to create a
large number of random arrangements.
-
+ +
-
4. With some exceptions, entropy increases when a solid or a liquid

dissolves in a solvent. The solute particles, which are together
before dissolving, become dispersed throughout the solvent. The
solute particles have more freedom of movement, as shown in
Figure 15.20 for the dissolving of sodium chloride in water. ∆S
system is positive.
+ -
NaCl(s) → Na (aq) + Cl (aq) ∆S system > 0
5. The random motion of the particles of a substance increases as
its temperature increases. Recall that the kinetic energy of
molecules increases with temperature. Increased kinetic energy
means faster movement and more possible arrangements of
particles. Therefore, the entropy of any substance increases as its
temperature increases. ∆S system is positive.
44. Predict the sign of ∆S system for each of the following changes.
a. ClF(g) + F 2(g) → ClF 3(g) c. CH 3OH(l) → CH 3OH(aq)
b. NH 3(g) → NH 3(aq) d. C 10H 8(l) → C 10H 8(s)
45. Challenge Comment on the sign of ∆S system for the following
2+ 2+
reaction. Fe(s) + Zn (aq) → Fe (aq) + Zn(s)
Connection Earth Science

to Earth’s spontaneous processes
Volcanoes, fumaroles, hot springs, and geysers are evidence of geother-
mal energy in Earth’s interior. Volcanoes are vents in Earth’s crust from
which molten rock (magma), steam, and other materials flow. When
surface water moves downward through Earth’s crust, it can interact with
magma and/or hot rocks. Water that comes back to the surface in hot
springs is heated to temperatures much higher than the surrounding air
temperatures. Geysers are hot springs that spout hot water and steam into
the air. Fumaroles emit steam and other gases, such as hydrogen sulfide.
These geothermal processes are obviously spontaneous. Can you identify
increases in entropy in these Earth processes?
Section 15.5 • Reaction Spontaneity 545

Matt Meadows
Entropy, the Universe, and Free Energy
If you happen to break an egg, you know you cannot reverse the
process and again make the egg whole. Similarly, an abandoned barn
gradually disintegrates into a pile of decaying wood and a statue
dissolves slowly in rainwater and disperses into the ground, as
shown in Figure 15.21. Order turns to disorder in these processes, and
the entropy of the uni-verse increases.
What effect does entropy have on reaction spontaneity? Recall that
the second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of the uni-verse
must increase as a result of a spontaneous reaction or process.
Therefore, the following is true for any spontaneous process.
∆S >0
universe
Because the universe equals the system plus the surroundings, any
change in the entropy of the universe is the sum of changes occurring
in the system and surroundings.
∆S universe = ∆S system + ∆S surroundings
In nature, ∆S universe tends to be positive for reactions and
processes under the following conditions.
1. The reaction or process is exothermic, which means ∆H system is
■ Figure 15.21 It is difficult to recog-nize
this ancient Greek sculpture as the head
negative. The heat released by an exothermic reaction raises the
of a lion. The particles of limestone that tem-perature of the surroundings and thereby increases the
are loosened by wind and weather entropy of the surroundings. ∆S surroundings is positive.
or dissolved by rain disperse
2. The entropy of the system increases, so ∆S system is positive.
randomly, destroying the precise
representation of the image and Thus, exothermic chemical reactions accompanied by an increase
increasing the entropy of the in entropy are all spontaneous.
universe.
Free energy Can you definitely determine if a reaction is spontane-
ous? In 1878, J. Willard Gibbs, a physicist at Yale University, defined a
combined enthalpy-entropy function called Gibbs free energy that
&/,$!",%3 answers that question. For reactions or processes that take place at con-
Incorporate information
from this section into
stant pressure and temperature, Gibbs free energy (G system), commonly
your Foldable. called free energy, is energy that is available to do work. Thus, free
energy is useful energy. In contrast, some entropy is associated with
energy that is spread out into the surroundings as, for example, random
molecular motion, and cannot be recovered to do useful work. The free
energy change (∆G system) is the difference between the system’s
change in enthalpy (∆H system) and the product of the kelvin
temperature and the change in entropy (T∆S system).
Gibbs Free Energy Equation

∆G system represents
the free energy change.
∆H system represents the ∆Gsystem = ∆Hsystem - T∆Ssystem
change in enthalpy. T is temperature in kelvins.
∆S system represents
the change in entropy.
The free energy released or absorbed in a chemical reaction is equal to the
difference between the enthalpy change and the change in entropy
expressed in joules per kelvin and multiplied by the temperature in kelvins.
To calculate Gibbs free energy, it is usually necessary to convert units

because ∆S is usually expressed in J/K, whereas ∆H is expressed in kJ.

