Horizontal Alignment

9 January 2007
MONTANA DEPARTMENT OF
TRANSPORTATION
ROAD DESIGN MANUAL
Chapter Nine
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
December 2004 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 9(i)
Table of Contents
Section Page
9.1 GENERAL CONTROLS ................................................................... 9.1(1)
9.2 HORIZONTAL CURVES .................................................................. 9.2(1)
9.2.1 Definitions ........................................................................ 9.2(1)

9.2.2 Selection of Curve Type................................................... 9.2(1)
9.2.3 Calculation of Curve Radius............................................. 9.2(2)
9.2.3.1 Basic Curve Equation....................................... 9.2(2)

9.2.3.2 General Theory ................................................ 9.2(2)
9.2.4 Minimum Radii ................................................................. 9.2(3)

9.2.5 Selection of Curve Radius................................................ 9.2(4)
9.2.6 Maximum Deflection Without Curve ................................. 9.2(6)
9.2.7 Minimum Length of Curve ................................................ 9.2(7)
9.2.8 Computation..................................................................... 9.2(7)
9.3 SUPERELEVATION (OPEN-ROADWAY CONDITIONS) ................ 9.3(1)
9.3.1 Definitions ........................................................................ 9.3(1)

9.3.2 Maximum Superelevation Rate ........................................ 9.3(2)
9.3.3 Superelevation Rates....................................................... 9.3(2)
9.3.4 Minimum Radii Without Superelevation ........................... 9.3(7)
9.3.5 Transition Length ............................................................. 9.3(7)
9.3.5.1 Two-Lane Roadways ....................................... 9.3(7)

9.3.5.2 Multilane Highways .......................................... 9.3(10)
9.3.5.3 Application of Transition Length....................... 9.3(10)
9.3.6 Axis of Rotation ................................................................ 9.3(13)
9.3.6.1 Two-Lane, Two-Way Highways ....................... 9.3(13)

9.3.7 Shoulder Superelevation.................................................. 9.3(13)

9.3.7.1 High Side (Outside Shoulder) .......................... 9.3(13)
9.3.7.2 Low Side (Inside Shoulder) .............................. 9.3(14)
9.3.8 Reverse Curves ............................................................... 9.3(14)
9(ii) HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT December 2004
Table of Contents
(Continued)
Section Page
9.3.9 Broken-Back Curves ........................................................ 9.3(15)

9.3.10 Bridges............................................................................. 9.3(15)
9.3.11 Typical Figures................................................................. 9.3(16)
9.4 SUPERELEVATION RATES (LOW-SPEED URBAN STREETS) .... 9.4(1)
9.4.1 General ............................................................................ 9.4(1)

9.4.2 Superelevation Rates....................................................... 9.4(2)
9.4.3 Minimum Radii Without Superelevation ........................... 9.4(2)
9.4.4 Transition Length ............................................................. 9.4(2)
9.4.4.1 Two-Lane Roadways ....................................... 9.4(2)

9.4.4.3 Application of Transition Length....................... 9.4(7)
9.4.5 Axis of Rotation ................................................................ 9.4(7)

9.4.6 Shoulder Superelevation.................................................. 9.4(8)
9.5 HORIZONTAL SIGHT DISTANCE ................................................... 9.5(1)
9.5.1 Sight Obstruction (Definition) ........................................... 9.5(1)

9.5.2 Middle Ordinate................................................................ 9.5(1)
9.5.3 Entering/Exiting Portions.................................................. 9.5(3)
9.5.4 Application ....................................................................... 9.5(4)
9.5.5 Longitudinal Barriers ........................................................ 9.5(4)
9.6 COMPUTATION OF HORIZONTAL CURVES................................. 9.6(1)
9.6.1 Spiral Curves.................................................................... 9.6(1)

9.6.2 Simple Curves.................................................................. 9.6(8)
9.6.3 Compound Curves ........................................................... 9.6(13)
9.6.4 Rounding of Curve Data................................................... 9.6(17)
9.6.4.1 New Horizontal Curve ...................................... 9.6(17)

9.6.4.2 Existing Horizontal Curves ............................... 9.6(23)
9.6.5 Stationing and Bearings ................................................... 9.6(26)

9.6.6 Equations ......................................................................... 9.6(27)
December 2004 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 9.1(1)
Chapter Nine
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
The horizontal alignment of a highway facility will have a significant impact on vehicular
operation and construction costs. Chapter Nine presents the Department's criteria for
horizontal alignment elements, including minimum radii, usage of horizontal curve types,
superelevation rates and development, sight distance around horizontal curves and
mathematical details for computing horizontal curves.
9.1 GENERAL CONTROLS
The design of horizontal alignment involves, to a large extent, complying with specific
limiting criteria. These include minimum radii, superelevation rates and sight distance.
In addition, the designer should adhere to general design principles and controls which
will determine the overall safety of the facility and will enhance the aesthetic
appearance of the highway. These general controls include:
1. Consistency. Alignment should be consistent. Avoid sharp curves at the ends of

long tangents and sudden changes from gentle to sharply curving alignment.
2. Directional. Alignment should be as directional as practical and consistent with

physical and economic constraints. On divided highways a flowing line that
conforms generally to the natural contours is preferable to one with long tangents
that slash through the terrain. Directional alignment can be achieved by using
the smallest practical central angles.
3. Use of Minimum Radii. The use of minimum radii should be avoided if practical.
4. High Fills. Avoid sharp curves on long, high fills. Under these conditions, it is
difficult for drivers to perceive the extent of horizontal curvature.
5. Alignment Reversals. Avoid abrupt reversals in alignment ("S" or reverse

curves). Provide a sufficient tangent distance between the curves to ensure
proper superelevation transitions for both curves.
6. Broken-Back Curvature. Avoid where practical. This arrangement is not

aesthetically pleasing, violates driver expectancy and creates undesirable
superelevation development requirements.
7. Compound Curves. Avoid the use of compound curves on highway mainline.

These may "fool" the driver when judging the sharpness of a horizontal curve.
9.1(2) HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT December 2004
8. Coordination with Natural/Man-Made Features. The horizontal alignment should

be properly coordinated with the natural topography, available right-of-way,
utilities, roadside development and natural/man-made drainage patterns.
9. Environmental Impacts. Horizontal alignment should be properly coordinated

with environmental features to reduce or avoid impacts where practical (e.g.,
encroachment onto wetlands).
10. Intersections. Horizontal alignment through intersections may present special

problems (e.g., intersection sight distance, superelevation development). See
Chapter Twenty-eight in the Montana Traffic Engineering Manual for the design
of intersections at-grade.
11. Coordination with Vertical Alignment. Chapter Ten discusses general design
principles for the coordination between horizontal and vertical alignment.
12. Visibility. Design the roadway so that the driver has a clear view of the alignment
13. Coordination with existing PTW. . Horizontal alignment should be properly

coordinated with the PTW at the project limits to provide a smooth transition on to
and off of the project.
9.2 HORIZONTAL CURVES
9.2.1 Definitions
1. Simple Curves. These are continuous arcs of constant radius which achieve the
necessary highway deflection without an entering or exiting transition.
2. Compound Curves. These are a series of two or more horizontal curves with
deflections in the same direction immediately adjacent to each other.
3. Spiral Curves. These are curvature arrangements used to transition between a

tangent section and a simple curve, which are consistent with the transitional
characteristics of vehicular turning paths. When moving from the tangent to the
simple curve, the sharpness of the spiral curve gradually increases from a radius
of infinity to the radius of the simple curve.
4. Reverse Curves. These are two simple curves with deflections in opposite
directions, which are joined by a common point or a relatively short tangent
distance.
5. Broken-Back Curves. Broken-back curves are two closely spaced horizontal

curves with deflections in the same direction and a short intervening tangent.
9.2.2 Selection of Curve Type
The following presents MDT practice for the selection of the type of horizontal curve
based on the type of facility:
1. Rural State Highways and High-Speed (V > 45mph(70 km/h)) Urban Roadways.
Based on the curve radii, the following will apply:
a. R ≤ 3820’(1165 m) — use a spiral curve.
b. R > 3820’(1165 m) — use a simple curve.
Compound curves are not allowed on these facilities, except in transitional areas.
2. Low-Speed (V ≤ 45mph(70 km/h)) Urban Roadways/Non-State Highways.

Typically, simple curves will be used on low-speed urban roadways and non-
State highways. In urban areas, if necessary, it is acceptable to use compound
curves on the mainline to:
a. avoid obstructions,
b. avoid right-of-way problems, and/or
c. fit the existing topography.
Where used, compound curves on mainline should be designed such that the radius of
the flatter curve is no more than 1.5 times the radius of the sharper curve (i.e., R1 ≤ 1.5
R2, where R1 is the flatter curve).
9.2.3 Calculation of Curve Radius
9.2.3.1 Basic Curve Equation
The point-mass formula is used to define vehicular operation around a curve. Where
the curve is expressed using its radius, the basic equation for a simple curve is:
V2
R= US Customary (Equation 9.2-1)
15(e + f )
where:
R = radius of curve, ft
e = superelevation rate, decimal
f = side-friction factor, decimal
V = vehicular speed, mph
V2
R= Metric (Equation 9.2-1)
127(e + f )
where:
R = radius of curve, m
e = superelevation rate, decimal
f = side-friction factor, decimal
V = vehicular speed, km/h
9.2.3.2 General Theory
Establishing horizontal curvature criteria requires a selection of the theoretical basis for
the various factors in the basic curve equation. These include the selection of
maximum side-friction factors (f) and the distribution method between side friction and
superelevation. For highway mainlines, the theoretical basis will be one of the following:
1. Open-Roadway Conditions. The theoretical basis for horizontal curvature

assuming open-roadway conditions includes:
a. relatively low maximum side-friction factors (i.e., a relatively small level of

driver discomfort); and
b. the use of AASHTO Method 5 to distribute side friction and

superelevation.
AASHTO Method 5 distributes side friction and superelevation such that each
element is used simultaneously to offset the outward pull of the vehicle traveling
around the curve.
Open-roadway conditions apply to all rural facilities and to all high-speed urban
facilities; i.e., where the design speed (V) > 45mph(70 km/h).
2. Low-Speed Urban Streets. The theoretical basis for horizontal curvature

assuming low-speed urban street conditions includes:
a. relatively high maximum side-friction factors to reflect a higher level of

driver acceptance of discomfort; and
b. the use of AASHTO Method 2 to distribute side friction and

superelevation.
AASHTO Method 2 distributes side friction and superelevation such that side
friction alone is used, up to fmax, to offset the outward pull of the vehicle traveling
around the curve. Only then is superelevation introduced.
Low-speed urban streets are defined as streets within an urban or urbanized

area where the design speed (V) ≤ 45mph(70 km/h). Designers should check
local design criteria for off-system facilities.
9.2.4 Minimum Radii
Figures 9.2A and 9.2B present the minimum radii (Rmin) for open-roadway facilities and
low-speed urban streets. To define Rmin, a maximum superelevation rate (emax) must be
selected. See Section 9.3 for MDT criteria for emax. It should be noted that the metric
values are compatible with the 2001 AASHTO Greenbook. This was done to provide
consistency in the completion of projects where the design has been started in the
metric format.
9.2.5 Selection of Curve Radius
Where practical, the designer will select curve radii from among the radii listed in Figure
9.2C for mainline on open roadways. This will provide uniformity in project design. At
individual curves, however, it may be necessary to select radii intermittent between
those in the figure, rounded to the next highest 10’(5 m) increment. Curve radii on low-
speed urban streets will be selected on a case-by-case basis.
US Customary
Design Speed, Minimum Radii,

V emax fmax Rmin
(mph) (ft)
20 8.0% 0.27 80
25 8.0% 0.23 140
30 8.0% 0.20 220
35 8.0% 0.18 320
40 8.0% 0.16 450
45 8.0% 0.15 590
50 8.0% 0.14 760
55 8.0% 0.13 960
60 8.0% 0.12 1200
70 8.0% 0.10 1820
Note: Rmin is based on Equation 9.2-1 rounded up to the nearest 10 ft increment.
Metric

V emax fmax Rmin
(km/h) (m)
30 8.0% 0.17 30
40 8.0% 0.17 50
50 8.0% 0.16 85
60 8.0% 0.15 125
70 8.0% 0.14 175
80 8.0% 0.14 230
90 8.0% 0.13 305
100 8.0% 0.12 395
110 8.0% 0.11 500
Note: Rmin is based on Equation 9.2-1 rounded up to the nearest 5 m increment.
MINIMUM RADII
(Open-Roadway Conditions)
Figure 9.2A
US Customary

V emax fmax Rmin
(mph) (ft)
20 4.0% 0.27 86
25 4.0% 0.23 154
30 4.0% 0.20 250
35 4.0% 0.18 371
40 4.0% 0.16 533
45 4.0% 0.15 711
Note: Rmin is based on Equation 9.2-1 rounded up to the nearest 1 ft increment.
Metric

V emax fmax Rmin
(km/h) (m)
30 4.0% 0.312 20
40 4.0% 0.252 45
50 4.0% 0.214 80
60 4.0% 0.186 125
70 4.0% 0.163 190
Note: Rmin is based on Equation 9.2-1 rounded up to the nearest 5 m increment.
MINIMUM RADII
(Low-Speed Urban Streets (V) ≤ 45 mph(70 km/h))
Figure 9.2B
Select curve radii from the following

23000’ (7000 m) 1500’ (450 m)
11500’ (3500 m) 1150’ (350 m)
7700’ (2350 m) 1000’ (300 m)
5700’ (1750 m) 800’ (250 m)
3800’ (1150 m) 700’ (220 m)
3000’ (900 m) 600’ (190 m)
2300’ (700 m) 550’ (170 m)
2000’ (600 m) 520’ (160 m)
1650’ (500 m) 500’ (150 m)
Relationship of Degree of curvature to radius

