The Human Body Systems: (Zoology Lecture)

The Human Body Systems
(Zoology Lecture)
Circulatory System – The Circle of Blood Page 2

The circulatory or
cardiovascular system is the
blood circulation with heart,
arteries and veins. It is made
up of the vessels and the
muscles that help and control
the flow of the blood around
the body. This process is
called circulation. The main
parts of the system are the
heart, arteries, capillaries and
veins.
As blood begins to circulate, it

leaves the heart from the left ventricle
and goes into the aorta. The aorta is the
largest artery in the body. The blood
leaving the aorta is full of oxygen. This
is important for the cells in the brain and
the body to do their work. The oxygen
rich blood travels throughout the body in
its system of arteries into the smallest
arterioles.
On its way back to the heart, the
blood travels through a system of veins.
As it reaches the lungs, the carbon
dioxide (a waste product) is removed
from the blood and replace with fresh
oxygen that we have inhaled through the
lungs.
FUNCTIONS OF THE SYSTEM

The circulatory system plays an release back into the blood as and when
important role in many of the body's the body needs them.
processes including respiration, Other nutrients are converted by
nutrition, and the removal of wastes and the liver into substances which are
poisons. In respiration it delivers oxygen required in the production of energy,
to the body's cells and removes carbon enzymes, and new building materials for
dioxide from them. In nutrition, it carries the body. Hormones, which affect or
digested food substances to the cells. control the activities of various organs
Nutrients from food enter the and tissues, are produced by the
bloodstream by passing through the endocrine glands – including the thyroid,
walls of the small intestine into the pituitary, adrenal, and sex glands – and
capillaries. The blood then carries most they too are transported by the blood
of the nutrients to the liver, where some through the body.
of these are extracted and stored for
TYPES OF THE CIRCULATORY body because it is accompanying the

SYSTEM lungs.
Open Circulatory System. The Open
Circulatory System is a system in which MAIN COMPONENTS
fluid (called hemolymph) in a cavity Blood Vessels. There are three major
called the hemocoel bathes the organs types of blood vessels: arteries that carry
directly with oxygen and nutrients and blood from the heart; veins that return
there is no distinction between blood and blood to the heart; and capillaries –
interstitial fluid; this combined fluid is extremely tiny vessels connecting the
called hemolymph or haemolymph. arteries and the veins. When blood is
Muscular movements by the animal pumped out of the heart into the arteries
during locomotion can facilitate it is forced out at high pressure by
hemolymph movement, but diverting contractions of the muscular ventricles.
flow from one area to another is limited. Arteries therefore require strong walls to
When the heart relaxes, blood is drawn withstand the pressure of the blood
back toward the heart through open- flowing through them. They have elastic
ended pores (ostia). tissue in their walls that can stretch and
Close Circulatory System. The recoil with the force of the blood. Artery
cardiovascular systems of humans are walls also contain muscle and this
closed, meaning that the blood never determines the amount of blood that can
leaves the network of blood vessels. In
contrast, oxygen and nutrients diffuse
across the blood vessel layers and enters
interstitial fluid, which carries oxygen
and nutrients to the target cells, and
carbon dioxide and wastes in the
opposite direction. The other component
of the circulatory system, the lymphatic
system, is not closed. The heart is
located more towards the left side of the
flow through them, and the blood
pressure.
Heart. The heart is actually two separate
pumps. The left side pumps blood to the
body (systemic circulation) and the right
side pumps blood to the lungs
(pulmonary circulation). Each side has
an atrium and a ventricle. They do not
work on their own, but together as a
team. The body's blood is circulated
through the heart more than 1,000 times
per day. Between five and six thousand
quarts of blood are pumped each day.
Your heart is about the same size as your
fist.
The job of the heart is to pump
blood around your body. Its muscles
contract and squeeze out blood. The left-
hand side pumps blood from the lungs to
the rest of your body. The right-hand
side pumps stale blood from your body
back to your lungs for a fresh supply of
oxygen.
Blood. Blood is thicker than water and
has a little bit salty taste. In an adults
body there is 10.6 pints of blood
circulating around. In their blood there is products and poisons which would prove
billions of living blood cells floating in a harmful if allowed to accumulate.
liquid called plasma. If you took a small Carbon dioxide, produced by the body's
sample of this blood and poured it into a cells as they respire, diffuses through the
test tube and then put it in a machine walls of the capillaries into the blood.
called a centrifuge, you would be able to The blood containing carbon dioxide is
see the layers of this blood. This returned via the heart to the lungs and
machine spins the blood around so fast passed out of the body on expiration. In
that it separates the red blood cells, from processing food, the liver removes
the white blood cells, from the platelets. ammonia and other wastes, together with
The red blood cells sink to the bottom various poisons that enter the body
because they are the heavier, more solid through the digestive system. These are
parts, but the plasma remains at the top converted into water-soluble substances,
because it is lighter. The plasma is 95% which are carried by the blood to the
water and the other 5% is made up of kidneys. The kidneys then filter out
dissolved substances including salts. these wastes and expel them from the
body in urine.
TEMPERATURE CONTROL
As well as the heat produced
generally by cells during respiration,
some parts of the body, such as the liver
and muscles, produce heat in the course
of their activities. This heat is
transported by the blood to warm other
parts of the body. As the temperature of
Human blood has two parts, the body rises, the flow of blood into
liquid (plasma) and cells. Plasma vessels in the skin increases as a result of
contains dissolved gasses, nutrients, small arteries expanding, and excess heat
wastes, salts, and proteins. Cells are red is conveyed to the surface where it is
blood cells which are biconcave disks lost. When the temperature of the body
filled with hemoglobin and continuously drops the flow of blood to the skin is
produced in the red marrow of the skull, restricted. Thus, the circulatory system
ribs, vertebrae, and ends of the long acts as a natural thermostat allowing the
bones; and white blood cells or body to maintain an optimum and stable
leukocytes are cells of the immune temperature.
system defending the body against both
infectious disease and foreign materials.
WASTE DISPOSAL
In addition to feeding and
nourishing the body, the circulatory
system also helps to dispose of waste
Digestive System Page 5
The human digestive system is

a complex series of organs and glands
that processes food. In order to use the
food we eat, our body has to break the
food down into smaller molecules that
it can process; it also has to excrete
waste.
Most of the digestive organs
(like the stomach and intestines) are
tube-like and contain the food as it
makes its way through the body. The
digestive system is essentially a long,
twisting tube that runs from the mouth
to the anus, plus a few other organs
(like the liver and pancreas) that
produce or store digestive chemicals.
system defending the body against both
infectious disease and foreign
materials.
THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS

The start of the process: the mouth.
The digestive process begins in the
mouth. Food is partly broken down by
the process of chewing and by the
chemical action of salivary enzymes
(these enzymes are produced by the This muscle movement gives us the
salivary glands and break down starches ability to eat or drink even when we're
into smaller molecules). upside-down.
On the way to the stomach: the In the stomach. The stomach is a large,
esophagus. After being chewed and sack-like organ that churns the food and
swallowed, the food enters the bathes it in a very strong acid (gastric
esophagus. The esophagus is a long tube acid). Food in the stomach that is partly
that runs from the mouth to the stomach. digested and mixed with stomach acids
It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle is called chyme.
movements (called peristalsis) to force In the small intestine. After being in the
food from the throat into the stomach. stomach, food enters the duodenum, the
first part of the small intestine. It then the small intestine help in the breakdown
enters the jejunum and then the ileum of food.
(the final part of the small intestine). In In the large intestine. After passing
the small intestine, bile (produced in the through the small intestine, food passes
liver and stored in the gall bladder), into the large intestine. In the large
pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive intestine, some of the water and
enzymes produced by the inner wall of electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are
Digestive System Page 6
removed from the food. Many microbes acids. Chyme goes on to the small
(bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus intestine for further digestion.
acidophilus, Escherichia coli, and Descending colon. The part of the large
Klebsiella) in the large intestine help in intestine that run downwards after the
the digestion process. The first part of transverse colon and before the sigmoid
the large intestine is called the cecum colon.
(the appendix is connected to the Duodenum. The first part of the small
cecum). Food then travels upward in the intestine; it is C-shaped and runs from
ascending colon. The food travels across the stomach to the jejunum.
the abdomen in the transverse colon, Epiglottis. The flap at the back of the
goes back down the other side of the tongue that keeps chewed food from
body in the descending colon, and then going down the windpipe to the lungs.
through the sigmoid colon. When you swallow, the epiglottis
The end of the process. Solid waste is automatically closes. When you breathe,
then stored in the rectum until it is the epiglottis opens so that air can go in
excreted via the anus. and out of the windpipe.
Esophagus. The long tube between the
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM GLOSSARY mouth and the stomach. It uses rhythmic
Anus. The opening at the end of the muscle movements (called peristalsis) to
digestive system from which feces force food from the throat into the
(waste) exits the body. stomach.
Appendix. A small sac located on the Gall bladder. A small, sac-like organ
cecum. located by the duodenum. It stores and
Ascending colon. The part of the large releases bile (a digestive chemical which
intestine that run upwards; it is located is produced in the liver) into the small
after the cecum. intestine.
Bile. A digestive chemical that is Ileum. The last part of the small
produced in the liver, stored in the gall intestine before the large intestine
bladder, and secreted into the small begins.
intestine. Jejunum. The long, coiled mid-section
Cecum. The first part of the large of the small intestine; it is between the
intestine; the appendix is connected to duodenum and the ileum.
the cecum. Liver. A large organ located above and
Chyme. Food in the stomach that is in front of the stomach. It filters toxins
partly digested and mixed with stomach from the blood, and makes bile (which
breaks down fats) and some blood intestines. Enzymes from the pancreas
proteins. help in the digestion of carbohydrates,
Mouth. The first part of the digestive fats and proteins in the small intestine.
system, where food enters the body. Peristalsis. Rhythmic muscle
Chewing and salivary enzymes in the movements that force food in the
mouth are the beginning of the digestive esophagus from the throat into the
process (breaking down the food). stomach. Peristalsis is involuntary - you
Pancreas. An enzyme-producing gland cannot control it. It is also what allows
located below the stomach and above the you to eat and drink while upside-down.
Digestive System – Page 7
Rectum. The lower part of the large Stomach. A sack-like, muscular organ
intestine, where feces are stored before that is attached to the esophagus. Both
they are excreted. chemical and mechanical digestion takes
Salivary glands. Glands located in the place in the stomach. When food enters
mouth that produce saliva. Saliva the stomach, it is churned in a bath of
contains enzymes that break down acids and enzymes.
carbohydrates (starch) into smaller Transverse colon. The part of the large
molecules. intestine that runs horizontally across the
Sigmoid colon. The part of the large abdomen.
intestine between the descending colon
and the rectum.
Endocrine System – The Communicator Page 8
Although we rarely think

about the endocrine system, it
influences almost every cell,
organ, and function of our
bodies. The endocrine system is
instrumental in regulating mood,
growth and development, tissue
function, metabolism, and sexual
function and reproductive
processes.
In general, the endocrine
system is in charge of body
processes that happen slowly,
such as cell growth. Faster
processes like breathing and
materials from the blood, processes
body movement are controlled by the
them, and secretes the finished chemical
nervous system. But even though the
product for use somewhere in the body.
nervous system and endocrine system
The major glands that make up the
are separate systems, they often work
human endocrine system include the:
together to help the body function
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid,
properly.
parathyroids, adrenal glands, pineal
The foundations of the endocrine
body, and reproductive glands (which
system are the hormones and glands. As
include the ovaries and testes).
the body's chemical messengers,
Hypothalamus. The hypothalamus, a
hormones transfer information and
collection of specialized cells that is
instructions from one set of cells to
located in the lower central part of the
another. Many different hormones move
brain, is the main link between the
through the bloodstream, but each type
endocrine and nervous systems. Nerve
of hormone is designed to affect only
cells in the hypothalamus control the
certain cells.
pituitary gland by producing chemicals
that either stimulate or suppress
MAJOR GLANDS
hormone secretions from the pituitary.
A gland is a group of cells that
Pituitary. Although it is no bigger than
produces and secretes, or gives off,
a pea, the pituitary (pronounced: puh-
chemicals. A gland selects and removes
too-uh-ter-ee) gland, located at the base factors such as emotions and changes in
of the brain just beneath the the seasons. To accomplish this, the
hypothalamus, is considered the most hypothalamus provides information
important part of the endocrine system. sensed by the brain (such as
It's often called the "master gland" environmental temperature, light
because it makes hormones that control exposure patterns, and feelings) to the
several other endocrine glands. pituitary.
The production and secretion of The tiny pituitary is divided into
pituitary hormones can be influenced by two parts: the anterior lobe and the
Prolactin, which activates milk

