UNIT 2

MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Medium Access Control (MAC) address is a hardware address use to uniquely identify each
node of a network. It provides addressing and channel access control mechanisms to enable
the several terminals or network nodes to communicate in a specified network. Medium
Access Control of data communication protocol is also named as Media Access Control. In
IEEE 802 OSI Reference model of computer networking, the Data Link Control (DLC) layer
is subdivided into two sub-layers:

 The Logical Link Control (LLC) layer and

 The Medium Access Control (MAC) layer

The MAC sublayer acts as a direct interface between the logical link control (LLC) Ethernet
sublayer and the physical layer of reference model. Consequently, each different type of
network medium requires a different MAC layer. On networks that don’t conform they are
part of IEEE 802 standards but they do conform that they participate OSI Reference Model
then the node address is named the Data Link Control (DLC) address. The MAC sublayer
emulates a full-duplex logical communication channel in a multipoint network system. These
communication channels may provide unicast, multicast and/or broadcast communication
services.

LLC and MAC Sublayer

One of the most commonly used of MAC sublayer for wired networks i.e. Carrier Sense
Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). Through MAC schema, a sender
senses the medium (a wire or coaxial cable) before transmission of data to check whether the
medium is free or not. If MAC senses that the medium is busy, the sender waits until it is
free. When medium becomes free, the sender starts transmitting of data and continues to
listen into the medium. If any kind of collision detected by sender while sending data, it stops
at once and sends a jamming signal. But this scheme doest work well with wireless networks.
Some of the problems that occur when it uses to transfer data through wireless networks are
as follow;

 Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance

 The sender would apply Carrier Sense (CS) and Collision Detection (CD), but the
collisions happen at the receiver
 It might be a case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does not work
 Furthermore, CS might not work, if for e.g., the terminals

(QP16) Gather the Hidden Terminal problem and Exposed Terminal

problem in the wireless network with appropriate diagram. Provide
some important solutions to deal with both the problems(5).

Hidden Terminal Problem and Exposed Terminal Problem

A significant difference between wired and wireless LANs is the fact that, in general a fully
connected topology between the WLAN nodes cannot b assumed. This problem gives rise to
‘hidden’ and ‘exposed’ station problems.
Hidden terminals
A sends to B, C cannot hear A
C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails) and starts transmitting
Collision at B occurs, A cannot detect this collision (CD fails) and continues with its
transmission to B
A is “hidden” from C and vice versa
Exposed terminals
B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B) outside the range
C senses the carrier and detects that the carrier is busy.
C postpones its transmission until it detects the medium as being idle again
but A is outside radio range of C, waiting is not necessary
C is “exposed” to B
Hidden terminals cause collisions, where as Exposed terminals causes unnecessary delay.
(Qp33) How does the near and far effect influence TDMA systems?
What happens in CDMA systems?(5)
Near and far terminals

Consider the situation shown below. A and B are both sending with the same transmission
power.
Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
So, B’s signal drowns out A’s signal making C unable to receive A’s transmission
If C is an arbiter for sending rights, B drown out A’s signal on the physical layer making
C unable to hear out A.
The near/far effect is a severe problem of wireless networks using CDM. All signals should
arrive at the receiver with more or less the same strength for which Precise power control is
to be implemented.
Spread Spectrum
A collective class of signalling techniques are employed before transmitting a signal to
provide a secure communication, known as the Spread Spectrum Modulation. The main
advantage of spread spectrum communication technique is to prevent “interference” whether
it is intentional or unintentional.
The signals modulated with these techniques are hard to interfere and cannot be jammed. An
intruder with no official access is never allowed to crack them. Hence, these techniques are
used for military purposes. These spread spectrum signals transmit at low power density and
has a wide spread of signals.

Pseudo-Noise Sequence

A coded sequence of 1s and 0s with certain auto-correlation properties, called as Pseudo-

Noise coding sequence is used in spread spectrum techniques. It is a maximum-length
sequence, which is a type of cyclic code.

Narrow-band and Spread-spectrum Signals

Both the Narrow band and Spread spectrum signals can be understood easily by observing
their frequency spectrum as shown in the following figures.

Narrow-band Signals

The Narrow-band signals have the signal strength concentrated as shown in the following
frequency spectrum figure.
Following are some of its features −

 Band of signals occupy a narrow range of frequencies.

 Power density is high.
 Spread of energy is low and concentrated.
Though the features are good, these signals are prone to interference.

Spread Spectrum Signals

The spread spectrum signals have the signal strength distributed as shown in the following
frequency spectrum figure.

Following are some of its features −

 Band of signals occupy a wide range of frequencies.

 Power density is very low.
 Energy is wide spread.
With these features, the spread spectrum signals are highly resistant to interference or
jamming. Since multiple users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without
interfering with one another, these can be called as multiple access techniques.
Model of Spread Spectrum

Input is fed into a channel encoder that produces an analog signal with a relatively
narrow bandwidth.
 This signal is further modulated using a sequence of digits known as a spreading code .
The spreading code is generated by a pseudonoise generator.
This increases the bandwidth (spread the spectrum) of the signal to be transmitted.
On the receiving end, the same digit sequence is used to demodulate the spread spectrum
signal.
Finally, the signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover the data.

(QP26) Modulate the narrow band signal to spread spectrum signal

using Frequency Hopping and Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS) with the help of XOR operation.(10)
FHSS and DSSS / CDMA

Spread spectrum multiple access techniques uses signals which have a transmission
bandwidth of a magnitude greater than the minimum required RF bandwidth.
These are of two types.

 Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum FHSSFHSS

 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSSDSSS
(QP22) Examine how frequency hopping spread spectrum effectively
using the allocated bandwidth? Write short note on TDMA, FDMA,
and CDMA(10)
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum FHSSFHSS

This is frequency hopping technique, where the users are made to change the frequencies of
usage, from one to another in a specified time interval, hence called as frequency hopping.
For example, a frequency was allotted to sender 1 for a particular period of time. Now, after
a while, sender 1 hops to the other frequency and sender 2 uses the first frequency, which
was previously used by sender 1. This is called as frequency reuse.
The frequencies of the data are hopped from one to another in order to provide a secure
transmission. The amount of time spent on each frequency hop is called as Dwell time.
There are two types of Frequency hopping

Slow frequency hopping

Fast frequency hopping

In slow-frequency hopping there is one or more symbols per hop while in fast hop there are
several frequency hops per message symbol.Slow hop is more susceptible to jamming than
fast hopping.

The following figure shows the general layout for FHSS. A pseudorandom code generator,
called pseudorandom noise (PN), creates a k-bit pattern for every hopping period Th•
 
The frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency to be used for this hopping period
and passes it to the frequency synthesizer. The frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal
of that frequency, and the source signal modulates the carrier signal.
For Example M is 8 and k is 3. The pseudorandom code generator will create eight different
3-bit patterns. These are mapped to eight different frequencies in the frequency table as
shown in the following figure.

The pattern for this station is 101, 111, 001, 000, 010, all, 100. Note that the pattern is
pseudorandom it is repeated after eight hoppings. This means that at hopping period 1, the
pattern is 101. The frequency selected is 700 kHz, the source signal modulates this carrier
frequency.
The second k-bit pattern selected is 111, which selects the 900-kHz carrier; the eighth pattern
is 100, the frequency is 600 kHz. After eight hoppings, the pattern repeats, starting from 101
again. 
If there are many k-bit patterns and the hopping period is short, a sender and receiver can
have privacy. If an intruder tries to intercept the transmitted signal, she can only access a
small piece of data because she does not know the spreading sequence to quickly adapt
herself to the next hop. The scheme has also an anti-jamming effect. A malicious sender may
be able to send noise to jam the signal for one hopping period (randomly), but not for the
whole period.