Radius in Ft Deg of Curve Radius in Ft Deg of Curve
22920 0°15' 1433 4°00'
11460 0°30' 1146 5°00'
7640 0°45' 955 6°00'
5730 1°00' 819 7°00'
3820 1°30' 716 8°00'
2865 2°00' 637 9°00'
2292 2°30' 573 10°00'
1910 3°00' 521 11°00'
1637 3°30' 478 12°00'
SELECTION OF CURVE RADII

(Open Roadways)
Figure 9.2C
9.2.6 Maximum Deflection Without Curve
It may be appropriate to design a facility without a horizontal curve where small

deflection angles (∆) are present. As a guide, the designer may retain deflection angles
of about 1° or less (urban) and 0.5° or less (rural) for the highway mainline. In these
cases, the absence of a horizontal curve will not likely affect driver response or
aesthetics.
For highway mainline at urban intersections, higher deflection angles may be

acceptable based on an evaluation of the design speed, traffic volumes, functional
class, existing/future signalization, etc.
9.2.7 Minimum Length of Curve
Short horizontal curves may provide the driver with the appearance of a kink in the
alignment. To improve the aesthetics of the highway, the designer should lengthen
short curves, if practical, even if not necessary for engineering reasons. The following
guidance should be used to establish minimum curve lengths for deflection angles (∆) of
5° or less:
1. Open Roadways. For open roadways, use the following criteria that results in the
greatest curve length:
a. The minimum radius that results in a normal crown cross slope.

b. The length of curve in feet or meters = 15V, where V is the design speed
in mph or 3V, where V is the design speed in km/h. Double this length for
controlled access facilities.
c. A 500’(150 m) length of curve for a 5-degree deflection add 100’(30m) for
each 1-degree decrease in the central angle.
If this criteria cannot be met, the designer should document this in the Alignment
Review Report.
2. Urban. The minimum length of curves on low-speed urban streets will be

determined on a case-by-case basis.
9.2.8 Computation
Section 9.6 presents the applicable mathematical details for the computation of
horizontal curves.
9.3 SUPERELEVATION (OPEN-ROADWAY CONDITIONS)
9.3.1 Definitions
1. Superelevation. Superelevation is the amount of cross slope or "bank" provided

on a horizontal curve to help counterbalance the outward pull of a vehicle
traversing the curve.
2. Maximum Superelevation (emax). The maximum rate of superelevation (emax) is

an overall superelevation control used on a specific facility. Its selection depends
on several factors including overall climatic conditions, terrain conditions, type of
facility and type of area (rural or urban).
3. Superelevation Transition Length. The superelevation transition length is the

distance required to transition the roadway from a normal crown section to full
superelevation. Superelevation transition length is the sum of the tangent runout
(TR) and superelevation runoff (L) distances:
a. Tangent Runout (TR). Tangent runout is the distance needed to transition

the roadway from a normal crown section to a point where the adverse
cross slope of the outside lane or lanes is removed (i.e., the outside
lane(s) is level).
b. Superelevation Runoff (L). Superelevation runoff is the distance needed

to transition the cross slope from the end of the tangent runout (adverse
cross slope removed) to a section that is sloped at the design
superelevation rate.
4. Axis of Rotation. The superelevation axis of rotation is the line about which the
pavement is revolved to superelevate the roadway. This line will maintain the
normal highway profile throughout the curve.
5. Superelevation Rollover. Superelevation rollover is the algebraic difference (A)

between the superelevated traveled way slope and shoulder slope on the outside
of a horizontal curve.
6. Relative Longitudinal Slope. The relative longitudinal slope is the difference

between the centerline grade and the grade of the edge of traveled way.
7. Open Roadways. Open roadways are all rural facilities regardless of design
speed and all urban facilities with a design speed greater than 45mph(70 km/h).
8. Low-Speed Urban Streets. These are all streets within urbanized and small
urban areas with a design speed of 45 mph(70 km/h) or less.
9.3.2 Maximum Superelevation Rate
The selection of a maximum rate of superelevation (emax) depends upon several factors.
These include urban/rural location, type of facility and prevalent climatic conditions
within Montana. For open-roadway conditions, MDT has adopted the following for the
selection of emax:
1. Rural Facilities. An emax = 8.0% is used on all rural facilities for all design
speeds.
2. Urban Facilities (V > 45 mph(70 km/h)). An emax = 8.0% is used on all urban
facilities where the design speed (V) is greater than 45 mph(70 km/h).
9.3.3 Superelevation Rates
Based on the selection of emax and the use of AASHTO Method 5 to distribute e and f,
the following figures allow the designer to select the superelevation rate for
combinations of curve radii (R) and design speed (V) and to select the minimum length
of transition:
1. Figure 9.3A applies to 2-lane, 2-way highways where emax = 8.0%.
2. Figure 9.3B applies to 4-lane divided and undivided facilities where emax = 8.0%.
Note that superelevation rates are a controlling criteria. The designer must seek a
design exception for any proposed rate which does not meet the criteria in Figures 9.3A
and 9.3B. See Section 8.8 for Department procedures on design exceptions.
V = 30 mph V = 35 mph V = 40 mph

e Trans. Length Trans. Length Trans. Length
R(ft) R(ft) R(ft)
L(ft) TR(ft) L(ft) TR(ft) L(ft) TR(ft)
NC R ≥ 4000 0 0 R ≥ 5000 0 0 R ≥ 6000 0 0
2.0% 4000 > R ≥ 2370 36 36 5000 > R ≥ 3120 40 40 6000 > R ≥ 3970 42 42
3.0% 2370 > R ≥ 1480 54 36 3120 > R ≥ 1960 60 40 3970 > R ≥ 2510 63 42
4.0% 1480 > R ≥ 1030 72 36 1960 > R ≥ 1370 80 40 2510 > R ≥ 1770 84 42
5.0% 1030 > R ≥ 730 90 36 1370 > R ≥ 1000 100 40 1770 > R ≥ 1310 105 42
6.0% 730 > R ≥ 510 108 36 1000 > R ≥ 720 120 40 1310 > R ≥ 970 126 42
7.0% 510 > R ≥ 360 126 36 720 > R ≥ 520 140 40 970 > R ≥ 720 147 42
8.0% 360 > R ≥ 220 144 36 520 > R ≥ 320 160 40 7200 > R ≥ 450 168 42
Rmin = 220 ft Rmin = 320 ft Rmin = 450 ft
V = 45 mph V = 50 mph V = 55 mph

R(ft) R(ft) R(ft)
NC R ≥ 7000 0 0 R ≥ 9000 0 0 R ≥ 10000 0 0
2.0% 7000 > R ≥ 4930 44 44 9000 > R ≥ 5990 48 48 10000 > R ≥ 7150 52 52
3.0% 4930 > R ≥ 3130 66 44 5990 > R ≥ 3820 72 48 7150 > R ≥ 4580 78 52
4.0% 3130 > R ≥ 2220 88 44 3820 > R ≥ 2720 96 48 4580 > R ≥ 3270 104 52
5.0% 2220 > R ≥ 1650 110 44 2720 > R ≥ 2040 120 48 3270 > R ≥ 2470 130 52
6.0% 1650 > R ≥ 1250 132 44 2040 > R ≥ 1560 144 48 2470 > R ≥ 1920 156 52
7.0% 1250 > R ≥ 940 154 44 1560 > R ≥ 1190 168 48 1920 > R ≥ 1480 182 52
8.0% 940 > R ≥ 590 176 44 1190 > R ≥ 760 192 48 1480 > R ≥ 960 208 52
V = 60 mph V = 70 mph
e Trans. Length Trans. Length
R(ft) R(ft)
L(ft) TR(ft) L(ft) TR(ft)
NC R ≥ 12000 0 0 R ≥ 15000 0 0
2.0% 12000 > R ≥ 8440 54 54 15000 > R ≥ 10700 60 60
3.0% 8440 > R ≥ 5420 81 54 10700 > R ≥ 6930 90 60
emax = 8.0%
4.0% 5420 > R ≥ 3890 108 54 6930 > R ≥ 5050 120 60
5.0% 3890 > R ≥ 2960 135 54 5050 > R ≥ 3910 150 60
6.0% 2960 > R ≥ 2320 162 54 3910 > R ≥ 3150 180 60
7.0% 2320 > R ≥ 1820 189 54 3150 > R ≥ 2580 210 60
8.0% 1820 > R ≥ 1200 216 54 2580 > R ≥ 1810 240 60
Rmin = 1200 ft Rmin = 1810 ft
Key:
R = Radius of curve, ft Note: See Figure 9.2C for typical selection of curve radii.
V = Design speed, mph
e = Superelevation rate, %
L = Minimum length of superelevation runoff (from adverse slope removed to full super), ft
TR = Tangent runout from NC to adverse slope removed, ft
NC = Normal crown = 2.0%
RATE OF SUPERELEVATION AND MINIMUM LENGTH OF TRANSITION

(Two-Lane, Two-Way Highways; Open Roadways)
Figure 9.3A (US Customary)

V = 50 km/h V = 60 km/h V = 70 km/h

R(m) R(m) R(m)
L(m) TR(m) L(m) TR(m) L(m) TR(m)
NC R ≥ 1090 0 0 R ≥ 1495 0 0 R ≥ 1970 0 0
2.0% 1090 > R ≥ 795 30 30.00 1495 > R ≥ 1095 35 35.00 1970 > R ≥ 1445 40 40.00
3.0% 795 > R ≥ 500 30 20.00 1095 > R ≥ 700 35 23.33 1445 > R ≥ 925 40 26.67
4.0% 500 > R ≥ 350 30 15.00 700 > R ≥ 490 35 17.50 925 > R ≥ 650 40 20.00
5.0% 350 > R ≥ 260 30 12.00 490 > R ≥ 365 35 14.00 650 > R ≥ 490 40 16.00
6.0% 260 > R ≥ 190 35 11.67 365 > R ≥ 270 40 13.33 490 > R ≥ 370 40 13.33
7.0% 190 > R ≥ 135 40 11.43 270 > R ≥ 200 45 12.86 370 > R ≥ 275 50 14.29
8.0% 135 > R ≥ 80 45 11.25 200 > R ≥ 125 50 12.50 275 > R ≥ 175 55 13.75
Rmin = 80 m Rmin = 125 m Rmin = 175 m
V = 80 km/h V = 90 km/h V = 100 km/h

R(m) R(m) R(m)
NC R ≥ 2440 0 0 R ≥ 2965 0 0 R ≥ 3625 0 0
2.0% 2440 > R ≥ 1795 45 45.00 2965 > R ≥ 2185 50 55.00 3625 > R ≥ 2675 60 60.00
3.0% 1795 > R ≥ 1170 45 30.00 2185 > R ≥ 1400 50 33.33 2675 > R ≥ 1750 60 40.00
4.0% 1170 > R ≥ 825 45 22.50 1400 > R ≥ 1000 50 25.00 1750 > R ≥ 1250 60 30.00
5.0% 825 > R ≥ 620 45 18.00 1000 > R ≥ 770 50 20.00 1250 > R ≥ 950 60 24.00
6.0% 620 > R ≥ 475 45 15.00 770 > R ≥ 600 50 16.67 950 > R ≥ 750 60 20.00
7.0% 475 > R ≥ 360 55 15.71 600 > R ≥ 465 55 15.71 750 > R ≥ 590 60 17.14
8.0% 360 > R ≥ 230 60 15.00 465 > R ≥ 305 65 16.25 590 > R ≥395 65 16.25
V = 110 km/h
e Trans. Length
R(m)
L(m) TR(m)
NC R ≥ 4180 0 0
2.0% 4180 > R ≥ 3095 65 65.00
emax = 8.0%
3.0% 3095 > R ≥ 2000 65 43.33
4.0% 2000 > R ≥ 1465 65 32.50
5.0% 1465 > R ≥ 1140 65 26.00
6.0% 1140 > R ≥ 900 65 21.67
7.0% 900 > R ≥ 735 65 18.57
8.0% 735 > R ≥ 500 70 17.50
Rmin = 500 m
Key:
R = Radius of curve, m Note: See Figure 9.2C for typical selection of curve radii.
V = Design speed, km/h
L = Minimum length of superelevation runoff (from adverse slope removed to full super), m
TR = Tangent runout from NC to adverse slope removed, m

(Two-Lane, Two-Way Highways; Open Roadways)
Figure 9.3A (Metric)

V = 30 mph V = 35 mph V = 40 mph

R(ft) R(ft) R(ft)
NC R ≥ 4000 0 0 R ≥ 5000 0 0 R ≥ 6000 0 0
2.0% 4000 > R ≥ 2370 56 56 5000 > R ≥ 3120 58 58 6000 > R ≥ 3970 62 62
3.0% 2370 > R ≥ 1480 84 56 3120 > R ≥ 1960 87 58 3970 > R ≥ 2510 93 62
4.0% 1480 > R ≥ 1030 112 56 1960 > R ≥ 1370 116 58 2510 > R ≥ 1770 124 62
5.0% 1030 > R ≥ 730 140 56 1370 > R ≥ 1000 145 58 1770 > R ≥ 1310 155 62
6.0% 730 > R ≥ 510 168 56 1000 > R ≥ 720 174 58 1310 > R ≥ 970 186 62
7.0% 510 > R ≥ 360 196 56 720 > R ≥ 520 203 58 970 > R ≥ 720 217 62
8.0% 360 > R ≥ 220 224 56 520 > R ≥ 320 232 58 7200 > R ≥ 450 248 62
V = 45 mph V = 50 mph V = 55 mph

R(ft) R(ft) R(ft)
NC R ≥ 7000 0 0 R ≥ 9000 0 0 R ≥ 10000 0 0
2.0% 7000 > R ≥ 4930 68 68 9000 > R ≥ 5990 72 72 10000 > R ≥ 7150 78 78
3.0% 4930 > R ≥ 3130 102 68 5990 > R ≥ 3820 108 72 7150 > R ≥ 4580 117 78
4.0% 3130 > R ≥ 2220 136 68 3820 > R ≥ 2720 144 72 4580 > R ≥ 3270 156 78
5.0% 2220 > R ≥ 1650 170 68 2720 > R ≥ 2040 180 72 3270 > R ≥ 2470 195 78
6.0% 1650 > R ≥ 1250 204 68 2040 > R ≥ 1560 216 72 2470 > R ≥ 1920 234 78
7.0% 1250 > R ≥ 940 238 68 1560 > R ≥ 1190 252 72 1920 > R ≥ 1480 273 78
8.0% 940 > R ≥ 590 272 68 1190 > R ≥ 760 288 72 1480 > R ≥ 960 312 78
V = 60 mph V = 70 mph
R(ft) R(ft)
NC R ≥ 12000 0 0 R ≥ 16000 0 0
emax = 8.0%
2.0% 12000 > R ≥ 8440 80 80 16000 > R ≥ 10700 90 90
3.0% 8440 > R ≥ 5420 120 80 10700 > R ≥ 6930 135 90
4.0% 5420 > R ≥ 3890 160 80 6930 > R ≥ 5050 180 90
5.0% 3890 > R ≥ 2960 200 80 5050 > R ≥ 3910 225 90
6.0% 2960 > R ≥ 2320 240 80 3910 > R ≥ 3150 270 90
7.0% 2320 > R ≥ 1820 280 80 3150 > R ≥ 2580 315 90
8.0% 1820 > R ≥ 1200 320 80 2580 > R ≥ 1810 360 90
Key:
R = Radius of curve, ft Note: See Figure 9.2C for typical selection of curve radii.