production in women who are
breastfeeding;
Thyrotropin, which stimulates the
thyroid gland to produce thyroid
hormones;
Corticotropin, which stimulates the
adrenal gland to produce certain
hormones.
The pituitary also secretes
endorphins, chemicals that act on the
nervous system and reduce feelings of
pain. In addition, the pituitary secretes
hormones that signal the reproductive
organs to make sex hormones. The
pituitary gland also controls ovulation
and the menstrual cycle in women.
The POSTERIOR LOBE of the
pituitary releases antidiuretic hormone,
which helps control the balance of water
in the body. The posterior lobe also
produces oxytocin, which triggers the
contractions of the uterus in a woman
having a baby.
posterior lobe. The ANTERIOR LOBE Thyroid. The thyroid, located in the
regulates the activity of the thyroid, front part of the lower neck, is shaped
adrenals, and reproductive glands. The like a bow tie or butterfly and produces
anterior lobe produces hormones such the thyroid hormones thyroxine and
as: triiodothyronine. These hormones
Growth hormone, which stimulates the control the rate at which cells burn fuels
growth of bone and other body tissues from food to produce energy.
and plays a role in the body's handling of The production and release of
nutrients and minerals; thyroid hormones is controlled by
thyrotropin, which is secreted by the
pituitary gland. The more thyroid
hormone there is in a person's Adrenal Glands. The adrenal glands
bloodstream, the faster chemical have two parts, each of which produces a
reactions occur in the body. set of hormones and has a different
Parathyroids. Attached to the thyroid function: The OUTER PART, the
are four tiny glands that function adrenal cortex, produces hormones
together called the parathyroids. They called corticosteroids that influence or
release parathyroid hormone, which regulate salt and water balance in the
regulates the level of calcium in the body, the body's response to stress,
blood with the help of calcitonin, which metabolism, the immune system, and
is produced in the thyroid. sexual development and function. The
INNER PART, the adrenal medulla, These hormones tell a guy's body when
produces catecholamines, such as it's time to make the changes associated
epinephrine. Also called adrenaline, with puberty, like penis and height
epinephrine increases blood pressure and growth, deepening voice, and growth in
heart rate when the body experiences tu and pubic hair. Working with
stress. hormones from the pituitary gland,
Pineal. The pineal body, also called the testosterone also tells a guy's body when
pineal gland, is located in the middle of it's time to produce sperm in the testes.
the brain. It secretes melatonin, a A girl's gonads, the ovaries, are
hormone that may help regulate when located in her pelvis. They produce eggs
you sleep at night and when you wake in and secrete the female hormones
the morning. estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is
involved when a girl begins to go
through puberty. During puberty, a girl
will experience breast growth, will begin
to accumulate body fat around the hips
and thighs, and will have a growth spurt.
Estrogen and progesterone are also
involved in the regulation of a girl's
menstrual cycle. These hormones also
play a role in pregnancy.
The pancreas is also part of the
body's hormone-secreting system, even
though it is also associated with the
digestive system because it produces and
Reproductive Glands. The GONADS secretes digestive enzymes. The
are the main source of sex hormones. pancreas produces two important
Most people don't realize it, but both hormones, insulin and glucagon. They
guys and girls have gonads. work together to maintain a steady level
In guys the male gonads, or of glucose, or sugar, in the blood and to
testes, are located in the scrotum. They keep the body supplied with fuel to
secrete hormones called androgens, the produce and maintain stores of energy.
most important of which is testosterone.
Excretory System – The Waste-Eliminator Page 11
The urinary system is

made-up of the kidneys, ureters,
bladder, and urethra. The
nephron, an evolutionary
modification of the nephridium, is
the kidney's functional unit.
Waste is filtered from the blood
and collected as urine in each
kidney. Urine leaves the kidneys
by ureters, and collects in the
bladder. The bladder can distend
to store urine that eventually
leaves through the urethra.
Excretion is the removal
of the metabolic wastes of an
organism. Wastes that are
removed include carbon dioxide,
water, salt, urea and uric acid. All
excreted wastes travel at some
time in the blood.
Nephron. The nephron consists
of a cup-shaped capsule
containing capillaries and the
glomerulus, and a long renal tube.
Blood flows into the kidney returned to the capillaries that surround
through the renal artery, which branches the nephron tubule.
into capillaries associated with the There are several components of
glomerulus. Arterial pressure causes Nephron, these are:
water and solutes from the blood to filter Glomerulus, mechanically filters blood;
into the capsule. Fluid flows through the Bowman's Capsule, mechanically filters
proximal tubule, which include the loop blood;
of Henle, and then into the distal tubule. Proximal Convoluted Tubule, Reabsorbs
The distal tubule empties into a 75% of the water, salts, glucose, and
collecting duct. Fluids and solutes are amino acids;
Loop of Henle, Countercurrent blood; (b) tubular reabsorption of water
exchange, which maintains the and conserved molecules back into the
concentration gradient; blood; and (c) tubular secretion of ions
Distal Convoluted Tubule, Tubular and other waste products from
secretion of H ions, potassium, and surrounding capillaries into the distal
certain drugs. tubule.
Functions of Nephron. (a) Glomerular
filtration of water and solutes from the
Excretory System – The Waste-Eliminator Page 12
Nephrons filter 125 ml of body fluid per Liver. Produces urea and uric acid as a
minute; filtering the entire body fluid by-product of the breakdown of proteins.
component 16 times each day. In a 24 Skin. Removal of excess water, salt,
hour period nephrons produce 180 liters urea and uric acid.
of filtrate, of which 178.5 liters are Urinary System. Kidneys filter the
reabsorbed. The remaining 1.5 liters blood to form urine, which is excess
forms urine. water, salt, urea and uric acid.
Urine Production. (a) Filtration in the
glomerulus and nephron capsule; (b) THE URINARY SYSTEM
reabsorption in the proximal tubule; and Urine. The first nitrogenous waste to be
(c) tubular secretion in the Loop of formed from the breakdown of protein is
Henle. ammonia, a highly toxic chemical that is
Kidney Stones. In some cases, excess quickly converted by the liver to urea
wastes crystallize as kidney stones. They and uric acid. These are less toxic than
grow and can become a painful irritant ammonia and are transported in the
that may require surgery or ultrasound blood to the kidneys for excretion in
treatments. Some stones are small urine. Urine consists of excess water,
enough to be forced into the urethra, excess salt, urea and uric acid.
others are the size of huge, massive
boulders. PARTS OF THE URINARY
Infection, environmental toxins SYSTEM
such as mercury, and genetic disease can Renal Arteries. 2 renal arteries
have devastating results by causing constantly transport blood to the
disruption of kidney function. Many kidneys.
kidney problems can be treated by Kidneys. 2 kidneys composed of
dialysis, where a machine acts as a millions of nephrons constantly filter
kidney. Kidney transplants are an about 170 to 200 litres of blood to
alternative to dialysis. produce about 1.5 to 2 litres of urine
daily.
ORGANS OF EXCRETORY Renal Veins. 2 renal veins return useful
SYSTEM nutrients back into the bloodstream.
Lungs. Removal of excess carbon Ureters. 2 ureters carry urine from the
dioxide. kidneys to the urinary bladder.
Urinary Bladder. The urinary bladder the outside of the body. The outer end of
temporarily stores urine until it is the urethra is controlled by a circular
released from the body. muscle called a sphincter.
Urethra. The urethra is the tube that
carries urine from the urinary bladder to
Immune System – The Defender Page 13
The human
immune system is made
up of a number of
interdependent cell
types which collectively
protect the person's
body from various
parasitic, fungal,
bacterial and viral
infections, as well as
from the growth of
tumor cells.
The human
immune system is made
up of a number of
interdependent cell
types which collectively
protect the person's
body from various may assist in comprehension of the root
parasitic, fungal, bacterial and viral of immune deficiencies, as well as
infections, as well as from the growth of perception of the potential avenues that
tumor cells. A number of these cell types the human immune system can be
have specialized functions, are able to modulated in the case of particular
kill parasites, engulf bacteria, or kill diseases.
tumor cells or viral-infected cells.
Frequently, these cells are dependent IMMUNE SYSTEM ORGANS
upon the, 'T,' helper subset for activation Bone Marrow. Every cell involved in a
signals in the form of secretions which person's immune system is initially
are more formally referred to as, derived from bone marrow. These cells
'Lymphokines,' 'Cytokines,' or form through a process referred to as,
specifically as, 'Interleukins.' An 'Hematopoiesis.' During hematopoiesis
understanding of the T helper subset
bone marrow derived stem cells Tymocytes, also referred to as,
differentiate into one of two things; 'Prothymocytes,' emerge from the
either mature cells of the immune person's bone marrow and move into
system, or precursors of cells which then their thymus. Through a process called,
migrate out of the person's bone marrow, 'Thymic Education,' these T cells which
continuing their maturation elsewhere in are beneficial to the person's immune
the body. Bone marrow produces, 'B,' system are spared while T cells that may
cells, killer cells, immature thymocytes, cause a detrimental autoimmune
and granulocytes, as well as platelets and response are removed. Mature T cells
red blood cells. are released into the person's blood
Thymus. The Thymus' function is to stream.
produce mature, 'T,' cells. Immature
Spleen. A person's spleen is an materials to both B and T cells, initiating

