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Briefing Paper No 5 1978

December
BASIC NEEDS
The expression 'basic needs' and 'a basic needs approach In addition to these public statements the apparently
to development' are being used increasingly in discus- successful experience of China in meeting some basic
sions about development. The first part of this briefing needs of its people has also had great influence.
paper will consider the background to the basic needs
What are Basic Needs?
debate and the second part will focus on some of the
There is no single universally accepted definition of
implications and issues. 'basic needs', or of what a development effort aimed at
meeting basic needs would comprise. Nor is there a
Part 1: Concepts and their Sponsors uniform vocabulary to describe the various elements.
Concern with the condition of the poor, and expressions There is, instead, a wide spectrum of meanings ranging
such as 'basic needs', have existed for thousands of from, at one extreme, a minimal list of those things
years. The current re-emphasis of them in development which are required by human beings for bare survival,
circles mainly arose in the 1970s, to some extent as eg food, shelter, and clothing to, at the other extreme,
a reaction to the emphasis on economic growth an emphasis that human needs are not only physical
and other macro-economic development policies which but also psychological, not absolute but relative to what
have predominated since the end of the Second World is enjoyed by other people in society, not finite but
War and which paid little direct attention to the expanding as the satisfaction of one need gives rise to
problems of the poor. While it is impossible to be precise another. At this inclusive extreme basic needs include
about which people, events, or statements have had not only commodities but also public services such as
most effect in arousing the present concern with basic clean water and transportation, employment, education,
needs the following statements are commonly believed participation in decision-making, leisure, human rights,
to have been very influential. democracy, an egalitarian society, self-reliance, and
more besides. There is also considerable diversity of
(a) The Cocoyoc Declaration (1974). This was a opinion as to what constitute the 'ends' which are
statement issued by a group of natural and social desired as valuable in themselves and what are the
scientists at the end of a United Nations seminar on 'means' which are inescapable if those ends are to be
patterns of resource use, environment, and develop- achieved. The vocabulary also is diverse, but 'basic
ment strategy. It was concerned to reorient needs', 'material needs', 'core needs', 'minimum needs'
development towards people. are expressions that tend to be used for needs at the
(b) What Now - Another Development? (1975). more minimal end of the range; while 'non-material'
This was a report by a group of individuals, on the needs, basic 'human' needs, 'fundamental' needs tend
initiative of the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation, to be used for the more inclusive end. A similar pro-
prepared on the occasion of the Seventh Special gression from more minimal to more inclusive is given
Session of the United Nations. It argued, inter alia, by the series life-sustaining, life-supporting, life-
that political and psychological as well as physical enhancing, and life-enriching needs.
needs are important in development.
What is a Basic Needs Approach?
(c) Catastrophe or New Society? A Latin American The basic needs approach is a concern to provide people
World Model (1976). This was prepared by a group with their basic needs. It is not a new economic or
of scholars under the auspices of the Bariloche social theory akin to Keynesian or Marxist methods of
Foundation in Argentina which was concerned to analysis. Indeed it may equally well be adopted by
criticise the Club of Rome's Limits to Growth. proponents of either of these schools or by those of
It argued that the obstacles to development are even more divergent political persuasion. The basic needs
primarily socio-political. approach has little to do with methods of analysis. It is,
(d) Reshaping the International Order (1976). This rather, a bandwaggon directed at a series of priorities
was a report commissioned by the Club of Rome, for action. Its momentum springs from dissatisfaction
written by experts under Jan Tinbergen, which with the achievements of development efforts so far;
supported the theme of basic needs. but it has no single coherent set of theory behind it. In
(e) Employment, Growth and Basic Needs (1976). contrast to other approaches those who advocate a
This was the International Labour Office (ILO) basic needs approach are likely to give more emphasis
report written for the World Employment Conference to the poor and destitute than to other economic groups,
of June 1976; and it partially drew on previous to requirements determined by society as a whole than
work by the ILO in country reports on Kenya,
Columbia, and Sri Lanka.