(Multilane Highways; Open Roadways)
Figure 9.3B (US Customary)

V = 50 km/h V = 60 km/h V = 70 km/h

R(m) R(m) R(m)
NC R ≥ 1090 0 0 R ≥ 1495 0 0 R ≥ 1970 0 0
2.0% 1090 > R ≥ 795 30 30.00 1495 > R ≥ 1095 35 35.00 1970 > R ≥ 1445 40 40.00
3.0% 795 > R ≥ 500 30 20.00 1095 > R ≥ 700 35 23.33 1445 > R ≥ 925 40 26.67
4.0% 500 > R ≥ 350 35 17.50 700 > R ≥ 490 40 20.00 925 > R ≥ 650 40 20.00
5.0% 350 > R ≥ 260 45 18.00 490 > R ≥ 365 50 20.00 650 > R ≥ 490 50 20.00
6.0% 260 > R ≥ 190 50 16.67 365 > R ≥ 270 50 18.33 490 > R ≥ 370 60 20.00
7.0% 190 > R ≥ 135 60 17.14 270 > R ≥ 200 65 18.57 370 > R ≥ 275 70 20.00
8.0% 135 > R ≥ 80 65 16.25 200 > R ≥ 125 75 18.75 275 > R ≥ 175 80 20.00
V = 80 km/h V = 90 km/h V = 100 km/h

R(m) R(m) R(m)
NC R ≥ 2440 0 0 R ≥ 2965 0 0 R ≥ 3625 0 0
2.0% 2440 > R ≥ 1795 45 45.00 2965 > R ≥ 2185 50 50.00 3625 > R ≥ 2675 60 60.00
3.0% 1795 > R ≥ 1170 45 30.00 2185 > R ≥ 1400 50 33.33 2675 > R ≥ 1750 60 40.00
4.0% 1170 > R ≥ 825 45 22.50 1400 > R ≥ 1000 50 25.00 1750 > R ≥ 1250 60 30.00
5.0% 825 > R ≥ 620 55 22.00 1000 > R ≥ 770 60 24.00 1250 > R ≥ 950 60 24.00
6.0% 620 > R ≥ 475 65 21.67 770 > R ≥ 600 70 23.33 950 > R ≥ 750 75 25.00
7.0% 475 > R ≥ 360 80 22.86 600 > R ≥ 465 80 22.86 750 > R ≥ 590 85 24.29
8.0% 360 > R ≥ 230 90 22.50 465 > R ≥ 305 95 23.75 590 > R ≥395 100 25.00
V = 110 km/h
e Trans. Length
R(m)
L(m) TR(m)
NC R ≥ 4180 0 0
2.0% 4180 > R ≥ 3095 65 65.00
emax = 8.0%
3.0% 3095 > R ≥ 2000 65 43.33
4.0% 2000 > R ≥ 1465 65 32.50
5.0% 1465 > R ≥ 1140 65 26.00
6.0% 1140 > R ≥ 900 80 26.67
7.0% 900 > R ≥ 735 90 25.71
8.0% 735 > R ≥ 500 105 26.25
Rmin = 500 m
Key:
R = Radius of curve, m Note: See Figure 9.2C for typical selection of curve radii.

(Multilane Highways; Open Roadways)
Figure 9.3B (Metric)

9.3.4 Minimum Radii Without Superelevation
A horizontal curve with a sufficiently large radius does not require superelevation, and
the normal crown (NC) used on tangent sections can be maintained throughout the
curve. Figures 9.3A and 9.3B indicate the threshold (or minimum) radius for a normal
crown section at various design speeds. This threshold is based on a theoretical
superelevation rate of +1.5%.
9.3.5 Transition Length
As defined in Section 9.3.1, the superelevation transition length is the distance required
to transition the roadway from a normal crown section to the full design superelevation.
The superelevation transition length is the sum of the tangent runout distance (TR) and
superelevation runoff length (L).
9.3.5.1 Two-Lane Roadways
Superelevation Runoff
Figure 9.3A presents the superelevation runoff lengths for 2-lane roadways for various
combinations of curve radii, design speed and superelevation rate. The lengths are
calculated as follows:
US Customary Metric
L= e x W x RS L = e x W x RS ≥ Lmin (Equation 9.3-1)
where:
L= Superelevation runoff length for a 2-lane roadway, ft(m)
W= Width of travel lane (assumed to be 12’(3.6 m))
RS = Reciprocal of relative longitudinal slope between the roadway centerline

and outside edge of traveled way (see Figure 9.3C)
e= Superelevation rate, decimal
Lmin = Minimum superelevation runoff length regardless of calculated L (see

Figure 9.3D), m (Metric Only)
US Customary
Maximum
Design Speed
RS Relative Longitudinal
(mph)
Slope, G(%)*
30 152 0.66
35 161 0.62
40 172 0.58
45 185 0.54
50 200 0.50
55 213 0.47
60 222 0.45
70 250 0.40
Metric
Maximum
Design Speed
RS Relative Longitudinal
(km/h)
Slope, G(%)*
50 150 0.65
60 167 0.60
70 182 0.55
80 200 0.50
90 210 0.48
100 222 0.45
110 238 0.42
* G(%) = 1/RS x 100
MAXIMUM RELATIVE LONGITUDINAL SLOPES

(Two-Lane Roadways)
Figure 9.3C
Metric Only
Minimum
Design Speed(km/h) Superelevation
Runoff Lengths (m)
50 30
60 35
70 40
80 45
90 50
100 60
110 65
MINIMUM SUPERELEVATION
RUNOFF LENGTHS (Lmin)
Figure 9.3D
The calculated L values are subject to minimum lengths (Lmin), which are based on
approximately two seconds of travel time. Note that, where the calculated numbers
apply, L has been rounded up to the next highest 15’(5 m) increment in Figure 9.3A.
Tangent Runout
Figure 9.3A presents the tangent runout distances based on a 2.0% normal crown for 2-
lane roadways. For roadways having a normal crown other than 2%, use Equation 9.3-
2 to compute the tangent runout distance. The distance is calculated as follows:
S NORMAL (S NORMAL )(L )

TR = = (Equation 9.3-2)
e/ L e
where:
TR = Tangent runout distance for a 2-lane roadway, ft(m)
S NORMAL = Travel lane cross slope on tangent (typically 2.0%), decimal
e = Design superelevation rate (i.e., full superelevation for

horizontal curve), decimal
L = Superelevation runoff length for a 2-lane roadway, ft(m)

(Equation 9.3-1)
The values in Figure 9.3A are presented to the nearest foot (hundredth of a meter).
This will ensure that the relative longitudinal gradient of the tangent runout equals that
of the superelevation runoff. Multiply the value of the tangent runout from Table 9.3A by
1.5 for roadway with 3% normal crown (gravel roads).
9.3.5.2 Multilane Highways
The superelevation runoff distance for multilane highways is calculated by:
US Customary Metric
L = 1.5 x LTwo lane roadways L = 1.5 x e x W x RS ≥ Lmin (Equation 9.3-3)
where the terms are as defined for Equation 9.3-1 for 2-lane highways. The calculated
runoff lengths for multilane facilities are approximately 1.5 times those for 2-lane
facilities. The longer lengths are more appropriate for major facilities considering higher
traffic volumes and the desire to provide a higher level of driver comfort.
Figure 9.3B presents the superelevation runoff distances for multilane facilities which
are either the Lmin values (Figure 9.3D) or the calculated values (Equation 9.3-3)
rounded up to the next highest 15’(5 m) increment.
Tangent Runout
For multilane highways, the tangent runout distance is calculated from Equation 9.3-2,
where L is the superelevation runoff distance for multilane highways and all other terms
are as defined for Equation 9.3-2. Figure 9.3B presents the tangent runout distances to
the nearest foot (hundredth of a meter). This will ensure that the relative longitudinal
gradient of the tangent runout equals that of the superelevation runoff.
9.3.5.3 Application of Transition Length
Once the superelevation runoff and tangent runout have been calculated, the designer
must determine how to fit the length in the horizontal and vertical planes. Figure 9.3E
illustrates the application of the transition length in the plan view. See Section 9.3.11 for
illustrations in the profile and cross section views. The following will apply:
1. Spiral Curves. The tangent runout (TR) will be placed on the tangent sections
immediately before and after the horizontal curve. The superelevation runoff (L)
length will begin at the point of tangent to spiral (TS) and end at the point of spiral
to (simple) curve (SC); i.e., the length of the spiral curve is set equal to the
superelevation runoff length. The application of L to the end of the curve will be
from the CS to the ST.
2. Simple Curves. Typically, 70% of the superelevation runoff length will be placed
on the tangent and 30% on the curve. For resurfacing and widening projects, it is
acceptable to match the existing distribution of the superelevation runoff between
the tangent and curve sections, even if 100% of the runoff length is on the
tangent.
Note: See Section 9.3.11 for profile and cross section views (i.e., A, B, C, D and E) of
superelevation development. C is the first (or last) point at which the cross section is at
a uniform slope.
APPLICATION OF TRANSITION LENGTH

(Plan View)
Figure 9.3E
9.3.6 Axis of Rotation
The following discusses the axis of rotation for 2-lane, 2-way highways and multilane
highways. Section 9.3.11 presents typical figures illustrating the application of the axis
of rotation in superelevation development.
9.3.6.1 Two-Lane, Two-Way Highways
The axis of rotation will typically be about the inside edge (low side of superelevetion) of
the traveled way on 2-lane, 2-way highways. This will also apply to a 2-lane highway
with an auxiliary lane (e.g., a climbing lane); i.e., for a curve to the right, the axis of
rotation is about the line between the climbing lane and the right travel lane.
The following will apply to the axis of rotation for multilane highways:
1. Depressed Median. The axes of rotation will be about the median side of the two
inside shoulders.
2. Flush Median/Undivided Facility. The axis of rotation will be about the centerline
of the entire roadway section. This also applies to highways with a concrete
median barrier (CMB); i.e., the axis of rotation will be about the centerline of the
CMB.
3. Raised Median. The axis of rotation will be about the centerline of the entire
roadway section; i.e., the center of the raised median.
9.3.7 Shoulder Superelevation
9.3.7.1 High Side (Outside Shoulder)
On the high side of superelevated sections, the following criteria will apply to the
shoulder slope:
1. Typical Application. On most horizontal curves, the high-side shoulder will be

rotated concurrently with the adjacent travel lane; i.e., the shoulder and travel
lane will remain in a plane section throughout the superelevated curve.
2. Exceptions. Where it is impractical to provide the typical application, the high-

side shoulder may be sloped such that the algebraic difference between the
shoulder and adjacent travel lane will not exceed 8% (i.e., the superelevation
rollover). This may be necessary, for example, to meet roadside development.

