Living Aloft Human Requirements For Extended Spaceflight
Living Aloft Human Requirements For Extended Spaceflight
Living Aloft Human Requirements For Extended Spaceflight
Human Requirements
for Extended ~pacefl
ight
NASA
SP-483
1
NG ALOFT
Human Requirements
for Extended Spaceflight
Mary M. Connors
NASA Ames Research Center
Albert A. Harrison
University of California, Davis
Faren R. Akins
University of Santa Clara
Washington, DC
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publieation Data
Connors, Mary M.
Living aloft.
(NASA SP ; 483)
Bibliography: p 333
Includes indexes.
1. Manned space flight. 2. Space flight-Psycho-
logical aspects. 3. Human engineering.
I. Harrison, Albert A. 11. Akins, Faren A.
111. Title. IV. Series.
TL873.C66 1985 302 85-5149
Jack P. Hailman
Science, 168, 701 (1970)
iii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
vii
Individual Response to Threat .................. 220
Group Processes ............................. 228
lmplicationstfor Space ........................ 233
INTERNALLY PRECIPITATED CRISES ............ 234
Psychological Episodes ........................ 234
Transcendant Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Substance Abuse ............................ 245
Grief ...................................... 247
Crisis lntervention ........................... 252
Implications for Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................. 253
viii
REFERENCES ...................................... 333
BACKGROUND
Guiding Assumptions
Theoretical Orientation
Following Sells (1966) and the Space Sciences Board (1972))
we have adopted a systems perspective on spaceflights. That is, mis-
sions are viewed as comprised of highly interdependent components
(e.g., technical, biological, and social), such that variations in one
component typically have repercussions in one or more of the others.
We have attempted to expand this conceptualization by incorporat-
ing elements of open-systems theory as devised by J . Miller (1960,
1955) and advanced by Katz and Kahn (1966) and J. Miller (1978).
Two important features of open-systems theory should be stressed.
First, since open-systems theory can be applied to biological and
social units of varying sizes, large-scale missions fruitfully can be ana-
lyzed in terms o f component systems or subsystems. Second, by
viewing systems as open, full acknowledgement is accorded the
importance of the surrounding environment. Although space mis-
sions are separated from Earth by immense distances, mission-Earth
transactions remain frequent and critical. For instance, a high rate o f
information exchange occurs during the course o f all missions,
whereas personnel rotation and resupply are likely on missions
involving large, orbiting satellites. In addition, the preparation,
launch, and recovery phases o f spaceflight will involve intense
spacecraft-Earth exchanges.
Although no attempt will be made to formulate data in systems
terms, the interrelationships which are fundamental to the
open-systems approach will be basic to all discussions. Equally
important, it is our intention to think in systems terms, i.e., to avoid
categorizing and indstead t o search for "connectedness principles,
isomorphisms, interrelationships - in short, a holistic approach"
(Fisher, 1978, p. 96).
SPACE ENVIRONMENTS
The declines observed thus far have not appeared among all, or
even the majority of participants. Also, the declines that have been
reported are not necessarily severe, and many studies report no
intellectual decline at all (see, e.g., Cleveland, Boyd, Sheer, and
Reitman, 1963). A continuing concern, however, i s that prolonged
isolation and confinement can lead to cognitive impairment of suffi-
cient magnitude to prevent satisfactorily coping with emergency
situations.
Temporal Fluctuations
AL CHANGES
Simulation Studies
Resistance to Deconditioning
Countermeasures
VESTIBULAR ALTERATIONS
Countermeasures
31t has been found that, when placed in a situation with conflicting cues,
some individuals rely on the external stimulus field (field dependence), whereas
other individuals base their judgments primarily upon internal kinesthetic sensa-
tions (field independence) (Witken, 1949a, 1949b).
aftereffects that can potentially influence performance (Wood,
Manno, Manno, Redetzki, Wood, and Vekovius, 1984), hence astro-
nauts have been reluctant to ingest the medications regularly. Unfor-
tunately, changes in physiological functions resulting from medica-
tions can interact with and overshadow biomedical alterations
produced by weightlessness, and interfere with the evaluation of data
(Vernikos-Danellis, Winget, Leach, Rosenblatt, Lyman, and Beljan,
1977). As with other drugs, we do not understand adequately what
effects usage may have in space.
Although this device has proven useful in the limited tests con-
ducted in space, many research questions need to be addressed. Does
restriction of head movement pose any problems for performance of
tasks requiring rapid or agile shifts in the position of the head? I s
hand-eye coordination altered by the fact that the hands can be
easily monitored only when the head is in the erect position? Does
the device permit adaptation to the stimuli associated with the
development o f space sickness such that eventually the restraint can
be removed without fear of illness? If adaptation does occur, is the
period of adjustment prolonged because of the lack of head move-
ment? This latter question points up the paradox of treating space
sickness. In theory, more active head movements produce faster
adaptation to the conditions of space (Graybiel, 1975). However,
increased movement also increases the risk of nausea which could
debilitate crewmembers and jeopardize performance. Alternatively,
restricting head movements (by lying still) lessens the probability of
symptom development, but also prolongs the period of adaptation. It
remains to be determined if in fact the Neck Pneumatic Shock-
Absorber produces a similar extension of the adaptation period.
Cuban boots- I n addition to the head-restraint cap, Soviet cos-
monauts have also tested specially designed shoes or "Cuban boots,"
named after the Cuban cosmonaut Arnaldo Mendez who tested the
prototype (Engler and Cheshire-Engler, 1983). These shoes provide a
pressure of up to 60 torr to the bottom of the feet, making the cos-
monaut feel as if he is standing on solid ground. A Soyuz 38 cosmo-
naut reported that use of the Cuban boots reduced the severity of
spatial illusions and motor disturbances, phenomena thought to be
produced by conditions which also produce motion sickness.
Although the Cuban boot is not likely to eliminate vestibular prob-
lems in space, it is certainly an intriguing compensatory mechanism
to simulate lg conditions and deserves further attention.
Autonomic response control- Various investigators have begun
to explore the use of biofeedback and acquired autonomic response
control in the prevention of motion sickness. Cowings et al. (1977)
have demonstrated that subjects trained to control heart rate, respira-
tion rate, and blood pressure using biofeedback and autogenic train-
ing procedures can volitionally diminish and/or prevent their own
motion-sickness symptoms. Among 50 subjects trained in the past
few years and tested under conditions of provocative motion-sickness
stimuli (rotating chair producing coriolis acceleration), 85% have
improved their ability t o withstand the test conditions ( Rasmussen,
1980). Likewise, Levy, Jones and Carlson (1981) showed that bio-
feedback treatment of 20 air crewmen, disabled by chronic and
severe sickness in flight, resulted in an 84% rate of return to flight
duty. In this study, subjects were trained to voluntarily control such
functions as galvanic skin response, skin temperature, and muscle
tonus.
It would appear that the use of autonomic-response control
techniques has several advantages over procedures previously used in
the treatment o f motion sickness. Toscano and Cowings (1978)
found that learned control of symptom suppression could be trans-
ferred from one situation to another. Subjects learning control of
autonomic functions to suppress illness when exposed to acceleration
in one direction showed significant suppression of symptoms when
rotated in the opposite direction. Nor has training been found to be
differentially affected by initial motion-sickness susceptibility
(Toscano and Cowings, 1978, 1982), or by gender differences
(Rasmussen, 1980). Also, it appears that autonomic-response control
training can be used effectively by subjects for whom traditional
countermeasures have proved inadequate (Levy e t al., 1981).
VISUAL CHANGES
BACKGROUND
Interior Space
61
features such as furniture, lighting, and acoustics (Jackson, Wamsley,
Bonura, and Seemanl 1972).
'Astronauts of Skylab preferred those areas where there was a local verti-
cal, i.e., a defined "floor" and "ceiling." Astronauts felt least comfortable in the
large upper deck of Skylab where, because of size and the lack of architectural
cues, orientation was difficult (Life in a Space Station, New Yorker Magazine,
8130176 and 9/6/76). Story Musgrave, Mission Specialist who participated in an
Extravehicular Activity on STS 6 has reported that he felt no need to identify a
particular direction as "up" or "down" (personal communication, June, 1983).
He further raised the interesting possibility that the presence of a defined verti-
cal within the vehicle might cause conflict with outside perceptions, possibly
contributing to space sickness. (For a discussion of the role of sensory conflict
in space sickness, see chapter 11.)
whereas those that are easy to slip into and out of are virtually use-
less. Grounding shoes based on a suction principle have been tried on
Shuttle, but there i s little indication that this mobility problem has
been solved.
Food
Hygiene
Space vehicles have now evolved to the point where they have
something approximating decor to discuss. Rogers and his colleagues
have investigated the importance of decor in confinement (Rogers,
1978). These investigators found that, in 10-day confinement,
"plush" decor had very little value to all-male crews who were occu-
pied in meaningful work. Attractive surroundings were found to be
more important when crews were composed of both men and
women, and when all-male crews had no meaningful work to per-
form. Decor was found to be most important when crews were both
mixed and without meaningful work. I n terms of extended space-
flight, it is reasonable to assume that it will become increasingly
important as spaceflights lengthen.
40ther visual concerns include the effects o f radiation and general effects
o f weightlessness.
In addition to its direct effect on vision, light levels can have an
indirect effect on other behaviors. Changes in illumination levels have
been found to influence the motor activity of animals (Alexander
and Isaac, 1965) and, for humans, raising the level of illumination
has been found to occasion an increase in the sound or noise level
(Sanders, Gustanski, and Lawton, 1974). A related concern is how to
simulate daylnight cycles. It will be important to determine how the
use of lighting might impact this area.