immunological filter, filtering their an immune response.
blood. The spleen is comprised of T
cells, B cells dendritic cells, IMMUNE SYSTEM CELLS
macrophages, red blood cells and natural T Cells. T Lymphocytes are commonly
killer cells. Macrophages and dendritic placed into two major subsets which are
cells not only capture foreign materials identifiably different. One of these
called, 'Antigens,' from a person's blood subsets is the, 'T Helper Subset,' also
which passes through the spleen, they referred to as the, 'CD4+ T Cell,' which
bring these antigens to the spleen itself is a coordinator of a person's immune
from the person's blood stream. A regulation. The primary function of the
person's body experiences an immune T helper cell is augmentation of the
response when the macrophage or person's immune responses through
dendritic cells present the antigen to secretion of specialized factors which
appropriate T or B cells. In a person's activate additional white blood cells in
spleen, B cells are activated and produce order to fight off an infection.
great amounts of antibody. The spleen CD8+ T Cells. CD8+ T Cells are also
also destroys old red blood cells. called T killer/suppressor cells and are
Lymph Nodes. A person's lymph nodes important because they are involved in
work as an immunological filter for their directly killing viral infected cells,
bodily fluid referred to as, 'Lymph.' specific tumor cells, and sometimes
People have lymph nodes throughout parasites. CD8+ T cells are important
their body. Lymph nodes are made because they also down-regulate
mostly of B cells, T cells, macrophages, immune responses. While both types of
and dendritic cells. A person's lymph T cells are found throughout a person's
nodes drain fluid from the majority of body, they are many times dependent on
their tissues. Lymph nodes filter out the lymph nodes and spleen as places
antigens from lymph prior to returning where activation happens, yet are also
lymph to the person's body for found in other tissues in a person's body,
circulation. In a manner much like the notably the person's lungs, liver, blood
spleen, dendritic cells and macrophages and intestinal and reproductive tracts.
that capture antigens present foreign
Natural Killer Cells. Natural killer cells will kill viral-infected targets or tumors
are also called, 'NK Cells,' and are more efficiently.
similar to cells from the killer T cell B Cells. The primary function of B cells
subset. Natural killer cells work as is to produce antibodies in response to
effector cells, killing specific tumors like foreign proteins such as viruses, bacteria
lymphomas, melanomas, and viral and tumor cells. Antibodies are proteins
infected cells such as herpes and that specifically first recognize and then
cytomegalovirus infected cells. Natural bind to one other particular protein
killer cells kill their targets in the which also specifically recognize and
person's lymphoid organs; however, bind to one particular protein. The
these cells which have been activated production of antibodies and binding to
through secretions from CD4+ T cells
foreign substances or antigens is often T cells. The process is one of the steps
critical as a means of signaling involved in initiating an immune
additional cells to engulf and kill, or response. Microphages that have been
remove a substance from the person's stimulated show increased levels of,
body. 'Phagocytosis,' and are also secretory.
Polymorphonuclear (PMN) Dendritic Cells. Dendritic cells also
Leukocytes or Granulocytes. There is a originate in a person's bone marrow,
group of white blood cells which is working as antigen presenting cells
collectively referred to by medical (APC's). Interestingly, dendritic cells are
personnel as, 'Polymorphonuclear more efficient APC's than macrophages.
Leukocytes (PMN's),' or, 'Granulocytes.' Dendritic cells are commonly found in
Granulocytes are made of three cell the structural compartment of a person's
types which are referred to as, lymphoid organs, such as their spleen,
'Eosinophils,' 'Neutrophils,' and, lymph nodes and thymus. These cells
'Basophils.' The names for them are can also be found in the person's blood
based on their staining characteristics stream, as well as in other tissues in their
with specific dyes. The cells are body. Science believes that these cells
important because they are involved in capture antigen, or bring it to the
the removal of parasites and bacteria person's lymphoid organs, where an
from a person's body. These cells first immune response is initiated. One of the
engulf foreign bodies and then degrade reasons that scientists know very little
them by using their powerful enzymes. about dendritic cells is because they are
Macrophages. Macrophages are difficult to isolate; something that is
important due to their function in the often a prerequisite for studying the
regulation of immune responses. functional qualities of exact cell types.
Macrophages are many times referred to Of particular note is a recent finding that
as, 'scavengers,' or, 'Antigen-Presenting dendritic cells bind high amount of HIV
Cells (APC's),' because they both pick and could be a reservoir of virus which
up and ingest foreign materials, and then is transmitted to CD4+ T cells during
present these antigens to other cells in a and activation event.
person's immune system like B cells and
IMMUNE RESPONSE them. One addition and important
The presence of an APC, function of antibodies is to start
combined with a T cell or B cell, is something referred to as a, 'Complement
required in order for there to be an Destruction Cascade.' When antibodies
immune response to a foreign antigen. bind to bacteria or cells, serum proteins
Should an APC present an antigen on it's referred to as, 'Complement,' first bind to
cell surface to a B cell, for example, the immobilized antibodies, and then
B cell is signaled to proliferate and destroy the bacteria through creating
produce antibodies. The antibodies then holes in the bacteria. Antibodies may
specifically bind to that antigen. If the also signal macrophages and natural
antibodies bind to antigens on parasites killer cells to kill bacterial infected cells
or bacteria, it acts as a signal for or viral cells.
macrophages or PMN's to engulf and kill
Integumentary System – Skin, Hair & Nails Page 16

The integumentary system, inner body aware of its outer
formed by the skin, hair, nails, and environment through sensory receptors.
associated glands, enwraps the body. It Skin. Although the skin is not often
is the most visible organ system and one thought of as an organ, such as the heart
of the most complex. Diverse in both or liver, medically it is. An organ is any
form and function—from delicate part of the body formed of two or more
eyelashes to the thick skin of the soles— tissues that performs a specialized
the integumentary system protects the function. As an organ, the skin is the
body from the outside world and its largest and heaviest in the body. In an
many harmful substances. It utilizes the average adult, the skin covers about 21.5
Sun's rays while at the same time square feet (2 square meters) and
shielding the body from their damaging accounts for approximately 7 percent of
effects. In addition, the system helps to body weight, or about 11 pounds (5
regulate body temperature, serves as a kilograms) in a 160-pound (73-kilogram)
minor excretory organ, and makes the person. It ranges in thickness from 0.04
to 0.08 inches (1 to 2 millimeters), but watery sweat to maintain normal body

can measure up to 0.2 inches (6 temperature.
millimeters) thick on the palms of the Epidermis, thin, outer layer of the skin.
hands and the soles of the feet. The skin Epithelial tissue, tissue that covers the
in these areas is referred to as thick skin internal and external surfaces of the
(skin elsewhere on the body is called body and also forms glandular organs.
thin skin). Integument, in animals and plants, any
natural outer covering, such as skin,
PARTS OF THE shell, membrane, or husk.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Keratin, tough, fibrous, water-resistant
Apocrine sweat glands, sweat glands protein that forms the outer layers of
located primarily in the armpit and hair, calluses, and nails and coats the
genital areas. surface of the skin.
Arrector pili muscle, smooth muscle Lunula, white, crescent-shaped area of
attached to a hair follicle that, when the nail bed near the nail root.
stimulated, pulls on the follicle, causing Melanocyte, cell found in the lower
the hair shaft to stand upright. epidermis that produces the protein
Dermal papillae, finger-like projections pigment melanin.
extending upward from the dermis Organ, any part of the body formed of
containing blood capillaries, which two or more tissues that performs a
provide nutrients for the lower layer of specialized function.
the epidermis; also form the Sebaceous gland, exocrine gland in the
characteristic ridges on the skin surface dermis that produces sebum.
of the hands (fingerprints) and feet. Sebum, mixture of oily substances and
Dermi , thick, inner layer of the skin. fragmented cells secreted by sebaceous
Eccrine sweat glands, body's most glands.
numerous sweat glands, which produce Squamous cells, cells that are flat and
scalelike.
Subcutaneous, tissues between the a. Protect the body’s internal living
dermis and the muscles. tissues and organs
b. Protect against invasion by infectious
FUNCTIONS OF THE organisms
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM c. Protect the body from dehydration
The integumentary system has d. Protect the body against abrupt
multiple roles in homeostasis. All body changes in temperature
systems work in an interconnected e. Help excrete waste materials through
manner to maintain the internal perspiration
conditions essential to the function of the f. Act as a receptor for touch, pressure,
body. The skin has an important job of pain, heat, and cold
protecting the body and acts as the g. Protect the body against sunburns
body’s first line of defense against h. Generate vitamin D through exposure
infection, temperature change, and other to ultraviolet light
challenges to homeostasis. Functions i. Participate in temperature regulation
include:
TWO PRINCIPAL LAYERS OF

THE SKIN
The skin has two principal and are able to withstand a good deal of
layers: the epidermis and the dermis. abuse or friction.
The epidermis is the thin, outer layer, The epidermis can be divided
and the dermis is the thicker, inner layer. into four or five layers. Most important
Beneath the dermis lies the subcutaneous of these are the inner and outer layers.
layer or hypodermis, which is composed The inner or deepest cell layer is the
of adipose or fatty tissue. Although not only layer of the epidermis that receives
technically part of the skin, it does nutrients (from the underlying dermis).
anchor the skin to the underlying The cells of this layer, called basal cells,
muscles. It also contains the major blood are constantly dividing and creating new
vessels that supply the dermis and cells daily, which push the older cells
houses many white blood cells, which toward the surface. Basal cells produce
destroy foreign invaders that have keratin, an extremely durable and water-
entered the body through breaks in the resistant fibrous protein.
skin. Another type of cell found in the lower
Epidermis. The epidermis is made of epidermis is the melanocyte.
stratified squamous epithelial tissue. Melanocytes produce melanin, a protein
Epithelial tissue covers the internal and pigment that ranges in color from yellow
external surfaces of the body and also to brown to black. The amount of
forms glandular organs. Squamous cells melanin produced determines skin color,
are thin and flat like fish scales. which is a hereditary characteristic. The
Stratified simply means having two or melanocytes of dark-skinned individuals
more layers. In short, the epidermis is continuously produce large amounts of
composed of many layers of thin, melanin. Those of light-skinned
flattened cells that fit closely together individuals produce less. Freckles are the
result of melanin clumping in one spot.
The outermost layer of the rooted in the dermis. This layer also
epidermis consists of about twenty to contains blood vessels and nerve fibers.
thirty rows of tightly joined flat dead Nourished by the blood and oxygen
cells. All that is left in these cells is their provided by these blood vessels, the
keratin, which makes this outer layer cells of the dermis are alive.
waterproof. It takes roughly fourteen Connective tissue forms the
days for cells to move from the inner dermis. Bundles of elastic and collagen
layer of the epidermis to the outer layer. (tough fibrous protein) fibers blend into
Once part of the outer layer, the dead the connective tissue. These fibers
cells remain for another fourteen days or provide the dermis strength and
so before flaking off slowly and steadily. flexibility.
Dermis. The dermis, the second layer of The upper layer of the dermis has
skin, lies between the epidermis and the fingerlike projections that extend into
subcutaneous layer. Much thicker than the epidermis. Called dermal papillae,
the epidermis, the dermis contains the they contain blood capillaries that
accessory skin structures. Hair, sweat provide nutrients for the basal cells in
glands, and sebaceous (oil) glands are all
the epidermis. On the skin surface of the of civilians by means of fingerprints and
hands and feet, especially on the tips of measurements.
the fingers, thumbs, and toes, the dermal
papillae form looped and whorled ridges. Galton's ideas were further
These print patterns, known as developed by fellow Englishman
fingerprints or toeprints, increase the Edward R. Henry (1850–1931). In the
gripping ability of the hands and feet. 1890s, Henry developed a more
Genetically determined, the patterns are simplified fingerprint classification
unique to every individual. system. In 1901, he established
Fingerprints (the pattern of England's first fingerprint bureau, called
ridges on an individual's fingertips and the Fingerprint Branch, within the
thumbs formed by dermal papillae) are Scotland Yard police force. Henry's
unique to each individual and the system is still used today in Great
patterns never change. People have long Britain and the United States.
known about the distinctiveness of Within the dermis are sensory
fingerprints, but their use in identifying receptors for the senses of touch,
people did not arise until the nineteenth pressure, heat, cold, and pain. A specific
century. type of receptor exists for each
It is generally acknowledged that sensation. For pain, the receptors are free
English scientist Francis Galton (1822– nerve endings. For the other sensations,
1911) was the first person to devise a the receptors are encapsulated nerve
system of fingerprint identification. In endings, meaning they have a cellular
the 1880s, Galton obtained the first structure around their endings. The
extensive collection of fingerprints for number and type of sensory receptors
his studies on heredity. He also present in a particular area of skin
established a bureau for the registration determines how sensitive that area is to a
particular sensation. For example, Each hair originates from a tiny
fingertips have many touch receptors tubelike structure called a hair follicle
and are quite sensitive. The skin of the that extends deep into the dermis layer.
upper arm is less sensitive because it has Often, the follicle will project into the
very few touch receptors. subcutaneous layer. Capillaries and
nerves attach to the base of the follicle,
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES providing nutrients and sensory
The accessory structures of the information. Inside the base of the
integumentary system include hair, nails, follicle, epithelial cells grow and divide,
and sweat and sebaceous glands. forming the hair bulb or enlarged hair
Hair. Roughly 5 million hairs cover the base. Keratin, the primary component in
body of an average individual. About these epithelial cells, coats and stiffens
100,000 of those hairs appear on the the hair as it grows upward through the
scalp. Almost every part of the body is follicle. The part of the hair enclosed in
covered by hair, except the palms of the the follicle is called the hair root. Once
hands, the soles of the feet, the sides of the hair projects from the scalp or skin, it
the fingers and toes, the lips, and certain is called a hair shaft.
parts of the outer genital organs. The older epithelial cells forming
the hair root and hair shaft die as they
are pushed upward from the nutrient-rich melanin decreases, and hair color turns
follicle base by newly formed cells. Like gray.
the upper layers of the epidermis, the Attached to each hair follicle is a
hair shaft is made of dead material, ribbon of smooth muscle called an
almost entirely protein. The hair shaft is arrector pili muscle. When stimulated,
divided into two layers: the cuticle or the muscle contracts and pulls on the
outer layer consists of a single layer of follicle, causing the hair shaft to stand
flat, overlapping cells; the cortex or upright.
inner layer is made mostly of keratin. Nails. Nails in humans correspond to the
Hair shafts differ in size, shape, hooves of horses and cattle and the
and color. In the eyebrows, they are claws of birds and reptiles. Found on the
short and stiff, but on the scalp they are ends of fingers and toes, nails are
longer and more flexible. Elsewhere on produced by nail follicles just as hair is
the body they are nearly invisible. Oval- produced by hair follicles. The nail root
shaped hair shafts produce wavy hair. is that portion of the nail embedded in
Flat or ribbonlike hair shafts produce the skin, lying very near the bone of the
kinky or curly hair. Perfectly round hair fingertip. Here, cells produce a stronger
shafts produce straight hair. The form of keratin than is found in hair. As
different types of melanin—yellow, rust, new cells are formed, older cells are
brown, and black—produced by pushed forward, forming the nail body
melanocytes at the follicle base combine or the visible attached portion of the nail.
to create the many varieties of hair color, The free edge is that portion of the nail
from the palest blonde to the richest that extends over the tip of the finger or
black. With age, the production of toe. Healthy fingernails grow about 0.04
inches (1 millimeter) per week, slightly numerous on the forehead, upper lip,
faster than toenails. palms, and soles. The glands are simply
The nail body is made of dead coiled tubes that originate in the dermis.
cells, but the nail bed (the tissue A duct extends from the gland to the
underneath the nail body) is alive. The skin's surface, where it opens into a pore.
blood vessels running through the nail Eccrine glands produce sweat or
bed give the otherwise transparent nail perspiration, a clear secretion that is 99
body a pink color. Near the nail root, percent water. Some salts, traces of
however, these blood vessels are waste materials such as urea, and
obscured. The resulting white crescent is vitamin C form the remainder (the salts
called the lunula (from the Latin word give sweat its characteristic salty taste).
luna , meaning "moon"). Sebaceous Gland. Sebaceous glands,
Sweat Glands. More than 2.5 also known as oil glands, are found in
million sweat glands are distributed over the dermis all over the body, except for
most surfaces of the human body. They the palms and soles. They secrete sebum,
are divided into two types: eccrine sweat a mixture of lipids (fats), proteins, and
glands and apocrine sweat glands. fragments of dead fatproducing cells.
Eccrine glands, the more The function of sebum is to prevent the
numerous of the two types, are found all drying of skin and hair. It also contains
over the body. They are especially chemicals that kill bacteria present on
the skin surface. While most sebaceous Arrector pili muscles, which contract to
glands secrete sebum through ducts into elevate hairs, also squeeze sebaceous
hair follicles, some secrete sebum glands, forcing out sebum.
directly onto the surface of the skin.
Muscular System – Movement using Muscles Page 21
The muscular system is the