:
The Institute is limited by guarantee.
to the preferences of the individual consumer, to It is important to recognise that the concept of
immediate consumption than to investment for the basic needs is a country-specific and dynamic
distant future, to the detailed composition of consump- concept. The concept of basic needs should be
tion, in terms of specific quantities and specific goods placed within a context of a nation's over-all
and services, than to overall income. However, except in economic and social development. In no circum-
respect of the last of these items, these are tendencies stances should it be taken to mean merely the
in behaviour rather than components of an overarching minimum necessary for subsistence; it should be
and distinct ideology. The main points of distinction placed within a context of national independence,
between a basic needs and previous growth-oriented the dignity of individual and peoples and their
approaches lie in its concern with the more immediate freedom to chart their destiny without hindrance.'
rather than the more distant future and with the
distribution of the benefits of growth among the The conclusion to the World Employment Conference
poorest. Nevertheless it is not against growth. Indeed does not, of course, mean that every country has now
rapid and substantial growth will be required if basic embarked on implementing or assisting a Basic Needs
needs are to be met within the target period, commonly approach. The attitude of the governments of developing
set at twenty years. The approach's main distinction countries to Basic Needs, especially as an issue for inter-
national discussion, has been circumspect. They have
from the 'redistribution with growth' school of thought
seen in it an attempt by developed countries to interfere
lies in its greater concern with the details of supply
in domestic politics in developing countries, to shackle
and demand and with restructuring the production
developing countries' economies with outmoded tech-
processes in favour of the poorest, a restructuring aimed nology, and to divert attention away from other issues,
both at providing them with income-earning oppor- such as reform of commodity markets, international
tunities and with the goods and services they need. Some debt, and volumes and conditions of aid, which may
advocates of a basic needs approach stress self-reliance have unfavourable implications for developed countries.
and participation by target groups in making the Among the developed countries and donor agencies
decisions which affect them. (apart from the ILO), the World Bank, UNEP, UNICEF,
The Adoption of a Basic Needs Approach and USAID have shown the most enthusiasm for a
In 1976 a World Employment Conference was held Basic Needs approach although each has its own parti-
under the auspices of the ILO. It was attended by dele- cular interpretation of what it should mean. The British
gations from 121 member states, and each delegation government has been among those showing the least
included representatives of government, employers, and enthusiasm, and, in company with some other developed
workers. The basic working paper for the conference countries, has expressed a fear that emphasis on basic
was Employment, Growth and Basic Needs [already needs may lead to too little priority being given to self-
cited]. While there was some disagreement during dis- sustaining growth. Inevitably, also, governments of
cussions, the Conference adopted by acclamation developed countries have tended to approach the Basic
(albeit with reservations) a Declaration of Principles Needs issue with an eye to what it may mean for their
and a Programme of Action. Its provenance has given own interests.
this Declaration some authority and publicity, and for
this reason, rather than because of any intrinsic superi- It can be argued that a number of developing countries
ority, the remainder of this briefing paper will adopt as have already started to implement a Basic Needs
its standard definition of the Basic Needs approach the approach. China, Taiwan, Mexico, Cuba, Tanzania, and
following extract from the declaration. Sri Lanka are among those countries most frequently
mentioned in this respect. The argument may be based
'Strategies and national development plans and either on policies undertaken to achieve a more equitable
policies should include explicitly as a priority distribution of productive assets, eg land-reform pro-
objective the promotion of employment and the grammes, or on welfare programmes for the provision
satisfaction of the basic needs of each country's of particular cheap, free, or plentiful commodities and
population. services. Such policies and programmes are, of course,
normally undertaken for domestic reasons and not in
Basic needs, as understood in this Programme of compliance with the resolution of the World Employ-
Action, include two elements. First, they include ment Conference which, in most cases, they long pre-
certain minimum requirements of a family for date. However, the language and concepts of the Basic
private consumption: adequate food, shelter and Needs approach are beginning to appear in the develop-
clothing, as well as certain household equipment ment plans of some developing countries.