(QP 36) With an example brief about the direct sequence spread
spectrum(5)
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum DSSSDSSS
Whenever a user wants to send data using this DSSS technique, each and every bit of the
user data is multiplied by a secret code, called as chipping code. This chipping code is
nothing but the spreading code which is multiplied with the original message and
transmitted. The receiver uses the same code to retrieve the original message.
The direct sequence spread spectrum (nSSS) technique also expands the bandwidth of the
original signal, but the process is different. In DSSS, we replace each data bit with n bits
using a spreading code. In other words, each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips,
where the chip rate is n times that of the data bit. The following figure shows the concept of
DSSS.

As an example, let us consider the sequence used in a wireless LAN, the famous Barker
sequence where n is 11. We assume that the original signal and the chips in the chip generator
use polar NRZ encoding. The following figure shows the chips and the result of multiplying
the original data by the chips to get the spread signal.

In the figure, the spreading code is 11 chips having the pattern 10110111000 (in this case). If
the original signal rate is N, the rate of the spread signal is 11N. This means that the required
bandwidth for the spread signal is 11 times larger than the bandwidth of the original signal.
The spread signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know the code. It can also
provide immunity against interference if each station uses a different code.

(QP28) Highlight the differences between DSSS and FHSS. Justify

which model has effective bandwidth utilization
(QP31) Compare the contrast between Frequency Hopping and
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)(10)
Comparison between FHSS and DSSS/CDMA

Both the spread spectrum techniques are popular for their characteristics. To have a clear
understanding, let us take a look at their comparisons.
FHSS DSSS / CDMA

Multiple frequencies are used Single frequency is used

Hard to find the user’s frequency at any instant of User frequency, once allotted is always the
time same

Frequency reuse is allowed Frequency reuse is not allowed

Sender need not wait Sender has to wait if the spectrum is busy

Power strength of the signal is high Power strength of the signal is low

Stronger and penetrates through the obstacles It is weaker compared to FHSS

It is never affected by interference It can be affected by interference

It is cheaper It is expensive

This is the commonly used technique This technique is not frequently used

Advantages of Spread Spectrum

Following are the advantages of spread spectrum −

 Cross-talk elimination
 Better output with data integrity
 Reduced effect of multipath fading
 Better security
 Reduction in noise
 Co-existence with other systems
 Longer operative distances
 Hard to detect
 Not easy to demodulate/decode
 Difficult to jam the signals
Although spread spectrum techniques were originally designed for military uses, they are
now being used widely for commercial purpose.

ACCESS METHODS
Access methods are multiplexing techniques that provide communications services to
multiple users in a single-bandwidth wired or wireless medium. Communications channels,
whether they’re wireless spectrum segments or cable connections, are expensive.
Communications services providers must engage multiple paid users over limited resources
to make a profit. Access methods allow many users to share these limited channels to provide
the economy of scale necessary for a successful communications business. There are five
basic access or multiplexing methods: frequency division multiple access (FDMA), time
division multiple access (TDMA), code division multiple access (CDMA), orthogonal
frequency division multiple access (OFDMA), and spatial division multiple access (SDMA).

(QP18) Explain the following Multiple Access Techniques used to

access the channel by mobile subscriber. (i) Time Division Multiple
Access, (ii) Code Division Multiple Access.(10)

(QP29) Elaborate the working of medium access control protocols

TDMA, FDMA, and CDMA usage in various Cellular Network
Generations.(10)

Access Method

 FDMA
 TDMA
 CDMA
 OFDMA
 SDMA
 Other Methods
 References

(QP 7) How does GSM use both FDMA and TDMA technologies?
State where use FDMA and TDMA(5).

FDMA

FDMA is the process of dividing one channel or bandwidth into multiple individual bands,
each for use by a single user (Fig. 1). Each individual band or channel is wide enough to
accommodate the signal spectra of the transmissions to be propagated. The data to be
transmitted is modulated on to each subcarrier, and all of them are linearly mixed together.

1. FDMA divides the shared medium bandwidth into individual channels. Subcarriers
modulated by the information to be transmitted occupy each subchannel.

The best example of this is the cable television system. The medium is a single coax cable
that is used to broadcast hundreds of channels of video/audio programming to homes. The
coax cable has a useful bandwidth from about 4 MHz to 1 GHz. This bandwidth is divided up
into 6-MHz wide channels. Initially, one TV station or channel used a single 6-MHz band.
But with digital techniques, multiple TV channels may share a single band today thanks to
compression and multiplexing techniques used in each channel.

This technique is also used in fiber optic communications systems. A single fiber optic cable
has enormous bandwidth that can be subdivided to provide FDMA. Different data or
information sources are each assigned a different light frequency for transmission. Light
generally isn’t referred to by frequency but by its wavelength (λ). As a result, fiber optic
FDMA is called wavelength division multiple access (WDMA) or just wavelength division
multiplexing (WDM).

One of the older FDMA systems is the original analog telephone system, which used a
hierarchy of frequency multiplex techniques to put multiple telephone calls on single line.
The analog 300-Hz to 3400-Hz voice signals were used to modulate subcarriers in 12
channels from 60 kHz to 108 kHz. Modulator/mixers created single sideband (SSB) signals,
both upper and lower sidebands. These subcarriers were then further frequency multiplexed
on subcarriers in the 312-kHz to 552-kHz range using the same modulation methods. At the
receiving end of the system, the signals were sorted out and recovered with filters and
demodulators.

Original aerospace telemetry systems used an FDMA system to accommodate multiple

sensor data on a single radio channel. Early satellite systems shared individual 36-MHz
bandwidth transponders in the 4-GHz to 6-GHz range with multiple voice, video, or data
signals via FDMA. Today, all of these applications use TDMA digital techniques.
TDMA

TDMA is a digital technique that divides a single channel or band into time slots. Each time
slot is used to transmit one byte or another digital segment of each signal in sequential serial
data format. This technique works well with slow voice data signals, but it’s also useful for
compressed video and other high-speed data.

A good example is the widely used T1 transmission system, which has been used for years in
the telecom industry. T1 lines carry up to 24 individual voice telephone calls on a single
line (Fig. 2). Each voice signal usually covers 300 Hz to 3000 Hz and is digitized at an 8-kHz
rate, which is just a bit more than the minimal Nyquist rate of two times the highest-
frequency component needed to retain all the analog content.

2. This T1 digital telephony frame illustrates TDM and TDMA. Each time slot is allocated to
one user. The high data rate makes the user unaware of the lack of simultaneity.

The digitized voice appears as individual serial bytes that occur at a 64-kHz rate, and 24 of
these bytes are interleaved, producing one T1 frame of data. The frame occurs at a 1.536-
MHz rate (24 by 64 kHz) for a total of 192 bits. A single synchronizing bit is added for
timing purposes for an overall data rate of 1.544 Mbits/s. At the receiving end, the individual
voice bytes are recovered at the 64-kHz rate and passed through a digital-to-analog converter
(DAC) that reproduces the analog voice.

The basic GSM (Global System of Mobile Communications) cellular phone system is
TDMA-based. It divides up the radio spectrum into 200-kHz bands and then uses time
division techniques to put eight voice calls into one channel. Figure 3 shows one frame of a
GSM TDMA signal. The eight time slots can be voice signals or data such as texts or e-mails.
The frame is transmitted at a 270-kbit/s rate using Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK),
which is a form of frequency shift keying (FSK) modulation.
 

3. This GSM digital cellular method shows how up to eight users can share a 200-kHz
channel in different time slots within a frame of 1248 bits.