body's network of tissues that controls
movement both of the body and within
it. Walking, running, jumping: all these
actions propelling the body through
space are possible only because of the
contraction (shortening) and relaxation
of muscles. These major movements,
however, are not the only ones directed
by muscular activity. Muscles make it
possible to stand, sit, speak, and blink.
Even more, were it not for muscles,
blood would not rush through blood
vessels, air would not fill lungs, and
food would not move through the
digestive system. In short, muscles are
the machines of the body, allowing it to
work.
PARTS OF THE MUSCULAR

SYSTEM
The muscles of the body are and which ones are part of larger
divided into three main types: skeletal, muscles. There is also some variability
smooth, and cardiac. As their name in muscular structure between
implies, skeletal muscles are attached to individuals.
the skeleton and move various parts of Smooth muscles are found in the
the body. They are composed of tissue stomach and intestinal walls, in artery
fibers that are striated or striped. The and vein walls, and in various hollow
alternating bands of light and dark result organs. They are called involuntary
from the pattern of the filaments muscles because a person generally
(threadlike proteins) within each muscle cannot consciously control them. They
cell. Skeletal muscles are called are regulated by the autonomic nervous
voluntary muscles because a person system (a division of the nervous system
controls their use, such as in the flexing that affects internal organs such as the
of an arm or the raising of a foot. heart, lungs, stomach, and liver). Unlike
There are just over 650 skeletal skeletal muscles, smooth muscles have
muscles in the whole human body. Some no striations or stripes.
authorities state there are as many as 850 In a vessel or organ, smooth muscles are
muscles in the body. No exact figure is arranged in sheets or layers. Often, there
available because scientists disagree are two layers, one running circularly
about which ones are separate muscles (around) and the other
longitudinally (up and down). As the glucose without the proper amount of
two layers alternately contract and relax, oxygen
the shape of the vessel or organ changes Muscle tone, sustained partial
and fluid or food is propelled along. contraction of certain muscle fibers in all
Smooth muscles contract slowly and can muscles.
remain contracted for a long period of Myofibrils, cylindrical structures lying
time without tiring. within skeletal muscle fibers that are
Acetylcholine, neurotransmitter chemical composed of repeating structural units
released at the neuromuscular junction called sarcomeres.
by motor neurons that translates Myofilament, protein filament
messages from the brain to muscle composing the myofibrils; can be either
fibers. thick (composed of myosin) or thin
Adenosine triphosphate, high-energy (composed of actin).
molecule found in every cell in the body. Neuromuscular junction, region where a
Aerobic metabolism, Chemical reactions motor neuron comes into close contact
that require oxygen in order to create with a muscle fiber.
adenosine triphosphate. Prime mover (or agonist), muscle whose
Antagonist, muscle that acts in contractions are chiefly responsible for
opposition to a prime mover. producing a particular movement.
Cramp, prolonged muscle spasm. Rigor mortis, rigid state of the body after
Fascicle, Bundle of myofibrils wrapped death due to irreversible muscle
together by connective tissue. contractions.
Lactic acid, chemical waste product Sarcomere, unit of contraction in a
created when muscle fibers break down skeletal muscle fiber containing a
precise arrangement of thick and thin Whereas most cells have a single
myofilaments. nucleus (the part of the cell that controls
Spasm, sudden, involuntary muscle its activities), muscle fibers have as
contraction. many as 100 or more nuclei. The nuclei
Strain, slight tear in a muscle; also called are located on the surface of the fiber,
a pulled muscle. just under its thin membrane. Another
Synergist, muscle that cooperates with difference between muscle fibers and
another to produce a particular other body cells is their size. They can
movement. extend the entire length of a muscle. For
Tendon, tough, white, cordlike tissue example, a muscle fiber in a thigh
that attaches muscle to bone. muscle could measure 0.0004 inch
(0.001 centimeter) in diameter and 12 to
STRUCTURE OF MUSCLE CELLS 16 inches (30 to 40 centimeters) in
Each muscle is made of hundreds length.
to thousands of individual muscle cells. When a person dies, blood stops
Unlike most other cells in the body, circulating through the body. The
these cells are unusually shaped: they are skeletal muscles (along with all other
elongated like a cylinder or a long rod. parts of the body) are deprived of
Because of their shape, muscle cells are
normally referred to as muscle fibers.
oxygen and nutrients, including ATP. threads called myofibrils (the prefix
Calcium ions leak out of their storage myocomes from the Latin word myos ,
area in the membranes of muscle fibers, meaning "muscle"). Each myofibril
causing thick myofilaments to attach to contains bundles of threadlike proteins
and pull thin myofilaments. While the or filaments called myofilaments, which
muscle fibers still have a stored supply can be either thick or thin. The larger
of ATP, the heads of thick myofilaments thick myofilaments are made mostly of
are able to detach from the thin bundled molecules of the protein
myofilaments. When the supply of ATP myosin. The thin myofilaments are
runs out, however, the heads cannot composed of the protein actin. In each
detach and the muscle fibers stay in a myofibril, the thick and thin
contracted position. The rigid state of myofilaments are combined into
muscle contraction that results is called thousands of units or segments that
rigor mortis. Depending on the person's repeat over and over. These units are
physical condition at death, the onset of called sarcomeres. Thick myofilaments
rigor mortis may vary from ten minutes lie in the center of a sarcomere. Thin
to several hours after death. Facial myofilaments are attached at either end
muscles are usually affected first, of a sarcomere and extend toward the
followed by other parts of the body. center, passing among the thick
Rigor mortis lasts until the muscle fibers myofilaments. This regular arrangement
begin to decompose fifteen to twenty- of the varying myofilaments within each
five hours after death. sarcomere produces the striated or
Each muscle fiber is composed striped appearance of each myofibril
of hundreds of smaller filaments or and, by extension, of muscle fibers.
As are most living cells, muscle coat of connective tissue to form the
fibers are soft and fragile. Even so, they muscle.
can exert tremendous power without Tendons. The layers of connective
being ripped apart. The reason is that tissue that bundle the various parts of a
muscles are composed of different types muscle usually converge or come
of tissue (like all other organs in the together at the end of the muscle to form
body). In addition, those tissues are a tough, white, cord-like tissue called a
bundled together, providing strength and tendon. Tendons attach muscles to bone.
support. Each myofibril is enclosed in a Because they contain fibers of the tough
delicate sheath or covering made of protein collagen, tendons are much
connective tissue (tissue found stronger than muscle tissue. The
everywhere in the body that connects collagen fibers are arranged in a tendon
body parts, providing support, storage, in a wavy way so that it can stretch and
and protection). Numerous sheathed provide additional length at the muscle-
myofibrils are then bundled together and bone junction. As muscles are used, the
wrapped with thicker connective tissue tendons are able to withstand the
to form what is called a fascicle (from constant pulling and tugging.
the Latin word fasciculus , meaning "a Muscles are always attached at both of
bundle"). Many fascicles are then their ends. The end that is attached to a
bundled together by an even tougher bone that moves when the
muscle contracts is called the insertion. the frontalis muscle overlies the frontal
The other end, attached to a bone that bone of the skull. Other muscles are
does not move when the muscle named for their relative size. Terms such
contracts, is called the origin. It is as maximus (largest), minimus
important to note that not all muscles are (smallest), and longus (long) are often
attached to bones at both ends. The ends used as part of a muscle's name. Still
of some muscles are attached to other other muscles are named for their shape.
muscles; some are attached to the skin. The deltoid muscle is so named because
it has the shape of the Greek letter delta
MAJOR MUSCLES OF THE BODY , which is triangular-shaped. And some
Skeletal muscles that support the muscles are named for their actions.
skull, backbone, and rib cage are called Terms such as flexor (to flex or bend in),
axial skeletal muscles. These include the extensor (to extend or straighten out),
muscles of the head and neck and those adductor (to draw toward a line that runs
of the trunk. Roughly 60 percent of all down the middle of the body), and
skeletal muscles in the body are axial abductor (to draw away from a line that
muscles. The skeletal muscles of the runs down the middle of the body) are
limbs (arms and legs) are called distal or often added as part of a muscle's name.
appendicular skeletal muscles. These Muscles of the Head and Neck. The
include the muscles of the shoulders and muscles of the face are unique: they are
arms and those of the hip and legs. attached to the skull on one end and to
Muscle names are descriptive. the skin or other muscles on the other
Some muscles are named according to end. Muscles that are attached to the skin
their location in the body. For example, of the face allow people to express
emotions through actions such as collarbone to the temporal bone on the
smiling, frowning, pouting, and kissing. side of the head, allows the head to
As mentioned, the frontalis rotate and the neck to flex.
covers the frontal bone or forehead. The Muscles of the Trunk. On the front
temporalis is a fan-shaped muscle part of the trunk or torso, the pectoralis
overlying the temporal bone on each side major are the large, fan-shaped muscles
of the head above the ear. The that cover the upper part of the chest.
orbicularis oculi encircles each eye and They flex the shoulders and pull the
helps close the eyelid. The orbicularis arms into the body. The rectus
oris is the circular muscle around the abdominis are the strap-like muscles of
lips. It closes and extends the lips. the abdomen, extending from the ribs to
The masseter, located over the the pelvis. Better known as the stomach
rear of the lower jaw on each side of the muscles, they flex the vertebral column
face, opens and closes the jaw, allowing or backbone and provide support for the
chewing. The buccinator, running abdomen and its many organs. The
horizontally across each cheek, flattens muscles making up the side walls of the
the cheek and pulls back the corners of abdomen are the external oblique. In
the mouth. The sternocleidomastoid, addition to helping compress the
located on either side of the neck and abdomen, they rotate the trunk and allow
extending from the clavicle or it to bend sideways.
On the rear part of the trunk, the The muscles of the forearm,
trapezius are the kite-shaped muscles which move the bones of the hands, are
that run from the back of the neck and thin and long. Of these many muscles,