and furniture. Second, they include essential
services provided by and for the community at Part 2: Implications and Issues
large, such as safe drinking water, sanitation,
The adoption of a Basic Needs approach, and, with it,
public transport, and health, education, and
the definition of a specific set of basic needs for a
cultural facilities.
country or region constituting a minimum acceptable
A basic-needs-oriented policy implies the partici- standard of living, will identify a group or groups of
pation of the people in making the decisions people falling below the minimum whose position must
which affect them through organisations of their be improved, and will provide a concrete set of targets
own choice. against which to measure progress. It will not, of itself,
provide instruments by the use of which progress will be
In all countries freely chosen employment enters made. How is the progress to be achieved; and what
into a basic-needs policy both as a means and as
issues will be raised in its achievement? The rest of this
an end. Employment yields an output. It provides
paper attempts to identify some of the issues involved.
an income to the employed, and gives the indivi-
dual a feeling of self-respect, dignity and of being Two major themes can be identified in the concern to
a worthy member of society. ensure that the defined basic needs of the target groups
are met before a target date. One theme is concerned obtain jobs. In neither case do they feel that market
with providing the groups with enough resources forces alone will produce the optimum result.
(income) and the other with how they expend them. Political and International Dimensions
Within the first theme there are two alternative strate- A Basic Needs approach has important political dimen-
gies. One ('trickle down') is to achieve such a high rate sions within the country in which it is to be implemented.
of overall economic growth that even the poorest Whether preceded by coercive redistribution of income
target groups benefit sufficiently from it without the and assets or not, the successful implementation of the
necessity for explicitly redistributive policies. The other approach will further change the distribution of income
strategy is a deliberate change (redistribution) in the and of economic power, by making the weak more
proportional distribution of income and wealth between productive and better able to assert themselves. It is
rich and poor. Such redistribution may be done by barely credible that success in meeting the targets even
transfer taxes and income benefits, by changing the just for the material basic needs would not be accom-
future pattern of investment in order to improve the panied by a substantial and irreversible shift in political
productivity or consumption of the target group, or by power, and probably, therefore, also of political
redistributing existing productive assets (eg by land personalities. Some Basic Needs approaches treat such
reform). Each alternative strategy will have different a shift as an end in itself. In practice any form of
effects in terms of growth. There is no disagreement economic development tends to threaten some existing
that a much longer time with a given rate of economic power groups within a country; redistributive policies
growth, or a much higher rate of economic growth do so in a very clear way; and the sort of Basic Needs
within a given target period, will be required for basic approach which combines redistributive policies with
needs to be universally met if no redistribution takes overtly political elements, such as participation in
place than if it does. There is some scope for disagree- decision-making, presents an undisguised challenge to
ment as to whether it is easier for governments to the existing power groups. History is full of examples
achieve the necessarily higher growth rates that will be of both peaceful and violent political change, imposed
required if redistribution does not take place or the on and by governments, so that it would be absurd
radical redistribution that will be necessary if a lower to assert that a Basic Needs approach cannot be adopted
growth rate is attained. In any case since redistribution without violent revolutionary change. Nevertheless its
of income and wealth will substantially alter both sincere adoption presents great difficulties to govern-
relative prices and the patterns of production and con- ments, and is likely to be characterised by a crab-like
sumption there will be considerable statistical diffi- approach, trying to build up ad-hoc alliances for
culties in obtaining an unambiguous measure of the particular elements in sequence rather than by a head-on
actual rate of growth. While the first strategy, 'trickle assault. Some adherents of a Basic Needs approach, by
down', has some supporters, most advocates of Basic simultaneously demanding land reform, high taxation,
Needs policies have come down in favour of changing the terms of trade in favour of rural areas,
redistributive measures. more emphasis to social services in rural areas at the
expense of urban, more rights for women, educational
The second major theme concerns the way in which reform, decentralisation, and debureaucratisation,
individuals or families spend their income. Will they be appear to give inadequate attention to how to mobilise
allowed to spend it however they wish, with uncon- effective support in favour of reform and to how to
strained market forces determining the pattern and protect the weakest against a backlash from the strong.