This rollover applies to the algebraic difference in cross slopes between the
travel lanes and the roadway shoulder. It also applies to lanes which diverge
from the mainline, such as ramps. However, it does not apply to approaches.
9.3.7.2 Low Side (Inside Shoulder)
On the low side of a superelevated section, the typical practice is to rotate the finished
shoulder concurrently with the adjacent travel lane; i.e., the inside finished shoulder and
travel lane will remain in a plane section. The portion of the subgrade from a point
below the finished shoulder to the subgrade shoulder point will be designed using a
2.0% slope, regardless of the superelevation rate of the traveled way. See the typical
section figures in Section 11.7 for an illustration.
9.3.8 Reverse Curves
Reverse curves are two closely spaced horizontal curves with deflections in opposite
directions and a short, intervening tangent. For this situation, it may not be practical to
achieve a normal crown section between the two curves. A plane section continuously
rotating about its axis (i.e., the two inside edges of the traveled way) can be used
between the two curves, if they are sufficiently close together. The designer should
adhere to the applicable superelevation development criteria (e.g., superelevation
transition lengths) for each curve. The following will apply to reverse curves:
1. Normal Section. The designer should not attempt to achieve a normal tangent
section between reverse curves unless the normal section can be maintained for
a minimum distance of 200ft (60 m), and the superelevation transition
requirements can be met for both curves.
2. Continuously Rotating Plane. If a normal section is not provided, the pavement

will be continuously rotated in a plane about its axis. The minimum distance
between the PT and PC of reverse simple curves will be 70% of the required
runoff lengths of the two curves. See Figure 9.3L and Figure 9.3M for a
schematic of a continuously rotating plane through a reverse curve. Note that, as
illustrated in Figure 9.3L and Figure 9.3M, the axis of rotation switches from one
inside edge of traveled way to the other inside edge at the point where the
roadway becomes level.
9.3.9 Broken-Back Curves
Broken-back curves are two closely spaced horizontal curves with deflections in the
same direction and a short, intervening tangent. The designer should avoid the use of
broken-back curves. Where they must be used, the following will apply to
superelevation:
1. Normal Section. The designer should not attempt to achieve a normal tangent
section between broken-back curves unless the normal section can be
maintained for a minimum distance of 200ft (60 m), and the superelevation
transition requirements can be met for both curves.
2. Superelevated Section. If a normal section is not provided, the designer should

provide a transitional curve-to-curve spiral or a transitional compound curve
connection to accommodate the gradual change between superelevation rates.
9.3.10 Bridges
From the perspective of the roadway user, a bridge is an integral part of the roadway
system and, ideally, horizontal curves and their transitions will be located irrespective of
their impact on bridges. However, practical factors in bridge design and bridge
construction warrant consideration in the location of horizontal curves at bridges. The
following presents, in order from the most desirable to the least desirable, the
application of horizontal curves to bridges:
1. The most desirable treatment is to locate the bridge and its approach slabs on a
tangent section and sloped at the typical cross slope; i.e., no portion of the curve
or its superelevation development will be on the bridge or bridge approach slabs.
2. If a horizontal curve is located on a bridge, any transitions should not be located

on the bridge or its approach slabs. This includes both superelevation transitions
and spiral transitions. This will result in a uniform cross slope (i.e., the design
superelevation rate) and a constant rate of curvature throughout the length of the
bridge and bridge approach slabs. This will occur at Section D in Figure 9.3F
(spiral curve) and Section E in Figure 9.3G (simple curve).
3. If the superelevation transition is located on the bridge or its approach slabs, the
designer should place on the roadway approach that portion of the
superelevation development which transitions the roadway cross section from its
normal crown to a point where the roadway slopes uniformly (i.e. there is no
break in the cross slope on the bridge deck). This will occur at Section C in
Figure 9.3F (spiral curve) and Section C in Figure 9.3G (simple curve). This will
avoid the need to warp the crown on the bridge or the bridge approach slabs.
9.3.11 Typical Figures
Figures 9.3F through 9.3M present typical figures for superelevation development as
follows:
1. Two-Lane Facilities. Figure 9.3F (spiral curve) and Figure 9.3G (simple curve)
illustrate the superelevation development with the axis of rotation about the
inside edge of traveled way.
2. Multilane Divided Facilities. Figure 9.3H (spiral curve) and Figure 9.3I (simple
curve) illustrate the superelevation development with the axes of rotation about
the median edges of the two inside shoulders.
3. Other Facilities. Section 9.3.6 identifies several types of facilities where the axis
of rotation is about the centerline of the roadway section. Figure 9.3J (spiral
curve) and 9.3K (simple curve) illustrate the superelevation development with the
axes of rotation about the centerline.
4. Reverse Curves. Figure 9.3L (simple curve) and Figure 9.3M (spiral curve)
presents a schematic for superelevating reverse curves with a continuously
rotating plane (i.e., no normal section).
Note: See Figure 9.3E for plan view.
SUPERELEVATION OF TWO-LANE FACILITIES

(Spiral Curve)
Figure 9.3F
SUPERELEVATION OF TWO-LANE FACILITIES

(Simple Curve)
Figure 9.3G
SUPERELEVATION OF MULTILANE DIVIDED FACILITIES

(Spiral Curve)
Figure 9.3H
SUPERELEVATION OF MULTILANE DIVIDED FACILITIES

(Simple Curve)
Figure 9.3I
AXIS OF ROTATION ABOUT CENTERLINE

(Spiral Curve)
Figure 9.3J
AXIS OF ROTATION ABOUT CENTERLINE

(Simple Curve)
Figure 9.3K
SUPERELEVATION OF REVERSE CURVES

(Continuously Rotating Plane)
Figure 9.3L
Example 9.3-1 Reverse Superelevation Transition (Continuous Rotating Plane)
Given: A two-lane, two-way, open roadway with a design speed of 45 mph and the
following reverse curves (circular):
Curve 1 Curve 2
PI Station = 27+07.45 PI Station = 46+47.67

∆ = 73° 08’ 53” RT ∆ = 61° 14’ 40” LT
R = 1,800 feet R = 1,050 feet
PC Station = 13+71.92 PC Station = 40+26.15
PT Station = 36+69.94 PT Station = 47+92.30
Step 1 - Determine if the curves meet the criteria for superelevation transition by the
continuous rotating plane method.
From Figure 9.3A:
Curve 1 requires a 5% superelevation (e1), with 110.00 feet of Runoff (L1), and 44.00
feet of Transition Runout (TR1) for normal superelevation development.
Curve 2 requires a 7% superelevation (e2), with 154.00 feet of Runoff (L2), and 44.00
feet of Transition Runout (TR2) for normal superelevation development.
The tangent distance between the two curves is:
PC2 Sta. – PT1 Sta. = [40+26.15] – [36+69.94] = 356.21 feet
The distance outside of the curves required for normal superelevation development is
70% of the runoff + the runout distances. For these curves, normal superelevation
transitions between the curves would require:
0.7*(L1 + L2) + TR1 + TR2 = 0.7*(110.00 + 154.00) + 2*44.00 = 272.80 feet
The length of normal crown between transitions is 356.21 – 272.80 = 83.41 feet. This
distance is less than 200’, and the continuous rotating plane method is applicable in this
situation.
Note that the minimum tangent distance between these two curves would be 70% of the
two runoff distances, or 184.80 feet. Any tangent distance less than this would require
either an increase in the normal transition rate or locating more of the transitions on the
curves. Either option requires approval of the Highways Engineer.
Step 2 – Locate the stations of full superelevation.

For continuous rotating plane transitions, the points of full superelevation are held and
the transitions are combined into a continuous transition with a constant rate of change.
Points of full super elevation are determined normally, that is 30% of the standard runoff
distances onto each curve.
The point where the superelevation starts to transition from 5% RT (point A, Figure 9.3-
L) is:
Station A = PT1 station – 0.3 (L1) = [36+69.94] – 0.3*(110.00) = Sta. 36+36.94
The point where the transition ends at full 7% superelevation LT (point E, Fig. 9.3-L) is:
Station E = PC2 station + 0.3(L2) = [40+26.15] + 0.3*(154.00) = Sta. 40+72.35
Step 3 – Determine the location of level roadway, where the point of rotation changes
from 12’ RT of centerline to 12’LT (point C, Figure 9.3-L).
The total length of continuous superelevation transition (LREV) is the distance between
points A and E.
LREV = Station E – Station A = [40+72.35] – [36+36.94] = 435.41 feet
The length of superelevation transition from 5% RT to level (L1’) is the distance

between points A and C.
e1 7
L1’ = ∗ LREV = ∗ 435.41 feet = 253.99 feet
(e1 + e2) (5 + 7)
Station C = Station A + L1’ = [Station 36+36.94] + 253.99 = 38+90.93

SUPERELEVATION OF REVERSE CURVES

(Continuously Rotating Plane)
Figure 9.3M
Example 9.3-2 Reverse Superelevation Transition (Continuous Rotating Plane) for

curves with spiral transitions.
Given: A two-lane, two-way, open roadway with a design speed of 55 mph and the
following reverse curves (w/ spiral transition):
Curve 1 Curve 2

∆ = 23° 17’ 15” LT ∆ = 21° 18’ 00” RT
R = 1,150 feet R = 3,000 feet
Step 1 - Determine if the curves meet the criteria for superelevation transition by the
continuous rotating plane method.
From Fig. 9.3A:
Curve 1 requires a 8% superelevation (e1), with 208.00 feet of Runoff and Spiral
Transition (L1= LS1), and 52.00 feet of Transition Runout (TR1) for normal
superelevation development.
Curve 2 requires a 5% superelevation (e1), with 130.00 feet of Runoff and Spiral
Transition (L1= LS1), and 52.00 feet of Transition Runout (TR1) for normal
superelevation development.
Using spiral calculations found in this chapter and Barnett’s Transition Curves For
Highways, the following is calculated:
Curve 1 Curve 2

∆ = 23° 17’ 15” LT ∆ = 21° 18’ 00” RT
R = 1,150 feet R = 3,000 feet
Ls = 208.00’ Ls = 130.00’
θs = 5° 10’ 54” θs = 1° 14’ 29”
p = 1.5666’ p = 0.2343’
k = 103.9713’ k = 64.9988’
Ts = 341.27’ Ts = 629.19’
∆c = 12° 55’ 27” ∆c = 18° 49’ 02”
Lc = 259.40’ Lc = 985.27’
TS Station = 311+35.27 TS Station = 320+64.31
SC Station = 313+43.27 SC Station = 321+94.31
CS Station = 316+02.67 CS Station = 331+79.58
ST Station = 318+10.67 ST Station = 333+09.58
The tangent distance between the two curves is:TS2 Sta. – ST1 Sta. = [320+64.31] –
[318+10.67] = 253.64 feet
The distance outside of the curves required for normal superelevation development is
the sum of the Tangent Runout distances:
TR1 + TR2 = 52.00 + 52.00 = 104.00 feet
The length of normal crown between transitions is 253.67 – 104.00 = 149.64 feet. This
distance is less than 200’, and the continuous rotating plane method is applicable in this
situation.
Note that in the case of spiral curves, there is no minimum distance between curves,
since the transition from full superelevation to level roadway is accomplished within the
limits of the spirals under normal conditions. Two reverse spiral curves can actually
occupy the same point.
Step 2 – Locate the stations of full superelevation.
For continuous rotating plane transitions, the points of full superelevation are held and
the transitions are combined into a continuous transition with a constant rate of change.
Points of full superelevation are the SC and CS of each curve, with the entire circular
curve section between these points at the full superelevation. The end of full 8% LT
(point A on Figure 9.3-M) is the CS of Curve 1, Station 316+02.67 and the SC of Curve
2, Station 321+94.31 is the beginning of full 5% super RT (point C on Figure 9.3-M).
Step 3 – Determine the location of level roadway, where the point of rotation changes
from 12’ LT of centerline to 12’ RT (point B, Fig. 9.3-M).
The total length of continuous superelevation transition (LREV) is the distance between
points A and C.
LREV = Station C – Station A = [321+94.31] – [316+02.67] = 591.64 feet
The length of superelevation transition from 8% LT to level (L1’) is the distance between
points A and B.
e2 5
L1’ = ∗ LREV = ∗ 591.64 feet = 227.55 feet
(e1 + e2) (8 + 5)
Station B = Station A + L1’ = [316+02.67] + 227.55 = 318+30.22

9.4 SUPERELEVATION (LOW-SPEED URBAN STREETS)
9.4.1 General
Low-speed urban street conditions may be used for superelevating streets in urban and
urbanized areas where (V) ≤ 45mph(70 km/h). On these facilities, providing
superelevation at horizontal curves is frequently impractical because of roadside
conditions and, in some cases, may result in undesirable operational conditions. The
following lists some of the characteristics of low-speed urban streets, which often
complicate superelevation development:
1. Roadside Development/Intersections/Driveways. Built-up roadside development

is common adjacent to low-speed urban streets. Matching superelevated curves
with many driveways, intersections, sidewalks, etc., creates considerable
complications. This may also require re-grading parking lots, lawns, etc., to
compensate for the higher elevation of the high side of the superelevated curve.
2. Non-Uniform Travel Speeds. On low-speed urban streets, travel speeds are

often non-uniform because of frequent signalization, stop signs, vehicular
conflicts, etc. It is undesirable for traffic to stop on a superelevated curve,
especially when snow or ice is present.
3. Limited Right-of-Way. Superelevating curves often results in more right-of-way

impacts than would otherwise be necessary. Right-of-way is often restricted
along low-speed urban streets.
4. Wide Pavement Areas. Many low-speed urban streets have wide pavement
areas because of high traffic volumes in built-up areas, the absence of a median
and the presence of parking lanes. In general, the wider the pavement area, the
more complicated will be the development of superelevation.
5. Surface Drainage. Proper pavement drainage on low-speed urban streets can

be difficult even on sections with a normal crown. Superelevation introduces
another complicating factor.
As discussed in Section 9.2, AASHTO Method 2 is used to distribute superelevation and