CDMA

CDMA is another pure digital technique. It is also known as spread spectrum because it takes
the digitized version of an analog signal and spreads it out over a wider bandwidth at a lower
power level. This method is called direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) as well (Fig. 4).
The digitized and compressed voice signal in serial data form is spread by processing it in an
XOR circuit along with a chipping signal at a much higher frequency. In the cdma IS-95
standard, a 1.2288-Mbit/s chipping signal spreads the digitized compressed voice at 13
kbits/s.

The third generation (3G) cell-phone technology called wideband CDMA (WCDMA) uses a
similar method with compressed voice and 3.84-Mbit/s chipping codes in a 5-MHz channel to
allow multiple users to share the same band.

OFDMA

OFDMA is the access technique used in Long-Term Evolution (LTE) cellular systems to
accommodate multiple users in a given bandwidth. Orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) is a modulation method that divides a channel into multiple narrow
orthogonal bands that are spaced so they don’t interfere with one another. Each band is
divided into hundreds or even thousands of 15-kHz wide subcarriers.

The data to be transmitted is divided into many lower-speed bit streams and modulated onto
the subcarriers. Time slots within each subchannel data stream are used to package the data to
be transmitted (Fig. 5). This technique is very spectrally efficient, so it provides very high
data rates. It also is less affected by multipath propagation effects.

To implement OFDMA, each user is assigned a group of subchannels and related time slots.
The smallest group of subchannels assigned is 12 and called a resource block (RB). The
system assigns the number of RBs to each user as needed.

SDMA

SDMA uses physical separation methods that permit the sharing of wireless channels. For
instance, a single channel may be used simultaneously if the users are spaced far enough from
one another to avoid interference. Known as frequency reuse, the method is widely used in
cellular radio systems. Cell sites are spaced from one another to minimize interference.

In addition to spacing, directional antennas are used to avoid interference. Most cell sites use
three antennas to create 120° sectors that allow frequency sharing (Fig. 6a). New
technologies like smart antennas or adaptive arrays use dynamic beamforming to shrink
signals into narrow beams that can be focused on specific users, excluding all others (Fig.
6b).
(QP39) Tabulate the comparison between SDMA, TDMA, FDMA,
and CDMA used in wireless networks (10)

Global System For Telecommunication

What is GSM?

If you are in Europe or Asia and using a mobile phone, then most probably you are using
GSM technology in your mobile phone.
 GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is a digital cellular
technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services.
 The concept of GSM emerged from a cell-based mobile radio system at Bell
Laboratories in the early 1970s.
  GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common
European mobile telephone standard.
 GSM is the most widely accepted standard in telecommunications and it is
implemented globally.
 GSM is a circuit-switched system that divides each 200 kHz channel into eight 25
kHz time-slots. GSM operates on the mobile communication bands 900 MHz and
1800 MHz in most parts of the world. In the US, GSM operates in the bands 850
MHz and 1900 MHz.
 GSM owns a market share of more than 70 percent of the world's digital cellular
subscribers.
 GSM makes use of narrowband Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) technique
for transmitting signals.
 GSM was developed using digital technology. It has an ability to carry 64 kbps to
120 Mbps of data rates.
 Presently GSM supports more than one billion mobile subscribers in more than 210
countries throughout the world.
 GSM provides basic to advanced voice and data services including roaming service.
Roaming is the ability to use your GSM phone number in another GSM network.
GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down through a channel with two other
streams of user data, each in its own timeslot.
GSM offers much more than just voice telephony. Contact your local GSM network
operator to the specific services that you can avail.
GSM offers three basic types of services:

 Telephony services or teleservices

 Data services or bearer services
 Supplementary services

Teleservices

The abilities of a Bearer Service are used by a Teleservice to transport data. These services
are further transited in the following ways:

Voice Calls

The most basic Teleservice supported by GSM is telephony. This includes full-rate speech at
13 kbps and emergency calls, where the nearest emergency-service provider is notified by
dialing three digits.

Videotext and Facsmile

Another group of teleservices includes Videotext access, Teletex transmission, Facsmile

alternate speech and Facsmile Group 3, Automatic Facsmile Group, 3 etc.

Short Text Messages

Short Messaging Service (SMS) service is a text messaging service that allows sending and
receiving text messages on your GSM mobile phone. In addition to simple text messages,
other text data including news, sports, financial, language, and location-based data can also
be transmitted.

Bearer Services

Data services or Bearer Services are used through a GSM phone. to receive and send data is
the essential building block leading to widespread mobile Internet access and mobile data
transfer. GSM currently has a data transfer rate of 9.6k. New developments that will push up
data transfer rates for GSM users are HSCSD (high speed circuit switched data) and GPRS
(general packet radio service) are now available.

Supplementary Services

Supplementary services are additional services that are provided in addition to teleservices
and bearer services. These services include caller identification, call forwarding, call
waiting, multi-party conversations, and barring of outgoing (international) calls, among
others. A brief description of supplementary services is given here:
 Conferencing : It allows a mobile subscriber to establish a multiparty conversation,
i.e., a simultaneous conversation between three or more subscribers to setup a
conference call. This service is only applicable to normal telephony.
 Call Waiting : This service notifies a mobile subscriber of an incoming call during a
conversation. The subscriber can answer, reject, or ignore the incoming call.
 Call Hold : This service allows a subscriber to put an incoming call on hold and
resume after a while. The call hold service is applicable to normal telephony.
 Call Forwarding : Call Forwarding is used to divert calls from the original recipient
to another number. It is normally set up by the subscriber himself. It can be used by
the subscriber to divert calls from the Mobile Station when the subscriber is not
available, and so to ensure that calls are not lost.
 Call Barring : Call Barring is useful to restrict certain types of outgoing calls such as
ISD or stop incoming calls from undesired numbers. Call barring is a flexible service
that enables the subscriber to conditionally bar calls.
 Number Identification : There are following supplementary services related to
number identification:
o Calling Line Identification Presentation : This service displays the
telephone number of the calling party on your screen.
o Calling Line Identification Restriction : A person not wishing their number
to be presented to others subscribes to this service.
o Connected Line Identification Presentation : This service is provided to
give the calling party the telephone number of the person to whom they are
connected. This service is useful in situations such as forwarding's where the
number connected is not the number dialled.
o Connected Line Identification Restriction : There are times when the
person called does not wish to have their number presented and so they
 would subscribe to this person. Normally, this overrides the presentation
service.
o Malicious Call Identification : The malicious call identification service was
provided to combat the spread of obscene or annoying calls. The victim
should subscribe to this service, and then they could cause known malicious
calls to be identified in the GSM network, using a simple command.
 Advice of Charge (AoC) : This service was designed to give the subscriber an
indication of the cost of the services as they are used. Furthermore, those service
providers who wish to offer rental services to subscribers without their own SIM can
also utilize this service in a slightly different form. AoC for data calls is provided on
the basis of time measurements.
 Closed User Groups (CUGs) : This service is meant for groups of subscribers who
wish to call only each other and no one else.
 Unstructured supplementary services data (USSD) : This allows operator-defined
individual services.

(QP13) i) Draw and describe the architecture of GSM System. (ii)

Enlist the differences between GSM and GPRS system, if any? (iii)
Write a note on two of the GSM mobility databases.(10)
(QP35) Summarize the working of GSM? Organize its subsystem
using its various elements and interfaces? Highlight the functions and
roles of each subsystem(10)

The GSM architecture consists of three major interconnected subsystems that interact with
themselves and with users through certain network interface. The subsystems are Base
Station Subsystem (BSS), Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) and Operational Support
Subsystem (OSS). Mobile Station (MS) is also a subsystem but it is considered as a part of
BSS.
1. Mobile Station (MS): Mobile Station is made up of two entities.
A. Mobile equipment (ME):

 It is a portable, vehicle mounted, hand held device.

 It is uniquely identified by an IMEI number.
 It is used for voice and data transmission. It also monitors power and signal quality of
surrounding cells foe optimum handover. 160 characters long SMS can also be sent
using Mobile Equipment.

