Design and Development for an Automated Ash Content

Measuring Apparatus for Biomass Briquettes

A Project Study
Presented to the Faculty of the Petroleum Engineering Department
College of Engineering Architecture and Fine Arts
BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY
Gov. Pablo Borbon Campus II
Alangilan, Batangas City

In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science in Petroleum Engineering

by

CAÑETE, PIEL PHILIP P.

Dec 2019
 CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Introduction

Biomass is raw organic material used for heat production, energy

production, and different industrial processes. It can be anything from crops,

plants, woods, forest residues, and wastes from food crops, food processing,

agricultural and even human. By burning plant-derived biomass releases C02.

The process includes the plant absorbing the sun through photosynthesis and

builds a chemical energy in a form of Glucose or Sugar. Once burned, the

chemical energy can be transformed into heat energy.

Solid biomass can be directly burned to convert into heat. It can also be

converted into a gas called Biogas or liquids such as Bioethanol and Biofuels

which can be also burned to release energy. In Digesters, materials such as

vegetable scraps, fruit peels, paper and food wastes, animal manures, and

sewage wastes can go through the process of decomposition to form Biogas.

Ethanol can be obtained from crops such as corns and sugarcane through the

process of fermentation. While Biodiesel, used in vehicle engines, can be made

from animal fats and vegetable oils.

Biomass can be directly converted to electrical energy through

electrochemical oxidation of the material. This can be done in a direct carbon fuel

cell, direct liquid fuel cells such as direct ethanol fuel cell, a direct methanol fuel

cell, a direct formic acid fuel cell, a L-ascorbic Acid Fuel Cell (vitamin C fuel
cell), and a microbial fuel cell. The fuel can also be consumed indirectly via a fuel

cellsystem containing a reformer which converts the biomass into a mixture of

CO and H2 before it is consumed in the fuel cell.

Briquetting is a type of densification process- compression of coal or a

combustible biomass material such as charcoal, woodchips, peat, paper and

sawdust into a single high-denity solid block. Briquettes, product of it, are used

for the process of combustion of coal or biomass material to release energy.

Properties of the residue and briquetting process determine briquette qualities –

combustion, durability, stability, etc. Among the parameters with which briquette

quality is measured are bonding or compressive strength, porosity,

density, calorific value, and ash content. Among the variable parameters that

have been investigated by various authors (El-Haggar et al., 2005) on various

residues that thrive in different localities are briquetting applied pressure, the

material's moisture content, particle size, and temperature.

Biomass briquettes, usually comprised of plants and other organic

materials, are commonly used for electricity generation, heat, and cooking fuel.

These compressed compounds contain various organic materials, including rice

husk, bagasse, ground nut shells, municipal solid waste, agricultural waste. The

composition of the briquettes varies by area due to the availability of raw

materials. The raw materials are gathered and compressed into briquette in order

to burn longer and make transportation of the goods easier. These briquettes are

very different from charcoal because they do not have large concentrations

of carbonaceous substances and added materials. Compared to fossil fuels, the

briquettes produce low net total greenhouse gas emissions because the

materials used are already a part of the carbon cycle.

Ash Content is the measure of the amount of inorganic components

present in a substance. It is the residue present after combustion.

Background of the Study

This study aimed to determine the Ash Content of Biomass Briquettes.

and will have the comparison of value with DOE Standards for Biomass

Briquettes. The amount of Ash Content must be determined for the consumers to

be aware of its disbenefits and risks to Health and the Environment. The basis for

determination was ASTM D-3174.

Objectives of the Study

1. Fabricate a Laboratory Apparatus for measuring the amount of Ash

Content. Considering the following:

1.1 System Components

1.2 Materials Specifications

1.3 Automation Process

1.4 Safety Mechanism

2. Conduct Preliminary Testing to establish the following parameters using

Biomass Briquettes.