upper back down to the middle of the the flexor carpi bend the wrist and the
back. They raise, lower, and adduct the flexor digitorum bend the fingers. The
shoulders. The large, flat muscles that muscles that have the opposite effect,
cover the lower back are the latissimus extending the wrist and fingers, are the
dorsi. They adduct and rotate the arms extensor carpi and the extensor
and help extend the shoulders. digitorum.
Muscles of the Shoulders and Arms. Muscles of the Hips and Legs. Muscles
The fleshy, triangular-shaped muscles of the lower limbs cause movement at
that form the rounded shape of the the hip, knee, and foot joints. These
shoulders are the deltoid. They help muscles are among the largest and
abduct the arm, or move it away from strongest muscles in the body. Muscles
the middle of the body. The most on the thigh (upper portion of the leg)
familiar muscle of the upper arm is the are especially massive and powerful
biceps brachii Located on the front of since they hold the body upright against
the upper arm, the bicep makes a the force of gravity.
prominent bulge as it flexes the elbow. The gluteus maximus are the
On the rear portion of the upper arms is large muscles that form most of the flesh
the triceps brachii. Its action is just the of the buttocks. These powerful muscles
opposite of the biceps: it extends or help extend the hip in activities such as
straightens the forearm. climbing stairs and jumping. The
adductor muscles are a group of muscles
that form a mass on the inside of the leg so an individual can sit in a cross-
thighs. As their name indicates, they legged position with the knees wide
adduct or press the thighs together. apart.
On the front of the thigh is a On the back part of the lower leg
group of four muscles known is the calf muscle, properly known as the
collectively as the quadriceps. Together, gastrocnemius. This diamond-shaped
the quadriceps help powerfully extend or muscle, formed in two sections, helps
straighten the knee, such as when an extend or lower the foot, such as when
individual kicks a soccer ball. On the an individual walks on his or her toes.
back of the thigh, a group of three The strong tendon that attaches the
muscles performs the opposite effect. gastrocnemius to the heel of the foot is
Known as hamstrings, these muscles flex the well-known Achilles tendon in
or bend the knee. The sartorius is long, Greek mythology, a hero of the Trojan
straplike muscle that crosses the front of War who is killed by an arrow shot into
the thigh diagonally from the outside of his heel. The main muscle on the front
the hip to the inside of the knee. part of the lower leg, the tibialis anterior,
Although it is not that powerful, it does opposes the action of the gastrocnemius.
lie on upper surface of the thigh and is It flexes and inverts or elevates the foot.
easily seen. The sartorius helps rotate the
Nervous System – Brain and Nerves Page 26
The nervous system is the master immediate action. Although one of the
controller of the body. Each thought, smallest of the body's systems in terms
each emotion, each action—all result of weight, the nervous system is the
from the activity of this system. Through most complex and versatile.
its many parts, the nervous system
monitors conditions both within and PARTS OF THE NERVOUS
outside the body. It then processes that SYSTEM
information and decides how the body The nervous system is a
should respond, if at all. Finally, if a collection of cells, tissues, and organs. It
response is needed, the system sends out can be split into two separate divisions:
electrical signals that spur the body into
the central nervous system and the the body running smoothly under
peripheral nervous system. normal, everyday conditions. The
The central nervous system sympathetic nervous system controls
(CNS) acts as the command center of the involuntary activities that help the body
body. It interprets incoming sensory respond to stressful situations.
information, then sends out instructions Arachnoid, weblike middle layer of the
on how the body should react. The CNS three meninges covering the brain and
consists of two major parts: the brain spinal cord.
and the spinal cord. Autonomic nervous system, part of the
The peripheral nervous system peripheral nervous system that controls
(PNS) is the part of the nervous system involuntary actions, such as the
outside of the CNS. It consists mainly of heartbeat, gland secretions, and
nerves that extend from the brain and digestion.
spinal cord to areas in the rest of the Axon, taillike projection extending out a
body. Cranial nerves carry impulses to neuron that carries impulses away from
and from the brain while spinal nerves the cell body.
carry impulses to and from the spinal Basal ganglia, paired masses of gray
cord. The PNS can be divided into two matter within the white matter of the
systems: the somatic nervous system and cerebrum that help coordinate
the autonomic nervous system. The subconscious skeletal muscular
somatic nervous system controls the movement.
voluntary movements of the skeletal Brain, central controlling and
muscles. The autonomic nervous system coordinating organ of the nervous
control activities in the body that are system.
involuntary or automatic. These include Cauda equine, spinal nerves that hang
the actions of the heart, glands, and below the end of the spinal cord.
digestive organs and associated parts. Central nervous system, part of the
The autonomic nervous system nervous system consisting of the brain
can be divided further into two and spinal cord.
subdivisions: the parasympathetic and Cerebral cortex, outermost layer of the
sympathetic nervous systems. These two cerebrum made entirely of gray matter.
subdivisions work against each other. Cerebrum, largest part of the brain,
The parasympathetic nervous system involved with conscious perception,
regulates involuntary activities that keep
voluntary actions, memory, thought, and cerebrum and that contains the thalamus
personality. and hypothalamus.
Corpus callosum, large band of neurons Dura mate, outermost and toughest of
connecting the two cerebral the three meninges covering the brain
hemispheres. and spinal cord.
Dendrites, branchlike extensions of Ganglion, any collection of nerve cell
neurons that carry impulses toward the bodies forming a nerve center in the
cell body. peripheral nervous system.
Diencephalon, rear part of the forebrain Gray matter, grayish nerve tissue of the
that connects the midbrain to the central nervous system containing
neuron cell bodies, neuroglia, and Neurotransmitter, chemical released by
unmyelinated axons. the axon of a neuron that travels across a
Gyri, outward folds on the surface of the synapse and binds to receptors on the
cerebral cortex. dendrites of other neurons or body cells.
Hippocampus, structure in the limbic Node of Ranvier, small area between
system necessary for the formation of Schwann cells on an axon that is
long-term memory. unmyelinated or uncovered.
Hypothalamus, region of the brain Oligodendrocyte, cell that produces the
containing many control centers for myelin sheath around the axons of
body functions and emotions; also neurons in the central nervous system.
regulates the pituitary gland's secretions. Parasympathetic nervous system,
Limbic system, group of structures in the division of the autonomic nervous
cerebrum and diencephalon that are system that controls involuntary
involved with emotional states and activities that keep the body running
memory. smoothly under normal, everyday
Medulla oblongata, part of the brain conditions.
located at the top end of the spinal cord Peripheral nervous system, part of the
that controls breathing and other nervous system consisting of the cranial
involuntary functions. and spinal nerves.
Meninges, membranes that cover the Pia mater, delicate innermost layer of
brain and spinal cord. the three meninges covering the brain
Midbrain, part of the brain between the and spinal cord.
hypothalamus and the pons that Pons, part of the brain connecting the
regulates visual, auditory, and rightening medulla oblongata with the midbrain.
reflexes. Reflex, involuntary and rapid response to
Myelin, soft, white, fatty material that a stimulus.
forms a sheath around the axons of most Schwann cell, cell that forms the myelin
neurons. sheath around axons of neurons in the
Nerve, bundle of axons in the peripheral peripheral nervous system.
nervous system. Somatic nervous system, part of the
Neuroglia, also known as glial cells, peripheral nervous system that controls
cells that support and protect neurons in the voluntary movements of the skeletal
the central nervous system. muscles
Neuron, nerve cell.
Spinal cord, long cord of nerve tissue controls involuntary activities that help
running through the spine or backbone the body respond to stressful situations.
that transmits impulses to and from the Synapse, small space or gap where a
brain and controls some reflex actions. nerve impulse passes between the axon
Sulci, shallow grooves on the surface of of one neuron and a dendrite of the next
the cerebral cortex. neuron.
Sympathetic nervous system, division of Thalamus, part of the brain behind the
the autonomic nervous system that hypothalamus that acts as the brain's
main relay station, sending information neuron (the signal is then transmitted to
to the cerebral cortex and other parts of the cell body). Since each neuron
the brain. contains many dendrites, a neuron can
White matter, whitish nerve tissue of the receive signals from many other
central nervous system containing surrounding neurons.
bundles of myelinated axons. An axon is a taillike projection
Neurons. The cells making up the brain, extending out of one end of the cell
spinal cord, and nerves are called body. It ends in a cluster of branches
neurons. They are special cells capable called terminal branches or axon
of receiving a stimulus (nerve or terminals. Axons have the opposite
electrical impulse), transmitting that function of dendrites: they carry nerve
stimulus throughout their length, and impulses away from the cell body.
then delivering that stimulus to other Axons vary in length and diameter.
cells next to them. The human body Some (such as those in the central
contains about 200 billion neurons. nervous system) are very short, no
Almost half of them are located in the longer than 0.01 inch (0.02 centimeter).
brain. Others (such as those in the peripheral
A neuron consists of three main nervous system) can be 3 feet (1 meter)
parts: the cell body, dendrites, and an long.
axon (dendrites and axons are both Most long axons are surrounded
referred to as nerve fibers). The cell by a white, fatty material called myelin.
body has most of the same structures The tubelike covering formed is known
found in typical body cells, such as a as a myelin sheath. It serves the same
nucleus (the part of the cell that controls kind of function as the wrapping on a
its activities). It is ball shaped, about telephone line or an electrical cable. It
0.001 inch (0.002 centimeter) in protects the axon and prevents electrical
diameter. impulses traveling through it from
Dendrite comes from the Greek becoming lost.
word dendron , meaning "tree." Special cells form the myelin
Dendrites are hairlike threads branching sheath by wrapping themselves around
off of the cell body like branches of a the axons of neurons. In the CNS, the
tree. Extensions of the cell body, they cells forming the myelin sheath are
contain the same cytoplasm or cellular called oligodendrocytes. In the PNS,
fluid found in the cell body. Dendrites special cells known as Schwann cells
are the points through which signals form the myelin sheath. The gap or
from adjacent neurons enter a particular