B. Subscriber Identity module (SIM):

 It is a smart card that contains the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
number.
 It allows users to send and receive calls and receive other subscriber services. - It is
protected by password or PIN.
 It contains encoded network identification details. it has key information to activate
the phone.
 It can be moved from one mobile to another.

2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): It is also known as radio subsystem, provides and
manages radio transmission paths between the mobile station and the Mobile Switching
Centre (MSC). BSS also manages interface between the mobile station and all other
subsystems of GSM. It consists of two parts.
A. Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

 It encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates and feeds the RF signal to the antenna.
 It consists of transceiver units.
 It communicates with mobile stations via radio air interface and also communicates
with BSC via Abis interface.

B. Base Station Controller (BSC):

 It manages radio resources for BTS. It assigns frequency and time slots for all mobile
stations in its area.
 It handles call set up, transcoding and adaptation functionality handover for each MS
radio power control.
 It communicates with MSC via A interface and also with BTS.

3. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS): it manages the switching functions of the system
and allows MSCs to communicate with other networks such as PSTN and ISDN. It consist of
A. Mobile switching Centre:

 It is a heart of the network. It manages communication between GSM and other

networks.
 It manages call set up function, routing and basic switching.
 It performs mobility management including registration, location updating and inter
BSS and inter MSC call handoff.
 It provides billing information.
  MSC does gateway function while its customers roam to other network by using
HLR/VLR.

B. Home Location Registers (HLR): - It is a permanent database about mobile subscriber in

a large service area. - Its database contains IMSI, IMSISDN, prepaid/post-paid, roaming
restrictions, supplementary services.
C. Visitor Location Registers (VLR): - It is a temporary database which updates whenever
new MS enters its area by HLR database. - It controls mobiles roaming in its area. It reduces
number of queries to HLR. - Its database contains IMSI, TMSI, IMSISDN, MSRN, location,
area authentication key.
D. Authentication Centre: - It provides protection against intruders in air interface. - It
maintains authentication keys and algorithms and provides security triplets (RAND, SRES,
Ki).
E. Equipment Identity Registry (EIR):

 It is a database that is used to track handset using the IMEI number.

 It is made up of three sub classes- the white list, the black list and the gray list.

4. Operational Support Subsystem (OSS): It supports the operation and maintenance of

GSM and allows system engineers to monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot all aspects of GSM
system. It supports one or more Operation Maintenance Centres (OMC) which are used to
monitor the performance of each MS, Bs, BSC and MSC within a GSM system. It has three
main functions:

 To maintain all telecommunication hardware and network operations with a particular

market.
 To manage all charging and billing procedures
 To manage all mobile equipment in the system.

Interfaces used for GSM network : (ref fig 2)

1)UM Interface –Used to communicate between BTS with MS
2)Abis Interface— Used to communicate BSC TO BTS
3)A Interface-- Used to communicate BSC and MSC
4) Singling protocol (SS 7)- Used to communicate MSC with other network .

GSM Protocol Stack

GSM architecture is a layered model that is designed to allow communications between two
different systems. The lower layers assure the services of the upper-layer protocols. Each
layer passes suitable notifications to ensure the transmitted data has been formatted,
transmitted, and received accurately.
The GMS protocol stacks diagram is shown below:

MS Protocols

Based on the interface, the GSM signaling protocol is assembled into three general layers:
 Layer 1 : The physical layer. It uses the channel structures over the air interface.
 Layer 2 : The data-link layer. Across the Um interface, the data-link layer is a
modified version of the Link access protocol for the D channel (LAP-D) protocol
used in ISDN, called Link access protocol on the Dm channel (LAP-Dm). Across the
A interface, the Message Transfer Part (MTP), Layer 2 of SS7 is used.
 Layer 3 : GSM signalling protocol’s third layer is divided into three sublayers:
o Radio Resource Management (RR),
o Mobility Management (MM), and
o Connection Management (CM).

MS to BTS Protocols

The RR layer is the lower layer that manages a link, both radio and fixed, between the MS
and the MSC. For this formation, the main components involved are the MS, BSS, and
MSC. The responsibility of the RR layer is to manage the RR-session, the time when a
mobile is in a dedicated mode, and the radio channels including the allocation of dedicated
channels.
The MM layer is stacked above the RR layer. It handles the functions that arise from the
mobility of the subscriber, as well as the authentication and security aspects. Location
management is concerned with the procedures that enable the system to know the current
location of a powered-on MS so that incoming call routing can be completed.
The CM layer is the topmost layer of the GSM protocol stack. This layer is responsible for
Call Control, Supplementary Service Management, and Short Message Service
Management. Each of these services are treated as individual layer within the CM layer.
Other functions of the CC sublayer include call establishment, selection of the type of
service (including alternating between services during a call), and call release.

BSC Protocols

The BSC uses a different set of protocols after receiving the data from the BTS. The Abis
interface is used between the BTS and BSC. At this level, the radio resources at the lower
portion of Layer 3 are changed from the RR to the Base Transceiver Station Management
(BTSM). The BTS management layer is a relay function at the BTS to the BSC.
The RR protocols are responsible for the allocation and reallocation of traffic channels
between the MS and the BTS. These services include controlling the initial access to the
system, paging for MT calls, the handover of calls between cell sites, power control, and call
termination. The BSC still has some radio resource management in place for the frequency
coordination, frequency allocation, and the management of the overall network layer for the
Layer 2 interfaces.
To transit from the BSC to the MSC, the BSS mobile application part or the direct
application part is used, and SS7 protocols is applied by the relay, so that the MTP 1-3 can
be used as the prime architecture.

MSC Protocols

(QP19) What are HLR and VLR? Describe its functions in call
routing and roaming.(5)
At the MSC, starting from the BSC, the information is mapped across the A interface to the
MTP Layers 1 through 3. Here, Base Station System Management Application Part (BSS
MAP) is said to be the equivalent set of radio resources. The relay process is finished by the
layers that are stacked on top of Layer 3 protocols, they are BSS MAP/DTAP, MM, and
CM. This completes the relay process. To find and connect to the users across the network,
MSCs interact using the control-signalling network. Location registers are included in the
MSC databases to assist in the role of determining how and whether connections are to be
made to roaming users.
Each GSM MS user is given a HLR that in turn comprises of the user’s location and
subscribed services. VLR is a separate register that is used to track the location of a user.
When the users move out of the HLR covered area, the VLR is notified by the MS to find
the location of the user. The VLR in turn, with the help of the control network, signals the
HLR of the MS’s new location. With the help of location information contained in the user’s
HLR, the MT calls can be routed to the user.

Localization and Calling

Definition - What does Localization mean?

Localization, in cellular communication, is the technique of pinpointing the exact region or
geographic position of a user. Localization is done by cellular servers by collecting the unit
(or cellular) data of a SIM through signal towers and then correcting the precise location by
various algorithms whereby error is removed by probability.
To locate an MS and to address the MS, several numbers are needed:

MSISDN (Mobile Station International ISDN Number)16. The only important number for the
user of GSM is the phone number, due to the fact that the phone number is only associated
with the SIM, rather than a certain MS. The MSISDN follows the E.164, this standard is also
used in fixed ISDN networks.

IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity). GSM uses the IMSI for internal unique
identification of a subscriber.
TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity). To disguise the IMSI that would give the
exact identity of the user which is signaling over the radio air interface, GSM uses the 4 byte
TMSI for local subscriber identification. The TMSI is selected by the VLR and only has
temporary validity within the location area of the VLR. In addition to that the VLR will
change the TMSI periodically.