Odor
Noise
Many of the initial concerns about space reflected the view that
the environment would be understimulating to the space traveler,
possibly leading to the disorganizing effects associated with sensory
deprivation (see review by Suedfeld, 1980). Although the environ-
ment of space may prove to be understimulating in some respects, i t
may prove to be overstimulating in others. Among the latter con-
cerns i s the question of noise or unwanted sound. Berry (1973a) has
commented that in space (p. 1142):
I n the extreme, noise can cause pain and even damage to the
inner ear, resulting in a hearing loss. Even low levels of noise can
interfere with communication. Noise can also be a physiological
stressor, exerting adverse effects on the cardiovascular system
(Cantrell, 1975a), on the autonomic nervous system (Cantrell,
1975b), and on the vestibular system, resulting in disorientation,
nausea, and dizziness (Harris, 1972). The clinical symptoms that have
been associated with noise are so extensive and nonspecific that these
symptoms have been aggregated under the general heading "noise
sickness" (Andreyieva-Galanina, Alekeseyev, Kadyskin, and Suvorov,
1973).
Recreation
PRIVACY
Theory
Bases of Needs
Berscheid (1977) suggests that, since the need for privacy seems
to have biological and evolutionary roots, individual variance in the
strength o f such a need may have genetic, as well as learned compo-
nents. These genetic components may correlate in some way with
other aspects of personality such as a tendency toward extroversion
or introversion. Studying large numbers of twin girls, Scarr (1969)
found that genetic factors account for more than half the within-
family variance associated with introversion/extroversion. How the
introversion/extroversion variable corresponds to privacy-related
behavior is largely unexplored, although as Berscheid notes, an inter-
esting start has been made by Marshall (1975) who found evidence of
a relationship between privacy orientation and scores on an
introversion/extroversion measure. Bersheid poses several questions
whose answers could be informative to the relationship between per-
sonal characteristics and privacy. Do introverts have different and/or
more successful ways of protecting themselves from excess social
stimulation than do extroverts? How does the interaction between a
person's status on the introversion-extroversion dimension and his
privacy state affect such dependent variables as aggression, suscepti-
bility to influence, emotionality, group membership, friendship,
interaction patterns, etc.? Understanding such relationships, or more
broadly the relationship between personal characteristics and privacy
needs, could help in predicting an individual's adaptation to closed
and demanding environments such as that of space.
Mechanisms
Crowding
The evidence, then, suggests that for the human, personal and
exclusive use of an area is probably less important than the privacy
requirement which such space would address. This finding allows us
to search for solutions t o the privacy problem in space which do not
depend on the personal allocation of territories within the habitat.
Privacy in Space
COMPLEX EFFECTS
Aftereffects
IN-FLIGHT HIGHEST
PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENTS
FULL
MISSION
SIMULATION
PARTIAL
MISSION
SIMULATION
MULTIPLE-TASK
PERFORMANCE
BATTER I ES
SINGLE-TASK
ASSESSMENT
APPROACHES - LOWEST
The results showed that the first attempts in space to carry out
mission tasks usually were inefficient. For example, during Skylab 2,
the first in-flight task trial took longer than the last preflight trial in
68% of the cases (Kubis e t al., 1977). Similar data taken during
Skylab 3 showed 54% of the task elements took longer in space than
on Earth, and a comparable figure from Skylab 4 was 58%. However,
during each of the three missions, by the end of the second perfor-
mance trial, appro5imately half of all tasks were completed within
the time recorded for the last preflight trials. This suggests that to
facilitate performance adaptation, tasks critical to mission success
should be rehearsed early in the flight.
This type o f in-flight data collection represents a good first
attempt to quantify performance in space. However, the statistical
data presented could be further refined. For example, the available
reports cite only the number of tasks that took longer to perform
in flight than preflight, but give no indication of how much longer.
It would be important to determine whether these time periods
represent significant delays. Also, the analysis is complicated by the
confounding of tasks with the time at which they were measured;
different tasks were performed on different days of the missions. I n
addition, future in-flight measurements should include a specification
of the types of errors made. With the time-motion studies presently
available, the only inferences that can be made are those involving
comparison of fine, medium, and gross motor movements. For
example, Kubis et al. (1977) concluded from their Skylab analysis
that during adaptation to spaceflight, fine motor movements are
affected more adversely than medium or gross motor movements
during both intravehicular and extravehicular activities. This result
was confirmed in the debriefing comments of the astronauts who
reported that they had more difficulty with the control of small
objects than of large objects. These findings suggest that extra
preflight training should be given to manuevers requiring fine,
delicate movements, and that, where possible, these tasks should be
scheduled later in the mission, after crews have fully developed their
fine motor dexterity.
Work-time ratios constitute another type of in-flight perfor-
mance analysis which could prove useful in judging the overall work
capacities o f spacecrews. I n one analysis (Garriott and Doerre, 1977),
total estimated time associated with tasks accomplished was divided
by the total number of hours available to work. This computation
was termed the "work-efficiency ratio" and was computed for each
crewman of the Skylab missions. (Time estimates were based on the
time it took a trained crewman to complete the task on the ground.)
A ratio of 0.50 was defined as a normal work day based on "normal"
working conditions on Earth, where the hours of useful work (8 hr)
is divided by awake time (16 hr). Astronauts maintained or exceeded
the 0.50 level on most mission days. However, during the second day
of Skylab 3 and the third day of Skylab 4, the work-efficiency ratios
were 0.41 and 0.45, respectively. This decrease in work efficiency
appears to have resulted from space sickness, as reported by the
crewmembers. It might prove useful to combine the analyses of
work-efficiency ratios with those from time-motion techniques to
determine (1) the extent to which these measures of performance
speed may be correlated and how they might be combined to
yield maximum information, and (2) the relationship between per-
formance speed and error rate.
From our review thus far, we can see that the type of work-rest
schedule most beneficial for space missions must depend a great deal
on the degree of loading involved in the tasks. Chiles and Adams
(1961) posed the following guidelines regarding the duration of work
periods as a function of loading:
Klein and his colleagues do not believe that there is any differ-
ence in psychophysiological response due specifically to the direc-
tion of flight. Rather, they ascribe the greater performance decline
found in their studies in eastward travel to factors which, for a
variety of reasons, lead t o greater fatigue. Although some suggestions
have been offered for distinguishing fatigue effects from circadian
effects, it remains extremely difficult to separate the two when
abnormal sleep is involved (Dodge, 1982)) and in most studies to
date, fatigue and circadian effects are compounded. (For a discussion
of this and related issues, see Alluisi, 1977.)
Sleep Disturbances
137
significant decrease in the average amount of sleep time. A I-hr
decrease in sleep time was observed on the 28-day mission, but this
was strictly voluntarf/ and not due to insomnia. Sleep latency, or the
length of time needed to fall asleep, was relatively long in the early
portions of the 84-day mission, but returned to values typical of pre-
and postflight conditions by the latter half of the mission. No sig-
nificant change in sleep latency was seen in the 59-day mission,
whereas the in-flight latencies were actually significantly lower than
preflight latencies during the 28-day mission.
140
the operational setting. One approach is the discrete-task assessment
technique. A task is selected which purports to measure some aspect
of performance believed to be important in the operational setting.
For example, rotary pursuit testing may be used to measure tracking
ability, or visual monitoring may be used to measure the subject's
vigilance. This approach is low cost, permits precise measurement of
performance, and can be used to investigate the effects of individual
environmental stressors. However, there remain significant limita-
tions and important research questions regarding this approach. Fre-
quently there is l i t t l e similarity in the type of task employed in the
laboratory to measure a certain ability and the task requiring that
ability in the operational setting. The predictive validity of individual
laboratory tests as they relate to space missions needs to be
determined.
Gender
148
women faking helplessness in the presence of men), and clique for-
mation along sexual lines. Additional research is required to identify
ways to select crewmembers who are flexible and tolerant in their
attitudes and responses toward members of the opposite sex.
Culture
The Americans who have visited space thus far have primarily
been exemplars o f the nation's dominant Caucasian ethnic group; this
is rapidly changing. Future missions will include a larger proportion
o f Black Americans, Latinos, and representatives o f other minority
groups. There is a possibility that, despite careful selection and train-
ing, prolonged isolation and confinement will bring long-standing
prejudices t o the fore. Although Kanas and Fedderson (1971) have
discussed some o f the implications o f ethnically mixed missions,
racial and cultural backgrounds have not been major variables in
studies o f isolated and confined groups. The literature, in fact, pro-
vides some basis for optimism. Specifically, three conditions asso-
ciated with life i n space may minimize certain ethnic prejudices.
Personal Attractiveness
Emotional Stability
Competence
Social Versatility ,
Assembling Groups
INTERPERSONAL DYNAMICS
Leadership
Cohesiveness
170
ultimate and intermediate goals be expressed in a manner
that permits assessment of success in such a way that it is
compatible with supervisory controls, available rewards,
and individual career growth . . . .
172
Some ambiguity surrounds the relationship between drive and
amiability, on the one hand, and actual performance, on the other.
Cohesive groups oft& are efficient and effective (Cartwright, 1968;
Lott and Lott, 1965; Shaw, 1976). However, this does not neces-
sarily mean that enhancing cohesiveness improves performance. First,
successful performance can be a cause, rather than an effect, of
cohesiveness. This is most clearly shown in Bakeman and Helmreich's
(1975) study of divers aboard Tektite. It was found that whereas
measures of cohesiveness obtained early in the mission were unre-
lated to measures o f performance obtained later in the mission, mea-
sures of performance early in the mission were predictive of subse-
quent crew cohesiveness. Second, group standards or norms mediate
the relationship between cohesiveness and performance. If norms
support performance-related activities, then cohesiveness is likely to
improve performance. 'If, on the other hand, norms support limited
output or engagement in irrelevant tasks, cohesiveness may under-
mine performance (Berkowitz, 1954).
174
boundary. More research is needed on the emergence and control of
groupthink under conditions of isolation and confinement.
1
Group Performance
Temporal Dynamics
178
reduce conflict and attrition, and hence deserves careful considera-
tion for incorporation into mission plans. First, there is preentry
therapy, which is exfiected to encourage anxiety control and reduce
the need to conform. Second, newcomers can become acquainted
with current or former group members prior to their entry. Third,
newcomers can be given candid and realistic (as compared with
guarded and idealistic) information about the group. Finally, new-
comers can be sponsored; that is, an established group member can
introduce and tutor each newcomer.