axon (in unmyelinated axons, the
indentation on an axon where one impulse travels continuously along the
Schwann cell ends and another begins is axon). Scientists believe Schwann cells
known as a node of Ranvier. The nodes produce a chemical that helps regenerate
are unmyelinated (lack a myelin sheath), or restore damaged neurons in the
and the nerve or electrical impulse jumps peripheral nervous system. For example,
from node to node as it passes along an if surgeons are able to reattach a person's
severed hand, that person may regain spinal cord (central nervous system).
some sensation and movement in that Receptors, which are located in the skin,
hand as neurons grow and make skeletal muscles, joints, and internal
connections. Conversely, organs, detect changes both inside and
oligodendrocytes lack this ability. This is outside the body. Motor neurons work in
why an injury to the brain or spinal cord the opposite direction. They carry
often results in some permanent loss of impulses from the brain or spinal cord to
function. muscles and glands, causing muscles to
contract and glands to secrete. Both
Types of Neurons. Neurons in the body sensory and motor neurons make up the
may be divided into three groups: peripheral nervous system. Interneurons
sensory neurons, motor neurons, and work entirely within the central nervous
interneurons. As their name implies, system. They conduct impulses from
sensory neurons carry impulses or sensory to motor neurons.
sensations from receptors to the brain or
Supporting Cells. Neuroglia, or glial Nerves are categorized like
cells, are cells that surround neurons in neurons according to the direction in
the central nervous system. They do not which they conduct impulses. Sensory
conduct impulses, but help to support nerves, made of the axons of sensory
and protect neurons, combining with neurons, carry impulses to the brain and
them to form what is known as nerve spinal cord. Motor nerves, made of the
tissue. They also supply neurons with axons of motor neurons, carry impulses
nutrients and remove their wastes. to the muscles and glands. Mixed nerves
Neuroglia are abundant, accounting for contain axons of both sensory and motor
some ten times the number of neurons. neurons. The most abundant nerves,
An example of neuroglia in the CNS are mixed nerves can conduct impulses both
oligodendrocytes. to and from the central nervous system.
Nerves. A nerve is a bundle of axons in The Brain. The human brain is a soft,
the PNS. Each axon or nerve fiber is shiny, grayish white, mushroom-shaped
wrapped in delicate connective tissue. structure encased within the skull. At
Groups of axons are then bound in birth, a typical human brain weighs
coarser connective tissue to form between 12 and 14 ounces (350 and 400
bundles. Finally, many bundles are grams). By the time an average person
bound together (along with blood vessels reaches adulthood, the brain weighs
to nourish the axons and Schwann cells) about 3 pounds (1.36 kilograms).
by even tougher connective tissue to Because of greater average body size,
form a nerve. the brains of male are generally about 10
percent larger than those of females.
Although brain size varies considerably The human brain is composed of

among humans, there is no correlation or up to one trillion nerve cells. One
link between brain size and intelligence. hundred billion of these are neurons, and
the remainder are the supporting
neuroglia. The brain consists of gray and cord and the rest of the brain, and
white matter. Gray matter is nerve tissue between the different parts of the brain.
in the CNS composed of neuron cell The midbrain conveys impulses from the
bodies, neuroglia, and unmyelinated hypothalamus to the pons and spinal
axons; white matter is nerve tissue in the cord. It also contains visual and audio
CNS composed chiefly of bundles of reflex centers involving the movement
myelinated axons. of the eyeballs and head.
The brain is protected by the Twelve pair of cranial nerves
skull and by three membranes called the originate in the underside of the brain,
meninges. The outermost membrane is mostly from the brain stem. They leave
known as the dura mater, the middle as the skull through openings and extend as
the arachnoid, and the innermost as the peripheral nerves to their destinations.
pia mater. Also protecting the brain is Cranial nerves bring information to the
cerebrospinal fluid, a liquid that brain from regions in the face, head, and
circulates between the arachnoid. neck. For example, the olfactory nerve
The Brain Stem. The brain stem is the transmits messages about smell from the
stalk of the brain and is a continuation of nose and the optic nerve transmits visual
the spinal cord. It consists of the medulla information from the eyes. The only
oblongata, pons, and midbrain. The exception is the vagus nerve (vagus
medulla oblongata is actually a portion comes from the Latin word meaning
of the spinal cord that extends into the "wandering"). It is the lone cranial nerve
brain. All messages that are transmitted that serves other areas of the body. The
between the brain and spinal cord pass vagus nerve branches extensively to the
through the medulla. Nerves on the right larynx, heart, lungs, stomach, and
side of the medulla cross to the left side intestines. Among other functions, it
of the brain, and those on the left cross helps promote digestive activity and
to the right. The result of this regulate heart activity.
arrangement is that each side of the brain The Diecephalon. The diencephalon
controls the opposite side of the body. lies above the brain stem, and includes
Three vital centers in the medulla the thalamus and hypothalamus. The
control heartbeat, rate of breathing, and thalamus is an important relay station for
diameter of the blood vessels. Centers sensory information coming to the
that help coordinate swallowing, cerebral cortex from other parts of the
vomiting, hiccuping, coughing, brain. The thalamus also interprets
sneezing, and other basic functions of sensations of pain, pressure,
life are also located in the medulla. A temperature, and touch, and is concerned
region within the medulla helps to with some of our emotions and memory.
maintain the conscious state. The pons It receives information from the outside
(from the Latin word meaning "bridge") environment in the form of sound, smell,
conducts messages between the spinal and taste.
The Cerebrum. The cerebrum makes up cortex, is made entirely of gray matter
about 80 percent of the brain's weight. It (white matter makes up the inner portion
lies above the diencephalon. The of the cerebrum). The tissue of the
cerebrum's outer layer, the cerebral cerebral cortex is about 0.08 to 0.16 inch
(2 to 4 millimeters) thick. The cerebral The Limbic System. The limbic system
cortex is folded extensively. The folds is a horseshoe-shaped area of the brain
are called convolutions or gyri, and the located along the border between the
shallow grooves between the folds are cerebrum and diencephalon. Key
sulci. Deeper grooves, which are less structures of the limbic system include
numerous, are called fissures. The folds the almond-shaped amygdala and the sea
greatly increase the surface area of the horse-shaped hippocampus. The limbic
cerebral cortex—it would have a surface system is concerned with emotional
area of about 5 square feet (1.5 square states (such as rage, fear, and sexual
meters) if spread out—and thus the total arousal) and memory. The hippocampus,
number of nerve cell bodies it contains. in particular, plays a vital role in
The Cerebellum. The cerebellum is learning and long-term memory.
located below the cerebrum and behind The Spinal Cord. The spinal cord, a
the brain stem, and is shaped like a glistening white rope, is a continuation
butterfly. The "wings" are the cerebellar of the brain stem. It transmits impulses
hemispheres, and each consists of lobes to and from the brain and controls some
that have distinct grooves or fissures. reflex actions. On average, the spinal
The cerebellum controls the actions of cord measures about 18 inches (45
the muscular system needed for centimeters) in length and about 0.5 inch
movement, balance, and posture. All (14 centimeters) in width. It weighs
motor activity in the body depends on about 1.25 ounces (35 grams).
the cerebellum.
Respiratory System – Breathing Page 32