©Jon Arnold Images/Alamy
The sign of free energy When a reaction or process occurs under
standard conditions (298 K and 1 atm), the standard free energy change
can be expressed as follows.
∆G °system = ∆H °system - T∆S °system
If the sign of the free energy change (∆G °system) is negative, the
reaction is spontaneous. If the sign of the free energy change is
positive, the reaction is nonspontaneous.
Recall that free energy is energy that is available to do work. In
contrast, energy related to entropy is useless because it is dispersed
and cannot be harnessed to do work.
Calculating free energy change How do changes in enthalpy and VOCABULARY
entropy affect free energy change and spontaneity for the reaction ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
between nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia? Demonstrate
to show clearly
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) People are standing by to
∆H °system = -91.8 kJ ∆S °system = -197 J/K demonstrate how the device works.
The entropy of the system decreases because 4 mol of gaseous molecules

react and only 2 mol of gaseous molecules are produced. Therefore,
∆S° system is negative. A decrease in the entropy of the system tends
to make the reaction nonspontaneous, but the reaction is exothermic
(∆H °system is negative), which tends to make the reaction spontaneous. To
determine which of the two tendencies predominates, you must cal-culate
∆G °system for the reaction. First, convert ∆S °system to kilojoules.
1kJ
∆S °system = -197 J/K × 1000 J = -0.197 kJ/K
Now, substitute ∆H °system, T, and ∆S °system into the equation for ∆G °system.
∆G °system = ∆H °system - T∆S °system

∆G °system = -91.8 kJ - (298 K)(-0.197 kJ/K)
∆G °system = -91.8 kJ + 58.7 kJ = -33.1 kJ
∆G °system for this reaction is negative, so the reaction is spontaneous.
The reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen demonstrates that the
entropy of a system can decrease during a spontaneous process. However,
it can do so only if the entropy of the surroundings increases more than the
entropy of the system decreases. Thus, the entropy of the universe (system
+ surroundings) always increases in any spontaneous process. Table 15.6
shows how reaction spontaneity depends on the
signs of ∆H system and ∆S system.
Reaction Spontaneity Interactive Table Explore

Table 15.6 ∆G = ∆H - T∆S reaction spontaneity, at
system system system glencoe.com.
∆ ∆ ∆
H system S system G system Reaction Spontaneity
negative positive always negative always spontaneous
negative negative negative or positive spontaneous at lower temperatures
positive positive negative or positive spontaneous at higher temperatures
positive negative always positive never spontaneous
Section 15.5 • Reaction Spontaneity 547

EXAMPLE Problem 15.7 Determine
Reaction Spontaneity For a process, ∆H system = 145 kJ and
∆S system = 322 J/K. Is the process spontaneous at 382 K? Math Handbook
Solving Algebraic
1 Analyze the Problem Equations
You must calculate ∆G system to determine spontaneity. pages 954–955
Known Unknown
T = 382 K sign of ∆G system = ?
∆H system = 145 kJ
∆S system = 322 J/K
Convert ∆S system to kJ/K
322 J/K × 1 kJ = 0.322 kJ/K Convert ∆S system to kJ/K.
1000 J
Solve the free energy equation.
∆Gsystem = ∆Hsystem - T∆Ssystem State the Gibbs free energy equation.
∆Gsystem = 145 kJ - (382 K)(0.322 kJ/K) Substitute T = 382 K, ∆H system = 145 kJ,
and ∆S system = 0.322 kJ/K
∆Gsystem = 145 kJ - 123 kJ = 22 kJ Multiply and subtract numbers.
Because ∆Gsystem is positive, the reaction is nonspontaneous.

Because ∆H is positive and the temperature is not high enough to make
the second term of the equation greater than the first, ∆Gsystem is positive. The significant figures are correct.
46. Determine whether each of the following reactions is spontaneous.

a. ∆H system = -75.9 kJ, T = 273 K, ∆S system = 138 J/K c. ∆H system = 365 kJ, T = 388 K, ∆S system = -55.2 J/K
b. ∆H system = -27.6 kJ, T = 535 K, ∆S system = -55.2 J/K d. ∆H system = 452 kJ, T = 165 K, ∆S system = 55.7 J/K
47. Challenge Given ∆H system = -144 kJ and ∆S system = -36.8 J/K for a reaction, determine
the lowest temperature in kelvins at which the reaction would be spontaneous.

Section Summary 48. MAIN Idea Compare and contrast spontaneous and nonspontaneous
Entropy is a measure of the disorder reactions.
or randomness of a system. 49. Describe how a system’s entropy changes if the system
Spontaneous processes becomes more disordered during a process.
always result in an increase in 50. Decide Does the entropy of a system increase or decrease when you dissolve a
the entropy of the universe. cube of sugar in a cup of tea? Define the system, and explain your answer.
Free energy is the energy available 51. Determine whether the system ∆H system = -20.5 kJ, T = 298 K, and
to do work. The sign of the free ∆S system = -35.0 J/K is spontaneous or nonspontaneous.
energy change indicates whether 52. Outline Use the blue and red headings to outline the section.
the reaction is spontaneous. Under each heading, summarize the important ideas discussed.
548 Chapter 15 • Energy and Chemical Change Self-Check Quiz