price of supplies? Or will government intervene, directly
supplying some commodities or services from its own A Basic Needs approach that involves redistribution will
activities, subsidising, rationing, taxing, regulating, or also have important effects on international relations.
prohibiting the supply of particular commodities or The pattern of income and demand for goods that would
services whose consumption it wishes to promote or follow the successful implementation of a Basic Needs
restrain? Unless government does intervene directly in approach would be likely to change a country's inter-
some way to regulate the pattern of demand and supply, national trade in two ways. There would be less demand
then a Basic Needs policy is, in its material needs' for luxury consumables and high-technology capital
aspect, no more than a Minimum Incomes policy, with goods mainly from developed countries; and there might
the minimum requisite income set at that level at which be less supply of some traditional exports as a change
consumers will in fact automatically choose to spend in the pattern of domestic demand, and the redistribu-
it in such a way as to purchase the requisite minimum tion of productive assets such as land, disturbed previous
amounts of the specified Basic Needs. The level of production and trading patterns. Overall, international
minimum income at which it will be spent so as to cover trade might play a lesser part in a country's economy.
all the basic material needs is likely to be much higher There is certainly likely to be a change in its composition
where consumer's sovereignty is quite unfettered than and therefore also in its direction. Multinational corpo-
if government intervenes deliberately to influence the rations might find it less profitable and less easy to
pattern of demand. locate and manage subsidiaries in countries that adopted
a redistributive Basic Needs approach. At the same time
Adherents of a Basic Needs approach tend also to be the kind of reforms implicit in a Basic Needs approach
advocates of government intervention in establishing would be greatly assisted by an increased flow of con-
patterns of demand and supply, partly because they see cessional aid, although the demand would probably be
the effect of redistribution of income and assets and for less capital-intensive and less project- or donor-tied
of identifying target levels of basic material needs as aid than hitherto. Emphasis on a Basic Needs approach,
enormously increasing the demand for the commodities as on Human Rights, is likely to give developed countries
and services required; partly because the particular a useful bargaining and delaying tactic in North-South
technology used in meeting the demand will have im- negotiations and in the implementation of any results of
portant effects on the level and pattern of employment the negotiations. In some developing countries, but in
and so on the opportunities for the target groups to only a few and not those containing many of the world's
 poor, aid donors may have sufficient leverage that a shift which may have serious administrative implica-
pressure by them might have a significant effect in tions (as well, obviously, as political ones) in terms of
altering the recipient government's policy in respect finding efficient taxation instruments. This problem will
of Basic Needs. be made worse to the extent that a Basic Needs approach
Economic Management also diminishes the import of easily taxed luxury goods.
As well as having strong implications for redistribution The nature of some of the services included in a Basic
of income and assets, for the balance over time between Needs approach means that they may be particularly
consumption and growth, for the identification of difficult in any case to levy charges on. Nationalisation
by the State of previously privately-owned assets (land,
specific needs and target groups, and for managing and
directing demand, a Basic Needs approach requires economic enterprises) may provide a partial solution
success in a large number of different aspects of to this problem, by providing government with addition-
economic management, in the case of most of these, eg al revenue-earning assets.