MSRN (Mobile Station [Subscriber] Roaming Number)17. This is another temporary address
that disguises the identity and location of the subscriber. The VLR generates this address
upon request from the MSC and the address is also stored in the HLR. The MSRN is
comprised of the current VCC (Visitor Country Code), the VNDC (Visitor National
Destination Code) and the identification of the current MSC together with the subscriber
number, hence the MSRN is essential to help the HLR to find a subscriber for an incoming
call.

(QP38) Examine the steps involved in the call delivery procedure in

GSM network in the following cases: GSM mobile terminated call,
GSM mobile originated call.(10)
All the numbers described above are needed to find a user within the GSM system, and to
maintain the connection with a mobile station. The following scenarios below shows a MTC
(Mobile Terminate Call) and a MOC (Mobile Originated Call).

For a mobile terminated call (MTC), the following figure shows the different steps that take
place:
Mobile Terminated Call (MTC)
step 1: User dials the phone number of a GSM subscriber.
step 2: The fixed network (PSTN) identifies the number belongs to a user in GSM network
and forwards the call setup to the Gateway MSC (GMSC).
step 3: The GMSC identifies the HLR for the subscriber and signals the call setup to HLR
step 4: The HLR checks for number existence and its subscribed services and requests an
MSRN from the current VLR. 
step 5: VLR sends the MSRN to HLR
step 6: Upon receiving MSRN, the HLR determines the MSC responsible for MS and
forwards
the information to the GMSC
step 7: The GMSC can now forward the call setup request to the MSC indicated
step 8: The MSC requests the VLR for the current status of the MS
step 9: VLR sends the requested information
step 10: If MS is available, the MSC initiates paging in all cells it is responsible for.
step 11: The BTSs of all BSSs transmit the paging signal to the MS
step 12: Step 13: If MS answers, VLR performs security checks
step 15: Till step 17: Then the VLR signals to the MSC to setup a connection to the MS

Mobile Originated Call

step 1: The MS transmits a request for a new connection

step 2: The BSS forwards this request to the MSC
step 3: Step 4: The MSC then checks if this user is allowed to set up a call with the requested
and checks the availability of resources through the GSM network and into the PSTN.
If all resources are available, the MSC sets up a connection between the MS and the fixed
network.

 
(QP14) Show how an IP packet reaches a mobile node using a
sequence diagram of call origination process?(10)
Message flow for MTC and MOC

(QP 3) Explain the hand over procedures of GSM network with

mobility management aspects of Inter MSC handover and Intra MSC
Handover(5)
(QP24)What are the four possible handover scenarios in GSM?(5)
Types of GSM handover

Cellular systems require handover procedures, as single cells do not cover the whole service
area. However, a handover should not cause a cut-off, also called call drop. GSM aims at
maximum handover duration of 60 ms. There are two basic reasons for a handover:
1. The mobile station moves out of the range of a BTS, decreasing the received signal
level increasing the error rate thereby diminishing the quality of the radio link.
2. Handover may be due to load balancing, when an MSC/BSC decides the traffic is too
high in one cell and shifts some MS to other cells with a lower load.

Within the GSM system there are four types of handover that can be performed for GSM only
systems:
 Intra-BTS handover:   This form of GSM handover occurs if it is required to change
the frequency or slot being used by a mobile because of interference, or other reasons. In
this form of GSM handover, the mobile remains attached to the same base station
transceiver, but changes the channel or slot.
 Inter-BTS Intra BSC handover:   This for of GSM handover or GSM handoff occurs
when the mobile moves out of the coverage area of one BTS but into another controlled
by the same BSC. In this instance the BSC is able to perform the handover and it assigns a
new channel and slot to the mobile, before releasing the old BTS from communicating
with the mobile.
 Inter-BSC handover:   When the mobile moves out of the range of cells controlled by
one BSC, a more involved form of handover has to be performed, handing over not only
from one BTS to another but one BSC to another. For this the handover is controlled by
the MSC.
 Inter-MSC handover:   This form of handover occurs when changing between
networks. The two MSCs involved negotiate to control the handover.

(QP25) Review the three algorithms used in GSM. Articulate the A3

for authentic the user, A5 for encrypting the data, and A8 for key
generation for encryption and decryption. Depict the working of
algorithms using flow diagram.(10)
GSM SECURITY
GSM is the most secured cellular telecommunications system available today. GSM has its
security methods standardized. GSM maintains end-to-end security by retaining the
confidentiality of calls and anonymity of the GSM subscriber.
Temporary identification numbers are assigned to the subscriber’s number to maintain the
privacy of the user. The privacy of the communication is maintained by applying encryption
algorithms and frequency hopping that can be enabled using digital systems and signalling.
This chapter gives an outline of the security measures implemented for GSM subscribers.

(QP) Discuss the process of subscriber authentication used in GSM to ensure security(5)

Mobile Station Authentication

The GSM network authenticates the identity of the subscriber through the use of a
challenge-response mechanism. A 128-bit Random Number (RAND) is sent to the MS. The
MS computes the 32-bit Signed Response (SRES) based on the encryption of the RAND
with the authentication algorithm (A3) using the individual subscriber authentication key
(Ki). Upon receiving the SRES from the subscriber, the GSM network repeats the
calculation to verify the identity of the subscriber.
The individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never transmitted over the radio
channel, as it is present in the subscriber's SIM, as well as the AUC, HLR, and VLR
databases. If the received SRES agrees with the calculated value, the MS has been
successfully authenticated and may continue. If the values do not match, the connection is
terminated and an authentication failure is indicated to the MS.
The calculation of the signed response is processed within the SIM. It provides enhanced
security, as confidential subscriber information such as the IMSI or the individual subscriber
authentication key (Ki) is never released from the SIM during the authentication process.

Signalling and Data Confidentiality

The SIM contains the ciphering key generating algorithm (A8) that is used to produce the
64-bit ciphering key (Kc). This key is computed by applying the same random number
(RAND) used in the authentication process to ciphering key generating algorithm (A8) with
the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki).
GSM provides an additional level of security by having a way to change the ciphering key,
making the system more resistant to eavesdropping. The ciphering key may be changed at
regular intervals as required. As in case of the authentication process, the computation of the
ciphering key (Kc) takes place internally within the SIM. Therefore, sensitive information
such as the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki) is never revealed by the SIM.
Encrypted voice and data communications between the MS and the network is accomplished
by using the ciphering algorithm A5. Encrypted communication is initiated by a ciphering
mode request command from the GSM network. Upon receipt of this command, the mobile
station begins encryption and decryption of data using the ciphering algorithm (A5) and the
ciphering key (Kc).
Subscriber Identity Confidentiality

To ensure subscriber identity confidentiality, the Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity

(TMSI) is used. Once the authentication and encryption procedures are done, the TMSI is
sent to the mobile station. After the receipt, the mobile station responds. The TMSI is valid
in the location area in which it was issued. For communications outside the location area, the
Location Area Identification (LAI) is necessary in addition to the TMSI.

NEW DATA SERVICES

HSCSD TECHNOLOGY

HSCSD (High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data) is essentially a new high speed implementation

of GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) data transfer. Four times faster than
GSM, with a transfer rate of up to 57.6Kbps, it achieves this speed by allocating up to eight
time slots to an individual user. This speed makes it comparable to many fixed-line
telecommunications networks and will allow users to access the Internet and other datacom
services via a GSM network.

HSCSD operates across a GSM network, and therefore no extra hardware is required by a
mobile communications operator to offer the service, just a network software upgrade. In a
GSM network single slots are allocated to each user, which has a standard data transfer rate
of 9.6Kbps, although some networks are now being upgraded to 14.4Kbps, an increase of
50%. In HSCSD, users are allocated multiple slots so that the transmission speed can be
drastically increased, with some service providers offering rates of up to 57.6Kbps. This
enables internet access at the same speed of many dial-up modem services across fixed line
networks.