glencoe.com
Driving the Future:
Flexible Fuel Vehicles
The service stations of the not-too-distant future will not only
deliver various grades of gasoline, but they will also pump a fuel
called E85. This fuel can be used in a flexible-fuel vehicle, or
FFV. Conventional vehicles operate on 100% gasoline or on a
blend of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline. FFVs, however, oper-
ate on all these blends and E85, which is 85% ethanol. E85 has
the advantage of not being highly dependent on fossil fuels.
2
1
Environment Renewable
al Benefit Resource E85
3 Compared with is 15% gasoline
Combustion and 85%
gasoline, ethanol by
Requirements The FFV burning E85 volume.
engine burning E85 can reduce
Ethanol (C
requires a richer mixture 2H5OH)
(more fuel, less air) than emissions of
is a
for an equal volume of greenhouse
renewable
gasoline. The FFV fuel gases such as
injectors, therefore, must fuel that can
carbon dioxide
be able to inject up to be
and nitrogen
30% more fuel. produced
oxides.
domestically
.
nonreactive materials.
4
Damage
Prevention The
ethanol content of
E85 is high enough
to damage some of
the material used in
the construction of
conventional
vehicles. Therefore,
the FFV fuel tank is
made of stainless
steel. The fuel lines
are also made of
stainless steel or
lined with
Che
mistry
Write thermochemical
equations for the complete
combustion of 1 mol octane (C
8H 18), a component of
gasoline, and 1 mol ethanol (∆H
comb of C 8H 18 = −5471 kJ/mol;
∆H comb of C 2H 5OH = −1367
kJ/mol). Which releases the
greater amount of energy per
mole of fuel? Which releases
more energy per kilogram of
fuel? Discuss the significance of
your findings. Visit
glencoe.com to learn more
about the use of E85 in flexible-
fuel vehicles.
How It Works 549

(t)©AP Photo, (b)©JOSHUA MATZ/Grant Heilman Photography
u
a
INTERNET:
t
MEASURE e
CALORIES d
Background: The burning c

of a potato chip releases y
heat stored in the l
substances contained in the i
chip. Using calorimetry, you n
will approximate the d
amount of energy contained e
in a potato chip. r
e
Question: How many
v
Calories are in a potato
a
chip?
p
o
Materials r
large a
potato chip t
or other i
snack food n
250-mL g
beaker
1 d
0 i
0 s
- h
m
L n
g o
r n
a m
d e
r n
c g
u
r r
y o
t d
h
e b
r a
m l
o a
m n
e c
t e
e
r Safety Precautions
ri WARNING: Hot objects
n might not appear to be hot.
g Do not heat broken,
st chipped, or cracked
a glassware. Tie back long
n hair. Do not eat any items
d used in the lab.
w Procedure
it 1. Read and complete the
h lab safety form.
ri
n 2. Measure the mass of a
g potato chip and record it
w in a data table.
i 3. Place the potato chip in
r an evaporating dish on
e the metal base of the
ring stand. Position the
g ring and wire gauze so
a that they will be 10 cm
u above the top of the
z potato chip.
e 4. Measure the mass of an
empty 250-mL beaker
m
and record it in your
a
t data table.
c 5. Using a graduated
h cylinder, measure 50 mL
e of water and pour it into
s the beaker. Measure the
mass of the beaker and
s water and record it in your
t data table.
i 6. Measure and record
r the initial temperature
r
of the water.
i
7. Place the beaker on the
wire gauze on the ring Probewa
re
stand. Use a match to ignite Alternat
the bottom of the potato e CBL
instructi
chip. ons can
be found
8. Gently stir the water in at
the beaker while the chip glencoe.
burns. Measure and com.
record the highest

temperature attained by
the water.
9. Cleanup and Disposal
Wash all lab equipment
and return it to its
designated place.
Analyze and
Conclude
1. Classify Is the reaction
exothermic or
endother-mic? Explain
how you know.
2. Observe and Infer
Describe the reactant and
prod-ucts of the chemical
reaction. Was the reactant
(potato chip) completely
consumed? What
evidence supports your
answer?
3. Calculate Determine the
mass of the water and its
temperature change. Use
the equation
q = c × m × ∆T to
calculate how much
heat, in joules, was
transferred to the water
by the burning of the
chip.
4. Calculate Convert
the quantity of heat
from joules/chip to
Calories/chip.
5. Calculate From the percent error.
information on the chip 7. Compare your class
con-tainer, determine the results with other
mass in grams of one students by posting your
serving. Determine how
data at glencoe.com.
many Calories are
contained in one serving.
Use your data to calculate INQUIRY
the number of Calories
released by the combustion
EXTENSION
Predict Do all potato
of one serving.
chips have the same
6. Error Analysis
number of calories?
Compare your calculated Make a plan to test
Calories per serving with several different brands
the value on the chip’s of chips.
container. Calculate the

Matt Meadows
Download quizzes, key
terms, and flash cards
from glencoe.com.
BIG Idea Chemical reactions usually absorb or release energy.
Section 15.1 Energy