182
Strong demands will be placed on crewmembers who occupy
leadership roles, and the penalties for incompetent or weak leader-
ship will be high. Obr discussion o f leadership began with the com-
mon distinction between task and socioemotional leadership activi-
ties. Case histories suggest that under conditions of isolation,
confinement, and risk, a leader can perform both task and socio-
emotional leadership roles, but influential reviews o f leaders in
everyday environments show that normally the two roles are differ-
entiated. Future research must address different divisions o f task and
socioemotional activities within spacecrews. One possibility for
reconciling conflicting claims is that under conditions of isolation,
confinement, and risk, people have a strong defensive need to per-
ceive their leaders as competent on all dimensions.
184
Artist: Paul Arlt
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VI
COMMUNICATION
IN-TRODUCTION
Verbal Communication
Once the message has been correctly framed, the task of mission
planners and managers is to identify the optimal level of redundancy
needed and the type of feedback required. Presumably, for a given
message, the need for redundancy i s inversely related to the availabil-
ity of feedback.
Nonverbal Communication
The space environment- High ambient noise and low air pres-
sure will interfere with paralinguistic and with linguistic communica-
tion. Background noise of certain frequencies and timbres may mask
informative intonations. Artificial atmospheres which transform or
alter voice quality could prove particularly troublesome. The extent
to which such limitations on paralinguistic channels could impair or
distort task and socioemotional communication flow needs to be
examined.
192
According t o the experience of Soviet cosmonauts and
American astronauts, strongly expressed puffiness distorts
usual facial expressions, [and] impoverishes the set of
mimics required by a given situation. Under such condi-
tions the relationship "speaker-listener" is changed to one
unusual for partners in intercourse . . . .
MEDIATED COMMUNICATION
Planning Considerations
Systems Requirements
Systems Effects
During the last two decades there has been increased interest in
understanding the effects resulting from the use of mediated com-
munication systems, such as those which will provide the link
between the spacecraft and the ground. This area of investigation is
directly applicable to the requirements of spacecrews and is pre-
sented here in some detail.
i
Proxemic X
(distancing or
placement)
Kinesic X X
(facial expression
and gestures)
Paralinguistic X X X
(amplitude, rate, and
tenor of speech)
Linguistic X X X X
(written or spoken
word)
200
attitudes of the participants. However, achieving high technical qual-
ity in an audio exchange involving groups of individuals is a challeng-
ing task. Free arrangements (i.e., where individuals are not attached
to microphones and earphones) are routinely beset by problems of
feedback, loss of signal, etc. A fully duplex system where both loca-
tions can speak at will further compounds these problems. Yet any
compromise with this open approach to communication usually
results in reduced satisfaction and sometimes with reduced use of the
system. If the technical barriers can be overcome, audio exchanges
can satisfy the requirements for a high percentage of exchanges. It
has been concluded that about 40% of the interactions which now
take place face to face could readily be handled by an audio-only
medium (Connell, 1974; Short e t a]., 1976). The audio-only medium
may have the advantage of perceived privacy. Goldmark (1973)
found that participants judge a telephone conversation to be more
private than even a face-to-face interaction.
Application to Space
204
activity better than social activity. Yet it is anticipated that extended
missions will increase the need t o deal with complex tasks, to reach
agreement on issues, and to engage in affective exchanges with those
at home. Among mediated systems, broadband systems are more
effective than narrowband systems in handling tasks that are compli-
cated or that contain high emotional content. Yet it is anticipated
that for extended missions, narrowband computer-based systems
will have certain technical advantages that may counter other con-
siderations. For missions involving very large distances, transmission
delays may render simultaneous or quasi-simultaneous communica-
tion impossible. Here, computer communication would have an
advantage, since it i s easily used in a sequential mode.
Although suggestive, studies reported to date on the impact of
mediated communication systems are not definitive for space appli-
cation. First, the subjects of these studies have been neither isolated
nor confined. Second, these studies have cast electronic exchanges as
an option rather than a necessity for interaction, and users have not
been required t o rely on these systems exclusively for prolonged
periods of time. Third, studies to date have focused on goal-oriented
groups functioning specifically in their work roles, rather than on
socioemotional groups functioning in their family or friendship
roles - one of the requirements for space. Many of the questions
concerning the relationship of media variables and social interaction
will have to be reexamined to take into consideration the unusual
conditions of space.
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
In most organizations there is neither the opportunity, nor the
need, nor the desire to interact with all other members. Functional
communication networks describe the patterns of communication
which evolve among individuals or nodes (i.e., who talks with
whom). The unit of analysis in communication networks is not the
individual, but rather the relationship between or among individuals
(Rogers and Agarwala-Rogers, 1976). The methodological techniques
used to study communication networks include traffic monitoring,
studies of task requirements, participant-observation of interactions,
cross-sectional surveys, small-world procedures (taking one part as
representative o f the whole), and studies of message diffusion. The
uses to be examined by these methods are production (getting the
job done), innovation (exploring new options), and maintenance
(keeping the system and i t s components operational). In this section
we consider how studies of communications networks can help us to
205
understand information flow within a space organization and
between the space organization and external systems.
I
Internal Communication
External Communication
INTRODUCTION
Experience in Space
The Gemini and Apollo programs also had their share of diffi-
culties. On Gemini 8, astronauts Armstrong and Scott experienced
the first emergency to occur in space. After docking with an Agena
rocket, the vehicle began to spin out of control. The crewmembers
were able to escape by firing their retrorockets, returning to Earth
2 days ahead of schedule. On Apollo 11, the first moon landing,
Commander Neil Armstrong was forced to take over control of the
lunar module to avoid descending into a giant crater; a crater near-
miss was also experienced by the crew of Apollo 16. On returning to
Earth, the crew of Apollo 15 experienced a rough landing when one
o f their vehicular parachutes failed to deploy during final descent.
The most critical U.S. emergency to date occurred on Apollo 13.
With the spacecraft almost a quarter of a million miles from Earth,
an oxygen tank exploded. The astronauts moved to the lunar lander
for emergency return to Earth. Again, possible damage to the heat
shield added to the concern during reentry.
21 8
whether or not they would be able to undock for the return trip
home. Working in extreme heat, the crew managed to deploy a
parasol to shield tHe vehicle from the Sun, allowing the Skylab
missions to proceed. On Skylab 3 an emergency flight home was
contemplated for a time when a leak was detected in the command-
module thruster.
219
Nor was the Apollo-Soyuz effort, which rendezvoused an
American crew and a Soviet crew in space, without incident. First,
there was a rough Zedocking o f Apollo with Soyuz, which caused the
Russian gound control to voice concern over the integrity of their
vehicle. Then, after separation and while returning to Earth, the
American crew apparently made an error in executing the landing
sequence. As a result of actions taken to correct the original error,
nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer, a highly poisonous gas, was released into
the space capsule. After a very hard landing, the crew was able to
escape the gas by donning oxygen masks, but not before one of their
members lost consciousness.
220
leads to one of a number of secondary, learned responses. One such
secondary response is fear, which prompts the individual to escape or
withdraw; anotherris anger, which inclines the person to attack.
Other theorists use the terms fear and anxiety to describe contrasting
reactions (e.g., see Sarnoff and Zimbardo, 1961). Still other theorists
take the view that anxiety is a derivative of fear (see Izard, 1972). To
add to the confusion, a distinction i s often drawn between fear and
fright. In contrast with fright, fear describes an instrumental
response which allows the threat to be perceived and problem-
solving behavior to be initiated. Fright describes a purely emotional
and noninstrumental response to an ambiguous situation, one which
thwarts rather than initiates problem-solving activity. Several recent
attempts to untangle the lexical confusion of this research area have
focused attention on the feeling state of the individual. Epstein
(1972) and Spielberger (1972) suggest that if the feeling state in fear
and anxiety is the same, no further distinction i s needed.
223
Mechanism of arousal- From the data on time of arousal, Fenz
and his collaborators conclude that fear is inhibited under certain
conditions, and that! a particular pattern of inhibition is related to
optimal performance. The optimal pattern (shown by experienced
jumpers) allows fear to occur, but at a time considerably in advance
of the fear event. Such a pattern calls attention to the danger, but
leaves the person emotionally capable of performing necessary acts.
Too much inhibition results in lack of attention to relevant details
and consequently in poor performance, whereas too little inhibition
leads to emotional chaos. These authors describe the pattern of
novice jumpers as frequently reflecting an "all or nothing" inhibition
process, with both extremes ill-suited to the task. Good performance
results, not from allowing anxiety to be shut off completely, but
rather from regulating the pace at which anxiety is experienced.
Group Processes
From this description one can see how panic, or panic flight, might
develop in, for instance, a crowded, burning building. However, to
the extent that panic does not contribute to an individual's chance
for survival, as it is unlikely to in space, the probability of its occur-
rence is low, Individuals exposed to an accident in space may experi-
ence intense fear, but the probability of panic on-board is remote.
232
In fact, our present generation of astronauts has incurred some dis-
pleasure by trying to conceal, rather than disseminate, information
concerning physicdl symptoms (Cooper, 1976). However, future
spacecrews are expected to be large and to include individuals with
backgrounds different from those of today's astronauts. Further, the
conditions of space would seem to support the development of this
phenomenon. These conditions include an elevated level of anxiety
associated with living in space, a highly directed work-oriented sub-
society, and a closed environment in which information would travel
rapidly and in which social pressure could encourage the spread of
symptoms. It seems that some cathartic measures will need to be
devised for diffusing anxiety in space, both for routine prevention
and to avoid the possibility o f post-crisis maladaptive responses.
233
INTERNALLY PREClPlTATED CRISES
Psychological Episodes
Nature and cause- It has been observed (S. Perry, 1976) that a
person experiencing a severe psychological disturbance will show
impairment in at least one of four functions: thinking (disordered, as
in schizophrenia); perception (distorted, as in paranoia); mood (ele-
vated, as in mania or despondent, as in depression); and impulse
(violent, as in hebephrenic excitement or frozen, as in catatonic
stupor).