side friction in determining superelevation rates for the design of horizontal curves on
low-speed urban streets. In addition, relatively high side-friction factors are used. The
practical impact is that superelevation is rarely warranted on these facilities.
The designer should not apply the superelevation criteria assuming low-speed urban
street conditions to highway transitions between rural and urban areas, The designer
9.4(2) HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT 2004
should not apply the superelevation criteria even if the design speed is (V) ≤ 45mph(70
km/h). These areas should be designed assuming open-roadway conditions.
9.4.2 Superelevation Rates
Based on the selection of emax = 4.0% and the use of AASHTO Method 2 to distribute e
and f, Figure 9.4A allows the designer to select the superelevation rate for combinations
of curve radii (R) and design speed (V). Note that superelevation rates are a controlling
criteria. The designer must seek a design exception for any proposed rate which does
not meet the criteria in Figure 9.4A. See Section 8.8 for Department procedures on
design exceptions.
9.4.3 Minimum Radii Without Superelevation
On low-speed urban streets, horizontal curves with sufficiently large radii do not require
superelevation; i.e., the normal crown section can be maintained around a curve. The
threshold exists where the theoretical superelevation equals -2.0%. Figure 9.4A
indicates limiting radii for normal crown (NC).
9.4.4 Transition Length
As defined in Section 9.3.1, the superelevation transition length is the distance required
to transition the roadway from a normal crown section to the full design superelevation.
The superelevation transition length is the sum of the tangent runout distance (TR) and
superelevation runoff length (L).
9.4.4.1 Two-Lane Roadways
Figure 9.4A presents the superelevation runoff lengths for 2-lane roadways for various
combinations of superelevation rates and design speed. The lengths are calculated as
follows:
V = 15 mph V = 20 mph
e Trans. Length Trans. Length Trans. Length Trans. Length
R(ft) (Two-Lane) (Multilane) R(ft) (Two-Lane) (Multilane)
L(ft) TR(ft) L(ft) TR(ft) L(ft) TR(ft) L(ft) TR(ft)
NC R ≥ 50 0 0 0 0 R ≥ 107 0 0 0 0
2.0% 50 > R ≥ 44 30 30 46 46 107 > R ≥ 92 32 32 50 50
3.0% 44 > R ≥ 43 45 30 69 46 92 > R ≥ 89 48 32 75 50
4.0% 43 > R ≥ 42 60 30 92 46 89 > R ≥ 86 64 32 100 50
V = 25 mph V = 30 mph
R(ft) (Two-Lane) (Multilane) R(ft) (Two-Lane) (Multilane)
L(ft) TR(ft) L(ft) L(ft) TR(ft) TR(ft) L(ft) TR(ft)
NC R ≥ 198 0 0 0 0 R ≥ 333 0 0 0 0
2.0% 198 > R ≥ 167 34 34 52 52 333 > R ≥ 273 36 36 56 56
3.0% 167 > R ≥ 160 51 34 78 52 273 > R ≥ 261 54 36 84 56
4.0% 160 > R ≥ 154 68 34 104 52 261 > R ≥ 250 72 36 112 56
V = 35 mph V = 40 mph
R(ft)
R(ft) (Two-Lane) (Multilane) (Two-Lane) (Multilane)
L(ft) TR(ft) L(ft) TR(ft) L(ft) TR(ft) L(ft) TR(ft)
NC R ≥ 510 0 0 0 0 R ≥ 762 0 0 0 0
2.0% 510 > R ≥ 408 40 40 58 58 762 > R ≥ 593 42 42 62 62
3.0% 408 > R ≥ 389 60 40 116 58 593 > R ≥ 561 63 42 93 62
4.0% 389 > R ≥ 371 80 40 174 58 561 > R ≥ 533 84 42 124 62
V = 45 mph
R(ft) (Two-Lane) (Multilane)
emax = 4.0%
NC R ≥ 1039 0 0 0 0
2.0% 1039 > R ≥ 794 44 44 68 68
3.0% 794 > R ≥ 750 66 44 102 68
4.0% 750 > R ≥ 711 88 44 136 68
Rmin = 711 ft
Key:
R = Radius of curve, ft

(Low-Speed Urban Streets)
Figure 9.4A (US Customary)

V = 30 km/h V = 40 km/h
R(m)
R(m) (Two-Lane) (Multilane) (Two-Lane) (Multilane)
L(m) TR(m) L(m) TR(m) L(m) TR(m) L(m) TR(m)
NC R ≥ 25 0 0 0 0 R ≥ 55 0 0 0 0
2.0% 25 > R ≥ 22 10 10.00 15 15.00 55 > R ≥ 47 15 15.00 15 15.00
3.0% 22 > R ≥ 21 15 10.00 20 13.33 47 > R ≥ 46 15 10.00 20 13.33
4.0% 21 > R ≥ 20 20 10.00 25 12.50 46 > R ≥ 45 20 10.00 25 12.50
Rmin = 20 m Rmin = 45 m
V = 50 km/h V = 60 km/h
R(m)
R(m) (Two-Lane) (Multilane) (Two-Lane) (Multilane)
L(m) TR(m) L(m) TR(m) L(m) TR(m) L(m) TR(m)
NC R ≥ 104 0 0 0 0 R ≥ 178 0 0 0 0
2.0% 104 > R ≥ 86 15 15.00 15 15.00 178 > R ≥ 142 20 20.00 20 20.00
3.0% 86 > R ≥ 83 15 10.00 25 16.67 142 > R ≥ 135 20 13.33 25 16.67
4.0% 83 > R ≥ 80 20 10.00 30 15.00 135 > R ≥ 125 20 10.00 30 15.00
Rmin = 80 m Rmin = 125 m
V = 70 km/h
R(m) (Two-Lane) (Multilane)
L(m) TR(m) L(m) TR(m)
NC R ≥ 258 0 0 0 0
emax = 4.0%
2.0% 258 > R ≥ 204 20 20.00 20 20.00
3.0% 204 > R ≥ 193 20 13.33 25 16.67
4.0% 193 > R ≥ 190 25 12.50 35 17.50
Rmin = 190 m
Key:
R = Radius of curve, m

Figure 9.4A (Metric)

Metric Only
L = e x W x RS ≥ Lmin (Equation 9.4-1)
where: Metric Section only
L = Superelevation runoff length for a 2-lane roadway, m
W = Width of travel lane (assumed to be 3.6 m)
RS = Reciprocal of relative longitudinal slope between the roadway

centerline and outside edge of the traveled way (see Figure 9.4B)
e = Superelevation rate, decimal
Lmin = Minimum superelevation runoff length regardless of calculated L

(see Figure 9.4C), m (Metric Only)
The calculated L values are subject to minimum lengths (Lmin), which are based on
approximately one second of travel time. Note that, where the calculated numbers
apply, L has been rounded up to the next highest 5 m increment in Figure 9.4A.
Tangent Runout
Figure 9.4A presents the tangent runout distances for 2-lane roadways. For roadways
with a normal crown other than 2%, use Equation 9.4-2 to compute the tangent runout
distance. The distance is calculated as follows:
S NORMAL (S NORMAL )(L )

TR = = (Equation 9.4-2)
e/ L e
where:
TR = Tangent runout distance for a 2-lane roadway, ft(m)
S NORMAL = Travel lane cross slope on tangent (typically 2.0%), decimal
e = Design superelevation rate (i.e., full superelevation for

horizontal curve), decimal
L = Superelevation runoff length for a 2-lane roadway, ft(m)

(Equation 9.4-1)
Metric
Maximum
Design Speed(km/h) RS Relative Longitudinal
Slope, G(%)*
30 105 0.98
40 115 0.90
50 125 0.80
60 135 0.74
70 150 0.68
* G(%) = 1/RS x 100
MAXIMUM RELATIVE LONGITUDINAL SLOPES

Figure 9.4B
Minimum
Design Speed(km/h) Superelevation
Runoff Lengths (m)
30 10
40 15
50 15
60 20
70 20
MINIMUM SUPERELEVATION
RUNOFF LENGTHS (Lmin)
Figure 9.4C (Metric Only)

The values in Figure 9.4A are presented to the nearest foot (hundredth of a meter).
This will ensure that the relative longitudinal gradient of the tangent runout equals that
of the superelevation runoff.
The superelevation runoff distance for multilane highways is calculated by:
US Customary Metric
L = 1.5 x e x W x RS L = 1.5 x e x W x RS ≥ Lmin (Equation 9.4-3)
where the terms are as defined for Equation 9.4-1 for 2-lane highways. The calculated
runoff lengths for multilane facilities are 1.5 times those for 2-lane facilities. The longer
lengths are more appropriate for major facilities considering higher traffic volumes and
the desire to provide a higher level of driver comfort.
Figure 9.4A presents the superelevation runoff distances for multilane facilities which
are either the Lmin values (Figure 9.4C) or the calculated values (Equation 9.4-3)
rounded up to the next highest 5 m increment.
Tangent Runout
For multilane highways, the tangent runout distance is calculated from Equation 9.4-2,
where L is the superelevation runoff distance for multilane highways and all other terms
are as defined for Equation 9.4-2. Figure 9.4A presents the tangent runout distances to
the nearest foot (hundredth of a meter). This will ensure that the relative longitudinal
gradient of the tangent runout equals that of the superelevation runoff.
9.4.4.3 Application of Transition Length
The criteria presented in Section 9.3 for open-roadway conditions will also apply to low-
speed urban streets.
9.4.5 Axis of Rotation
On low-speed urban streets, the axis of rotation is typically about the centerline of the
traveled way. This means, for example, if on-street parking is present on one side, the
axis of rotation will not be in the center of the roadway section.
Low-speed urban streets may also present special cases because of the presence of
two-way, left-turn lanes; turning lanes at intersections; etc. For these, where
superelevated, the axis of rotation will be determined on a case-by-case basis.
9.4.6 Shoulder Superelevation
The criteria in Section 9.3 for open-roadway conditions will also apply to low-speed
urban streets.
9.5 HORIZONTAL SIGHT DISTANCE
9.5.1 Sight Obstruction (Definition)
Sight obstructions on the inside of a horizontal curve are defined as obstacles which
interfere with the line of sight on a continuous basis. These include walls, cut slopes,
wooded areas, buildings and high farm crops. In general, point obstacles such as traffic
signs and utility poles are not considered sight obstructions on the inside of horizontal
curves. The designer must examine each curve individually to determine whether it is
necessary to remove an obstruction or to adjust the horizontal alignment to obtain the
required sight distance.
9.5.2 Middle Ordinate
The needed clearance on the inside of the horizontal curve is calculated as follows:
⎛ ⎛ 90° ⋅ S ⎞ ⎞
M = R ⎜⎜1 − COS ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ (Equation 9.5-1)
⎝ ⎝ π ⋅ R ⎠⎠
Where:
M = Middle ordinate, or distance from the center of the inside travel lane
to the obstruction, ft (m)
R = Radius of curve, ft (m)
S = Stopping sight distance, ft (m)
90° ⋅ S ⎞
Note: The expression ⎛⎜ ⎟ is in degrees, not radians.
⎝ π⋅R ⎠
At a minimum, SSD will be available throughout the horizontal curve. Figures 9.5A and
9.5B provide the horizontal clearance criteria (i.e., the middle ordinate) for various
combinations of desirable and minimum stopping sight distances and curve radii. For
those selections of S which fall outside of the figures (i.e., M > 50’(16 m) and/or R <
165’(50 m)), the designer should use Equation 9.5-1 to calculate the needed clearance.
The Example on Figure 9.5C illustrates the determination of clearance requirements at

a horizontal curve based on SSD.
SIGHT DISTANCE AT HORIZONTAL CURVES
...\09_HORIZONTAL_ALIGNMENT.DGN 5/12/2006 10:25:45 AM
Example 9.5-1 US CUSOMARY
Given: Design Speed = 60mph
R = 1400’
Problem: Determine the horizontal clearance requirements for the horizontal curve
using the desirable SSD value.
Solution: Figure 8.6A yields a SSD = 570’. Using Equation 9.5-1 for horizontal
clearance:
⎛ ⎛ 90° ⋅ S ⎞ ⎞
M = R ⎜⎜1 - cos ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ π ⋅ R ⎠⎠
⎛ ⎛ (90° )( 570 ) ⎞ ⎞
M = 1400 ⎜⎜ 1 - cos ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟ = 28.91'
⎝ ⎝ ( π )( 1400 ) ⎠⎠
The above figure also illustrates the horizontal clearance requirements for the entering
and exiting portion of the horizontal curve.
SIGHT CLEARANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR HORIZONTAL CURVES

(Example Problem US Customary)
Example 9.5-1 METRIC
Given: Design Speed = 100 km/h
R = 400 m
Problem: Determine the horizontal clearance requirements for the horizontal curve
using the desirable SSD value.
Solution: Figure 8.6A yields a SSD = 185.0 m. Using Equation 9.5-1 for horizontal
clearance:
⎛ ⎛ 90° ⋅ S ⎞ ⎞
M = R ⎜⎜1 - cos ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ π ⋅ R ⎠⎠
⎛ ⎛ (90° )( 185 ) ⎞ ⎞
M = 400 ⎜⎜ 1 - cos ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟ = 10.65 m
⎝ ⎝ ( π )(400) ⎠⎠
The above figure also illustrates the horizontal clearance requirements for the entering
and exiting portion of the horizontal curve.
SIGHT CLEARANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR HORIZONTAL CURVES