creating employment, overcoming supply bottlenecks, The Environment
obtaining adequate supplies of foreign exchange, estab- If the target level of particular basic needs were to be
lishing appropriate technology, a Basic Needs approach set at a low level, if this target, once met, were not then
neither raises new problems (except possibly in respect readjusted upwards, and if, also, income were redistrib-
of scale) nor provides new answers. In a few cases, uted, then a Basic Needs approach should make less high
however, it does raise new issues. demands on the environment, and should therefore
carry less risk of environmental degradation, than would
One of the new issues is who should decide which needs
are 'basic' and at which level to set the minimum targets a policy of high and continuing economic growth. Most
to be aimed at in respect of each need. Up to thirty adherents of a Basic Needs approach, however, advocate
years ago such target levels would have been considered upward adjustment of target levels as circumstances
as lying solely in the field of expertise of the technical permit; and countries which both have drastically
experts (such as doctors, engineers, and teachers) redistributed income and have dominant state interven-
concerned. In the last thirty years economists have tion in the economy do not, in practice, have a particu-
strongly argued that setting the standards in one field larly good record in respect of environmental degradation.
can not be done solely on technical grounds or without
reference to other fields. The Basic Needs literature Conclusion
tends to suggest that needs should be chosen and Clearly there is still some uncertainty in the debate
standards set through a process of public participation, about a Basic Needs approach; and more thought and
but, apart from some rather naive references to Chinese work are required before the general approach can
experience, the mechanics of how this might be done serve as an effective guide for practical action. Among
are not spelt out, or are admitted to be unknown. the obvious areas still requiring clarification are the
precise ways in which production is to be successfully
Not all the activities which a nation must carry out (eg restructured to meet the needs of the poorest and h o w
internal security, defence) are included in a (material) priorities for action are to be established. Nevertheless
Basic Needs package. Questions of priority arise, there- the fact that the concept and slogan of Basic Needs
fore, between activities inside and outside the package. have been so widely adopted demonstrates their strong
Nor are the resources available at any moment for the emotional appeal and usefulness in reviving and
Basic Needs package itself likely to be sufficient to meet spreading concern for the world's poor among a wide
all the demands put on them by different components audience. Current emphasis on the Basic Needs approach
of the package. Questions of choice and priority, how is a timely reminder that towards the end of the Second
much of what should be done when, will loom large here United Nations Development Decade too many among
also. Advocates of a Basic Needs approach tend to deni- our fellow human beings still fail to obtain their
grate the other systems for determining priorities (eg basic needs.
preferences expressed in the market place and social
cost-benefit analysis) which provided techniques for
answering some of these questions. An alternative tech- Reading List
nique, however, suitable for the Basic Needs approach Amid a large and growing literature on Basic Needs the
has not yet been devised. following are important and fairly non-technical.
A Basic Needs approach gives strong emphasis to certain
services such as education and health, and to some goods 1. Employment, Growth and Basic Needs: A One-
normally provided on a public basis, eg clean water. World Problem, Geneva, ILO, 1976,(177 pages)
Advocates of a Basic Needs approach correctly identify 2. Paul Streeten and Shahid Javed Burki 'Basic Needs:
the efficient (universal, low cost, reliable) supply and Some Issues', World Development, Oxford, 1978,
delivery of these to the target groups of people as one of Vol 6, No 3 (10 pages)
the biggest new challenges facing them. In the past such
public services have often been captured by the tradi- 3. D.P. Ghai et al, The Basic Needs Approach to
tional elites. The Basic Needs approach tends to put Development. Some Issues Regarding Concepts and
great emphasis on the usefulness of public participation Methodology, Geneva, ILO, 1977, (113 pages)
in management of these services. Some advocates of a 4. Down to Basics. Reflections on the Basic Needs
Basic Needs approach appreciate that this is a field that Debate, Special issue of IDS Bulletin, Vol 9, No 4,
is still unknown. Brighton, June 1978, (44 pages)
A Basic Needs approach, because of its emphasis on 5. Chinese Rural Institutions and the Question of
redistribution of income and wealth and on the provision Transferability, Special issue of World Development,
of commodities and public services to those in need Vol 6, No 5, Oxford, 1978 (156 pages - but see
rather than to those who can afford them, will probably especially articles by Perkins, Davis-Friedmann, and
require a substantial upward shift in the level of taxation, Lampton totalling 28 pages).