Events- Since the early work on life change scaling at the Uni-
versity of Washington (see, e.g., Holmes and Rahe, 1967), a positive
correlation has been demonstrated between major l i f e events and
subsequent physical and psychiatric disturbance^.^ (For a review of
this work, see Rahe and Arthur, 1978.) These findings are in overall
agreement with descriptions of the generalized stress response as out-
lined by Selye (1976). Although both welcome and unwelcome
events can extract a toll, it i s the negative event, and usually the
"exit" event (e.g., the death of a loved one, marital separation, the
loss of a job, etc.) that gives rise to the greater problem and that has
a particular relationship to the occurrence of severe depression
(Paykel, 1974).
Based on the Andrews e t al. model, one would advise that any
attempt to analyze adjustment to space should include: the signifi-
cance of the event(s) to the individual, the possible multiplier effect
of the individual's personality, the effectiveness of the individual's
coping patterns, and the support system available.
'It should be noted that NASA selects only NASA astronauts. The
Department of Defense will select its own payload specialists for Shuttle flights.
European payload specialists who are part of the cooperative NASA-European
Spacelab Program are selected through the European Space Agency, which
employs its own selection procedures (Shapland, D. j., J.DeWaard, and G.
Nichols; Choosing ESA's First Astronaut. ESA Bulletin No. 13, 21-28,
May 1978).
239
spaceflight attempts to accommodate a wide variety of space trav-
elers, techniques may be needed to select out individuals whose psy-
chological makeup cbuld lead to problems in space. However, for the
foreseeable future, the need will remain that of identifying unusually
sound individuals.
Transcendant Experiences
243
sensations were unpleasant and fear-inducing. Clark and Graybiel call
this experience "breakoff," and conclude that the effect occurs most
frequently when a b i ~ o tis alone, is flying at high altitudes, and is
relatively uninvolved with the details of flight. A phenomenon which
can result in flight personnel feeling dissociated from Earth (not sub-
ject t o its laws) should be of concern to astronauts and mission
planners.
Substance Abuse
Grief
Behaviors associated with loss and the resultant grief are well
documented (Vachon, 1976). Although mania has been reported as
a response to bereavement (Rickarby, 1977)) depression is the more
common reaction. However, behavior during the initial stages of
bereavement may not mimic the inactivity usually associated with
depression. Lindemann (1979) reports that depression following a
crisis or loss is often accompanied by heightened (though non-
directed) activity, increased speech, or increased hostility. An epi-
sode involving SUCK hostility which occurred in an isolated group is
reported by Shurley (see San Francisco Chronicle, Sunday Punch,
Jan. 14, 1982, pp. 2 and 5 ) . A member of a South Pole expedition
who had recently received word of the death of his father got drunk
and went on a rampage, smashing dishes and attacking other mem-
bers of the expedition. Injuries were limited to gashes and bruises;
however, it was several hours before order was restored. If alcohol or
drugs were to be available in space, problems associated with grief
responses could be aggravated.
In some cases bereavement can threaten the l i f e of the grieving
individual. Durkheim (1951) has called attention to the incidence of
suicide among widows. However, the relationship between grieving
and mortality goes beyond the incidence of suicide. In a review of
the data on conjugal loss, Jacobs and Ostfeld (1977) found a signifi-
cantly elevated mortality rate among survivors due to a variety of
causes. This elevated rate was found to be more extreme for younger
than for older persons, and for men than for women.8
The activity involved in recovering from a significant loss has
been termed "grief work." Grief work is a staged process in which
the survivor accepts the painful emotions associated with the loss,
reviews the variety of experiences shared with the lost person, and
gradually rehearses and tests new patterns of interactions and roles
to replace those that are lost (Lindemann, 1979). Time for recovery
varies with the severity of the loss. Many therapists consider that
grief lasting a year or more is within normal limits.
Most students of bereavement agree that experiencing grief is
essential to recovery (see, e.g., Modge, 1972). Because of the extreme
pain of grief, many individuals employ any and all defenses to avoid
it, resulting in delayed or distorted reactions. A treatment that is
employed in therapy sessions with those experiencing pathological
grief reactions is to break down their defenses and to force them to
live through the pain of their loss. Such therapy is extremely dis-
tressing to patient and therapist alike.
250
shift their goals. Since they see society as incapable of supplying
needed regulation, they respond with excessive self-regulation. Breed
reports that many of the suicide cases he studied were described as
overly neat, meticulous perfectionists who gave scrupulous attention
to personal tradition. After Neuringer (1964), Breed uses the term
"brittlenessJ' to describe the affective and cognitive orientations of
these individuals. Failure is identified as a central factor in suicide,
with shame the perfectionist's response to failure. Failure-shame act
as the precipitating force which mobilizes the person toward the
suicide response.
Crisis Intervention
SUMMARY A N D CONCLUSIONS
Other events that could trigger a crisis within the crew are trans-
cendent experiences such as the breakoff phenomenon, or drug-
induced behavioral change. Significant questions include the special
role o f space physiology in perceptual and behavioral changes. The
death o f a family member or crewmember could precipitate a crisis.
I n the area of grief management, we need t o be sure that selection
procedures exclude potentially pathological grievers. A suggested
area o f research toward this end would include an investigation of
the relationship between phobic behavior and grief avoidance.
INTRODUCTION
260
relentless barrage of computerized instructions. (This incident will be
described fully later in this chapter.) The pace set by the computer
proved difficult or4 impossible for the crew to maintain, and dis-
tracted them from activities which did not appear on the computer's
list, but which should have been given high priority. Weick ventures
that general instructions coupled with a list of desirable projects
would have better accommodated the crew's personal requirements
and the efficiency with which they attained various mission goals.
Weick also notes that even if the crew had displayed enthusiasm for
carrying out computerized instructions, latitude for discretionary
action would have remained important. Otherwise, the crew's pro-
gress could have been halted by a computer malfunction.
SPACECREW STRUCTURE
Work Roles
2j2
be fully covered. Useful in this regard would be procedures for iden-
tifying those situ3tions for which predefined roles are necessary,
those situations for which predefined roles are desirable, and those
situations which need not be covered by predefined roles. Another
important research topic i s identifying the conditions under which
emergent roles are likely to complement and supplement (rather than
undermine) prescribed roles. We hypothesize that such incompatibili-
ties are likely to be minimized when (1) selection and training yield a
crew with a high degree of commitment to official structures, pre-
scribed roles, and overall organizational goals; (2) prescribed roles are
flexible in the sense that they can be adjusted in response to chang-
ing conditions; and (3) prescribed roles provide latitude for discre-
tionary activities and the development of voluntary socioemotional
relationships.
273
were then delivered t o Johnson Space Center, where they were
carried out i n the ,context o f a 7-day spaceflight simulation
(Helmreich et al., 1979a).
For many o f the people involved, the addition o f heavy SMD Ill
requirements t o normal responsibilities resulted in an onerous work-
load. First, commitment t o SMD Ill made it difficult t o fulfill admin-
istrative and other routine obligations at the two Centers. Second,
principal investigators often felt frustrated, for their commitment t o
SMD Ill made it difficult t o carry on with their usual activities.
Third, administrative duties made it particularly difficult t o complete
high-quality scientific research; that is, the combination o f mana-
gerial and scientific-investigative roles proved particularly burden-
some (Helmreich et al., 1979a).
The fact that some roles are more important than others also
has the potential for generating conflicts. For example, some of the
military test pilots who initiated the conquest of space have
expressed nonsupportive attitudes toward the "hyphenated astro-
nauts" who joined to play scientific and other nonpiloting roles
(Cunningham and Herskowitz, 1977; Wolfe, 1979). I n the future,
environmental support roles may be assigned low status by other
crewmembers, and line officers who are expected to risk their lives
in extravehicular activities might view staff officers as second-class
citizens. We might expect crewmembers to see colleagues who have
the less important jobs as not fully carrying their own weight, and,
over time, the colleagues may lose their self-esteem. Certainly, one
task is to identify and establish those conditions under which each
crewmember recognizes the other crewmembers' importance. Per-
haps the critical variable here is perceived fairness; that is, a convic-
tion that everyone is carrying his or her weight and receives rewards
that are appropriate, given the level of his or her contributions
(Adams, 1965; Walster, Berscheid, and Walster, 1973; Leventhal,
1976). Planners and managers need to know more about perceived
fairness and equity under conditions of isolation, confinement, and
risk.
Normative Structures
MOTIVATION
278
certain inducements which are not found i n most other locations.
Specifically, polar outposts, subaquatic dwellings, and space-capsule
societies may offer dn environment (1) that tolerates total immersion
in work, or "workaholism"; (2) in which people are likely to be
judged more on the basis o f their performance than on the basis o f
their appearance, age, race, and similar qualities; (3) that is socially
uncomplicated; (4) that is financially uncomplicated; and (5) that
offers adventure.
280
of isolation and confinement, relatively minor luxuries and
conveniences may assume high value, and a prolonged shower, the
use of a private room, or increased access to telecommunications or
recreation equipment may prove to be powerful incentives. One
possibility for consideration is the establishment of a token economy
within the space-capsule microsociety. Certain behaviors might be
rewarded with tokens which can later be traded for the few available
luxury goods or services. Thus, an immediate reward system would
supplement the long-term reward o f accumulated pay. We hypothe-
size that such a system would have to meet stringent requirements of
fairness in the crew's eyes; otherwise, it could undermine morale.
That is, the rewards gained by one crewmember must not be offset
by the frustration and embarrassment of other crewmembers. It is
possible that such an incentive system, even if scrupulously fair,
could prove disruptive i n a closed society.
282
One set of conditions under which intrinsic satisfactions are
likely to be high is when work assignments are congruent with per-
sonal interests. Underlying theories of vocational selection i s the
principle that people's interests (preferences for classes of activities)
will in part be served or frustrated by the person's work setting and
the nature of his or her job. When there is a good match between the
person's interests and the job requirements and rewards, that person
should find the job intrinsically satisfying. A good point of departure
for future research in this area is Holland's (1959, 1973, 1976)
theory o f vocational selection. According to Holland, people tend
toward one or more of six personality types: realistic, investigative,
artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. Different occupations,
suggest Holland, tend to cater to one of the six personality types.