High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD) is an enhancement in the data rate of circuit
switched data in a GSM network. HSCSD uses two techniques to increase the data rate. First,
HSCSD makes it possible to use more than one time slot. GSM uses time division multiple
access (TDMA). Each radio channel is divided in eight time slots. Each time slot is allocated
to a different user. This makes it possible to serve eight customers on one radio channel.
HSCSD makes it possible to allocate more than one time slot to a user.

The second technique used by HSCSD is that the error correction can be adapted to the
quality of the radio channel. A standard slot can carry 9.6 kbps. HSCSD makes it possible to
increase this to 14.4 kbps. the quality of the rado channel must be good enough to do so.

The maximum data rate of a HSCSD configuration with 14.4-kbps channel coding is 115.2
kbps, if all eight time slots are allocated to the same user. In practice, is the number of time
slots allocated to a user limited to three, limiting the data rate to 43.2 kbps. Another point is
that the core network is based on circuit switched data with data channels of 64 kbps.

The main benefit of HSCSD compared to other data enhancements introduced later is that it
is an inexpensive way to implement higher data rates in GSM networks. There
modifications to be made are relatively small. Users need to have a new terminal that
supports HSCSD.

GPRS
General Packet Radio System is also known as GPRS is a third-generation step toward
internet access. GPRS is also known as GSM-IP that is a Global-System Mobile
Communications Internet Protocol as it keeps the users of this system online, allows to make
voice calls, and access internet on-the-go. Even Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
users benefit from this system as it provides packet radio access.
GPRS also permits the network operators to execute an Internet Protocol (IP) based core
architecture for integrated voice and data applications that will continue to be used and
expanded for 3G services.
GPRS supersedes the wired connections, as this system has simplified access to the packet
data networks like the internet. The packet radio principle is employed by GPRS to transport
user data packets in a structure way between GSM mobile stations and external packet data
networks. These packets can be directly routed to the packet switched networks from the
GPRS mobile stations.
In the current versions of GPRS, networks based on the Internet Protocol (IP) like the global
internet or private/corporate intranets and X.25 networks are supported.

Who owns GPRS ?

The GPRS specifications are written by the European Telecommunications Standard

Institute (ETSI), the European counterpart of the American National Standard Institute
(ANSI).

Key Features

Following three key features describe wireless packet data:

 The always online feature - Removes the dial-up process, making applications only
one click away.
 An upgrade to existing systems - Operators do not have to replace their equipment;
rather, GPRS is added on top of the existing infrastructure.
 An integral part of future 3G systems - GPRS is the packet data core network for
3G systems EDGE and WCDMA.

Goals of GPRS

GPRS is the first step toward an end-to-end wireless infrastructure and has the following
goals:

 Open architecture
 Consistent IP services
 Same infrastructure for different air interfaces
 Integrated telephony and Internet infrastructure
 Leverage industry investment in IP
 Service innovation independent of infrastructure

Benefits of GPRS

Higher Data Rate

GPRS benefits the users in many ways, one of which is higher data rates in turn of shorter
access times. In the typical GSM mobile, setup alone is a lengthy process and equally, rates
for data permission are restrained to 9.6 kbit/s. The session establishment time offered while
GPRS is in practice is lower than one second and ISDN-line data rates are up to many 10
kbit/s.

Easy Billing

GPRS packet transmission offers a more user-friendly billing than that offered by circuit
switched services. In circuit switched services, billing is based on the duration of the
connection. This is unsuitable for applications with bursty traffic. The user must pay for the
entire airtime, even for idle periods when no packets are sent (e.g., when the user reads a
Web page).
In contrast to this, with packet switched services, billing can be based on the amount of
transmitted data. The advantage for the user is that he or she can be "online" over a long
period of time but will be billed based on the transmitted data volume.
GPRS has opened a wide range of unique services to the mobile wireless subscriber. Some
of the characteristics that have opened a market full of enhanced value services to the users.
Below are some of the characteristics:
 Mobility - The ability to maintain constant voice and data communications while on
the move.
 Immediacy - Allows subscribers to obtain connectivity when needed, regardless of
location and without a lengthy login session.
 Localization - Allows subscribers to obtain information relevant to their current
location.
Using the above three characteristics varied possible applications are being developed to
offer to the mobile subscribers. These applications, in general, can be divided into two high-
level categories:

 Corporation
 Consumer
These two levels further include:
 Communications - E-mail, fax, unified messaging and intranet/internet access, etc.
 Value-added services - Information services and games, etc.
 E-commerce - Retail, ticket purchasing, banking and financial trading, etc.
 Location-based applications - Navigation, traffic conditions, airline/rail schedules
and location finder, etc.
 Vertical applications - Freight delivery, fleet management and sales-force
automation.
 Advertising - Advertising may be location sensitive. For example, a user entering a
mall can receive advertisements specific to the stores in that mall.
Along with the above applications, non-voice services like SMS, MMS and voice calls are
also possible with GPRS. Closed User Group (CUG) is a common term used after GPRS is
in the market, in addition, it is planned to implement supplementary services, such as Call
Forwarding Unconditional (CFU), and Call Forwarding on Mobile subscriber Not Reachable
(CFNRc), and closed user group (CUG).

(QP21) Explain the functional architecture of GRPS system. What is

the uplink and downlink in GPRS network?(16)
GPRS architecture works on the same procedure like GSM network, but, has additional
entities that allow packet data transmission. This data network overlaps a second-generation
GSM network providing packet data transport at the rates from 9.6 to 171 kbps. Along with
the packet data transport the GSM network accommodates multiple users to share the same
air interface resources concurrently.
Following is the GPRS Architecture diagram:

GPRS attempts to reuse the existing GSM network elements as much as possible, but to
effectively build a packet-based mobile cellular network, some new network elements,
interfaces, and protocols for handling packet traffic are required.

(QP12) Explain the following in GPRS: (i) Modifications done to

MS and BSS, (ii) GPRS support nodes(10).
(QP15) Identify the GSM network elements inside a GPRS network
and how is it being used in GPRS? In what way it reduces the
infrastructure capital investments.(5)( Only Table)
Therefore, GPRS requires modifications to numerous GSM network elements as
summarized below:

GSM Network Element Modification or Upgrade Required for GPRS.

Mobile Station (MS) New Mobile Station is required to access GPRS services. These
new terminals will be backward compatible with GSM for voice
 calls.

BTS A software upgrade is required in the existing Base Transceiver

Station(BTS).

BSC The Base Station Controller (BSC) requires a software upgrade and
the installation of new hardware called the packet control unit
(PCU). The PCU directs the data traffic to the GPRS network and
can be a separate hardware element associated with the BSC.

GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) The deployment of GPRS requires the installation of new core
network elements called the serving GPRS support node (SGSN)
and gateway GPRS support node (GGSN).

Databases (HLR, VLR, etc.) All the databases involved in the network will require software
upgrades to handle the new call models and functions introduced by
GPRS.

GPRS Mobile Stations

New Mobile Stations (MS) are required to use GPRS services because existing GSM phones
do not handle the enhanced air interface or packet data. A variety of MS can exist, including
a high-speed version of current phones to support high-speed data access, a new PDA device
with an embedded GSM phone, and PC cards for laptop computers. These mobile stations
are backward compatible for making voice calls using GSM.

GPRS Base Station Subsystem

Each BSC requires the installation of one or more Packet Control Units (PCUs) and a
software upgrade. The PCU provides a physical and logical data interface to the Base
Station Subsystem (BSS) for packet data traffic. The BTS can also require a software
upgrade but typically does not require hardware enhancements.
When either voice or data traffic is originated at the subscriber mobile, it is transported over
the air interface to the BTS, and from the BTS to the BSC in the same way as a standard
GSM call. However, at the output of the BSC, the traffic is separated; voice is sent to the
Mobile Switching Center (MSC) per standard GSM, and data is sent to a new device called
the SGSN via the PCU over a Frame Relay interface.