MAIN Idea Energy can change form and flow, Key Concepts
but it is always conserved. • Energy is the capacity to do work or produce heat.
Vocabulary • Chemical potential energy is energy stored in the chemical bonds of a
• calorie (p. 518) • joule (p. 518) substance by virtue of the arrangement of the atoms and molecules.
• chemical potential • law of conservation of • Chemical potential energy is released or absorbed as heat
energy (p. 517) energy (p. 517) during chemical processes or reactions.
• energy (p. 516) • specific heat (p. 519)
• heat (p. 518) q = c × m × ∆T
Section 15.2 Heat

MAIN Idea The enthalpy change for a reaction is Key Concepts
the enthalpy of the products minus the • In thermochemistry, the universe is defined as the system plus the
enthalpy of the reactants. surroundings.
Vocabulary • The heat lost or gained by a system during a reaction or process
• calorimeter (p. 523) • surroundings (p. 526) carried out at constant pressure is called the change in enthalpy
• enthalpy (p. 527) • system (p. 526) (∆H).
• enthalpy (heat) • thermochemistry (p. 525) • When ∆H is positive, the reaction is endothermic. When ∆H is
of reaction (p. 527) • universe (p. 526)
negative, the reaction is exothermic.
Section 15.3 Thermochemical Equations

MAIN Idea Thermochemical equations express Key Concepts
the amount of heat released or • A thermochemical equation includes the physical states of the
absorbed by chemical reactions. reactants and products and specifies the change in enthalpy.
Vocabulary • The molar enthalpy (heat) of vaporization, ∆H vap, is the amount
• enthalpy (heat) of • molar enthalpy (heat) of energy required to evaporate one mole of a liquid.
combustion (p. 529) of vaporization (p. 530) • The molar enthalpy (heat) of fusion, ∆H fus, is the amount of
• molar enthalpy (heat) • thermochemical equation energy needed to melt one mole of a solid.
of fusion (p. 530) (p. 529)
Section 15.4 Calculating Enthalpy Change

MAIN Idea The enthalpy change for a reaction Key Concepts
can be calculated using Hess’s law. • The enthalpy change for a reaction can be calculated by adding two
Vocabulary or more thermochemical equations and their enthalpy changes.
• Hess’s law (p. 534) • standard enthalpy (heat) • Standard enthalpies of formation of compounds are deternined
of formation (p. 537) relative to the assigned enthalpy of formation of the elements in
their standard states.
∆H ° = Σ ∆H°(products) - Σ∆H°(reactants)
rxn f f
Section 15.5 Reaction Spontaneity

MAIN Idea Changes in enthalpy and entropy Key Concepts
determine whether a process is spontaneous. • Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system.
Vocabulary • Spontaneous processes always result in an increase in the entropy
• entropy (p. 543) • spontaneous process of the universe.
• free energy (p. 546) (p. 542) • Free energy is the energy available to do work. The sign of the free
• second law of energy change indicates whether the reaction is spontaneous.
thermodynamics
(p. 543) ∆G = ∆H - T∆S
system system system
Vocabulary PuzzleMaker glencoe.com Chapter 15 • Study Guide

551
Section 15.1 Section 15.2
Mastering Concepts Mastering Concepts
53. Compare and contrast temperature and heat. 68. Why is a foam cup used in a student calorimeter
54. How does the chemical potential energy of a rather than a typical glass beaker?
system change during an endothermic reaction?
55. Describe a situation that illustrates potential
energy changing to kinetic energy. Products
56. Cars How is the energy in gasoline converted and
Ent
released when it burns in an automobile engine? halp
57. Nutrition How does the nutritional Calorie compare y ∆H = 233 kJ
with the calorie? What is the relationship between
the Calorie and a kilocalorie?
Reactants
58. What quantity has the units J/(g·°C)?
■ Figure 15.23
69. Is the reaction shown in Figure 15.23 endothermic