Holland's basic argument is that attempts should be made to discour-
age square-peg people from ending up in round-hole jobs, but as
Campbell (1974) notes, Holland argues this in a very sophisticated
way. People may have mixed interests and occupational environ-
ments may have mixed characteristics. Thus, a person won't simply
succeed in one type of occupation and fail in all the rest; some occu-
pations should be satisfying, some dissatisfying, and some in
between. Similarly, a given occupation doesn't require a specific kind
o f person. Many people may be able to do a tolerable job, but some
people can be expected to do a better job than others.
Sanctions
284
heterogeneity will be accompanied by an increased likelihood of
deviant behavior (Shurley e t al., 1977). As noted in our earlier
discussion o f groupldynamics, peer-group pressures will help keep
individual crewmembers in line, as, under conditions o f isolation
and confinement, rejection and ostracism are severe penalties indeed.
However, it is likely that informal sanction systems will need to be
supplemented by formal sanction systems which include standards
or rules, policing mechanisms, sets of graduated punishments, and
procedures which govern the application of these punishments.
286
other economic systems which could prove effective. As missions
become routine, social recognition from society at large is likely to
decline; it is hypothesized that it may be possible to offset this
decline by increasing social recognition from other sources. A major
research problem is identifying suitable activities to maintain interest
on long and tedious missions; educational and industrial activities are
salient possibilities. Further research aimed at increasing intrinsic
satisfactions should include extending such techniques as the Strong
Campbell Interest Inventory into the realm of space jobs, seeking
improved job designs, and evaluating work-module forms of organiza-
tion. Another major task is establishing a legal system which i s
simple, gives rise to few jurisdictional disputes, and at once preserves
the interests of mission security, justice, and customary civil rights.
EXTERNAL RELATIONS
Boundary Roles
288
To a large extent, the quality of the relationship between a
spacecrew and mission control will depend on the behavior of the
people who occupy the interfacing boundary roles. It will be incum-
bent upon spacecraft and ground-control communicators to avoid
impasses resulting from conflicting norms, to arrange cooperative
ventures with equitable outcomes, and t o display appropriate
emotions.
Interorganizational Conflict
302
conceptualization, containment, and de-escalation strategies, and the
inculcation o f superordinate goals.
I
PURPOSE
Our overall goal has been to understand and plan for human
psychological and social adjustment to space. To do this, we have
attempted to assemble and integrate information that bears on
human performance capability, psychological health, and social and
organizational adaptation as they relate to space, and to indicate
those areas in which additional research could further ease the Earth/
space transition. Although there have been observations, analyses,
and experimental studies that bear upon the human aspects of
extended spaceflight, the connections and interrelationships among
these strands of evidence have not been satisfactorily explored. Our
purpose, then, was to seek these connections and, by imposing some
order on them, examine holistically the issues of humans in space.
CHAPTER SUMMARIES
306
vides an overview of the basic psychological and interpersonal
consequences of isolation and confinement. These conditions often
have been found to result in impaired intellectual functioning, moti-
vational decline, somatic disturbance, psychological changes, and
social tensions, the latter being reflected in a tendency to withdraw
from fellow confinees and to react in a hostile manner toward out-
siders. Withdrawal among isolated and confined individuals fre-
quently is accompanied by a pattern of depression which peaks
approximately two-thirds of the way through the confinement
experience.
Privacy, for the group as well as for the individual, has been
identified as a significant issue for extended spaceflight. Many of the
privacy mechanisms used on Earth are lacking in space. Of the pri-
vacy devices that remain to the space traveler, manipulation of the
interior space and decor and training in the regulation of the sharing
of information about oneself appear to offer the greatest hope for
privacy protection.
308
been found t o have lowered morale, increased stress, decreased
motivation, and, yhen the opportunity i s present, a high rate of
member loss. In assembling a crew, it is necessary to consider how
the qualities o f different people interplay. Complementary needs,
similar values and attitudes, and a strong but noncompetitive work
orientation are among the qualities that are thought to contribute to
social compatibility. Groups can be aided by the inclusion of individ-
uals who are personally attractive, competent, and who can respond
both to the demands of the task and to the needs of others. People
who are similar to each other appear to have a compatibility advan-
tage, at least in the short term, but bringing together individuals dif-
fering in age and social and cultural backgrounds, and of both sexes
i s likely to enrich the confinement experience over time.
309
In chapter VI, COMMUNICATION, we note some of the ways
that conditions of syaceflight influence the transmission of informa-
tion from person to person. Within the spacecraft, propulsion and
life-support equipment are noisy and could interfere with verbal
communication. Nonverbal communication may be hampered by
distortion of facial expressions and distancing cues associated with
weightlessness. Among the most significant communication issues
for space are those involving contact between people aboard the
spacecraft and people who are on the ground or aboard another
space vehicle. Mediated communication systems must be developed
to meet the needs of the crew throughout an extended mission.
Under Earth conditions, mediated systems are generally used to
handle formal, businesslike, and routine exchanges, tasks which they
do well. I n space, mediated systems will have to handle all communi-
cations needs - personal and subtle, as well as impersonal and
straightforward. Systems designs for space must take into consider-
ation people's emotional requirements as well as their requirements
for information exchange. To this end, the use of video is promising.
A major impetus for the present book has been to identify some
of the salient unanswered questions regarding psychological function-
ing and social dynamics during extended spaceflight. All of the
research questions identified are directed toward ensuring that crew-
members are able to maintain high levels of personal and social
adjustment while performing well under the unremittingly challeng-
ing circumstances of outer space. Stated in the most general terms,
the task for extended spaceflight planners and managers is to match
people, environments, and tasks; that is, to devise a system consisting
of compatible and mutually supportive environmental, technical, and
social subsystems.
There are three basic methods for aligning people, environ-
ments, and tasks. One method i s to select people who are presently
fit to meet the miSsionls requirements. The choice of short, light-
weight astronauts during the era when spacecraft size had to be kept
to an absolute minimum is an example of this personnel selection
approach. Of course, physical characteristics provide only one basis
for selection; technical skills and social compatibility are other bases.
I n the past it has been possible to devote a great deal of time to
selecting each individual. To process or at least screen large numbers
of applicants and to compose large crews, new testing techniques
need to be developed.
321
patterns will prevail when crews are composed o f both genders and
span a range o f ages and ethnic backgrounds? Cultural heterogeneity
raises many special questions about conflict, performance, and
morale. The possible effects o f cultural heterogeneity on communica-
tions are particularly deserving o f study. Since both direct and
indirect communications may be more difficult i n heterogeneous
crews, we need to learn more about what communications mecha-
nisms work reliably across cultural and language barriers, and what
level o f redundancy is needed t o ensure that communication does
not break down.
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Gurovskiy, N. 115 Helmreich, R. L., 5,7,10,13,15,
Gurski, Ya., 20 64,70,145,146,147,150,155,
Gustanski, J ., 69 156,157,158,165,170,173,
176,195,210,211,222,225,
270,271,274,281,289,301
Hackler, T., 32 Hemmer, B., 26
Hackman, J . R., 175,176,184, Heron, W., 9,129
277,283 Herrmann, R. S., 16
Kaplan, I. T., 128 Korchin, S. J .,223
Kaplan, R., 78 Kornilova, L. N., 35,41,48
Karlin, R. A., 87,89 Korol'kov, V. I.,34
Karnes, E. W., 77 Kosmalinskiy, F. P., 30,126
Kasian, I. I., 36 Kotovskaya, A. R., 34
Katlin, E. S., 225 Kottenhoff, H., 44
Katz, D. L., 4,165,166,187,206, Kozerenko, 0. P., 79,132,210,
207,264,266,270,271,272,278 21 1
Kearney, 0. F., 129 Krantz, D. S., 74,96
Keith, J. F., J r., 161,164 Krasnykh, I. G., 20
Kellogg, R. S., 42 Kristen, C., 202
Kelly, G. F., 107,116,137 Krylov, Yu. V., 73
Kelly, S., 74 Kryter, K. D., 72
Kelman, H. C., 91 Kubis, J. F., 2,5,12,13,118,119,
Kendall, D. A., 69 131,145,146,147,165,171,
Kennedy, R. S., 34,42,46 270,271,282,289
Kerckhoff, A. C., 232 Kuklinkski, P., 27
Kerwin, J. P., 36 Kurash, S., 20
Kidera, G. J ., 42 Kushner, E. N., 11
Kiesler, C. A., 92 Kuznetsov, V. S., 73
Kiesler, S., 92
Kikoshima, A., 23
Kimmel, D. C., 150 Lackner, J.R., 50
Kimzey, S. L., 20 Lamb, L. E., 20,21,26,107
Kincaid, D. L., 207 Lamberth, J.,158
Kinsey, J. L., 79 Landaw, S. A., 34
Kiritz, S., 87 Landsman, M., 92
Klapp, 0. E., 232 Lang, G., 88
Kleiber, D. A., 100 Langdon, D. E., 139
Klein, D. C., 236 Langdon, L. E., 73
Klein, K. E., 26,27,133,134 Lange, R. D., 20
Klein T. J ., 125 Langer, E. J., 78
Klein, W. J.,11,12,13,237 Lankford, H. G., 129
Kleinhans, B., 168 Laporte, A., 132
Kleitman, N., 136,139 LatanC, B., 5,10,13,145,146,147,
Kletti, R., 222,229,253 158,176
Kline, N. S., 90 Lathrop, R. G., 123
Knapik, J. J ., 134 Lauber, J. K., 230
Knapp, R. J .,223 Laufer. R. S.. 83
Knauth, P., 133 Law, K, 12,1'3,153,211,235,278,
Kobasa, S. C., 238 282
Kohl, R. L., 33 Lawler, E. E., Ill, 176,279,280
Kolosov, I.A., 36 Lawton, M., 69
Kopanev, V. I., 36 Lazarus, A. A., 236,237
Lazarus, R. S., 237 Loiko, M. A., 226
Leach, C. S., 47,80 Loo, C., 87
Leach, L. S,, 33 a LoScinto, L. A., 77
Lebedev, V. I., 2,36,40,74,76,78, Lott, A., 169,173
79,90,94,147,154,160,164, Lott, B., 169,173
165,168,230,243,264,271, Loudis, L. A., 77
282,289,293 Lovelace, W. R., II , 29,107
Lederer, L. G., 42 Lubin, A., 129
Lee, G. F., 231 Luft, U. C., 26,29,107
Lefcourt, H. M., 72 Lugg, D. J.,13,153
Lehr, D. J ., 129 Lyman, J ., 47
Lentz, J. M., 43,44,45 Lynch, K., 62
Leon, A. S., 81 Lynch, T. N., 21
Leon, H. A., 34
Leonard, j . I., 20 .