GPRS Support Nodes

Following two new components, called Gateway GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs) and, Serving
GPRS Support Node (SGSN) are added:
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

The Gateway GPRS Support Node acts as an interface and a router to external networks. It
contains routing information for GPRS mobiles, which is used to tunnel packets through the
IP based internal backbone to the correct Serving GPRS Support Node. The GGSN also
collects charging information connected to the use of the external data networks and can act
as a packet filter for incoming traffic.

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

The Serving GPRS Support Node is responsible for authentication of GPRS mobiles,
registration of mobiles in the network, mobility management, and collecting information on
charging for the use of the air interface.

Internal Backbone

The internal backbone is an IP based network used to carry packets between different GSNs.
Tunnelling is used between SGSNs and GGSNs, so the internal backbone does not need any
information about domains outside the GPRS network. Signalling from a GSN to a MSC,
HLR or EIR is done using SS7.

Routing Area

GPRS introduces the concept of a Routing Area. This concept is similar to Location Area in
GSM, except that it generally contains fewer cells. Because routing areas are smaller than
location areas, less radio resources are used While broadcasting a page message.

(QP2) Sketch the protocol stack diagram of GPRS. Whether GPRS is

a Circuit based switching or packet based switching? Justify.(5)
GPRS PROTOCOL STACK

The flow of GPRS protocol stack and end-to-end message from MS to the GGSN is
displayed in the below diagram. GTP is the protocol used between the SGSN and GGSN
using the Gn interface. This is a Layer 3 tunneling protocol.
The process that takes place in the application looks like a normal IP sub-network for the
users both inside and outside the network. The vital thing that needs attention is, the
application communicates via standard IP, that is carried through the GPRS network and out
through the gateway GPRS. The packets that are mobile between the GGSN and the SGSN
use the GPRS tunneling protocol, this way the IP addresses located on the external side of
the GPRS network do not have deal with the internal backbone. UDP and IP are run by
GTP.
SubNetwork Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP) and Logical Link Control (LLC)
combination used in between the SGSN and the MS. The SNDCP flattens data to reduce the
load on the radio channel. A safe logical link by encrypting packets is provided by LLC and
the same LLC link is used as long as a mobile is under a single SGSN.
In case, the mobile moves to a new routing area that lies under a different SGSN; then, the
old LLC link is removed and a new link is established with the new Serving GSN X.25.
Services are provided by running X.25 on top of TCP/IP in the internal backbone.

(QP27) Rewrite the characteristics of DECT system, elaborate the

working principal of DECT protocol. State how the data frame is
compressed for transmission.(10)
DECT system basics

DECT stands for Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications. Cordless telephony

concept was originally introduced to provide mobility within home or office from main
telephone terminal using a device called handset. Handset and main base terminal telephone
unit is connected via a analog wireless link.

Distance coverage for DECT based system is between about 30-100 meters. It operates at
about 1.88GHz to 1.9GHz Radio frequency carrier band, providing a bandwidth of about
20MHz. The access technology for resource allocation here is TDD/TDMA/FDMA. For
know more on TDD,TDMA and FDMA refer following links. Data transmission rate of about
1.152 Mbps is achieved.

DECT system specifications or features

Following are the features of DECT system.

Specification or
Feature DECT system support
 RF Carrier frequency 1.88 to 1.9GHz

Access TDD/TDMA/FDMA

Cell radius 25 to 100 meters

Channel Spacing 1.728 MHz

No. of carriers 10

No. of channels per carrier 12

Speech codec ADPCM with 32kbps speech rate

Modulation techniques supported in Gaussian, FSK, 4PSK, 8PSK, 16-QAM, 64-

DECT QAM

Bit rate 32 Kbps

Time slots 2 x 12 ( upstream, downstream)

Channel Allocation Method Dynamic

Traffic density 10000 Erlangs/Km2

DECT Frame Structure

DECT frame duration is about 10ms. It is composed of 24 time slots. 12 time slots are
allocated for base terminal to handset direction and 12 logical time slots are allocated for
handset to base terminal direction.Each time slot is of duration 0.417ms.
One Time slot = preamble(16bits) + sync(16bits) + A field(64 bits) + B field(320 bits) + X
field(4 bits) + Guard bits(60bits)

A filed = Header(8 bits) + Data(40 bits) + CRC(16 bits)

B field= Data(64bits) +CRC(16 bits) +Data + CRC+Data +CRC +Data +CRC

Sync field is used by receiver to synchronize with the start of the frame. A field carries
control or management signals. B field carries user data/information. The figure-1 depicts the
DECT frame structure as explained.

DECT protocol stack

Protocol stack of DECT depicted in figure is used both at Mobile unit and Base Station Unit.
It consists of Physical layer, MAC, Data link control layer and different services. Services
include CC (Call Control), Supplementary services,C onnection less message service,
connection oriented message service and MM(Mobility Management).
DECT MAC layer controls the layer-1(i.e. physical layer). It also provides connection
oriented, connectionless and broadcast services to the upper layer in DECT protocol stack. It
also provides encryption functionality with the use of Standard cipher protocol.

DECT ULE (Ultra Low Energy)

DECT ULE is the latest standard upgradation of legacy DECT standard described above. It
supports many additional features which were not available/supported by DECT standard. It
supports low power consumption and delivers long range compare to DECT. It supports
moderate data rate and lower latency based applications.

UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service)

UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service) is a third-generation

(3G) broadband, packet-based transmission of text, digitized voice, video, and multimedia at
data rates up to 2 megabits per second (Mbps). UMTS offers a consistent set of services to
mobile computer and phone users, no matter where they are located in the world. UMTS is
based on the Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication standard. It is also endorsed
by major standards bodies and manufacturers as the planned standard for mobile users around
the world. Once UMTS is fully available, computer and phone users can be constantly
attached to the Internet wherever they travel and, as they roam, will have the same set of
capabilities. Users will have access through a combination of
terrestrial wireless and satellite transmissions. Until UMTS is fully implemented, users can
use multi-mode devices that switch to the currently available technology (such as GSM 900
and 1800) where UMTS is not yet available.

Previous cellular telephone systems were mainly circuit-switched, meaning connections were

always dependent on circuit availability. A packet-switched connection uses the Internet
Protocol (IP), meaning that a virtual connection is always available to any other end point in
the network. UMTS also makes it possible to provide new services like alternative billing
methods or calling plans. For instance, users can choose to pay-per-bit, pay-per-session, flat
rate, or asymmetric bandwidth options. The higher bandwidth of UMTS also enables other
new services like video conferencing or IPTV. UMTS may allow the Virtual Home
Environment (VHE) to fully develop, where a roaming user can have the same services to
either at home, in the office or in the field through a combination of transparent terrestrial and
satellite connections.

The electromagnetic radiation spectrum for UMTS has been identified as frequency bands

1885-2025 MHz for future IMT-2000 systems, and 1980-2010 MHz and 2170-2200 MHz for
the satellite portion of UMTS systems.

3G UMTS Core Network

The 3G UMTS core network architecture is a migration of that used for GSM with further
elements overlaid to enable the additional functionality demanded by UMTS.

In view of the different ways in which data may be carried, the UMTS core network may be
split into two different areas:

 Circuit switched elements:   These elements are primarily based on the GSM network
entities and carry data in a circuit switched manner, i.e. a permanent channel for the
duration of the call.
 Packet switched elements:   These network entities are designed to carry packet data.
This enables much higher network usage as the capacity can be shared and data is carried
as packets which are routed according to their destination.
Some network elements, particularly those that are associated with registration are shared by
both domains and operate in the same way that they did with GSM.