or exothermic? How do you know?
70. Give two examples of chemical systems and define
the universe in terms of those examples.
71. Under what condition is the heat (q) evolved or
absorbed in a chemical reaction equal to a change
in enthalpy (∆H)?
72. The enthalpy change for a reaction, ∆H, is
■ Figure 15.22
negative. What does this indicate about the
59. Describe what might happen in Figure 15.22 when the chemical potential energy of the system before and
air above the surface of the lake is colder than the water. after the reaction?
60. Ethanol has a specific heat of 2.44 J/(g·°C). What 73. What is the sign of ∆H for an exothermic
does this mean? reaction? An endothermic reaction?
61. Explain how the amount of energy required to raise
the temperature of an object is determined. Mastering Problems
74. How many joules of heat are lost by 3580 kg of granite
Mastering Problems as it cools from 41.2°C to -12.9°C? The specific heat
62. Nutrition A food item contains 124 nutritional Calories. of granite is 0.803 J/(g·°C).
How many calories does the food item contain? 75. Swimming Pool A swimming pool measuring
63. How many joules are absorbed in a process that 20.0 m × 12.5 m is filled with water to a depth of 3.75
absorbs 0.5720 kcal? m. If the initial temperature is 18.4°C, how much heat
64. Transportation Ethanol is being used as an additive must be added to the water to raise its temperature to
to gasoline. The combustion of 1 mol of ethanol 29.0°C? Assume that the density of water is 1.000 g/mL.
releases 1367 kJ of energy. How many Calories are 76. How much heat is absorbed by a 44.7-g piece of
released? lead when its temperature increases by 65.4°C?
65. To vaporize 2.00 g of ammonia, 656 calories are 77. Food Preparation When 10.2 g of canola oil at
required. How many kilojoules are required to 25.0°C is placed in a wok, 3.34 kJ of heat is required
vaporize the same mass of ammonia? to heat it to a temperature of 196.4°C. What is the
66. The combustion of one mole of ethanol releases 326.7 specific heat of the canola oil?
Calories of energy. How many kilojoules are released? 78. Alloys When a 58.8-g piece of hot alloy is placed in
125 g of cold water in a calorimeter, the temperature of
67. Metallurgy A 25.0-g bolt made of an alloy absorbed
the alloy decreases by 106.1°C, while the temperature
250 J of heat as its temperature changed from 25.0°C
of the water increases by 10.5°C. What is the specific
to
heat of the alloy?
78.0°C. What is the specific heat of the alloy?
Chapter Test glencoe.com
©Wesley Hitt/Alamy
Mastering Concepts
Section 15.3
79. Write the sign of ∆H system for each of the
following changes in physical state. Section 15.4
a. C2H5OH(s) → C2H5OH(l)
b. H2O(g) → H2O(l) Mastering Concepts
c. CH3OH(l) → CH 3OH(g) 89. For a given compound, what does the standard
d. NH3(l) → NH3(s) enthalpy of formation describe?
80. The molar enthalpy of fusion of methanol is 3.22 90. How does ∆H for a thermochemical equation change
kJ/mol. What does this mean? when the amounts of all substances are tripled and
81. Explain how perspiration can help cool your body. the equation is reversed?
82. Write the thermochemical equation for the
combustion of methane. Refer to Table 15.3. 0.0 Al(s), Cl2(g)
Mastering Problems
∆
Hf
°
H2O(g) (k
J/
En ∆H m
vap = +40.7 kJ
th ol)
al
py ∆Hcond = -40.7 kJ -704 AlCl3 (s)
H2O(l) ■ Figure 15.25
∆Hfus = +6.01 kJ 91. Use Figure 15.25 to write the thermochemical equation
∆Hsolid = -6.01 kJ for the formation of 1 mol of aluminum chloride (a
H2O(s) solid in its standard state) from its constituent elements
in their standard states.
■ Figure 15.24
Mastering Problems
83. Use information from Figure 15.24 to calculate
92. Use standard enthalpies of formation from Table R-
how much heat is required to vaporize 4.33 mol of
11 on page 975 to calculate ∆H °rxn for the
water at 100°C.
following reaction.
84. Agriculture Water is sprayed on oranges during a
P 4O6(s) + 2O2(g) → P4O10(s)
frosty night. If an average of 11.8 g of water freezes
93. Use Hess’s law and the following thermochemical
on each orange, how much heat is released?
equations to produce the thermochemical equation for
85. Grilling What mass of propane (C 3H8) must be burned in the reaction C(s, diamond) → C(s, graphite). What is
a barbecue grill to release 4560 kJ of heat? The ∆H for the reaction?
∆H comb of propane is -2219 kJ/mol.
a. C(s, graphite) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ∆H = -394 kJ
86. Heating with Coal How much heat is liberated when
5.0 kg of coal is burned if the coal is 96.2% carbon by b. C(s, diamond) + O2(g) → CO 2(g) ∆H = -396 kJ
mass and the other materials in the coal do not react? 94. Use Hess’s law and the changes in enthalpy for
∆H comb of carbon is -394 kJ/mol. the following two generic reactions to calculate
87. How much heat is evolved when 1255 g of water ∆H for the reaction 2A + B2C3 → 2B + A2C3.
con-denses to a liquid at 100°C? 3
2A + 2 C2 → A2C3 ∆H = -1874 kJ
88. A sample of ammonia (∆H solid = -5.66 kJ/mol) liber- 2B + 3 C2 → B2C3 ∆H = -285 kJ
ates 5.66 kJ of heat as it solidifies at its melting point.
2
What is the mass of the sample?
Section 15.5
Mastering Concepts
95. Under what conditions is an endothermic chemical
reaction in which the entropy of the system
increases likely to be spontaneous?
Chapter Test glencoe.com Chapter 15 • Assessment 553