Leonov, A. A., 2,40,74,76,78,79, McBride, G. H., 118,119
90,147,154,160,164,165,168, McCally, M., 95
230,243,264,271,282,289,293 McCarthy, J. J ., 264
Leoppky, J. A., 26 McCauley, M., 66
Lessard, C. S., 22,23 McClintock, C. G., 155
Lester, D., 241 McCormack, P. D., 128
Lester, j . T., 225 McDonnell Douglas Aeronautics
Levanthal, G. S., 275 Company, 64
Levanthal, H., 224,225,254 McGaffey, C. N., 145
Levin, H. A,, 84 McGrath, j. E., 5,10,13,145,146,
Levine, R. B., 114 147,158,176
Levy, A. S., 89 McGregor, P., 123
Levy, E. E., 226,239 McGuire, F., 21 1
Levy, E. Z., 13 Machell, R. M., 116
Levy, R. A., 49,50,51 Machover, K., 46
Lewin, K., 168 Mack, P. B., 20,21
Lewinsohn, P. M., 236 McKenzie, R. E., 130
Lewis, H. B., 46 Mackie, R. R., 66
Lewis, 0. F., 21,22,23 McKinney, W. T., 236
Lidvall, H. F., 42 Mackworth, N. H., 110,128,129
Likert, R., 208 McLaughlin, E. J ., 12,118,119,
~indahl)L. E. H., 44 131,146
Linde~ann,E., 240,247,248,249 McLean, M. V., 76
Lindsley, D. B., 225,254 McMillan, D. E., 20
Lindvall, T., 69 McNaughton, 6. B., 19
Link, M. M., 115 McNee, R. C., 239
Lippitt, R., 168 Maddi, S. R., 238
Llano, G. A., 231 Mahan, J. L., 14,147
Lockhart, J . M., 66 Mahar, L., 167
Maki, J. E., 155 Misumi, J., 165
Maly, j ., 140 Mitchell, J. L., 222
Mandel, D. R., 89 Money, K. E., 42,50
Mandler, G., 45 Monk, T. H., 133
Mandler, j . M., 45 Monroe, J. T., 9,13,130
Mandour, J. A., 116 Montgomery, L., 28
Mann, L., 174,177 Moore, H. G., 117
Mann, R. D., 165,166 Moos, R. H., 87
Manno, B. R., 47 Morey, E. R., 20
Manno, J. E., 47 Morgan, B. B., Jr., 114,129,133,
Margolis, G. F., 31 134,136,139
Margulis, S., 83 Morgan, T. E., 130
Maris, R. W., 253 Morgan, W. P., 101
Marshall, E., 240 Morley, I. E., 201,202
Marshall, N., 85 Morley, W. E., 252
Mason, R. M., 63 Morris, C. G., 175,176,184
Mateev, A. D., 48 Morris, R. L., 132
Mathews, K. E., 71 Morse, M. L., 116
Mathewson, G. C., 169 Morway, D. A., 123
Matsnev, E. I.,48 Moss, M. S., 249
Meddis, R., 44 Moss, S. Z., 249
Medina, M. A., 31 Mostert, N., 9,152,243,246,250
Mehrabian, A., 192 Motley, E. P., 244
Meier, U., 26 Moylan, J . A., 140
Meissner, P., 46 Mueller, M., 21
Messick, j. M., 252 Mullin, C. J., 9,11,12,13,65,130
Metlay, W., 128 Munter, P. K., 298,299
Michel, E. L., 122 Murakawa, N., 158
Miles, S., 244 Murphy, M. R., 125,126,175
Miller, D. H., 250 Murray, R. H., 95
Miller, D. R., 10 Myasnikov, V. I., 30,79,132,189,
Miller, E. F., 11, 35,36,41,42,46, 192,210,211
47 Myers, T. U., 146,147,159
Miller, J. G , 4,196,273 Myhre, L. G., 26
Miller, L. M., 279,280
Miller, N., 226,230
Miller, P. B., 21,26
Miller, R. B., 109
Miller, R. H., 197 Nagatsuka, Y., 130
Miller, W. R., 236 Nandy, K., 22
Mills, J., 169 Nardini, J. E., 16
Mills, J. N., 132,134 NASA, 27
Mintz, A., 229 NASA, Office of Manned Space-
Mire, ) . L. C., 107 flight, 70
Natani, K., 11,12,13,16,136,146, Ostfeld, A., 248
147,153,170,171,245,271, Ostfeld, A. M., 88
275,276,278,280:282,285
National Academy o f Sciences,
71
Nedzel, A. J ., 31 Page, R. N., 70
Nelson, P. D., 12,13,14,16,130, Palamarek, D. L., 95
147,154 Pallak, M., 92
Neuringer, C., 251 Palmai, G., 13,15
Newman, P. P., 130 Panchenkova, E. F., 189,192
Newsom, B. D., 34 Panko, R. R., 197,202
New Yorker Magazine, 62 Papov, N . I . , 36
Nichols, G., 239 Parin, V. V., 30,126
Nicogossian, A. E., 19,27,31,52, Parker, D. M., 45
116,122 Parker, J. F., Jr., 19,31,52,75,
Nixon, C. W., 73 110,113,116
Nogeire, D., 123 Parkes, C. M., 248
Nordlie, P. G., 197 Parrish, R. N., 197
Novikov, V. E., 28 Parsi, R., 140
Noyes, R., 222,229,253 Patterson, C. H., 241
Nyberg, J . W., 34 Patterson, P. H., 227
Patton, J. F., 134
Paykel, E. S., 237
Pearlman, C. A., 298
Oberg, J. E., 64,67,78,81,137, Pearson, D. W., 221
148,152,243,257 Pearson, R. G., 71,72
O'Brien, J. F., 71,72 Pearsons, K. S., 72
Ochsman, R. B., 197 Pepler, R. D., 66
O'Donnel, R. D., 42 Peraky, H., 223
O'Hanlon, J. F., 66 Perea, A., 140
Olasky, C. C., 107 Perlow, M., 123
Older, H. J.,125 Perrow, C., 259,260,261,266,
Oldham, G. R., 176,283 268,272
O'Leary, B., 228 Perry, C. j. C., 153,178,239,266,
O'Lone, R. G., 51 26 8
Olree, H. D., 80 Perry, S., 235
Olsen, L., 27 Peters, R. J ., 23
Olson, R. M., 140 Petrov, Y. A., 68
O'Neal, E. C., 71 Phillips, S., 59,72
Ordiway, V., 235 Pierce, B. F., 61
Orne, M. T., 242 Pierce, C. M., 136
Osborne, R. T., 20,161,164 Pinner, B., 89
Osborne, W. Z., 53 Pinsky, L. S., 53
Osgood, C. E., 297 Pishchik, V., 52
Pond, J . I.,65,163-1 64 Rehme, H., 133
Pope, F. E., 12,13,211,240 Reilly, R., 71
Popov, V. A., 52 Reilly, R. E., 110
Popp, R., 28 Reinberg, A., 133
Portugalov, V. V., 34 Reitman, E. E., 12,13
Poulton, E. C., 66 Remek, V., 191
Poza, F., 72 Reschke, M. F., 33,41
Prasad, A,, 158 Ricciuti, E. A., 36
Prasad, M., 158 Richman, J ., 253
Preber, L., 42 Rickarby, G. A., 247
Price, J ., 89 Rimpler, A., 26
Prim, J . W., 116 Rippere, V., 243
Proshansky, H. M., 83 Rivolier, J ., 95
Proulx, P., 191 Robbins, E., 251
Pushkar, D., 130 Robbins, K., 285
Robinson, S. M., 31
Rodahl, K., 21
Rodgers, W., 60
Quarantelli, E. L., 231 Rodin, J ., 78
Quilter, R. W., 128 Rogers, E. M., 192,205,207,208
Rogers, J. G., 14,65,67,90,246
Rogers, T. A., 12,13,211,240
Rabbie, J . M., 226,230 Rohrer, J. H., 13,14,79,130,174,
Radloff, R., 5,7,10,13,64,145, 237,282
146,147,150,158,165,170, Rose, C. L., 81
176,211,222,225,281,301 Rosenbaum, M. A., 253
Rahe, R. H., 227,237 Rosenblatt, L. S., 47
Rall, M., 89 Rosengren, K. E., 229
Rambaut, P. C., 80 Rosenkrantz, P. S., 156
Ramirez, M., 158 Rositano, S. A., 27
Ramsey, R. W., 247,249 Ross, S., 128
Randall, L. S., 200 Roth, E. M., 66
Rasmussen, E., 49,50 Rothstein, L. 23
Rasmussen, J . E., 16,65,67 Rowell, L. B., 21
Raven, B. H., 262,300 Rowes, B., 29,30
Rawls, D. J., 152 Rubin, R. T., 227
Rawls, J. R., 145,152 Ruff, G. E., 13,112,226,239
Rayman, R. B., 19 Ruffell Smith, H. P., 230
Raymon, R. S., 235 Rule, B. G., 95
Razumeev, A. N., 30 Rummel, J . A., 25,120,122
Reason, J. T., 35,38,40,42,43, Rumyantseva, M. P., 30
44,48,50 Runge,T. E., 145,155,156,157,
Redetzki, H. M., 47 270,271,281,301
Redgrove, 1. A., 30 Rushing, W. A., 253
Rusnak, R., 118,119 Serova, L. V., 34
Rutenfranz, J ., 133 Serxner, J. L., 9,13,235,242
Ryan, M. G., 202 Shackel, B., 107
Ryback, R. S., 21,22,23 Shafer, W. A., 34
Shannon, C. E., 195
Shapland, D. J ., 239
Sharpe, M. R., 242
Salamy, J . G., 137 Shashkov, V. S., 30
Sampson, J. B., 134 Shaw, M. E., 173,208
Samuel, ) . A., 128 Sheard, J . H., 65,163-1 64
Sanders, M., 69 Shearer, J. W., 110
Sandler, H., 20,22,27,28,29,30, Shears, L. M., 154
133,213 Sheer, D., 11,12,13
Sansom, W., 130 Shepard, H. A., 177
Sarnoff, I., 221,230 ~ Sherif, C. W., 139,170,295
Sassin, J ., 123 Sherif, M., 139,170,295
Sawin, C. F., 27,122 Sherrod, D. R., 88
Saxon, S. C., 118,119 Shestkov, B. P., 30
Scales, J.T., 140 Shipka, W., 26
Scarr, S., 85 Shirakashi, S., 165
Schachter, S., 158,173,225,230, Shorr, E., 20
23 7 Short, J ., 197,198,201,202
Schalling, D., 256 Shul'Zhenko, Ye. B., 20
Schatte, C. L., 20 Shumate, W. H., 137
Schludermann, E., 130 Shurley, J.T., 9,11,12,13,136,
Schopler, J ., 88,89 147,170,171,245,248,271,
Schork, M., 88 275,276,278,280,282,285
Schotte, J ., 26 Shyken, N. P., 116
Schreuder, 0.B., 126 Sieber, J. E., 70,195,210,271,