UMTS Network Architecture Overview

 Circuit switched elements
The circuit switched elements of the UMTS core network architecture include the following
network entities:
 Mobile switching centre (MSC):   This is essentially the same as that within GSM,
and it manages the circuit switched calls under way.
 Gateway MSC (GMSC):   This is effectively the interface to the external networks.
Packet switched elements
The packet switched elements of the 3G UMTS core network architecture include the
following network entities:
 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN):   As the name implies, this entity was first
developed when GPRS was introduced, and its use has been carried over into the UMTS
network architecture. The SGSN provides a number of functions within the UMTS
network architecture.
o Mobility management   When a UE attaches to the Packet Switched domain of
the UMTS Core Network, the SGSN generates MM information based on the mobile's
current location.
o Session management:   The SGSN manages the data sessions providing the
required quality of service and also managing what are termed the PDP (Packet data
Protocol) contexts, i.e. the pipes over which the data is sent.
o Interaction with other areas of the network:   The SGSN is able to manage its
elements within the network only by communicating with other areas of the network,
e.g. MSC and other circuit switched areas.
o Billing:   The SGSN is also responsible billing. It achieves this by monitoring
the flow of user data across the GPRS network. CDRs (Call Detail Records) are
generated by the SGSN before being transferred to the charging entities (Charging
Gateway Function, CGF).
 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN):   Like the SGSN, this entity was also
first introduced into the GPRS network. The Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN) is the
central element within the UMTS packet switched network. It handles inter-working
between the UMTS packet switched network and external packet switched networks, and
can be considered as a very sophisticated router. In operation, when the GGSN receives
data addressed to a specific user, it checks if the user is active and then forwards the data
to the SGSN serving the particular UE.
Shared elements
The shared elements of the 3G UMTS core network architecture include the following
network entities:
 Home location register (HLR):   This database contains all the administrative
information about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the
UMTS network is able to route calls to the relevant RNC / Node B. When a user switches
on their UE, it registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine which
Node B it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even
when the UE is not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically to ensure that the
network (HLR) is aware of its latest position with their current or last known location on
the network.
 Equipment identity register (EIR):   The EIR is the entity that decides whether a
given UE equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each UE equipment has a number
known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above,
is installed in the equipment and is checked by the network during registration.
 Authentication centre (AuC) :   The AuC is a protected database that contains the
secret key also contained in the user's USIM card.

Cellular generation
A. First Generation, 1G
These phones were the first mobile phones to be used, which was introduced in 1982
and completed in early 1990.
It was used for voice services and was based on technology called as Advanced
Mobile Phone System (AMPS).
The AMPS system was frequency modulated and used frequency division multiple
access (FDMA) with a channel capacity of 30 KHz and frequency band of 824-
894MHz.
Its basic features are:
 Speed-2.4 kbps
 Allows voice calls in 1 country
 Use analog signal.
 Poor voice quality
 Poor battery life
 Large phone size
 Limited capacity
 Poor handoff reliability
 Poor security
 Offered very low level of spectrum efficiency It introduces mobile technologies
such as Mobile Telephone System (MTS), Advanced Mobile Telephone System
(AMTS), Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS), and Push to Talk (PTT).
It has low capacity, unreliable handoff, poor voice links, and no security at all since
voice calls were played back in radio towers, making these calls susceptible to
unwanted eavesdropping by third parties
B. Second Generation (2G)
2G refers to the second generation based on GSM and was emerged in late 1980s.
It uses digital signals for voice transmission.
 Main focus of this technology was on digital signals and provides services to deliver
text and picture message at low speed (in kbps).
It use the bandwidth of 30 to 200 KHz.
Next to 2G, 2.5G system uses packet switched and circuit switched domain and
provide data rate up to 144 kbps. e.g. GPRS, CDMA and EDGE. [5].
The main features of 2G and 2.5G are : Second generation, 2G:
 Data speed was upto 64kbps
 Use digital signals
 Enables services such as text messages, picture messages and MMS(Multimedia
message)  Provides better quality and capacity
 Unable to handle complex data such as videos.
 Required strong digital signals to help mobile phones work. If there is no network
coverage in any specific area, digital signals would weak. 2.5 G : The GSM
technology was continuously improved to provide better services which led to
development of advanced Technology between 2g and 3g
 Provides phone calls
 Send/receive e-mail messages
 Web browsing
 Speed : 64-144 kbps
 Camera phones
 Take a time of 6-9 mins. to download a 3 mins. MP3 song.

Third Generation (3G) 3G is based on GSM and was launched in 2000. The aim of this
technology was to offer high speed data. The original technology was improved to allow data
up to 14 Mbps and more using packet switching. It uses Wide Band Wireless Network with
which clarity is increased. It also offers data services, access to television/video, new services
like Global Roaming. It operates at a range of 2100MHz and has a bandwidth of 15-20MHz
used for High-speed internet service, video chatting. [5].

The main features of 3G are:

 Speed 2 Mbps
 Typically called smart phones
 Increased bandwidth and data transfer rates to accommodate web-based applications and
audio and video files.
 Provides faster communication
 Send/receive large email messages
 High speed web/more security/video conferencing/3D gaming
 Large capacities and broadband capabilities
 TV streaming/mobile TV/Phone calls
 To download a 3 minute MP3 song only 11 sec-1.5 mins time required.
 Expensive fees for 3G licenses services
 It was challenge to build the infrastructure for 3G
 High bandwidth requirement
 Expensive 3G phones
 Large cell phones 3G mobile system was called as UMTS(Universal Mobile
Telecommunication System) in Europe, while CDMA2000 is the name of American 3G
variant.
Also the IMT2000 has accepted a new 3G standard from China, i.e TD-SCDMA. WCDMA
is the air-interface technology for UMTS.
Fourth Generation (4G) 4G offers a downloading speed of 100Mbps. 4G provides same
feature as 3G and additional services like Multi-Media Newspapers, to watch T.V programs
with more clarity and send Data much faster than previous generations [3]. LTE (Long Term
Evolution) is considered as 4G technology. 4G is being developed to accommodate the QoS
and rate requirements set by forthcoming applications like wireless broadband access,
Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), video chat, mobile TV, HDTV content, Digital
Video Broadcasting (DVB), minimal services like voice and data, and other services that
utilize bandwidth. [2]. The main features of 4G are :  Capable of provide 10Mbps-1Gbps
speed  High quality streaming video  Combination of Wi-Fi and Wi-Max  High security 
Provide any kind of service at any time as per user requirements anywhere  Expanded
multimedia services  Low cost per-bit  Battery uses is more  Hard to implement  Need
complicated hardware  Expensive equipment required to implement next generation network

C. Fourth Generation (4G) 4G offers a downloading speed of 100Mbps. 4G provides

same feature as 3G and additional services like Multi-Media Newspapers, to watch
T.V programs with more clarity and send Data much faster than previous generations
[3]. LTE (Long Term Evolution) is considered as 4G technology. 4G is being
developed to accommodate the QoS and rate requirements set by forthcoming
applications like wireless broadband access, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS),
video chat, mobile TV, HDTV content, Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB), minimal
services like voice and data, and other services that utilize bandwidth. [2].
The main features of 4G are :
 Capable of provide 10Mbps-1Gbps speed
 High quality streaming video
 Combination of Wi-Fi and Wi-Max
 High security
 Provide any kind of service at any time as per user requirements anywhere
 Expanded multimedia services
 Low cost per-bit
 Battery uses is more
 Hard to implement
 Need complicated hardware
 Expensive equipment required to implement next generation network
 Support interactive multimedia, voice, streaming video, internet and other
 More effective and attractive
(QP17) Tabulate the differences between 1G, 2G, 3G and 4G
mobile communications with respect to bandwidth, frequency,
data rate, technology, characteristics, applications and period of
usage.(10)