(Example Problem Metric)
Figure 9.5B
9.5.3 Entering/Exiting Portions
The M values as calculated using Equation 9.5-1 apply between the PC and PT of the
horizontal curve (or from the SC to the CS). In addition, some transition is needed on
the entering and exiting portions of the curve. The designer should typically use the
following steps:
Step 1: Locate the point which is on the edge of travel lane and a distance of S/2
before the PC or SC.
Step 2: Locate the point which is a distance M measured laterally from the center
of the travel lane at the PC or SC.
Step 3: Connect the two points located in Step #'s 1 and 2. The area between this
line and the roadway should be clear of all continuous sight obstructions.
Step 4: A symmetrical application of Step #'s 1 through 3 should be used beyond

the PT or CS.
The Example on Figure 9.5B illustrates the determination of clearance requirements

entering and exiting from a simple curve.
9.5.4 Application
For application, the height of eye is 3.5’(1080 mm) and the height of object is 2 ft (600
mm). Both the eye and object are assumed to be in the center of the inside travel lane.
In the elevation view, the line-of-sight intercept with the obstruction is at the midpoint of
the sightline and 2.75 ft (840 mm) above the road surface at the center of the inside
lane.
9.5.5 Longitudinal Barriers
Longitudinal barriers (e.g., bridge rails, guardrail, CMB) can cause sight distance
restrictions at horizontal curves, because barriers are placed relatively close to the
traveled way (often 10’(3 m) or less) and because their height is greater than 2’(600
mm). The designer should check the line of sight over a barrier along a horizontal curve
and attempt to locate the barrier such that it does not block the line of sight. The
following should also be considered:
1. Superelevation. A superelevated roadway will elevate the driver eye and

improve the line of sight over the barrier.
2. Vertical Curves . The line of sight over a barrier may be improved for a driver on
a sag vertical curve and lessened on a crest vertical curve.
3. Barrier Height. The higher the barrier, the more obstructive it will be to the line of
sight.
4. Object Height. Because of the typical heights of barriers, there may be many
sites where the barrier blocks visibility to a 6”(150 mm) object but does not block
the view of a 18”(460 mm) object, the typical height of vehicular taillights. This
observation provides some perspective to the potential safety problem at the site.
Each barrier location on a horizontal curve will require an individual analysis to

determine its impacts on the line of sight. The designer must determine the elevation of
the driver eye, the elevation of the object (2 ft (600 mm) above the pavement surface)
and the elevation of the barrier where the line of sight intercepts the barrier run. If the
barrier does block the line of sight to a 2 ft (600 mm) object, the designer should
consider relocating the barrier or revising the horizontal alignment.
9.6 COMPUTATION OF HORIZONTAL CURVES
9.6.1 Spiral Curves
Special Note: The computation of the spiral curve is dependent on one of two
publications:
¾ Transition Curves for Highways, Public Roads Administration (Joseph Barnett);

and
¾ Oregon Standard Highway Spiral, Oregon Department of Transportation.
The following presents typical figures for computing a spiral curve:
1. Figure 9.6A illustrates the key elements of a spiral curve.

2. Figure 9.6B presents definitions for the spiral curve nomenclature on Figure 9.6A.
3. Figure 9.6C presents equations for computing a spiral curve.
Typically, the known data will be the station of the Master PI, the deflection angle (∆) and
the radius of the circular curve (RC) in feet (meters). As discussed in Section 9.3, the
length of the spiral curve (LS) will be set equal to the length of the superelevation runoff
(Figures 9.3A and 9.3B). Based on the values of ∆, LS and RC, θs can be calculated as
indicated in Figure 9.6C, and the p and k values can be read from Table II in Transition
Curves for Highways by Joseph Barnett. The tangent length (Ts), the external distance
(Es) and the remaining spiral curve data can be computed as described in Figure 9.6C.
Example 9.6-1 illustrates the computation of a spiral curve.
The following steps are used to determine the locations of the TS, SC, CS and ST:
1. PI station - Ts = TS station
2. TS station + Ls = SC station
3. SC station + Lc = CS station
4. CS station + Ls = ST station
Figures 9.6A, 9.6B and 9.6C are consistent with the Barnett spiral publication. It is also
acceptable to use the data from the Oregon Standard Highway Spiral to compute a spiral
curve.
Note: See Figure 9.6B for definition of terms.
SPIRAL CURVE ELEMENTS

Figure 9.6A
SPIRAL TRANSITION CURVE NOMENCLATURE

Master PI = Point of intersection of the main LC = Long chord of spiral, ft(m).
tangents.
p = Offset distance from the main
PC = Point at which the circular curve tangent to the PC or PT of the
extended becomes parallel to the circular curve produced, ft(m)
line from TS to the Master PI.
k = Distance from TS to point on
PT = Point at which the circular curve main tangent opposite the PC
extended becomes parallel to the of the circular curve produced,
line from ST to the Master PI. ft(m)
PIc = Point of intersection of circular curve ∆ = Total deflection angle between
tangents. main tangents of the entire
curve, degrees
PIs = Point of intersection of the main
tangent and tangent of circular curve. ∆c = Deflection angle between
tangents at the SC and the CS
TS = Tangent to spiral; common point of or the central angle of the
spiral and near transition. circular curve, degrees
SC = Spiral to curve; common point of θs = Central angle between the
spiral and circular curve of near tangent of the complete curve
transition. and the tangent at the SC; i.e.,
CS = Curve to spiral; common point of the “spiral angle,” degrees
circular curve and spiral of far φs = Spiral deflection angle from
transition. tangents at TS to SC or from
ST = Spiral to tangent; common point of ST to SC, degrees
spiral and tangent of far transition. xsys = Coordinates of SC from the TS
Rc = Radius of the circular curve (SC to or of CS from ST.
CS), ft(m) L = Length of spiral arc from the
Ls = Length of spiral, ft(m) TS or ST to any point on the
spiral, ft(m)
Lc = Length of circular curve, ft(m)
x,y = Coordinates to any point on
Ts = Tangent distance Master PI to TS or the spiral from TS or ST.
ST, ft(m)
φ = Spiral deflection angle from TS
Tc = Tangent distance from SC or CS to or ST to any point on spiral,
PIc, ft(m) degrees
Es = External distance Master PI to θ = The central angle of spiral arc

midpoint of circular curve, ft(m) L to any point on the spiral,
degrees. θ equals θs when L
LT = Long tangent of spiral only, ft(m) equals Ls. Note that the θ
referred to in Table II of
ST = Short tangent of spiral only, ft(m)
Transition Curves for
Highways is actually θs.
SPIRAL CURVE NOMENCLATURE

Figure 9.6B
CURVE FUNCTIONS
1. θS = (Ls / RC )(90 / π) 4. TS = (RC + p )tan(∆ / 2) + k
2. ∆C = ∆ − 2θS 5. ES = (RC + p )(1 / cos(∆ / 2) − 1) + p =
∆C ⎡ (RC + p ) ⎤
3. LC =
360
2πRC ⎢ cos (∆ / 2) − (RC + p )⎥ + p
⎣ ⎦
6. p and k are obtained from Transition Curves for Highways by Barnett.
SPIRAL FUNCTIONS
θ
Correction for C in Formula : ϕ = −C
3
θS in Degrees 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
C in Minute 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.4 2.2 3.4 4.8 6.6
θ ⎛ yS ⎞
7. ϕ(approx.) = if θS < 15°00' 12. LT = xS − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
3 ⎝ tan θS ⎠
θ
8. ϕ(approx.) = − C , if θS ≥ 15°00' 13. LC =
xs
3 cos ϕS
2
θS ⎡L ⎤ 14. xS = LC cos ϕS
9. ϕ = ⎢ ⎥
3 ⎣ LS ⎦ 15. y S = LC sin ϕS
10.Exact value of ϕ by coordinates
L2
y 16. θ = θ2
tan ϕ = LS 2
x *
yS ⎛ θ2 θ4 θ6 θ8 ⎞⎟
11 ST = 17. x = L⎜⎜1 − + − +
⎝ 10 216 9360 685440 ⎟⎠
sin θS
*
⎛ θ θ3 θ5 θ7 θ9 ⎞
18. y = L⎜⎜ + + − + ⎟
⎟
⎝ 3 42 1320 75600 6894720 ⎠
* θ is in radians for equations 17 and 18 only.
Note : These equations are based on Transitions Curves for Highways by Barnett.
SPIRAL CURVE FORMULAS
Figure 9.6C
**********
Example 9.6-1 (US Customary)
Given: Rural Two-Lane State Highway
Design Speed = 60 mph

∆ = 15°00′00″ Right
(Master) PI Station = 243+18.72
RC = 3000 ft
Problem: If warranted, determine the curve data for the spiral curve.
Solution: The following steps apply:
Step 1: From Section 9.2.2, a spiral curve is warranted on a rural State highway
where R ≤ 3820’. Therefore, use a spiral curve.
Step 2: The length of the spiral curve is set equal to the superelevation runoff (Ls)
length. From Figure 9.3A, Ls = 135 ft for V = 60 mph and RC = 3000 ft
Step 3: From the equations in Figure 9.6C, calculate the curve functions as follows:
1. θ S = ( Ls / RC )(90 / π ) = (135 / 3000)(90 / π )

θ S = 1.28915°...
θ S = 1°17'21" (rounded value)
2. ∆ C = ∆ − 2θ S = (15°0'0" ) − (2°34'42" )
∆ C = 12°25'18" = 12.42167°
∆C 12.42
3. LC = 2πRC = (2π )(3000)
360 360
LC = 650.30967 ft
LC = 650.31 ft (rounded value)
4.* TS = ( RC + p) tan(∆ / 2) + k
⎛ 1 ⎞
5.* E S = ( RC + p )⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ + p
⎝ cos ∆ 2 ⎠
* For Equations 4 and 5, obtain the values for p and k from Table II of
Transition Curves for Highways:
p =.001875 k = 0.499992
Note that these values are for a unit spiral length. To obtain the actual
values for p and k, multiply by Ls,135 ft
p (0.001875) (135) = 0.253125 ft

k = (0.499992) (135) = 67.49892 ft
Therefore:
Ts = (3000 + 0.253) tan (15/2) + 67.499

Ts = 462.489801 ft
Ts = 462.49 ft (rounded value)
Es = (3000 + 0.253) (1/cos(15/2) - 1) + 0.253
Es = 26.1420 ft
Es = 26.14 ft (rounded value)
Step 4: Determine the Stations for TS, SC, CS and ST:
TS Station = PI Station - Ts = 243+18.72 - 462.49 = 238+56.23

SC Station = TS Station + Ls = 238+56.23+ 135 = 239+91.23
CS Station = SC Station + Lc = 239+91.23+ 650.31 = 246+41.54
ST Station = CS Station + Ls = 246+41.54+ 135 = 247+76.54
*********
Example 9.6-1 (Metric)
Given: Rural Two-Lane State Highway
Design Speed = 100 km/h

∆ = 15°00′00″ Right
(Master) PI Station = 43 + 16.63
RC = 900 m
Problem: If warranted, determine the curve data for the spiral curve.
Solution: The following steps apply:
Step 1: From Section 9.2.2, a spiral curve is warranted on a rural State highway
where R ≤ 1165 m. Therefore, use a spiral curve.
Step 2: The length of the spiral curve is set equal to the superelevation runoff (Ls)
length. From Figure 9.3A, Ls = 60 m for V = 100 km/h and RC = 900 m.
Step 3: From the equations in Figure 9.6C, calculate the curve functions as follows:
1. θS = (L s / RC )(90 / π) = (60 / 900)(90 / π)

θS = 1.9098°...
θS = 1°54'35" (rounded value)
2. ∆C = ∆ − 2θS = ( 15°0' 0" ) − ( 3°49'10" )

∆ C = 11°10'50" = 11.1805°
∆C 11.18
3. LC = 2πR C = (2π)(900)
360 360
L C = 175.6237m
L C = 175.62m (rounded value)
4.* TS = (RC + p) tan( ∆ / 2) + k
5.* ES = ( RC + p )( 1 / cos( ∆ / 2 ) − 1) + p
* For Equations 4 and 5, obtain the values for p and k from Table II of
Transition Curves for Highways:
p = 0.00278380 k = 0.49998
Note that these values are for a unit spiral length. To obtain the actual
values for p and k, multiply by Ls (60 m):
p = (0.00278380) (60) = 0.1670 m

k = (0.49998) (60) = 29.9988 m
Therefore:
Ts = (900 + 0.167) tan (15/2) + 29.9988

Ts = 148.5080 m
Ts = 148.51 m (rounded value)
Es = (900 + 0.167) (1/cos(15/2) - 1) + 0.167
Es = 7.9345 m
Es = 7.93 m (rounded value)
Step 4: Determine the Stations for TS, SC, CS and ST:
TS Station = PI Station - Ts = 43 + 16.63 - 148.51 = 41 + 68.12

SC Station = TS Station + Ls = 41 + 68.12 + 60 = 42 + 28.12
CS Station = SC Station + Lc = 42 + 28.12 + 175.62 = 44 + 03.74
ST Station = CS Station + Ls = 44 + 03.74 + 60 = 44 + 63.74
**********
9.6.2 Simple Curves
The following presents typical figures for computing a simple curve:
1. Figure 9.6D illustrates the key elements of a simple curve.
2. Figure 9.6E presents definitions for the simple curve nomenclature on Figure 9.6D.
Typically, the known data will be the station of the PI, the deflection angle (∆) and the
radius of the simple curve (R). The remaining curve data must be computed. Example
9.6-2 illustrates a sample calculation.
**********
Given: ∆ = 7°00′00″
R = 5700 ft
PI Station = 154+56.42
Problem: According to Section 9.2.2 use a simple curve when the radius is greater
than 3820 ft. Assuming the use of a simple curve, determine the curve data.
Solution: Use the equations from Figure 9.6E as follows:
1. T = R(tan(∆ / 2)) = 5700(tan(7 / 2))