2.1 Ash Content

2.2.1 Operating Time

3. Conduct Final Testing of the apparatus to determine the amount of Ash

Content of Biomass Briquettes

 4. Evaluate the performance of the apparatus by comparing the results

obtained by the apparatus and laboratory testing methods in terms of Ash

Content through Statistical Treatment

5. Develop an Operation Manual of the apparatus for determining the

amount of Ash Content of Biomass Briquettes

Significance of the Study

The results which were generated in the study aided different sectors in

the following aspects:

The Oil and Gas Industry did benefit from the study as it served as a

mechanism for enhancing the product quality and avoiding contaminants in

the refinery process.

The Petroleum Engineering faculty and students benefited as it did serve

as an instrument for learning and teaching.

The researchers did benefit from the study as it enables them to expand

and enhance their career and knowledge. Furthermore, this study served as

evidence of their intellectual capacity as a researcher.

And lastly, The future researchers. They did benefit from this study as this

will serve as their guidelines for improving apparatus.

Scope and Delimitations

To have a better understanding of this study, a research paradigm CDIO

(Conceive, Design, Implement and Operate) model will be presented in Figure 1

below to illustrate the process of the design and development of a prototype for

an automated Ash Content measuring apparatus for Biomass Briquettes

 This study covers the schematic diagram, process of operation, material

list, operational manual, safety mechanism, and automation process of the

apparatus. ASTM D-3174 is the standard testing method for ash content of

biomass. The biomass briquettes used for the fabrication of the prototype are

locally available materials.  For the program, we used Arduino. The temperature

was controlled by the temperature controller monitored and displayed by the

thermocouple. The raw materials were collected from a product of a briquetting

machine. Briquettes to test comes in a cylindrical with a diameter of 13 mm and

made from 75% of coal added with 25% of lignite in order to improve its heating

value and combustibility. Additionally, they are mixed with 40% natural binder.

The ash value measurement is done using ASTM D-3174. To calculate the ash

content AC (%), biobriquettes are heated in the apparatus at temperature 800 C

for 3 hours. Then the apparatus is turned off, wait until the temperature below

400 C, then the samples are removed from the apparatus. Samples will be

weighed if it is really cold and results will be shown automatically.

For the final testing, the sample was tested and experimental results were

evaluated and compared to the Laboratory Testing results of the Department of

Energy.

This study was not just limited to biomass briquettes. The use of this

equipment in accordance with any other test method procedures or for any other

purposes was not recommended and may be extremely hazardous

Null Hypothesis

There was no significant difference in terms of Ash content for the

biomass briquettes between the results obtained by the apparatus and the

Laboratory Testing methods. 

Conceptual Framework

The researchers conceptualized a Research paradigm to illustrate the

process of development in Figure 1. The Conceptual Paradigm of the Study, The

general steps, procedures, and considerations was presented systematically

from the Pre-design stage wherein the project was conceptualized.

In the design stage, AutoCAD 2010 and SketchUp was used in the

planning of the design. Material requirements and specifications, as well as the

dimensions of each component, will have different considerations.

In the Implementation stage, in reliance on the design, measurements and

dimensions will be used for the fabrication of the apparatus. All the proposed

layout, materials specification will be taken consideration. The chosen fabricator

will be time-to-time updated to make sure all the proposed requirements such as

design, dimensions and material selection had met. After some modifications,

performance testing will be conducted to evaluate the performance of the

apparatus.

In the operation stage, the end user will be provided Operation and

Maintenance manual for the apparatus. This will serve as a guide in machine

operation, maintenance and repair for the fabricated machine.

 CONCEIVE DESIGN IMPLEMENT OPERATE

Knowledge  Sketch-Up Fabrication Stage

Requirements  Arduino Preliminary Testing
 Material Selection  Determining Ash
 Biomass and System Content.
 Briquettes Components
 Biomass Briquettes Final Performance Ash Content
 Ash Content Testing Laboratory
Hardware  Determination Apparatus
Consideration  Comparison to
 Design DOE standard Operation and
Consideration values Maintenance Manual
 Material
Selection
 System Components
Software Consideration
 Sketch-Up

Figure 1. Research Paradigm of the Study

Definition of Terms

For better understanding, the following terms are defined.

Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use

hardware and software

Ash Content refers to the inorganic remains present after either

combustion or complete oxidation of organic matter in a substance.

American Society for Testing and Materials or ASTM is an

international standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary

consensus technical standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems,

and services. Some 12,575 ASTM voluntary consensus standards operate

globally.

Biomass is carbon-based complex polymers and is composed of a

mixture of organic molecules containing hydrogen, oxygen, and also small

quantities of other atoms.

Bio-briquettes or Biomass Briquettes are compacted combustible

material created from biomass used as a form of fuel for heating or cooking in

industry and household.

Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock with a

high amount of carbon and hydrocarbons.

Combustion is a chemical reaction between substances usually,

including oxygen and usually accompanied by the generation of heat and light in

the form of flame.

 Contamination is the presence of an unwanted constituent, contaminant

or impurity in a material, physical body, natural environment, workplace, etc.

Contaminants are biological, chemical, physical or radiological substance. First

known use in 1992

Fabricator A person versed in many trades who is able to construct a

complex finished product from a simple idea. First known use in 15 th Century.

Proximate Analysis is a procedure to determine the components inside

the briquettes, including moisture content, volatile matter, ash content, and fixed

carbon.

Sketch-Up formerly Google Sketchup, is a 3D modeling computer

program for a wide range of drawing applications such as architectural, interior

design, landscape architecture, civil and mechanical engineering, film and video

game design. First known use in 1668

 
 CHAPTER II

Review of Related Literature

This chapter presents the conceptual literature theories and past studies

used to pursue this study the purpose of this section is to discuss in detail the

theories of parameters used and determination of the said objectives.

Conceptual Literature

This contains the literary section from the different sources and unfinished works

which gave necessary information related to the study.

Densification

There are two primary types of compression process. Continous and

Discontinous. Continuous or semi-continuous extrusion process relies on friction

forces from the side of the die acting to produce compression. The other is a

discontinuous process, in which a single briquette at a time is produced in a

closed mould. The continuous process is generally associated with larger scale

industrial production, and is normally involves compression at high-pressures.

Whereas, the mould and press briquetting method is more commonly seen in

smaller scale set ups, and might be either low or high pressure compression,

depending on the situation. It is a mould and press that will be employed to form

briquettes in this study.

Pre-processing of Biomass Residues

Before briquetting, biomass material often needs to be broken down in

size by processing. Depending on the residue, in a rural setting this might involve

chopping, crushing and hammering the material by hand or using hammer mills,

hand cranked devices or a pestle and mortar. This process can potentially

consume a large amount of energy, and therefore the most suitable method for

the individual situation needs careful consideration. For some materials this step

might be less energy intensive than for others. For example, residues such as

rice husks, peanut shells, maize-milling residues and waste papers require

minimum chopping and pounding to break them down, compared to harder

materials such as palm nut shells. These residues can be formed into briquettes

alone, or mixed in blends. For example, they might be blended with other

material that would otherwise be hard to break down (such as cashew nut

shells), facilitating the amalgamation of the harder materials, and considerably

reducing the processing labour required in chopping and crushing them.

Briquettes at different pressures

Many materials contain naturally occurring binders such as resin, wax or

wood lignin. For example, where plant matter is concerned, it is the lignin

constituent of the biomass material, a major component of most plant matter,

which, under suitable compression conditions, acts as a binder and holds the

briquette together. However, adequate pressure is required to break cell walls

and allow amalgamation. This occurs at moderate pressures greater than around

5.0 MPa, but of course this depends on the specific properties of the material. In

some processes, heat can be applied before or during compaction to activate the

material’s built-in binder and reduce the pressure required. Manufacture of

briquettes by compaction at high pressures, requiring a hydraulic press for

example, while applying heat is, however, an energy intensive process, and often

unpractical for a rural setting. Moreover, equipment is expensive and more than

likely unavailable, but even if it were it would be unaffordable for subsistence

communities.

Basic hand presses that could be fabricated from limited equipment in

rural areas might only be able to achieve low pressures less of than 1 MPa1.