the reaction CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g).
96. Predict how the entropy of the system changes for Explain.
97. Which of these reactions would you expect to be
sponta-neous at relatively high temperatures? At 105. Bicycling Describe the energy conversions that
relatively low temperatures? Explain. occur when a bicyclist coasts down a long grade,
a. CH3OH(l) → CH 3OH(g) then strug-gles to ascend a steep grade.
b. CH3OH(g) → CH 3OH(l) 106. Hiking Imagine that on a cold day you are planning
c. CH3OH(s) → CH 3OH(l) to take a thermos of hot soup with you on a hike.
98. Explain how an exothermic reaction changes the entro- Explain why you might fill the thermos with hot
py of the surroundings. Does the enthalpy change for water first before filling it with the hot soup.
such a reaction increase or decrease ∆G system? Explain. 107. Differentiate between the enthalpy of formation of
H2O(l) and H2O(g). Why is it necessary to specify the
Mastering Problems physical state of water in the following thermochemical
99. Calculate ∆G system for each process, and state whether equation CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l or g)
the process is spontaneous or nonspontaneous. ∆H = ?
a. ∆H system = 145 kJ, T = 293 K, ∆S system = 195 J/K
b. ∆H system = -232 kJ, T = 273 K, ∆S system = 138 J/K
c. ∆H system = -15.9 kJ, T = 373 K, ∆S system = -268 J/K Think Critically
100. Calculate the temperature at which ∆G system = 0
if ∆H system = 4.88 kJ and ∆S system = 55.2 J/K.
101. For the change H2O(l) → H2O(g), ∆G °system is
8.557 kJ and ∆H °system is 44.01 kJ. What is ∆S
°system for the change?
102. Is the following reaction to convert copper(II) sulfide
to copper(II) sulfate spontaneous under standard
condi-tions? CuS(s) + 2O 2(g) → CuSO 4(s). ∆H °rxn
= -718.3 kJ, and ∆S °rxn = -368 J/K. Explain.
103. Calculate the temperature at which ∆G system = -34.7
kJ if ∆H system = -28.8 kJ and ∆S system = 22.2 J/K.
■ Figure 15.27
Mixed Review
108. Analyze both of the images in Figure 15.27 in terms
of potential energy of position, chemical potential
Heating Curve for Water
energy, kinetic energy, and heat.
100
4 109. Apply Phosphorus trichloride is a starting material
(º for the preparation of organic phosphorous
C) compounds. Demonstrate how thermochemical
2
equations a and b can be used to determine the
Te
mp
era
tur
e
3
enthalpy change for the reaction PCl3(l) + Cl2(g) →
PCl5(s).
0 a. P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) → 4PCl3(l) ∆H = -1280 kJ
1
b. P4(s) + 10Cl 2(g) → 4PCl 5(s) ∆H = -1774 kJ
110. Calculate Suppose that two pieces of iron, one with a
mass exactly twice the mass of the other, are placed in an
■ Figure 15.26
insulated calorimeter. If the original temperatures of the
larger piece and the smaller piece are 90.0°C and 50.0°C,
104. Heat was added consistently to a sample of water to pro- respectively, what is the temperature of the two pieces
duce the heating curve in Figure 15.26. Identify what is when thermal equilibrium has been established? Refer to
happening in Sections 1, 2, 3, and 4 on the curve. Table R-9 on page 975 for the specific heat of iron.
111. Predict which of the two compounds, methane gas
(CH4) or methanal vapor (CH2O), has the greater
molar enthalpy of combustion. Explain your answer.
(Hint:
Write and compare the balanced chemical equations
for the two combustion reactions.)
Chapter Test glencoe.com

(r)©Frank Cezus/Getty Images, (l)©Marc Muench/Getty Images
Challenge Problem
112. A sample of natural gas is analyzed and found to be
88.4% methane (CH4) and 11.6% ethane (C2H6) by
mass. The standard enthalpy of combustion of methane Additional Assessment
to gaseous carbon dioxide (CO 2) and liquid water
(H2O) is -891 kJ/mol. Write the equation for the com- Chemistry
bustion of gaseous ethane to carbon dioxide and water.
Calculate the standard enthalpy of combustion of ethane 122. Alternate Fuels Use library and Internet sources
using standard enthalpies of formation from Table R-11 to explain how hydrogen might be produced,
on page 975. Using that result and the standard enthalpy transported, and used as a fuel for automobiles.
of combustion of methane in Table 15.3, calculate the Summarize the benefits and drawbacks of using
energy released by the combustion of 1 kg of natural gas. hydrogen as an alternative fuel for internal
combus-tion engines.
123. Wind Power Research the use of wind as a
Cumulative Review source of electrical power. Explain the possible
benefits, disadvantages, and limitations of its
113. Why is it necessary to perform repeated experiments
use.
in order to support a hypothesis? (Chapter 1)
114. Phosphorus has the atomic number 15 and an atomic
mass of 31 amu. How many protons, neutrons, and elec- Document-Based Questions
trons are in a neutral phosphorus atom? (Chapter 4) Cooking Oil A university research group burned four cook-
115. What element has the electron ing oils in a bomb calorimeter to determine if a relationship
1 5 exists between the enthalpy of combustion and the number of
configuration [Ar]4s 3d ? (Chapter 5) double bonds in an oil molecule. Cooking oils typically
116. Name the following molecular compounds. (Chapter contain long chains of carbon atoms linked by either single
8) or double bonds. A chain with no double bonds is said to be
a. S2Cl2 c. SO3 saturated. Oils with one or more double bonds are
b. CS2 d. P4O10 unsaturat-ed. The enthalpies of combustion of the four oils
117. Determine the molar mass for the foloowing are shown in Table 15.7. The researchers calculated that the
com-pounds. (Chapter 10) results deviat-ed by only 0.6% and concluded that a link
a. Co(NO3)2 · 6H2O between satura-tion and enthalpy of combustion could not
b. Fe(OH)3 be detected by the experimental procedure used.
Data obtained from: http: Heat of Combustion Oils. April 1998.
University of Pennsylvania.
Table 15.7 Combustion Results for Oils