T = 348.6269 ft
T = 348.63 ft (rounded value)
∆ 7
2. L= 2πR = (2π )(5700)
360 360
L = 696.38637 ft
L = 696.39 ft (rounded value)
R 5700
3. E= −R= − 5700
cos(∆ / 2) cos(7 / 2)
E = 10.6515 ft
E = 10.65 ft (rounded value)
4. LC = 2 R(sin(∆ / 2)) = (2)(5700)(sin 7 / 2))
LC = 695.95335 ft
LC = 695.95 ft (rounded value)
5. M = R(1 − cos(∆ / 2)) = 5700(1 − cos(7 / 2))
M = 10.6316 ft
M = 10.63 ft (rounded value)
6. Stations are as follows:
Station PC = Station PI - T = 154+56.42 - 348.63 = 151+07.79
Station PT = Station PC + L = 151+07.79 + 695.95 = 158+03.74
Given: ∆ = 7°00′00″
R = 1300 m
PI Station = 22 + 34.58
Problem: Assuming the use of a simple curve, determine the curve data.
Solution: Use the equations from Figure 9.6E as follows:
1. T = R(tan( ∆ / 2 )) = 1300(tan(7 / 2 ))
T = 79.5144m
T = 79.51m (rounded value)
∆ 7
2. L= 2 πR = ( 2 π )(1300 )
360 360
L = 158.82496m
L = 158.82 m (rounded value)
R 1300
3. E= −R = − 1300
cos( ∆ / 2 ) cos( 7 / 2 )
E = 2.4292m
E = 2.43m (rounded value)
4. LC = 2R(sin( ∆ / 2 )) = ( 2 )( 1300 )(sin 7 / 2 ))

LC = 158.7262m
LC = 158.73m (rounded value)
5. M = R( 1 − cos( ∆ / 2 )) = 1300( 1 − cos( 7 / 2 ))

M = 2.4247m
M = 2.42m (rounded value)
6. Stations are as follows:
Station PC = Station PI - T = 22 + 34.58 - 79.51 = 21 + 55.07

Station PT = Station PC + L = 21 + 55.07 + 158.82 = 23 + 13.89
**********
SIMPLE CURVE ELEMENTS
Figure 9.6D
CURVE SYMBOLS
∆ = Deflection angle, degrees

T = Tangent distance, ft(m). T = distance from PC to PI or distance from PI to PT
L = Length of curve, ft(m). L = distance from PC to PT along curve
R = Radius of curvature, ft(m)
E = External distance (PI to mid-point of curve), ft(m)
C = Intersection of radii at center of circular arc
LC = Length of long chord (PC to PT), ft(m)
M = Middle ordinate (mid-point of arc to mid-point of long chord), ft(m)
a = Length of arc to any point on a curve, ft(m)
c = Length of chord from PC to any point on curve, ft(m)
φ = Deflection angle from tangent to any point on curve, degrees
t = Distance along tangent from PC to any point on curve, ft(m)
o = Tangent offset to any point on curve, ft(m)
CURVE FORMULA
sin ( ∆/2) 90a

T = R( tan ( ∆/2)) = R ϕ=
cos ( ∆/2) ( ϕ )( πR)
∆ cos ϕ = (R - o)/2R
L= 2 πR
360
R t = R sin 2 ϕ = (c) cos ϕ
E= - R = T tan ( ∆/4)
cos ( ∆/2) o = (c) sin ϕ
LC = 2R ( sin ( ∆/2)) = 2T ( cos ∆/2)
o = R - R2 - t 2
M = R(1 - cos ( ∆/2)) = E cos ( ∆/2)
o = R - (R cos 2 ϕ )
(200 ϕ )(2 πR) ( ϕ )( πR)
a= =
100(360) 90 o = R(1 - cos 2 ϕ )
⎛ (100)(360a ) ⎞ 90a π = 3.141592654
c = 2R ⎜⎜ sin ⎟⎟ = 2R ( sin )
⎝ (200)(2 πR) ⎠ πR
CIRCULAR CURVE ABBREVIATIONS LOCATING THE PC AND PT
PC = Point of Curvature (Beginning of Station PC = Station PI – T

Curve) Station PT = Station PC + L
PT = Point of Tangency (End of Curve) Stations are in 100 feet (meters). For example,
PI = Point of Intersection of Tangents Sta 13+54.86 means 1354.86 feet (meters) from
PRC = Point of Reverse Curvature Sta 0+00.
PCC = Point of Compound Curvature
SIMPLE CURVE NOMENCLATURE/FORMULAS
Figure 9.6E
9.6.3 Compound Curves
Figure 9.6F illustrates the key elements of a symmetrical, 3-centered compound curve. It
also presents the equations to compute the curve elements assuming that the following
are known:
1. ∆, the deflection angle;
2. p, the offset between the interior curve (extended) to a point where it becomes
parallel with the tangent line;
3. R1, the radius of the flatter entering and exiting curve; and
4. R2, the radius of the sharper, interior curve.
Example 9.6-3 illustrates a sample computation for a 3-centered, symmetrical compound

curve.
**********
Given: ∆ = 40°
R1 = 600 ft
R2 = 250 ft
p = 5 ft
Problem: Determine the curve data for the compound curve.
Solution: Use the equations from Figure 9.6F as follows:
1. T1 = ( R2 + p) tan(∆ / 2) = (250 + 5) tan(40 / 2)
T1 = 92.81 ft
⎡ R − R2 − p ⎤ −1 ⎡ 600 − 250 − 5 ⎤
2. ∆1 = cos −1 ⎢ 1 ⎥ = cos ⎢
⎣ R1 − R2 ⎦ ⎣ 600 − 250 ⎥⎦
∆1 = 9.6963°
∆1 = 9°41'47" (rounded value)
3. T = T1 + ( R1 − R2 ) sin ∆1 = 92.81 + (600 − 250) sin(9.6963°)
T = 151.7591 ft
T = 151.76 ft (rounded value)
4. T2 = T1 − R2 sin ∆1 = 92.81 − (250) sin(9.6963°)

T2 = 50.7036 ft
T2 = 50.70 ft (rounded value)
R2 + p 250 + 5
5. E= − R2 = − 250
cos( ∆ / 2) cos(40 / 2)
E = 21.3653 ft
E = 21.37 ft (rounded value)
⎛ ⎛ 40 ⎞⎞
6. M = R 2 − ( R 2 cos(∆ / 2 − ∆1)) = 250 − ⎜⎜ 250 cos⎜ − 9.6963 ⎟ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
M = 4.0316 ft
M = 4.03 ft (rounded value)
7. y = ( R2 + p) − R2 cos ∆1 = (250 + 5) − (250) cos(9.6963°)
y = 8.5714 ft
y = 8.57 ft (rounded value)
Given: ∆ = 90°
R1 = 55 m
R2 = 18 m
p = 2.5 m
Problem: Determine the curve data for the compound curve.
Solution: Use the equations from Figure 9.6F as follows:
1. T1 = (R 2 + p) tan( ∆ / 2) = (18 + 2.5) tan(90 / 2)
T1 = 20.50m
⎡R − R2 − p ⎤ −1 ⎡ 55 − 18 − 2.5 ⎤
2. ∆1 = cos −1 ⎢ 1 ⎥ = cos ⎢ ⎥
⎣ R1 − R 2 ⎦ ⎣ 55 − 18 ⎦
∆1 = 21.18287...°
∆1 = 21°10'58" (rounded value)
3. T = T1 + (R1 − R 2 ) sin ∆1 = 20.50 + (55 − 18) sin(21°10'58" )

T = 33.8697...m
T = 33.87m (rounded value)
4. T2 = T1 − R 2 sin ∆1 = 20.50 − (18) sin(21°10'58" )
T2 = 13.9958...m
T2 = 14.00m (rounded value)
R2 + p 18 + 2.5
5. E= − R2 = − 18
cos(∆ / 2) cos(90 / 2)
E = 10.9913...m
E = 10.99m (rounded value)
6. M = R1 − [R 2 cos( ∆ / 2 − ∆1 )] = 18 − ((18) cos(90 / 2 − 21°10'58" ))
M = 1.5329...m
M = 1.53m (rounded value)
7. y = ( R2 + p ) − R2 cos ∆1 = (18 + 2.5 ) − (18 ) cos( 21°10' 58" )
y = 3.7162...m
y = 3.72m (rounded value)

CURVE FORMULA
∆ R2 + p
1. T1 = (R 2 + p) tan 5. E= − R2
2 cos( ∆ / 2)
2.
⎡R − R2 − p ⎤
∆1 = cos −1 ⎢ 1 6. M = R2 − [R2 cos(∆ / 2 − ∆1 )]
⎥
⎣ R1 − R 2 ⎦
7. y = (R 2 + p) − R 2 cos ∆1
3. T = T1 + (R1 − R 2 ) sin ∆1
4. T2 = T1 − R2 sin ∆1
Note: “p” is the offset location between the interior curve (extended) to a point where it becomes parallel
with the tangent line. See Figure 9.6E for other circular curve nomenclature.
COMPOUND CURVE ELEMENTS/FORMULAS
Figure 9.6F
9.6.4 Rounding of Curve Data
9.6.4.1 New Horizontal Curve
The following summarizes Department practices for presenting data for a new horizontal
curve on the roadway plans:
1. Deflection Angle. These should be recorded in degrees rounded to the nearest

second of a degree.
2. Linear Distances. These should be recorded in feet (meters) rounded to the

nearest one hundredth of a feet (meters) (i.e., two decimal places).
3. Curve Radii. Normally, curve radii will be selected from those in Figure 9.2C.
Where rounding is necessary, radii should be recorded in feet (meters) rounded to
the nearest 5 feet (meters).
When using computer-generated curve data, the designer must consider the implications
of rounding off the data according to the above criteria. To ensure mathematical
consistency, the following procedure should be used when defining the horizontal
alignment in Geopak:
Given: Horizontal alignment defined with PI coordinates from survey data or design.
Input:
1. Store given PI coordinates.
2. Inverse PI coordinates to produce distance and bearing between PIs.
3. Round distance to two places (0.01). Round bearings to nearest second (01”).
4.
a. Define the horizontal alignment by traversing PI to PI using the rounded

distance and bearing.
b. Set station preference to two places (0.01).
c. Set distance preference to four places (0.0001).

Output:
5.
a. Rounded bearings to nearest second (to be shown on plans).
b. Rounded control point stations to two places (to be shown on plans).
c. Adjusted control point coordinates to four places (to be shown on coordinate

table).
d. Curve data to four places that must be rounded to two places before placing
on plans. Round T, L and E by hand computations using the rounded D and
R as shown on the plans. Minor adjustments to the control point stations
may be necessary to reflect the rounded curved data.
**********
Given: GEOPAK SPIRAL CURVE DATA OUTPUT
Note: GEOPAK spiral curve nomenclature does not match exactly the
nomenclature in Figures 25.6A through 25.6C.
PISCS CG2 N 30,530.4772 E 30,526.8770 STA 202+63.64

Total Tangent = 803.7278
Total Length = 1,582.7160
Total Delta = 26° 13' 01.00" (LT)
Back Tangent = N 72° 51' 14.00" E
Ahead Tangent = N 46° 38' 13.00" E
Spiral Back (Spiral CG2) Type 1 Spiral Element
Angle 2° 00' 19.27" (LT) P 0.6125 BK N 72° 51' 14.00" E

LS 210.0000 K 104.9957 AH N 70° 50' 54.73" E
R 3,000.0000 LT 140.0090 Defl 0° 40' 06.40"
YS 2.4498 ST 70.0082
XS 209.9743 LC 209.9886
A 793.7254
Spiral Coordinates
Point North East Station

TS 30,293.5306 29,758.8700 194+59.91
PI 30,334.8066 29,892.6564 195+99.92
SC 30,357.7739 29,958.7900 196+69.91
CC 33,191.7378 28,974.5904
Circular Section Curve Data
Curve CG2
P.I. Station 202+58.66 N 30,550.9219 E 30,514.9518
Delta = 22° 12' 22.46" (LT)
Tangent = 588.7462
Length = 1,162.7160
Radius = 3,000.0000
External = 57.2246
Long Chord = 1,155.4524
Mid. Ord. = 56.1535
P.C. Station 196+69.91 N 30,357.7739 E 29,958.7900
P.T. Station 208+32.63 N 30,939.9406 E 30,956.8642
C.C. N 33,191.7378 E 28,974.5904
Back = N 70° 50' 54.73" E
Ahead = N 48° 38' 32.27" E
Chord Bear = N 59° 44' 43.50" E Circular Section
Spiral Ahead (Spiral CG2A) Type 2 Spiral Element
Angle 2° 00' 19.27" (LT) P 0.6125 BK N 48° 38' 32.27" E

LS 210.0000 K 104.9957 AH N 46° 38' 13.00" E
R 3,000.0000 LT 140.0090 Defl 0° 40' 06.40"
YS 2.4498 ST 70.0082
XS 209.9743 LC 209.9886
A 793.7254
Spiral Coordinates
CS 30,939.9406 30,956.8642 208+32.63
PI 30,986.1991 31,009.4123 209+02.64
ST 31,082.3319 31,111.2013 210+42.63
CC 33,191.7378 28,974.5904
Problem: Re-compute curve data manually to produce rounded values to be shown

on the plans.
Solution: Hold Geopak values for P.I. Station, ∆, RC and LS.
θ S = (Ls / Rc )(90 π ) = (210 / 3000)(90 / π ) = 2°00'19"
∆ C = ∆ − 2Θs = 26°13'01"−(2)2°00'19" = 22°12'23" → 22.2064°"
⎛ ∆c ⎞
LC = ⎜ ⎟2Π Rc = (22.2064 / 360 )2Π (3000 ) = 1162.72 ft
⎝ 360 ⎠
Ts = ( Rc + p) tan ∆ / 2 + k
Ts = (3000 + 0.6127) tan 26.2169 / 2 + 104.9958
Ts = (3000.6127)(0.2328632) + 104.9958 = 803.73 ft
Use p and k found in Barnett’s (p = 0.6127, k = 104.9958
202+63.64 - 803.73 = 194+59.91 TS