However, the compaction of partly dried biomass material (which has a moisture

content of and theory relating to the formation of briquettes in smaller scale

processes are discussed.

Factors governing the manufacture of briquettes

In order to be able to manufacture reproducible briquettes from a given

material, it is important to understand the factors that have an influence on their

final properties. There are some principal factors that govern how briquettes

form: the design of the die, the method of load application (for example dynamic

or static), the loading rate, the maximum pressure applied, the time for which that

pressure is maintained (hold time) and the material characteristics, for example

particle size and moisture content. In following sections, the literature is reviewed

on the influence of these factors.

 Compression characteristics (M. J. O’Dogherty, 1989) gives a review of

the mechanical behaviour of compressing straw. Although focusing on straw, it

covers important properties and relationships that are important in the design of

briquetting equipment for any fibrous material. In this work, (M. J. O’Dogherty,

1989) presents empirical relationships for the compression characteristics of

materials in closed dies: this includes the relationships between pressure and

density while the briquette is in the die, and the relationship between pressure

and the relaxed density when the briquette has been removed from the die. The

latter is of interest to this work, and Chin et al. have determined empirical

constants for these equations for various biomass materials. (M. J. O’Dogherty,

1989) also reviews the specific energy required to form briquettes and eject them

from the mould, and the variation with die geometry. Such considerations are

important in the design of efficient and practical briquetting machines. A more

theoretical analysis of the compaction process is given by Faborode et al., who

considers models of deformation during compression, and examines the effects

of different process variables on the compressive behaviour of fibrous plant

materials.

Biomass Combustion

The current understanding of the combustion of different agricultural

residues in a densified state, as a function of specific material properties, forms

the objective of this section. There is, however, a lack of literature that refers

specifically to the combustion of briquetted residues, and so the approach taken

has been to review general combustion literature concerning wood, focusing,

where possible on work that is relevant to domestic cookstoves, and inferring

how this might relate to the burning of residues. Many of the fundamental

phenomena observed in biomass combustion, which are most relevant to

cookstoves, have been extensively studied and mainly focus on understanding

how wood burns. It includes modelling of both the solid and gas phases and heat

transfer. The field of combustion is extensive and this section does not seek to

provide a comprehensive review, but rather focuses on the areas that are most

relevant. The size of each briquette would need to be large enough to provide a

suitable alternative to woodfuel, and be practically and economically

manufacturable using a discontinuous hand-press method (producing pellet fuel

with a hand-press, for example, compared to larger briquette fuel, would be much

more time consuming per kg of densified residue). In a rural context in the

developing world, briquettes would typically be burned under natural convective

airflow conditions. For the rural dweller, this might either be in a domestic

cookstove, or on an open three stone fire. This is in contrast to providing a

constant flow of air to the fuel by forced convection, which requires fans or

bellows. For most rural dwellers these would either be unavailable, or only used

for the ignition of the fuel briquettes. It is the literature most relevant to large

biomass particles and natural convective flows that this review will draw upon.

Another aspect that it was considered important to review, was the effect of

briquette material properties on combustion. Biomass comes from many different

sources, and in a subsistence farming community there may be a variety of

different potential feedstock streams. Therefore, an understanding of the

combustion behaviour of different residues, with knowledge of the relative

influence of different material properties, is required. What follows in this section

is first an overview of biomass combustion, and then a focus on the effect of

different material properties on the pyrolysis of solid biomass fuels. Models of the

energetics of pyrolysis are considered, and finally, models of heat and mass

transfer are reviewed. The chapter provides the foundation for the development

of a physically realistic semi-empirical model that can account for the

experimental results found from burning biomass briquettes of different sizes and

geometries. Of particular interest is the effect of different factors on the

briquettes’ burn rate. Understanding how material properties affect the burn rate,

and therefore power output, of briquetted biomass fuel is useful in the context of

cooking, because different cooking processes require different combustion rates:

for example, rice or a casserole type dish can be simmered on a low heat for a

long time, whereas frying requires a more intense heat. The development and

application of an analytical model that takes into account important briquette

properties, such as density, moisture content, size and shape, would, provide a

means to make predictions of a cookstove’s power output in advance, and could

also be used in the numerical optimisation of multi-fuel cookstoves.