Schroder, H. M., 191 274.289
Schull, W., 88 simmdns, J. B., 11,20
Schultze, D. P., 65,163-1 64 Simons, J.C., 110,121,122,123
Schwartz, G. E., 242,256 Sinaiko, H. W., 202
Schwartz, S., 231 Singer, J. E., 72,88,96
Schweickart, R., 65 Singer, R. V., 76
Schwichtenberg, A. H., 29,107 Singer, S. F., 34
Scott, T. H., 129 Sistrunk, F., 197
Secrest, R. R., 29,107 Smelser, N. J ., 232
Seeman, J . S., 62,76 Smith, C. W., 80
Seibold, D. R., 92 Smith, D.,202
Seligman, M. E. P., 236 Smith, M. B., 151
Sells, S. B., 2,4,5,145,146,170 Smith, P. K., 42
Selye, H. 96,237,238 Smith, S., 8,9,11,15,61,67,70,
Sengel, R., 147,171,245,276,285 95,160,161,236
Smith, W. M., 13,229,253,271, Sundstrom, E., 84,87,89
272 Surgeon General's Scientific
Solodovnik, F. A., 3,6 Advisory Committee on Tele-
Solomon, R. L., 226 vision and Social Behavior,
Sours, J .A., 244 77
Space Sciences Board, 2,4 Surwillo, W. W., 128
Spangler, K., 197 Suvorov, G. A., 71
Sparvieri, F., 31 Suzuki, Y., 130
Spence, J. T., 156 Swenson, L. S., 116
Spielberger, C. D., 220,221 Sykes, H. A., 20
Stager, P., 191 Syrykh, G. D., 41
Stapantsev, V., 80
Stapley, B., 199
Stapp, J. P., 34
Steadman, ) ., 132 Talmon, Y., 149
Stegemann, J ., 26 Tanner, T. A., 70,195,210,271,
Stein, D. D., 151 274,289
Steiner, I . D., 168 Tarasov, I. K., 35,41,48
Steinhoff, W. D., 133 Taylor, D.A., 10,11,147,159,
Steinmann, D. 0.)291 168,178,193
Stephenson, G. M., 201,202 Taylor, J . H., 52
Stern, M., 251 Teichner, W. H., 66,71
Stevens, P. M., 20,21 Tennent, C., 238,255
Stewart, G. T., 223 Teoh, K., 20
Stewart, J . D., 44 Thackray, R. I., 221
Stewart, T. R., 291 Thaler, E. H., 13
Sticha, P. J .,200 Thomas, j. K., 77
Stockton, W. S., 8,145 Thomas, K., 293,294,295,296,
Stokols, D., 74,87,88,89,96,104 297,302
Stolze, H., 133 Thompson, L. F., 53
Stone, H. L., 20 Thompson, T. L., 92
Storm, W. F., 23 Thomson, R. M., 244
Strange, R. E., 11,I 2,13,237 Thorngate, W. B., 155
Straumfjord, A., 92 Thornton, C. L., 40,45
Streimer, I., 123 Thornton, W. E., 25,121
Stretton, M., 139 Thurmond, J . B., 109
Streufert, S., 191 Tickner, A. H., 223,226
Strickland, D. A., 90 Tiebes, U., 26
Strope, W. E., 65,163-164 Tigranyan, R. A., 34
Strughold, H., 134,137 Tobias, C. A., 19
Stupakov, G. P., 34 Tolchin, S., 21 1
Sturesson, D., 229 Toscano, B. W., 44,49,50
Suedfeld, P., 70 Toufexis, A., 20,25,36
Sullins, W. R., 65 Trego, R. E., 145
Trembly, G., 225 Wagner, C. M., 65,67
.
Triebwasser, j H., 27 Waligora, j. M., 19
Trimble, R. W., 21,23 Wallis, D., 128
Truchaud, M., 31 Walsh, B., 191
Tuckman, B., 177 Walster, E., 149,275
Turner, D. P. W., 123 Walster, G. 275
Turner, R. T., 34 Walton, M., 88
Tyler, D. B., 42 Wamsley, j . R., 62
Warfield, j . T., 116
Watson, J. A., 161,164
Watters, H., 132
Ulvedal, F., 130
Weaver, W., 195
Ushakov, A. S., 30
We%, W. B., 123,133,139
Uskov, F. N., 79,132,189,192,
Weber, M., 261
21 0,211
Weeks, G. D., 197
Uviller, E. T., 45
Wegmann, H. M., 26,27,133,134
Weick, K. E., 260,279,290
Weigel, R. G., 92
Vachon, M. L. S., 247 Weinstein, N. D., 72
Vaillant, G. E., 238,240,255 Weitzman, E. D., 123
Vallee, j ., 197,202 Welch, B. E., 20,130
Vallucki-Morf, M., 21 Welford, A. T., 125,126,127
Van Bockel, J.j ., 107 Wendt, G. R., 36
Van Huss, W. D., 65,80 Wenger, D. E., 231
Vasil'yev, P. V., 36 Wenger, M. A., 45
Veitch, R., 66 Westin, A., 85
Vekovius, W. A., 47 Weston, j . R., 202
Veltfore, H. R., 231 Westrum, R., 197
Venters, M. D., 26 Wexley, K. N., 265,274
Vernikos-Danellis, J ., 22,47,80, Weybrew, B. B., 12,257
132,213 Whedon, G. D., 20
Vieux, N., 133 Wheeler, L., 11
Vinogradov, V. M., 30 Wheeless, L. R., 92
Vinsel, A., 92 Whitaker, L. A., 140
Voas, R. B., 107 White, B., 170,295
Vogel, S. R., 156 White, P. D., 34
Voget, J . A., 134 White, R. K., 168
Vogt, F. B., 21 White, W. J ., 34,52
Vogt, L., 26 Whittenburg, j. A., 128
Volkmer, K., 123 Whyte, W. F., 262,268,269
Volynkin, U. M., 36 Wicker, A. W., 171,172
Von Gierke, H. E., 73 Wilding, j . M., 44
von Restorff, W., 33 Wilford, j. N., 8,145
Vroom, V. H., 168 Wilgosh, L., 130
Wilhelm, j ., 70,145,155,156, Worthy, M., 91
157,195,210,270,271,274, Woskow, M. H., 69
281,289,301 a Wright, J . E., 134
Wilkinson, R. T., 128,138,139 Wrightsman, L. S., j r., 230
Williams, E., 197,198,201 Wurster, W. H., 33
Williams, H. L., 129
Williams, W. K., 107
Wilson, C. L., 107
Wilson, D. W., 71 Yakovleva, I. Ya., 35,41
Wilson, M., 84,93 Yanowitch, R. E., 175
Wilsoncroft, W. E., 45 Yegorov, A. D., 25
Winget, C. M., 22,24,47,80,133, Yegorov, B. B., 30
213 Yeremin, A. V., 108
Winocur, G., 130 Yetton, P., 168
Winter, D. L., 29,30 . Yingling, R. W., 74
Winter, G. D., 140 Yoesting, D. R., 77
Witkin, H. A., 46 Youngblood, D., 223
Wolfe, M., 83,92 Yuganov, E. M., 36
Wolfe, T., 8,131,152,156,275 Yuganov, Ye. M., 73
Wolthuis, R. A., 27 Yuki, G. A., 265,274
Wood, C. D., 46,47
Wood, D. T., 80
Wood, M., 47
Woodhead, M. M., 71 Ziller, R. C., 178
Woodling, C. H., 107 Zimbardo, P. G., 221,226,230
Woodson, W. E., 107 Zimberg, S., 251
Wopner, S., 46 Zubek, J . P., 9,129,130
SUBJECT INDEX
Acceleration - see Bathing - see "Hygiene"
"Centrifugation" Bedrest, 21-25,213-21 4,329
Accidents, 175 Bedrest, individual differences,
Acting out, 92 24
Acuity - see "Visual changes" Bereavement - see "Grief"
Affiliation, need for, 1.58-1 59 Biofeedback, 49-51,314
Aftereffects of stress, 96 Biological rhythms - see
Age range, space travelers, "Circadian rhythm1' and
150-151 "Desynchronosis"
Alcohol, 9,126,245-247,248 Blaming, 117,231 -232,316
Ambiversion, 157,317 Boredom, 323
Ames Research Center, 21,22, (See also "Monotony")
24,30,44,273 Boundary role, 208,288-289,
Androgeny, 156-1 57,317 294
Annoying characteristics, 153 Breakoff, 243-245,330
Anxiety, 12-1 4,23,80,220-221, Bridging - see "Boundary role"
232,233,235 Broadband communication,
Artificial gravity, 33-35 198,202,205
Athletes - see "Exercise"
Atmospheric pressure, 73,189
Attitudes, 148-1 49,151 -1 52,
157-1 58 Canal-Otholith Conflict - see
Audio systems - see "Mediated "Sensory Conflict Theory"
communication" CAPCOM, 210
Authoritylcontrol, 21 0 Centralization of authority,
Autonomic dominance, 45-46 265-266
Autonomic response control - Centrifugation, 26,27,29,37,
see "Biofeedback" 49-50, 51,115
Autonomy, 83 Effects of, 33-35
Awareness training, 241 Channel hypothesis, 198,199
Chronobiology - see
"Biological rhythms"
Bad news, 212 Chronopharmacology - see
Barriers to communication, "Drugs, time of
206-207 administration"
Circadian rhythm, 32,135-1 36, Effects on cardiovascular
139 system, 20,21
(See also "Desynclgronosis") Effects on musculoskeletal
Cliques, 149,152,164,208,275 system, 20,21,25-26
Clothing,86,92,193 Gender effects, 28-30
Cocooning, 13 Decor, 67-68,92
Cognitive conflict, 291-292 Defense Advanced Research
Cohesiveness, 169-1 73 Projects Agency, 200
Compatibility, 146-1 62 Density - see "Crowding"
Compatibility, size effects, Depersonalization, 222
160-1 61 Depression, 13,23,79,137,
Competence, 154 235-237,247,249,251,253,
Social, 154,164-1 65 293,298
Task, 154,164-1 65 Desynchronosis, 114,118,
Competition, 78,81,155-156 132-1 36,308,322
Compliance - see Diet - see "Food "
"Conformity" Digestive problems, 12
Computer games, 78 Direct communication, 188-1 94
Computers, 194-1 95 (See also "Face-to-face