energy-rich compound
adenosine triphosphate
(ATP). Glucose is
produced in cells by the
breakdown of more
complex carbohydrates,
including starch,
cellulose, and complex
sugars such as sucrose
(cane or beet sugar) and
fructose (fruit sugar).
ATP is the compound
used by all cells to carry
out their ordinary
functions: growth, the
production of new cell
Breathing, controlled by the parts and chemicals, and the movement
respiratory system, is a continuous of compounds through cells and the
process of which a person is normally body as a whole.
unaware. If breathing stops, however, a
person becomes acutely aware of the PARTS OF THE RESPIRATORY
fact. An individual can go days without SYSTEM
food and water and hours without sleep, Breathing describes the process
but only five or six minutes without air. of inhaling and exhaling air. The
Anything beyond that would be fatal. exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon
The trillions of cells in the body need a dioxide) between living cells and the
constant and generous amount of oxygen environment is a process known as
to carry out their vital functions. As they respiration. The respiratory system,
use that oxygen, they give off carbon which controls breathing and respiration,
dioxide as a waste product. It is the role consists of the respiratory tract and the
of the respiration system, working in lungs.
conjunction with the cardiovascular The respiratory tract cleans,
system, to supply the oxygen and warms, and moistens air on its way to
dispose of the carbon dioxide. the lungs. The tract can be divided into
Main Function. The main function of an upper and a lower part. The upper
the respiratory system is to provide part consists of the nose, nasal cavity,
oxygen for the body's cells and remove pharynx (throat), larynx, and upper part
the carbon dioxide they produce. of the trachea (windpipe). The lower part
Oxygen is the most important energy consists of the lower part of the trachea,
source for the cells. They need it for bronchi, and lungs (which contain
cellular respiration: the process by which bronchioles and alveoli).
the simple sugar glucose is oxidized The nose and nasal cavity. The nose
(combined with oxygen) to form the
is the only external part of the Hemoglobin, iron-containing protein
respiratory system. It is made of bone pigment in red blood cells that can
and cartilage (tough connective tissue) combine with oxygen and carbon
and is covered with skin. The two dioxide.
openings to the outside, called nostrils, Inhalation, also known as inspiration,
allow air to enter or leave the body the movement of air into the lungs.
during breathing. The nostrils are lined Larynx, organ between the pharynx and
with coarse hairs that prevent large trachea that contains the vocal cords.
particles such as dust, insects, and sand Lungs, paired breathing organs.
from entering. Nasal cavity, air cavity in the skull
The nostrils open into a large through which air passes from the
cavity, the nasal cavity. This cavity is nostrils to the upper part of the pharynx.
divided into right and left cavities by a Nasal conchae, flat, spongy plates that
thin plate of bone and cartilage called project toward the nasal septum from the
the nasal septum. The hard portion of the sides of the nasal cavity.
palate forms the floor of the entire nasal Nasal septum, vertical plate made of
cavity, separating it from the mouth or bone and cartilage that divides the nasal
oral cavity below. Three flat, spongy cavity.
folds or plates project toward the nasal Nose, part of the human face that
septum from the sides of the nasal contains the nostrils and organs of smell
cavity. These plates, called nasal and forms the beginning of the
conchae, help to slow down the passage respiratory tract.
of air, causing it to swirl in the nasal Nostril, either of the two external
cavity. openings of the nose.
Alveoli, air sacs of the lungs. Paranasal sinuses, air-filled chambers in
Breathing, process of inhaling and the bones of the skull that open into the
exhaling air. nasal cavity.
Bronchi, largest branch of the bronchial Pharynx, short, muscular tube extending
tree between the trachea and from the mouth and nasal cavities to the
bronchioles. trachea and esophagus.
Bronchial tree, entire system of air Pleura, membrane sac covering and
passageways within the lungs formed by protecting each lung.
the branching of bronchial tubes. Pulmonary surfactant, oily substance
Bronchioles, smallest of the air secreted by the alveoli to prevent their
passageways within the lungs. walls from sticking together.
Epiglottis, flaplike piece of tissue at the Respiration, exchange of gases (oxygen
top of the larynx that covers its opening and carbon dioxide) between living cells
when swallowing is occurring. and the environment.
Esophagus, muscular tube connecting Trachea. Also known as the windpipe,
the pharynx and stomach. the respiratory tube extending from the
Exhalation, also known as expiration, larynx to the bronchi. The nasal cavity is
the movement of air out of the lungs. lined by mucous membrane containing
Glottis, opening of the larynx between microscopic hairlike structures called
the vocal cords. cilia. The cells of the membrane produce
mucus, a thick, gooey liquid. As the is the shield-shaped thyroid cartilage,
nasal conchae cause air to swirl in the which may protrude at the front of the
nasal cavity, the mucus moistens the air neck, forming the so-called Adam's
and traps any bacteria or particles of air apple. The upper cartilage is the
pollution. The cilia wave back and forth epiglottis, a flaplike piece of tissue.
in rhythmic movement, and pieces of During swallowing, the larynx rises up
mucus with their trapped particles are and the epiglottis folds down to cover
swept along to the throat. The mucus is the glottis, or the larynx's opening. This
then either spat out or (more often) prevents food or liquids from passing
swallowed. Any bacteria present in the into the lower respiratory tract. Mucous
swallowed mucus is destroyed by the membrane lines the larynx. A pair of
hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice of elastic folds in that lining form the vocal
the stomach. Air is not only moistened cords. During silent breathing, the vocal
in the nasal cavity but warmed, as well. cords lie against the walls of the larynx.
A rich network of thin-walled capillaries During speech, the cords are stretched
permeates the mucus membrane across the opening of the larynx and air
(especially the uppermost concha), and that passes through causes them to
the incoming air is warmed as it passes vibrate, generating sound waves.
over the vessels. When air finally Various muscles produce tension on the
reaches the lungs, it is similar to the cords, making them tighter (shorter) or
warm, damp air found in the tropics. looser (longer). The tighter the tension,
The bones that surround the nasal the higher the pitch of the sound
cavity contain hollow spaces known as produced. Since men's larynges tend to
paranasal sinuses. The sinuses are also be larger than women's, their vocal cords
lined with mucous membrane containing tend to be thicker and longer. The male
cilia. The mucus produced in the sinuses voice thus tends to be lower in pitch.
drains into the nasal cavity. The main The trachea. The trachea is a tough,
functions of the sinuses are to lighten the flexible tube about 1 inch (2.5
skull and to provide resonance (sound centimeters) in diameter and 4.5 inches
quality) for the voice. (11.4 centimeters) in length. Located in
The pharynx. The pharynx or throat is a front of the esophagus, it is the principal
short, muscular tube extending about 5 tube that carries air to and from the
inches (12.7 centimeters) from the nasal lungs. Elastic fibers in the tracheal walls
cavity and mouth to the esophagus and allow the trachea to expand and contract
trachea. It serves two separate systems: during breathing, while the cartilage
the digestive system (by allowing the rings prevent it from collapsing. Mucous
passage of solid food and liquids) and membrane containing cilia lines the
the respiratory system (by allowing the trachea. The mucus produced by the
passage of air). membrane traps dust particles and other
The larynx. The larynx, commonly debris. The cilia move continuously in a
called the voice box, forms the upper direction opposite that of the incoming
part of the trachea. The larynx is made air, helping propel the mucus away from
of nine pieces of cartilage connected by the lungs to the throat where it can be
ligaments. The largest of these cartilages swallowed or spat out.
The bronchi. The trachea divides reduces friction and allows smooth
behind the sternum (breastbone) to form movement of a lung during breathing.
a right and left branch called primary After the bronchi enter the lungs,
bronchi (singular: bronchus). Each they subdivide repeatedly into smaller
bronchus passes into a lung—the right and smaller bronchi or branches.
bronchus into the right lung and the left Eventually they form thousands of tiny
bronchus into the left lung. The right branches called bronchioles, which have
bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter a diameter of about 0.02 inch (0.5
than the left. As a result, accidentally millimeter). This branching network of
inhaled objects (such as pieces of food) bronchial tubes within the lungs is called
most often enter the right primary the bronchial tree.
bronchus. By the time incoming air The bronchioles branch to form
reaches the primary bronchi, it is warm, even smaller passageways that open into
moistened, and cleansed of most clusters of cup-shaped air sacs called
particles or other impurities. alveoli (singular: alveolus). The average
The lungs. The lungs are two broad, person has a total of about 700 million
cone-shaped organs located on either alveoli (which resemble clusters of
side of the heart in the thoracic or chest grapes) in his or her lungs. These
cavity. They extend from the collarbones provide an enormous surface area-
to the diaphragm, a membrane of muscle roughly the size of a tennis court—for
separating the thoracic cavity from the gas exchange. A network of capillaries
abdominal cavity. The base of each lung surrounds each alveolus. As blood
rests directly on the diaphragm. The rib passes through these vessels and air fills
cage forms a wall around the lungs, the alveoli, the exchange of gases takes
protecting them. place: oxygen passes from the alveoli
At birth, the lungs are pale pink into the capillaries while carbon dioxide
in color. As people age, their lungs grow passes from the capillaries into the
darker. The inhaling of dirt and other alveoli.
particles increases this aging process, The membranes of the alveoli are
even scarring the delicate tissue of the extremely delicate and thin to allow the
lungs. gases to pass easily through them. The
Each lung is divided into lobes inner lining of those membranes is
separated by deep grooves or fissures. coated with a thin layer of tissue fluid (a
The right lung, which is larger, is gas must be dissolved in a liquid in order
divided into three lobes. The left lung is to enter or leave a cell). To prevent the
divided into only two lobes. Combined, walls of the alveoli from sticking
the two soft and spongy lungs weigh together (like the inside walls of a wet
about 2.5 pounds (1.1 kilograms). plastic bag), cells in the alveoli also
A membrane sac, called the produce an oily secretion, called
pleura, surrounds and protects each lung. pulmonary surfactant, that mixes with
One layer of the pleura attaches to the the tissue fluid (pulmonary refers to
wall of the thoracic cavity; the other anything relating to or affecting the
layer encloses the lung. A fluid (pleural lungs).
fluid) between the two membrane layers
Skeletal System – Body Framework Page 36
The word skeleton comes
from the Greek word skeletos ,
meaning "dried up." The parts of
the skeletal system—the bones and
other structures that make up the
joints of the skeleton—are
anything but dried up. Strong yet
light, the skeletal system is made
of living material, with networks
of blood vessels running
throughout. The system protects
body organs, supports the body,
and provides attachment points for
muscles to enable body movement.
All bones act as storage sites for
minerals such as calcium and
phosphorus, and certain bones also
produce blood cells.
PARTS OF THE SKELETAL

SYSTEM
Because the bones making
up the human skeleton are inside
the body, the skeleton is called an
endoskeleton ( endo means "within"). cells take part in this process:
In animals that have an external osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts
skeleton, such as the crab, the skeleton is ( osteon is the Greek word meaning
called an exoskeleton ( exo means "bone").
"outside"). Exoskeletons restrict the Osteoblasts are the principal
movement of an organism and must be bone-building cells. They produce hard
shed periodically in order for that calcium compounds and flexible
organism to grow. Endoskeletons allow collagen (a fibrous protein), which
for freer movement and grow along with combined form the nonliving part of
an organism. All humans are born with bone called the bone matrix. The matrix
over 300 bones. As an individual ages, makes bone strong, hard, and slightly
certain bones (such as those in the skull elastic. In the process of forming the
and lower spine) fuse or join together, bone matrix, osteoblasts become trapped
thereby reducing the number. By the in it. Once they are trapped, they
time an individual reaches adulthood, the develop into osteocytes or mature bone
number of bones in the body totals about cells. Osteocytes help maintain the hard
206. bone tissue by removing and replacing
Structure of Bone. Bone is living tissue the calcium compounds in the matrix. In
that is constantly being renewed mature adults (whose bones are no
throughout life. Three types of bone longer growing), osteocytes are the most

numerous bone cells. Finally, osteoclasts Four types are recognized based
are the bone-destroying cells. They on shape. These are long bones, short
break down bone matrix, releasing bones, flat bones, and irregular bones.
calcium and phosphate ions into the Long bones are found in the
blood (this is important when blood extremities: the arms, legs, hands, and
calcium levels drop below normal). feet (but not the wrists or ankles). As
Appendicular skeleton, portion of the their name indicates, long bones have a
skeleton consisting of the pectoral girdle, long central shaft with knobby end
the pelvic girdle, and the bones of the portions. The shaft is called the
arms and legs. diaphysis and each end is called the
Axial skeleton, portion of the skeleton epiphysis. Short bones, which are cube-
consisting of the skull, vertebral column, shaped, are found in confined spaces
and rib cage. such as the wrist and ankle. Flat bones
Bursa, sac filled with synovial fluid that are thin and wide, providing surfaces for
decreases friction between a tendon and muscle attachment and protection for
a bone. underlying organs. The ribs, shoulder
Diaphysis, shaft of a long bone blades, sternum (breastbone), pelvis
containing a narrow canal filled with (hips), and most of the bones of the skull
yellow bone marrow. are consider flat bones. Irregular bones
Epiphysis, end of a long bone. are those that do not fit into the first
Fontanels, also known as soft spots, three categories. Vertebrae (bones of the
fibrous connective tissue between flat spinal column) and facial bones are
bones in the developing cranium. types of irregular bones.
Joint, area where adjacent bones meet or Short, flat, and irregular bones
articulate. are all made of spongy bone covered by
Ligament, fibrous connective tissue that a thin layer of compact bone. The
connects bone to bone. cavities of the spongy bone in these
Ossification, process of bone formation. bones are filled with red bone marrow,
Osteoblasts, principal bone-building which is the loose connective tissue that
cells. produces blood cells in certain bones. In
Osteoclasts, large cells that break down adults, red blood cells, five types of
bone matrix. white blood cells, and platelets are
Osteocytes, mature bone cells. formed in the red bone marrow of
Periosteum, dense fibrous membrane portions of the ribs, vertebrae, sternum,
covering the surface of bones except at and pelvis.
the joints.
Synovial membrane, connective tissue AXIAL SKELETON
membrane that lines joint cavities and The Skull. The skull consists of two sets
secretes synovial fluid. of bones: cranial bones and facial bones.
Tendon, tough, white, cordlike tissue In addition to protecting the brain, these
that attaches muscle to bone. bones protect and support the organs
responsible for sight, hearing, smell, and
FOUR TYPES OF BONES - taste.
According to Shape
The eight bones of the cranium scapula or shoulder blade and the
(the part of the skull that encloses the clavicle or collar bone. The large
brain) are thin and flat. Interlocking at triangular-shaped scapula anchors some
their joints, they are immovable. The of the muscles that move the upper arm.
frontal bone forms the forehead and the The S-shaped clavicle is small and light
upper part of the eye sockets. The two and relatively fragile. Each clavicle acts
parietal bones form the sides and upper as a brace for its corresponding scapula,
portion of the cranium. Lying preventing the shoulder from coming too
underneath the parietal bones are the two far forward. The major advantage to the
temporal bones. The occipital bone loose attachment of the pectoral girdle is
forms the back of the cranium. that it allows for a wide range of
Vertebral Column. The skull rests atop shoulder motions and greater overall
the vertebral column, which encloses the freedom of movement.
spinal cord. Also called the spine or The Arms. Each arm or upper limb
backbone, the vertebral column protects contains thirty bones. The upper arm
the spinal cord and helps to support the contains only one bone, the humerus,
weight of the body, transmitting that which extends from the shoulder joint to
weight to the lower limbs. It also the elbow joint. At the elbow joint, the
provides attachment sites for the ribs as humerus articulates or connects with the
well as the muscles that move the trunk two bones of the forearm, the radius and
(main part of the body). The individual the ulna. When the arm is held out and
bones making up the column are palm faces upward, the radius and ulna
collectively called vertebrae. A single are parallel to each other; the radius is on
bone is called a vertebra. the thumb side and the ulna is on the
The Rib Cage. Twelve pairs of ribs little finger side. When the arm is turned
extend forward from the thoracic over and the palm faces downward, the
vertebrae. Most of the ribs (the first radius crosses on top of the ulna to form
seven pairs) attach in the front of the an X.
body by cartilage called costal cartilage The Pelvic Girdle. Unlike the pectoral
to the long, flat sternum or breastbone. girdle, the pelvic girdle is strong and
These ribs are called true ribs. The next dense. It consists of two large coxal or
five pair of ribs are called false ribs. The hip bones. Each coxal bone, left and
first three pair of false ribs do not attach right, consists of three fused bones—the
directly to the sternum, but to the costal ilium, the ischium, and the pubis. The
cartilage of the seventh pair of ribs. The ilium is the flared, upper portion of a
lower two pair of ribs of false ribs, also hip. Each ilium attaches at the rear to the
called floating ribs, do not attach to the sacrum, connecting the pelvic girdle to
sternum at all. the vertebral column. The ischium is the
ring-shaped lower part on which a
APPENDICULAR SKELETON person sits, and the pubis is the most
The Pectoral Girdle. Forming a loose forward portion at the bottom of a hip.
attachment with the sternum is the These three bones generally have fused
pectoral girdle, or shoulder. Each together by the time an individual
shoulder is formed by two bones: the reaches adolescence.
The Legs. Each leg or lower limb is Ligaments and tendons. Two types of
similar in form to an arm or upper limb. dense connective or fibrous tissue are
Each leg (composed of the thigh, lower attached to bones—ligaments and
leg, and foot) also contains thirty bones. tendons. Ligaments fasten bone to bone
The thigh contains only one bone, the at joints, wrapping around the joints to
femur, which extends from the hip joint hold the bones together. By doing so,
to the knee joint. The bones of the lower they make joints more stable. Depending
limbs are thicker and stronger than the on their location in the body, they can be
bones of the upper limbs. In fact, the shaped like a thick strap, a rope, or a flat
femur is the longest, strongest, and ribbon or bandage. Because they are
heaviest bone in the body. As it runs bundles containing elastic fibers as well
down the upper part of the leg, the femur as collagen fibers, ligaments can stretch
slants inward. This helps bring the knees to a certain degree.
in line with the body's center of gravity.
Reproductive System – Sex Organs Page 40
The reproductive system makes function is to produce male gametes or