Solid Fuel Combustion

The burning of biomass is a complex process involving both gas phase

and solid phase phenomena. It depends on a large range of different factors and

processes, and there have been numerous attempts to develop simplified models

to understand these processes, and understand the most important parameters

affecting them. In general terms, models assume that during combustion the

solid fuel undergoes three stages of mass loss: drying, devolatisation and char

combustion. Flaming combustion of the volatiles at the surface of the solid then

drives further thermal decomposition. Dividing the decomposition into key stages

is helpful because it identifies the key processes that are occuring during the

combustion of a fuel. The relative significance of each of these processes in a

particular fire, is dependent on the properties of the fuel and the environment in

which it is burning. These factors are discussed later. Briquettes are large

particles, and when heated temperature gradients are set up in the solid which

drive, and limit their thermal decomposition. Heat progates into the briquette,

evaporating moisture and when the surface becomes sufficiently hot a process of

thermal decomposition of the biomass takes place, known as pyrolysis or

devolatisation. The pyrolysis front moves into the briquette, driven by the

temperature gradient. The small volume of the solid which is undergoing

pyrolysis at any one moment in time is known as the pyrolysis reaction zone. In

this process, gaseous volatiles are released which flow out of the briquette and

undergo secondary reactions as they progress, leaving a residual char, a carbon

rich porous matrix. On leaving the solid matrix of the briquette, the volatiles are

heated and mix with oxygen and ignite. This exothermic gas phase combustion

reaction results in a flame, which feeds heat to the solid surface. As the surface

of the briquette becomes hotter in response to the imposed flux of heat from the

gas phase reaction, the pyrolysis wave penetrates deeper and deeper into the

virgin solid, causing further devolatisation (H.-C. Kung , 1972). The char layer that
is left behind undergoes heterogeneous combustion, reacting with oxygen,

releasing heat. This is referred to in the literature as char combustion. During the

devolatisation phase, the outflow of volatiles (known in the literature as blowing)

from the fuel surface has been shown to inhibit oxygen from reaching the char

surface. Often, the outward flow is sufficient to prevent significant char

combustion until almost all of the fuel has been pyrolysised (H. Burnham-Slipper,

2007) allowing the devolatisation and char combustion processes to be modelled

separately. However, there are cases, such as in a stoked fire, or with large logs,

where all three processes, moisture evaporation, devolatisation, and char

combustion, will occur simultaneously. The modelling of this type of fire must

take each of these aspects into account. It is the extent to which each of these

processes are modelled, and the simplifications and assumptions which are

made by different authors, that has resulted in models of varying degrees of

complexity.

Proximate Analysis

The proximate analysis is a standardised analysis procedure (British

Standards Institution, 2004) that attempts to quantify some key physical

characteristics of biomass, which affect its combustion characteristics. It does

this by considering biomass to be made up of four main components: moisture

content, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon, and then determining the relative

proportions of these by various procedures. In the following sections a brief

description is given of what each of these components is, how each one is found,

and their significance

Ash Content

Ash is the non-combustible component of biomass and the higher

the fuel’s ash content, the lower its calorific value (S. V. Loo and J.

Koppejan, 2008). It is both formed from mineral matter bound in the

carbon structure of the biomass during its combustion (K. W. Ragland and

D. J. Aerts, 1991) (the inherent ash), and is present in the form of particles

from dirt and clay introduced into the fuel during harvest, transport and

processing (the entrained ash) (S. V. Loo and J. Koppejan, 2008). The

ash content is determined by heating a dry sample of biomass in an open

crucible in a furnace at 900oC. Depending on the type of biomass, the ash

content can vary between 0.8% for groundnut shells (S. Jekayinfa and O.

Omisakin,2005) , for example, to as high as 23% for rice husks [73] (for

means of comparison pine wood has an ash content of around 1% (A.