Type of Oil ∆H comb (kJ/g)
Soy oil 40.81
Canola oil 41.45
Olive oil 39.31
Extra-virgin olive oil 40.98
■ Figure 15.28
118. What kind of chemical bond is represented by 124. Which of the oils tested provided the greatest
the dotted lines in Figure 15.28? (Chapter 12) amount of energy per unit mass when burned?
3 125. According to the data, how much energy would
119. A sample of oxygen gas has a volume of 20.0 cm at
-10.0°C. What volume will this sample occupy if be liberated by burning 0.554 kg of olive oil?
the temperature rises to 110 °C? (Chapter 13) 126. Assume that 12.2 g of soy oil is burned and that
120. What is the molarity of a solution made by dissolving all the energy released is used to heat 1.600 kg of
25.0 g of sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) in enough water, initially at 20.0°C. What is the final
water to make 500 mL of solution? (Chapter 14) temperature of the water?
121. List three colligative properties of solutions. (Chapter 14) 127. Oils can be used as fuels. How many grams of canola
oil would have to be burned to provide the energy to
vaporize 25.0 g of water. (∆Hvap = 40.7 kJ/mol).
Chapter Test glencoe.com Chapter 15 • Assessment 555

Cumulative
Standardized Test Practice

∆S °vap and the y-intercept
Multiple Choice of the line equals ∆H
°vap.What is the
Use the graph below to approximate standard
answer Questions 1 to 3. entropy of the vaporization
of cyclohexane?
∆G for the A. -50.0 J/mol·K C. -5.0
Vapo J/mol·K
rizati
on of B. -10.0 J/mol·K D. -100
Cycl J/mol·K
ohex
ane
as a 4. The metal yttrium,
Func atomic number 39,
tion forms
of
Tem A. positive ions.
perat B. negative ions.
ure
7.00
C. both positive and
negative ions.
6.00
D. no ions at all.
G∆(k
J/m 5.00
ol) 2.00 5. Given the reaction
4.00
2Al + 3FeO → Al2O3
3.00
+ 3Fe, what is the
mole-to-mole ratio
1.00 between iron(II) oxide
0 and aluminum oxide?
290 300 310 320 A. 2:3 C. 3:2
Tem B. 1:1 D. 3:1
pera
ture
(K)
1. In the range of
temperatures shown, the
vaporization of
cyclohexane
A. does not occur at all.
B. will occur
spontaneously.
C. is not spontaneous.
D. occurs only at high
temperatures.
2. What is the standard free

energy
G
of vaporization,
∆ ° , of cyclohexane at 300 K?
vap
A. 5.00 kJ/mol C.
kJ/mol
B. 3.00 kJ/mol D.
kJ/mol
3. When G
∆ ° is plotted as
a function of temperature,
vap
the slope of the line equals
400
Use the table below to 200

answer Question 6. 0
250 260 270 280 290 300
Electronegativity of Selected Elements Temperature (K)
H
2.20
9. What is the predicted
pressure of Gas B at 310 K?
Li Be B C
0.98 1.57 2.04 2.55
Na Mg Al Si
0.93 1.31 1.61 1.90
6. Which bond is the most electronegative?

A. H–H C.
B. H–C D.
7. Element Q has an
oxidation number of
+2, while Element M
has an oxidation
number of -3. Which is
the correct formula for
a compound made of
elements Q and M?
A. Q 2M3 C.
B. M2Q3 D.
8. Wavelengths of light
shorter than about 4.00 ×
-7
10 m are not visible to
the human eye. What is the
energy of a photon of
ultraviolet light having a
frequency of
16 -1
5.45 × 10 s ? (Planck’s
-
constant is 6.626 × 10
34
J·s.)
A. 3.61 × 10-17 J C.
-50
B. 1.22 × 10 J D.
Use the graph below to
answer Question 9.
Pressures
of Three
Gases
at Different
Temperatur
es
1200
(k 1000
Pa
)
800
Pr 600
A. 500 kPa C. 700 kPa
B. 600 kPa D. 900 kPa
556 Chapter 15 • Assessment Standardized Test Practice