Conflict, 188,209-21 0 communication")
(See also "Hostility") Direction of gaze, 200
Conflict management, 293-297 Discrete task assessment,
Process, 296-297 110-113,120
Structural, 293-296 Distance, interpersonal, 193
Conformity, 173-1 75 Diving bells, 329
Contingency theory, 166-1 67 Drugs, 30-33,46-47,126,
Convents and seminaries, 330 245-247, 248,251,286
Cooperation, 155-1 56 In weightlessness, 31-32
Crew rotation, 132 Time of administration, 32
Crisis intervention, 252-253 Duration, research issues,
Crowding, 87-89 322-323
Crowding, gender differences, Dyads, 145,159,161
89
Cuban boots, 49
Idiosyncrasies, 93
Gatekeeping, 197,206,288,302, Illusions - see "Vestibular
310 changes"
Gender effects, 147-1 49, Incentives, 264,279
156-1 57 (See also "Rewards" and
Goals, 169-1 71 "Sanctions")
lndependence - see Light Flashes - see "Visual
"Conformity" changes1'
In-flight performancd assess- Lighting, 67,68-69,87
ment, 118-1 20 Linking pin, 208
Information, 195-1 96 Living space, 60-63
lnsomnia - see "Sleep, Living space, personal, 86
disturbances" Locus of control, 88-89
Intellectual functioning, 11-1 2 "Long Eye", 174,237
lntergroup relationships,
287-299
International crews, 152,
190-1 92,194 Manning Theory, 171-1 72
Interpersonal friction, 10,13 Meals - see "Food "
(See also "Conflict") Mediated communication,
lntroversion - see 194-205, 328
l l E x t r ~ ~ e r ~ i o n - i n t r ~ ~ e r s i o n " Audio systems, 200-201
Isolation and confinement, 5-15 Computer/telegraphic sys-
Application to space, 5-1 1 tems, 201-202,205
Research results, 11-1 5 Versus face-to-face, 197-1 98
Temporal effects, 14-1 5 Video systems, 199-200,201,
202.21 0
~ediated'counselin~, 241
Meditation, 242
Johnson Space Center, 116,273
Metabolic costs, 122
Military bases, 329
Mixed crews - see "Gender
Kinesic cues - see "Non-verbal effects"
communication" Monotony, 112,128,131-1 32,
134
Morale, 12,14-15,79,130,147,
164,173,279,281,282,299
Laboratory in space, 141 Motion sickness - see "Space
Laws - see "Rules and laws" sickness"
Leadership, 162-1 69 Motivation - see "Morale"
Autocratic-democratic, Mourning - see "Grief"
167-1 69 Multiple stressors, 95-96
Levels of, 266-268 Multiple task batteries, 114-1 15
Personality characteristics, Musgrave, Story, 62,135
165-1 67 Music, 74,246
Socioemotional, 164-1 65,
166-1 67
Task, 164-1 65,166-1 67
Leisure, 75-82 Narrowband communication,
Liaison, 208 199,202,205
416
Networks, 205-21 2 Performance adaptation,
Centralized, 208-209 118-1 20,121
Decentralized, 208-209 Performance assessment - see
Formal, 206-207 "I n-flight performance
Informal, 207-208 assessment"
Newcomers, 178-1 79 Person-environment fit, 59-60,
Nitrogen narcosis, 244-245 103-1 04
Noise, 70-75,113,189 Polaris, 257
Effect on performance, 71 Possessions, 86
Levels, 71-73 Power - see "Social power"
Non-verbal communication, Prejudice - see "Attitudes"
192-1 94 Primary/secondary tasks, 113
Norms, social, 277-278,288, Prisons, 330
294 Privacy, 82-94,209-210
Norms, social, recipr~cityof, Privacy, regulation, 86-87
297 Professionalism, 259-260
Proxemics - see "Non-verbal
communication"
Psychiatric disturbances, 13
Odor, 69-70 (See also "Anxiety,"
Off-board communication, "Depression,"
family and friends, 21 1-21 2 "Psychological episodes")
Off-board communication, Psychological episodes,
ground control, 209-21 1 234-243,244
Oil rigs, tankers, 329 Punishment - see "Sanctions"
On-board training, 131,179,
264,328
Opinion leader, 208
Opponents' processes, 226-227 Readaptation/reassimilation,
Ostracism, 173,237,278,318 138,298-299
Othostatic tolerance - see Recreation, 76-79
"Exercise" Recreation, passive, 76-78
Out-of-body experiences, 222 Redundancy, 190
Overloading - see "Fatigue" Rejection - see "Ostracism "
and "Work roles" Rewards, 280-284,294,295
Overmanning - see "Manning Extrinsic, 280-282
theory" Intrinsic, 280,282-284
Rules and laws, 285-286,295
"Ruston", 190
Panic, 228-229
Parachuting, 223
Paralinguistics - see "Non- Sanctions, 284-286
verbal communication" Scapegoating - see "Blaming"
Scheduling, 118 Sound, 74-75
Sealab, 222 (See also "Noise")
Selecting in, 153,327 Space adaptation syndrome -
Selecting out, 284 see "Space sickness"
Selection, 146-1 47,161 -162, Space environment, 7-1 5
238-240 Space Shuttle, 330
Self-designing systems, 260-261 Space sickness, 36-41,
Self-disclosure, 91-93 41-51 (passim),l20,307,
Sensory conflict theory, 37-41 314
Sensory deprivation, 70,129 Countermeasures, 46-51
(See also "Uniform Personality correlates, 44-46
Environments") Space Station, 330
Simulation, 20-25,25-30(pas- Stress, performance under,
sim) ,49-5 1(passim),329 124-1 25
Simulation assessment; Strong-Campbell Interest
115-118 Inventory, 283,287
Size, research issues, 320-321 Suicide - see "Homicide/
Sleep, 25,107,114,118,123-1 25, suicide"
132, 136-1 40,247,308 Synthetic work methodologies -
Disturbances, 12 see "Multiple task batteries"
Sudden awakening, 139-140, System acceptance, 203-204
308 Systems approach, 312,313
Social comparison, 188 Systems approach, Open
Social organization, 261-278 Systems Theory, 4
Bureaucratic/hierarchical
model, 262,266-268
Community democracy
model, 268-269 Task function, 188,209
Labor relations model, 268, Task requirements, 272
269 Task/socioemotional hypothe-
Social power, 262-269 sis, 198,199
Bases of, 262-265 Tektite, 173
Coercive, 264 Temperature, 66-67
Expert, 264-265 Tereshekova, Valentina, 148
Legitimate, 262-264,265 Territoriality, 89-90
Referrent, 265 Three-dimensional space, 62
Reward, 264,265 Time effects - see "Duration,
Structure, 262-269 research issues"
Social presence hypothesis, Training, 171
198,199 For danger, 226-228
Socioemotional function, Interpersonal relations, 210
188,209
i
- On-board - see "On-board
Socioemotional requirements, training"
272 Survival, 227-228
Transderm-V system, 32-33 Vocational interests, 283
Transmeridian flights, 133-1 35
Triads, 145,161
Waste management - see
"Hygiene"
Water immersion, 26-27,40,
Underloading - see "Fatigue" 116,122-1 23
and "Uniform environments" Weightlessness, 19-56(passim),
Undermanning - see "Manning 145,192-1 93,279
theory" (See also "In-flight perfor-
Uniform environments, mance assessment" and
129-1 31 "Work capacity")
"Up" and "down" - see Withdrawal, 9-1 0,13-14,15,76,
"Vertical, true" 84,92,137,307
Women in space - see "Gender
effects"
Work capacity, 121-1 23
Work categories in space,
Validity, 120
Verbal communication, 108-1 09
Work emphasis, 75-76
188-1 92
Work modules, 284
Vertical communication,
Work roles, 269-277
206-207
Vertical, true, 38-40 Conflicts, 274-276
Vertigo - see "Vestibular Emergent, 271-273
changes, vertigo" Overload, 260-261,273-274,
Vestibular changes, 35-51 292
Age effects, 42-43 Prescribed, 271-273
Gender effects, 43-44 Rotation, 276
Resistance to, 41 -46 Work schedules, 123-1 25,127
Spatial disorientation, 35-36 Work/Efficiency ratio, 119-1 20
Vertigo, 35-36,41 Workload, 117,125-1 32
(See also "Space sickness") Work-rest cycles, 118
Vibration, 53 Written communication - see
Visual changes, 51-53 "Mediated communication"
Visual-vestibular conflict
theory -see "Sensory Zeitgebers, 135,3 14
conflict theory" Zero-g - see "Weightlessness"