Demirbas,1999). Tables of data for a range of biomass residues are given

by Demirbas (A. Demirbas,1999). Ash is known to cause problems in

combustion systems, notably because of slagging and fouling, and its

tendency to increase the rate of corrosion of metal in the system . There

have been various empirical indices which have been developed to try and

quantify this undesirable behaviour by relating it to the composition of

fuels. These have mainly been for fuels such as coal, and have proved of

limited value for biomass. However, one simple index which has become

popular is known as the alkali index. This expresses the quantity of alkali

oxide in the fuel per unit of energy. Above a certain determined threshold,
fouling is more probable. Straws and grasses, for example, have relatively

high alkali indices, which is consistent with the high ash content of these

fuels. Although the alkali index does not fully describe the expected fouling

behaviour, it is useful as a general guide (B. M. Jenkins, L. L. Baxter, T. R.

M. Jr, and T. R. Miles, 1998). Further details on the effect of biomass

composition on ash formation are given in the review by Jenkins et al. (B.

M. Jenkins, L. L. Baxter, T. R. M. Jr, and T. R. Miles, 1998). If the alkali

metals are removed from the biomass, it is known to increase the fusion

temperature of the ash, the temperature at which it conglomerates

together. Experiments have shown that this can be done by washing or

soaking the biomass in water to leach the alkali metals, and this gives

significant reductions in the fusion temperature of ash. In fact, this simple

technique has been shown to remove more than 80% of the alkali and

most of the chlorine, which has the added advantage of reducing

corrosion and acid gas emissions (B. M. Jenkins, R. R. Bakker, and J. B.

Wei, 1996). This is significant for the briquettes produced by the low-

pressure wet technique, because, as part of the procedure, most biomass

is soaked in water for a significant period of time, thereby leaching the

alkali metals and producing briquettes which will burn with the

aforementioned benefits. Nevertheless, the ash-fusion behaviour is

important in determining the propensity for the formation of slag deposits,

which can occur at temperatures around 1300oC (K. W. Ragland and D. J.

Aerts, 1991). In practical cooking situations such temperatures would

 probably not be reached, and slagging of cookstove surfaces is unlikely to

be experienced. However, when fuels with a high ash content are burnt in

cookstoves, the residual ash, if not mostly removed, will adversely affect

the clean air flow in the cookstove. This must be taken into account in

cookstove design, so that the stove performance is not significantly

impaired due to inadequate air flow due to a build up of ash. On the other

hand, a thin layer of ash helps in the distribution and preheating of

incoming air, enhancing combustion efficiency. When biomass with a high

ash content is burned regularly, the affect of the corrosive nature of ash on

the cookstove durability would need to be considered (K. W. Ragland and

D. J. Aerts, 1991), for example with rice husk briquettes. Furthermore, ash

can also have a significant influence on the heat transfer to the surface of

the fuel, as well as affecting the diffusion of oxygen to the fuel surface

during char combustion (H.-J. Kim, et.al , 2001).

Considerations of Properties Specifically Relevant to Densified Biomass

When residues are formed into briquettes by compression, the bulk

density of the material is modified, with the shape and size of the resulting block

of compressed material determined by the mould used in the manufacture. There

is potential for there to be, therefore, a large variation in these quantities between

briquettes Literature directly relating to biomass briquettes is limited, and

therefore, where helpful other relevant combustion studies are reviewed and

inferences made in relation to briquettes.

Material Density
 The material density of biomass can vary enormously, from around