+210
196+69.91 SC
+1162.72
208+32.63 CS
+210
210+42.63 ST
Note: Geopak currently does not have the capability to round curve data and at
the same time produce coordinates to four places. Therefore, coordinates listed in
the coordinate table for PC, PT, TS, SC, CS, ST will differ slightly from coordinates
computed using the rounded curve data shown on the plans.
Given: GEOPAK SPIRAL CURVE DATA OUTPUT
Note: GEOPAK spiral curve nomenclature does not match exactly the
nomenclature in Figures 25.6A through 25.6C.
PISCS CG2 N30,530.4772 E30,526.8770 STA 202+63.64

Total Tangent = 239.6145
Total Length = 471.8148

Total Delta = 26°13’01.00” (LT)
Back Tangent = N 72°51’14.00” E
Ahead Tangent = N 46°38’13.00” E
Spiral Back (Spiral CG2B) Type 1 Spiral Element
Angle = 1°54’35.49” (LT) P = 0.1667 BK = N 72°51’14.00” E

LS = 60.0000 K = 29.9989 AH = N 70°56’38.50” E
R = 900.0000 LT = 40.0023 Defl = 0°38’11.81”
YS = 0.6666 ST = 20.0021 Deg = 6°21’58.31”
XS = 59.9933 LC = 59.9970
A = 232.3790
Spiral Coordinates
TS 30,459.8366 30,297.9119 200+24.03
PI 30,471.6296 30,336.1363 200+64.03
SC 30,478.1602 30,355.0423 200+84.03
CC 31,328.8402 30,061.1998
Circular Section Curve Data
Curve CG2
P.I. Station = 202+62.21 N30,536.3351 E30,523.4601

Delta = 22°23’50.01”(LT)
Tangent = 178.1822
Length = 351.8148
Radius = 900.0000
External = 17.4687
Long Chord = 349.5791
Mid. Ord. = 17.1361
P.C. Station 200+84.03 N30,478.1602 E30,355.0423
P.T. Station 204+35.84 N30,654.2932 E30,657.0071
C.C. N31,328.8402 E30,061.1998
Back = N 70°56’38.50” E
Ahead = N 48°32’48.49” E
Chord Bearing = N 59°44’43.50” E
Spiral Ahead (Spiral CG2A) Type 2 Spiral Element
Angle = 1°54’35.49” (LT) P = 0.1667 BK = N 48°32’48.49” E

LS = 60.0000 K = 29.9989 AH = N46°38’13.00” E

R = 900.0000 LT = 40.0023 Defl = 0°38’11.81”
YS = 0.6666 ST = 20.0021 Deg = 6°21’58.31”
XS = 59.9933 LC = 59.9970
A = 232.3790
Spiral Coordinates
CS 30,654.2932 30,657.0071 204+35.84
PI 30,667.5347 30,671.9986 204+55.84
ST 30,695.0011 30,701.0810 204+95.84
CC 31,328.8402 30,061.1998
Problem: Recompute curve data manually to produce rounded values to be shown on

the plans.
Solution: Hold Geopak values for P.I. Station, ∆, RC and LS.
90 ⋅ 60
θS = = 1.90985...° = 1°54'35.49" → 1°54'35"
π ⋅ 900
∆ C = 26°13'01"−(2)1°54'35" = 26.21694° − 3.81944° = 22.39750° = 22°23'51.0" → 22°23'51"
22°23'51"
LC = 2π900 = 351.819 → 351.82m
360
Ts = ( 900 + p ) tan ∆ / 2 = k
Use p and k found in Barnett’s (p = 0.1670, k = 29.9988)
26°13"01"
TS = (900 + .01670) tan + 29.9988 = 239.61m
2
202+63.64 - 239.61 = 200+24.03 TS

+60
200+84.03 SC
+351.82
204+35.85 CS
+60
204+95.85 ST
Note: Geopak currently does not have the capability to round curve data and at
the same time produce coordinates to four places. Therefore, coordinates listed in
the coordinate table for PC, PT, TS, SC, CS, ST will differ slightly from coordinates
computed using the rounded curve data shown on the plans.
9.6.4.2 Existing Horizontal Curves
For existing US Customary horizontal curves, the Department's rounding practices for
presentation on the roadway plans are:

second of a degree.

nearest one hundredth of a foot (meter) (i.e., two decimal places).
3. Curve Radii. Rounding will be determined by the Project Scope of Work as

follows:
a. Overlay and Widening. Where an existing metric horizontal curve will be

retained in the project, the designer will calculate the US Customary (metric)
radius from the known radius and round to three decimal places. The T and
L distances are then calculated based on the US Customary (metric) radius
and rounded to the nearest 0.01 of a foot (meter). See Example 9.6-5.
b. Reconstruction. Where the alignment for a reconstruction project will

approximate the existing alignment, normally the curve radii will be selected
from those in Figure 9.2C. Where this is not practical, the radii of the
reconstructed curve may be rounded to the nearest 5 feet (meters). The T
and L distances are then calculated based on the US Customary (metric)
radius and rounded to the nearest 0.01 of a foot (meter). See Example 9.6-
6.
**********
Example 9.6-5 (Metric to US Customary)
Given: An existing horizontal curve has the following data in Metric units:
PI Sta = 92+09.86
∆ = 12°30’
R = 1150.00 m
T = 125.95 m
L = 250.89 m
Problem: For an overlay and widening project and assuming the curve will be retained
as is, determine the proper US Customary dimensions for the horizontal
curve.
Solution: The US Customary data are:
PI Sta = 302+16.08
∆ = 12°30’
R = 3772.97’ (D=0°39’31”)
T = 413.22’
L = 823.13’
Example 9.6-6
Given: An existing horizontal curve has the following data in Metric units:
PI Sta = 92+9.86
∆ = 12°30’
R = 1400 m
T = 153.32 m
L = 305.43 m
Problem: For a reconstruction project and assuming the curve will be reconstructed,
determine the proper metric dimensions for the horizontal curve.
Solution: The US Customary data are:
PI Sta = 302+68.57
∆ = 12°30’
R = 4595’ (D=0°48’07”)
T = 503.23’
L = 1002.47’
For existing Metric horizontal curves, the Department's rounding practices for
presentation on the roadway plans are:

second of a degree.

nearest one hundredth of a foot (meter) (i.e., two decimal places).
3. Curve Radii. Rounding will be determined by the Project Scope of Work as

follows:
a. Overlay and Widening. Where an existing horizontal curve will be retained

in the project, the designer will calculate the metric radius from the known
radius and round to three decimal places. The T and L distances are then
calculated based on the metric radius and rounded to the nearest 0.01 of a
meter. See Example 9.6-5.
b. Reconstruction. Where the alignment for a reconstruction project will

approximate the existing alignment, normally the curve radii will be selected
from those in Figure 9.2C. Where this is not practical, the radii of the
reconstructed curve may be rounded to the nearest 5 meters. The T and L
distances are then calculated based on the metric radius and rounded to the
nearest 0.01 of a meter. See Example 9.6-6.
**********
Example 9.6-5 (US Customary to Metric)
Given: An existing horizontal curve has the following data in US Customary units:
PI Sta = 302+68.57
∆ = 12°30’
R = 4583.66’ (D=1°15’)
T = 501.99’
L = 1000.00’
Problem: For an overlay and widening project and assuming the curve will be retained
as is, determine the proper metric dimensions for the horizontal curve.
Solution: The metric data are:
PI Sta = 92+9.86
∆ = 12°30’
R = 1397.010 m
T = 153.00 m
L = 304.78 m
Example 9.6-6
Given: An existing horizontal curve has the following data in US Customary units:
PI Sta = 302+68.57
∆ = 12°30’
R = 4583.66’ (D=1°15’)
T = 501.99’
L = 1000.00’
Problem: For a reconstruction project and assuming the curve will be reconstructed,
determine the proper metric dimensions for the horizontal curve.
Solution: The metric data are:
PI Sta = 92+9.86
∆ = 12°30’
R = 1400 m
T = 153.32 m
L = 305.43 m
**********
9.6.5 Stationing and Bearings
The following will apply to projects where control points are used to establish horizontal
alignment:
1. Rounding. All stationing will be rounded to the nearest hundredth of a foot (meter)
(i.e., two decimal places). All bearings will be rounded to the nearest second of a
degree. When rounding computer-generated bearings, the designer must ensure
that the rounded numbers for bearings are mathematically consistent.
2. Coordinates. The designer will prepare a table of coordinates for the linear and
level data sheet. The table will illustrate the coordinate values for all control points
for either the staked centerline or control traverse survey and for the projected
centerline. The control points will include the project beginning and ending points;
the PC, PI and PT for simple curves; the TS, SC, (Master) PI, CS and ST for spiral
curves; and all equations. All coordinates must be computed to at least five
decimals and rounded in the table to the nearest four decimals.
For projects using the as-built plans as the basis of horizontal alignment (typically overlay
projects), the designer will soft convert the as-built stationing to US Customary. Retain
the degree of accuracy shown on the as-built plans. Also, when existing right-of-way
(R/W) plans are used to describe additional R/W acquisition, the designer will ensure that
the accuracy of the stationing and bearings matches that of the old R/W plans.
For projects with a new survey (typically reconstruction or major widening projects), new
metric stationing should be used.
9.6.6 Equations
The following will apply to the use of equations in project stationing:
1. Purpose. An equation is used to equate two station numbers — one that is correct
when measuring on the line back of the equation and one that is correct when
measuring on the line ahead of the equation. Equations should be used where
stationing is not continuous throughout a project.
2. Locations. Equations should be computed where design lines become coincident

with staked lines. This situation is illustrated in Figure 9.6G.
Equations also should be computed in certain cases where design lines become
parallel with staked lines. If the design line remains parallel with the staked line for
a considerable distance through numerous cross sections, it is more convenient to
compute an equation than to re-station the cross sections. An example of such an
equation is illustrated in Figure 9.6H.
Note: If back station > ahead station, equation is (+). If back station < ahead station, equation is (-).
EQUATION WHERE DESIGN LINE BECOMES COINCIDENT
Figure 9.6G
EQUATION WHERE DESIGN LINE BECOMES PARALLEL WITH STAKED LINE
Figure 9.6H

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9 January 2007

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

9.1 GENERAL CONTROLS ................................................................... 9.1(1)

9.2 HORIZONTAL CURVES .................................................................. 9.2(1)

9.2.1 Definitions ........................................................................ 9.2(1)

9.2.3.1 Basic Curve Equation....................................... 9.2(2)

9.2.4 Minimum Radii ................................................................. 9.2(3)

9.3 SUPERELEVATION (OPEN-ROADWAY CONDITIONS) ................ 9.3(1)

9.3.1 Definitions ........................................................................ 9.3(1)

9.3.5.1 Two-Lane Roadways ....................................... 9.3(7)

9.3.6 Axis of Rotation ................................................................ 9.3(13)

9.3.6.1 Two-Lane, Two-Way Highways ....................... 9.3(13)

9.3.7 Shoulder Superelevation.................................................. 9.3(13)

9.3.9 Broken-Back Curves ........................................................ 9.3(15)

9.4 SUPERELEVATION RATES (LOW-SPEED URBAN STREETS) .... 9.4(1)

9.4.1 General ............................................................................ 9.4(1)

9.4.4.1 Two-Lane Roadways ....................................... 9.4(2)

9.4.5 Axis of Rotation ................................................................ 9.4(7)

9.5 HORIZONTAL SIGHT DISTANCE ................................................... 9.5(1)

9.5.1 Sight Obstruction (Definition) ........................................... 9.5(1)

9.6 COMPUTATION OF HORIZONTAL CURVES................................. 9.6(1)

9.6.1 Spiral Curves.................................................................... 9.6(1)

9.6.4.1 New Horizontal Curve ...................................... 9.6(17)

9.6.5 Stationing and Bearings ................................................... 9.6(26)

9.1 GENERAL CONTROLS

1. Consistency. Alignment should be consistent. Avoid sharp curves at the ends of

2. Directional. Alignment should be as directional as practical and consistent with

5. Alignment Reversals. Avoid abrupt reversals in alignment ("S" or reverse

6. Broken-Back Curvature. Avoid where practical. This arrangement is not

7. Compound Curves. Avoid the use of compound curves on highway mainline.

8. Coordination with Natural/Man-Made Features. The horizontal alignment should

9. Environmental Impacts. Horizontal alignment should be properly coordinated

10. Intersections. Horizontal alignment through intersections may present special

13. Coordination with existing PTW. . Horizontal alignment should be properly

9.2 HORIZONTAL CURVES

3. Spiral Curves. These are curvature arrangements used to transition between a

5. Broken-Back Curves. Broken-back curves are two closely spaced horizontal

9.2.2 Selection of Curve Type

a. R ≤ 3820’(1165 m) — use a spiral curve.

b. R > 3820’(1165 m) — use a simple curve.

2. Low-Speed (V ≤ 45mph(70 km/h)) Urban Roadways/Non-State Highways.

9.2.3 Calculation of Curve Radius

9.2.3.1 Basic Curve Equation

9.2.3.2 General Theory

1. Open-Roadway Conditions. The theoretical basis for horizontal curvature

a. relatively low maximum side-friction factors (i.e., a relatively small level of

b. the use of AASHTO Method 5 to distribute side friction and

2. Low-Speed Urban Streets. The theoretical basis for horizontal curvature

a. relatively high maximum side-friction factors to reflect a higher level of

b. the use of AASHTO Method 2 to distribute side friction and

Low-speed urban streets are defined as streets within an urban or urbanized

9.2.4 Minimum Radii

9.2.5 Selection of Curve Radius

Design Speed, Minimum Radii,

Design Speed, Minimum Radii,

Design Speed, Minimum Radii,

Design Speed, Minimum Radii,

Select curve radii from the following

Relationship of Degree of curvature to radius