life possible. An individual does not sperm, which fertilize ova or female
need the system to survive, but the eggs (they also produce the male
human race does. Without the hormone testosterone). The reproductive
reproductive system, babies would not ducts—epididymis, ductus deferens,
be born to grow into adults to give birth ejaculatory duct, and urethra—carry
to more babies. The human cycle would sperm from the testes to the exterior of
end. All living things on the planet the body. Accessory glands—seminal
reproduce more of their own kind, and vesicles, prostate gland, and
they do so in one of two ways. Some bulbourethral glands—produce
organisms reproduce by splitting in half secretions that combine with sperm to
or by growing buds that eventually turn create semen. The male genitalia
into copies of the original organism. (external sex organs) are the scrotum and
This method, in which a single organism penis.
reproduces itself, is called asexual Testes. The testes are two small, egg-
reproduction. The reproductive method shaped structures suspended in the
whereby a male and female of a scrotum, a loose sac of skin that hangs
particular species interact and exchange outside the pelvic cavity between the
genetic material to create offspring is upper thighs. In a male fetus, the testes
called sexual reproduction. Humans develop near the kidneys, then descend
reproduce by this latter method. into the scrotum just before birth.
Each testis measures about 1.5
PARTS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE inches (3.8 centimeters) long and 1 inch
SYSTEM (2.5 centimeters) wide. Internally, a
The male and female testis is subdivided into many lobes.
reproductive systems form the halves Each lobe contains one to four tightly
that come together to create new human coiled tubes, called seminiferous tubules,
life. Each system is composed of in which sperm is produced. The
primary and accessory reproductive combined length of all the seminiferous
organs. In both, the primary sex organs tubules in a testis equals about 0.5 mile
are called gonads. These gonads produce (0.8 kilometer).
reproductive or sex cells called gametes; Mature sperm cells are the
they also secrete sex hormones. Despite smallest cells in the body. Each
their joint purpose to produce offspring, tadpolelike sperm cell consists of three
the two systems are quite different in regions: the head, middle piece, and
structure and function. flagellum. The helmetlike head contains
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE the male genetic material essential for
SYSTEM reproduction. On the tip of the head is
The male reproductive system. The the acrosome, which contains enzymes
primary organs in the male reproductive to break down the membrane of an ovum
system are the testes. Their main so fertilization can occur. The middle
piece contains a supply of adenosine The sperm cell uses the ATP to power its
triphosphate (ATP), a high-energy flagellum, the long whiplike tail, to
molecule found in every cell in the body. move the cell along.
Epididymis. The epididymis is a tube ejaculatory ducts, a sphincter or ring of

about 20 feet (6 meters) in length. muscle at the junction of the bladder and
Tightly coiled on the posterior or back urethra closes, keeping urine in the
side of each testis, each epididymis takes bladder (and also preventing sperm from
up very little room. As sperm cells move entering the bladder).
through this tube, they absorb nutrients Accessory Glands and Semen. The
and become mature or fully developed, a three accessory glands produce
process that takes about two weeks. The secretions that combine with sperm to
walls of the epididymis are made of create a whitish, somewhat sticky
smooth muscle cells, which helps propel mixture called semen. Those secretions
sperms cells into the ductus deferens. (the fluid part of semen) are known
Ductus Deferens. The ductus deferens, collectively as seminal fluid. Ejaculation
also called the vas deferens, extends is the sudden ejection of semen from the
from each epididymis upward over the penis. A typical ejaculation releases
top of the bladder, then down its back between 0.07 and 0.17 ounce (2 and 5
side. The paired ducts measure between milliliters) of semen. Although as many
16 and 18 inches (40 and 45 centimeters) as 400 to 600 million sperm are
in length. Their smooth muscular walls contained in a typical ejaculation, they
move the sperm along through peristaltic make up only about 1 percent of the
contractions, or a series of wavelike volume of the semen because of their
muscular contractions that move extremely small size.
material in one direction through a The seminal vesicles are the first
hollow organ. accessory glands to add secretions to
Ejaculatory Duct. The ejaculatory duct sperm. Located at the base of the
is a short passageway that is formed by bladder, their ducts join with the paired
the union of a ductus deferens and the ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory
duct of a seminal vesicle. Each ducts. Their thick, yellowish secretion,
ejaculatory duct measures just under 1 which makes up about 60 percent of the
inch (2.5 centimeters) in length. Both seminal fluid, contains high amounts of
ejaculatory ducts empty sperm (from the fructose (sugar), vitamin C, and other
ductus deferens) and fluid (from the substances. The secretion helps nourish
seminal vesicle) into the single urethra. and activate the sperm as its passes
Urethra. The urethra extends from the through the reproductive tract.
base of the urinary bladder to the tip of Male Genitalia. The scrotum and penis
the penis, a distance of 6 to 8 inches (15 are the male genitalia that hang outside
to 20 centimeters). In males, the urethra the body. As stated earlier, the scrotum
serves both the reproductive and urinary is a loose sac of skin that hangs outside
systems. It transports sperm (with its the pelvic cavity between the upper
fluid) and urine to the body exterior, but thighs. It is divided into two
never both at the same time. When compartments, each holding a testis. The
sperm enters the urethra from the scrotum holds the testes away from the
body since normal body temperature is
too warm for sperm to be produced. The
temperature inside the scrotum is a few
degrees cooler than inside the rest of the
body. If the external temperature
becomes very cold,
muscles in the scrotum pull the testes include the fallopian tubes, the uterus,
closer to the body, maintaining the the vagina, the genitalia, and the
proper temperature for sperm mammary glands.
production. Ovaries. The ovaries are two almond-
The penis is a tubular organ that shaped structures measuring about 1.5
surrounds the latter part of the urethra. It inches (3.8 centimeters) in length. They
serves two purposes: to conduct urine are located on each side of the pelvis,
outside the body and to deliver semen one at the end of each fallopian tube.
into the female reproductive tract. The Ligaments attach the
two main parts of the penis are the glans Fallopian Tubes. The fallopian tubes,
(enlarged tip) and shaft (body). A fold of also called uterine tubes, connect the
skin called the prepuce or foreskin ovaries to the uterus. Each fallopian tube
covers the glans. It is common practice is about 4 inches (10 centimeters) in
in certain cultures and religions to length and extremely narrow. The end of
remove the foreskin surgically soon after the tube that attaches to an ovary has
birth, a procedure called a circumcision. fingerlike projections called fimbriae
The shaft contains three masses or that partially surround the ovary. The
columns of erectile tissue. Normally, this inner surfaces of the tubes are carpeted
spongy tissue is not filled with much with cilia, microscopic hairlike
blood. During sexual arousal, however, structures projecting in from the inner
blood flow to the tissue increases. The lining.
penis, engorged with blood, becomes Uterus. The uterus, or womb, is a
longer, wider, and rigid. This event, hollow, muscular chamber shaped like
called an erection, allows the penis to an upside-down pear. An average uterus
enter the female vagina and deliver measures about 3 inches (7.6
semen to the female's reproductive tract. centimeters) in length and 2 inches (5
centimeters) in width. It weighs
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE approximately between 1 and 1.4 ounces
SYSTEM (30 and 40 grams). The uterus lies in the
The reproductive system in pelvis between the urinary bladder and
females is more complex than that in rectum and is anchored in place by
males. The system produces female various ligaments.
gametes, called ova or eggs, and Vagina. The vagina is a muscular tube
provides a protective space for an ovum extending from the uterus to the
to be fertilized and to develop until birth. genitalia. It lies parallel to the rectum.
The primary organs in this system are The vagina serves as a exit for menstrual
the ovaries. The accessory organs fluids, receives the penis during
intercourse, and forms the birth canal activities, its length and width vary
through which the fetus passes at the end widely.
of pregnancy. Normally, it measures Female Genitalia. In females, the
about 4 inches (10 centimeters) in external sex organs are collectively
length, but to accommodate all of its called the vulva. The parts making up
the vulva include the mons pubis, labia
majora and minora, clitoris, and greater Mammary Glands. Mammary glands
vestibular glands. are found in the breasts of both women
The mons pubis is the prominent and men. However, they normally
fatty bulge at the top of the vulva. function only in women. Mammary
Beginning at puberty, this area is glands are modified sweat glands that
covered with pubic hair. Running down are actually part of the integumentary
from the mons pubis are two hair- system (skin). Although not directly
covered skin folds or flaps called the involved in the reproduction process,
labia majora. They enclose two delicate, mammary glands play an important role
hair-free skin folds called the labia in providing nourishment for a newborn
minora. The area within the labia baby and their activities are controlled
minora, referred to as the vestibule, by hormones of the reproductive system.
contains the openings of the urethra For these reasons, they are considered
(through which urine passes) and the accessory reproductive organs.
vagina.

The Human Body Systems: (Zoology Lecture)

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The Human Body Systems

Circulatory System – The Circle of Blood Page 2

As blood begins to circulate, it

FUNCTIONS OF THE SYSTEM

TYPES OF THE CIRCULATORY body because it is accompanying the

The human digestive system is

THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS

Digestive System Page 6

Although we rarely think

Prolactin, which activates milk

The urinary system is

Excretory System – The Waste-Eliminator Page 12

Immune System – The Defender Page 13

Spleen. A person's spleen is an materials to both B and T cells, initiating

Immune System – The Defender Page 15

Integumentary System – Skin, Hair & Nails Page 16

to 0.08 inches (1 to 2 millimeters), but watery sweat to maintain normal body

TWO PRINCIPAL LAYERS OF

Integumentary System – Skin, Hair & Nails Page 18

The muscular system is the

PARTS OF THE MUSCULAR

Nervous System – Brain and Nerves Page 26

Nervous System – Brain and Nerves Page 28

Nervous System – Brain and Nerves Page 29

Nervous System – Brain and Nerves Page 30

Although brain size varies considerably The human brain is composed of

Respiratory System – Breathing Page 32

PARTS OF THE SKELETAL

Skeletal System – Body Framework Page 37

The reproductive system makes function is to produce male gametes or

Epididymis. The epididymis is a tube ejaculatory ducts, a sphincter or ring of

Reproductive System – Sex Organs Page 42

Reproductive System – Sex Organs Page 43

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