100 kgm−3 for light dry straw, to over 2000 kgm−3 for highly compressed

biomass fuels. It is a factor largely determined by the fuel manufacture,

The higher the density of the fuel, the greater the energy density. For a

stoked fire, this therefore influences the ratio of energy input per unit

volume into a cookstove’s combustion chamber (H.-C. Kung, 1972). The

fuel briquette’s density will affect its bulk thermal properties: the thermal

conductivity will be reduced as the density is decreased (increased fuel

porosity), but the lower the density, the less heat is required for a specific

volume of fuel to reach the ignition temperature. As a result the ignition

time, and the rate of thermal decomposition will be affected. There is little

data in the literature on the variation of the thermal properties of

compressed biomass as a function of density, and how this relates to the

rate of pyrolysis of large biomass particles. Although, Yang has carried out

a study on biomass pellets in a packed bed and this does give a broad

understanding of the behaviour to be expected: the general trend found is

a decrease in burning rate for an increase in material density. Yang also

found (Y. B. Yang, et.al, 2005) that the denser a material the thinner the

pyrolysis reaction zone, which reduces the time that the reacting gases

are in this reaction zone. This produces the interesting result of an

increase in the concentrations of the gases CO, CH4 and H2 leaving the

fuel surface for denser fuels. If valid for large biomass particles, it would

be of interest in understanding the emissions performance of cookstoves

in relation to the fuel. Furthermore, density might also affect the residence

time of the gases within the char matrix of compressed biomass material;

materials compressed to a higher density will tend to have a lower

porosity, and the density of the final char, after devolatisation, might also

have a lower porosity. This would increase the residence time of volatile

gases in the porous char, leading to secondary reactions becoming more

important (C. A. Zaror and P. D. Pyle, 1982). This might also be a cause

of a change in the emission characteristics with material density. In

summary, there are therefore two key factors that changing the fuel

density affects: the size of the pyrolysis reaction zone and the residence

time of volatile gases in the porous char matrix. In the combustion process

of solid fuels the density is not constant; the density of wood is known to

decrease continuously with the increasing degree of pyrolysis for a given

volume. In general, the variation in local density is determined by the

degree of advancement of the pyrolysis reactions and can therefore be

calculated from kinetics data (A. F. Roberts, 1971). Figure 2.3 illustrates

graphically how the density of the fuel might vary through a pyrolysising

solid. Despite this variation, in Bamford’s seminal study, the density was

assumed constant throughout the combustion (C. H. Bamford,, 1946) and

this produced satisfactory results in modelling the rate of pyrolysis. Kanury

et al. (A. M. Kanury, 1970) consider the pyrolysis process as the

transformation of volatile filled pores in a carbon matrix changing into gas-

filled voids, leading to an expression

Research Literature

Local Setting

Charcoal briquettes are inexpensive solid fuels made from carbonized

biomass. The potential of converting water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)

charcoal into briquettes with molasses as binder was investigated in this study.

Dried water hyacinth was carbonized at a temperature between 350°C to 500°C

in a fabricated fine biomass carbonizer. (Jose P. Peralta, et al. 2018)

A solution containing 80% by weight molasses was used in the production

of briquettes having different charcoal/molasses ratios of 40:60, 30:70, and

20:80. Each briquette was characterized in terms of bulk density, calorific value,

compressive strength, proximate analysis and micro-structure by Scanning

Electron Microscopy. Charcoal briquettes were tested for their flammable

characteristics through their burning rates and ignition time. Altering the

molasses to charcoal ratio affected the quality and characteristics of the

briquettes. Volatile combustible matter and fixed carbon increased with

increasing amount of binder while ash content decreased. The 30:70

charcoal/molasses ratio produced the highest calorific value (16.6 MJ/kg) and

compressive strength (19.1 kg/cm2). The results have shown the potential of

converting water hyacinth into an alternative fuel source. (Jose P. Peralta, et al.

2018)
 Moisture content analysis, volatile combustible matter and ash were

determined according to the procedure ASTM D1762-84. For each type of blend

A, B and C, one gram of sample in a crucible was dried in a natural convection

oven (Binder (ED)-model 115) at 105° C for 2 hours taking note of the initial and

final weights using an analytical balance (Shimadzu electronic balance type

ATY124). This procedure was repeated until constant weight was obtained.

Moisture was then calculated. The sample was further heated at 470°C for 2

hours before the sample turns into ashes in order to calculate the volatile

combustible matter. Later, the sample was placed in a furnace (Thermolyne,

Thermo Scientific Furnace) and heated at 750°C for 4 hours. The resulting ash

was placed in a desiccator, allowed to cool at room temperature and weighed.