glencoe.com
Short Answer SAT Subject Test: Chemistry
Use the figure below to answer Questions 11 15. The specific heat of ethanol is 2.44 J/g·°C.
to13. How many kilojoules of energy are
required to heat
S CI Ar K Ca 50.0 g of ethanol from -20.0°C to 68.0°C?
A. 10.7 kJ D. 1.22 kJ
10. Explain why argon is not likely to form a
compound. B. 8.30 kJ E. 5.86 kJ
C. 2.44 kJ
11. Draw the structure of calcium chloride
16. If 3.00 g of aluminum foil, placed in an oven
using electron-dot models. What is the
and heated from 20.0°C to 662.0°C, absorbs
chemical formula for calcium
1728 J of heat, what is the specific heat of
chloride?
aluminum?
12. Use electron-dot models to explain what A. 0.131 J/g·°C D. 2.61 J/g·°C
B. 0.870 J/g·°C E. 0.261 J/g·°C
charge sulfur will most likely have when it
C. 0.897 J/g·°C
forms an ion.
Use the table below to answer Questions 17 and
Extended Response 18.
Use the information below to answer Questions 13 and
14. Density and Electronegativity Data for Elements
A sample of gas occupies a certain volume at a Element Density (g/ml) Electronegativity

pressure of 1 atm. If the pressure remains Aluminum 2.698 1.6
-3
constant, heating causes the gas to expand, as Fluorine 1.696 × 10 4.0
shown below. Sulfur 2.070 2.6
Copper 8.960 1.9
Magnesium 1.738 1.3
Carbon 3.513 2.6
1 atm
17. A sample of metal has a mass of 9.250 g and
1 atm occu-pies a volume of 5.250 mL. Which
metal is it?
A. aluminum D. copper
B. magnesium E. sulfur
C. carbon
14.X
13. State the gas law that describes why the gas 18. Which pair is most likely to form an ionic
in the second canister occupies a greater bond?
A. carbon and sulfur
volume than the gas in the first canister.
B. aluminum and magnesium
14. If the volume in the first container is 2.1 L C. copper and sulfur
at a temperature of 300 K, to what D. magnesium and fluorine
temperature must the second canister be E. aluminum and carbon
heated to reach a volume of 5.4 L? Show
your setup and the final answer.
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Energy and Chemical Change

BIG Idea Chemical reactions

more than 17,000 km/h.

STEP 3 Unfold and cut ▶ explore

&/,$!",%3 Use this Foldable with Section 15.5. As

516 Chapter 15 • Energy and Chemical Change

Heat The principle component of

EXAMPLE Problem 15.1

2 Solve for the Unknown

Convert calories to joules.

3 Evaluate the Answer

518 Chapter 15 • Energy and Chemical Change

Section 15.1 Assessment

Interactive Figure To see an animation of Bomb Calorimeter

Section 15.2 • Heat 523

■ Figure 15.6 a. An initial

surroundings, the heat gained qmetal = −1940 J

EXAMPLE Problem 15.3

Substitute q = 256 J, m = 4.68 g, and ∆T

Table 15.2 indicates that the metal could be strontium.

3 Evaluate the Answer

PRACTICE Extra Practice Page 986

12. A 90.0-g sample of an unknown metal absorbed 25.6 J of heat as its

Chemical Energy and the Universe

Section 15.2 • Heat 525

Because you are interested in the heat given off

The Heat-Pack Reaction

Heating and Cooling Specialist

Section 15.2 • Heat 527

The Cold-Pack Process

■ Figure 15.9 The upward arrow

Section 15.2 Assessment

528 Chapter 15 • Energy and Chemical Change Self-

Write thermochemical New Vocabulary

Section 15.3 • Thermochemical Equations 529

Interactive Figure To see an animation of heat flow in endothermic and

■ Figure 15.10 The upward

Phase Changes for

Changes of H2O(l) → H 2O(g) ∆H vap = 40.7 kJ

530 Chapter 15 • Energy and Chemical Change

Section 15.3 • Thermochemical Equations 531

1 Analyze the Problem

2 Solve for the Unknown

Multiply moles of C 6H 12O 6 by the enthalpy of combustion, ∆Hcomb.

3 Evaluate the Answer

PRA Extra Practice

23. Calculate the heat required to melt

532 Chapter 15 • Energy and Chemical Change

Section 15.3 Assessment

Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com Section 15.3 •

534 Chapter 15 • Energy and Chemical Change

Section 15.4 • Calculating Enthalpy Change 535

Reading Check Compare the equation above with the thermochemical

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 15.5

a. 2H 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2H 2O(l) ∆H = -572 kJ

1 Analyze the Problem

2 Solve for the Unknown

∆H for Equation c = (188kJ)(2) Multipy 188 kJ by two to obtain ∆H for Equation c.

a. 2H 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2H 2O(l) ∆H = -572 kJ Write Equation a.