This procedure was repeated until the weight of ash became constant. Fixed

carbon was obtained from the initial weight of the sample minus the humidity, ash

and volatile combustible matter. (Jose P. Peralta, et al. 2018)

Table 1 display relevant facts and quality parameters of briquettes

produced using three different input materials obtained from the municipal waste

stream. They were cylindrical in shape with a hole at the center.

The results of the proximate analysis covered in this study included the

ash yield (percentage of dry matter, % dm) and moisture. Ash yield represents

the inorganic oxides that remain after complete combustion of materials (Speight,

J.G, 2008) . Results show that the third briquette (P + SD + CRH) had the

highest ash content at 31.0% followed by Briquette 1 (P) at 21.0%. Briquette 2,

which is a mixture of paper and sawdust, contained the lowest amount of ash at
14.6%. The moisture of the briquettes produced ranged from 5.6% to 7.1% of its

dry matter (dm) weight.

Parameters Measured Briquette 1 Briquette 2 Briquette 3

Diameter, cm 5.37 5.53 5.48
Thickness, cm 1.54 2.34 1.96
Weight per briquette, g 16 21 20
Volume per briquette, cm3 33.15 53.30 43.97
Bulk Density, g/cm3 0.49 0.39 0.46
Kg/m3 (485.41) (390.06) (459.01)
Proximate Analysis
Heating Value, MJ/kg 15.01 16.68 13.69
Ash Yield, % dm 21.0 14.6 31.0
Moisture % 5.6 7.1 5.8
Properties of some Biomass Briquettes
Table 1

The higher ash yield for Briquette 3 is due to the presence of agricultural

biomass like CRH, which contains higher ash yields and, thus, much more ash-

forming elements than most of the forestry biomass, like paper and sawdust

(Vassilev, S.V., 2010). Rice husks when burnt as fuel result in the oxidation of

the carbonized ash to yield white ash that consists predominantly of silica

(Ahmad Fuad, 2017); a major inorganic component of rice husk, which is about

20 to 30 percent of its weight (de Leon, R.L, 2017). The inorganic materials

present specifically for Briquette 3 may have produced the higher amount of

percentage ash yield. This parameter is an important characteristic influencing

the burning technology, the emission of solid particles and the handling and use

of ash (Voicea, I, 2013). The ash yields of the briquettes produced were also

found to have similar values as those of commonly-used fuels in a household or

in industry.
Foreign Setting

Ash content of bio-briquette of coffee husks has lowest ash content of

0.60%, rice husks has a highest value of 15.63%. The lower the value of the ash

content, the greater calorific value its has. The moisture content of the coconut

husks has the lowest value of 1.56%, rice husks has a highest value of 7.38%.

The smaller the value of the water content in the bio-briquette is the better, if too

much water, when used to fuel, the bio-briquettes will evaporate the water at first,

and it should be avoided (S Suryaningsih et al, 2017)

The same sample from previous determination of volatile matter content is

used to determine the percentage of Ash content. The sample from in the

crucible was then heated without lid in a muffle furnace at 700 + 50°C for an hour

the crucible was then taken out, cooled first in air, then in desiccators and

weighed. Heating, cooling and weighing is repeated till a constant weight is

obtained. The residue was reported as ash on per cent basis. Percentage of ash

is determined by using the following formula (Rabier et al., 2006).

Weight of ash
%ash= x 100
Weight of sample taken

Synthesis

The given information and cited literatures in the review of related

literature will serve as guide and will be needed in the conceptualization and

construction of the apparatus. Also, Data and Information of Bio-Briquettes

properties taken manually and the parameters of its operation were also included

to determine what needs to modify and set in building the automated one.
 The conceptual literature discussed merely all necessary operations and

concepts needed to understand the whole process of Proximate Analysis.

Specifically, in determining the Ash Content of Bio-briquettes. All the information

included will be relevant in the designing and operating stage of the apparatus.

The cited research literatures had a similar purpose which was measuring

the Ash Content of Biomass Briquettes. The existing past studies had different

approaches and resources used in the processes. This information was adopted

by researcher to design the apparatus.

This research is a utilization of past research. From a Manual approach of

measuring the Ash Content to this proposed automated one. .