GENDER INEQUALITY

Gender inequality refers to health, education, economic and

political inequalities between men and women. Various
international gender inequality indices rank India differently on
each of these factors, as well as on a composite basis, and these
indices are controversial.
Gender inequalities, and their social causes, impact sex ratio,
women's health over their lifetimes, their educational attainment,
and economic conditions. Gender inequality is a multifaceted
issue that concerns men and women. Some argue that various
gender equality indices place men at a disadvantage. However,
when India's population is examined as a whole, women are at a
disadvantage in several important ways. In India, discriminatory
attitudes towards either sex have existed for generations and
affect the lives of both sexes. Although the constitution of India
grants men and women equal rights, gender disparities remain.
Research shows gender discrimination mostly in favor of men in
many realms including the workplace. Discrimination affects
many aspects in the lives of women from career development
and progress to mental health disorders. While Indian laws on
rape, dowry and adultery have women's safety at heart, these
highly discriminatory practices are still taking place at an
alarming rate, affecting the lives of many today.
BIRTH
The cultural construct of Indian society which reinforces gender
bias against men and women, with varying degrees and variable
contexts against the opposite sex, has led to the continuation of
India's strong preference for male children. Female infanticide
and sex-selective abortion is adopted and strongly reflects the
societal low status of Indian women. Census 2011 shows decline
of girl population (as a percentage to total population) under the
age of seven, with activists estimating that eight million female
fetuses may have been aborted in the past decade. The 2005
census shows infant mortality figures for females and males are
61 and 56, respectively, out of 1000 live births, with females
more likely to be aborted than males due to biased attitudes,
cultural stereotypes, insecurity, etc.
The demand for sons among wealthy parents is being satisfied
by the medical community through the provision of illegal
service of fetal sex-determination and sex-selective abortion.
The financial incentive for physicians to undertake this illegal
activity seems to be far greater than the penalties associated with
breaking the law.
CHILDHOOD
Education is not equally attained by Indian women. Although
literacy rates are increasing, the female literacy rate lags behind
the male literacy rate.
Literacy for females stands at 65.46%, compared to 82.14% for
males. An underlying factor for such low literacy rates are
parents' perceptions that education for girls are a waste of
resources as their daughters would eventually live with their
husbands' families. Thus, there is a strong belief that due to their
traditional duty and role as housewives, daughters would not
benefit directly from the education investment.
ADULTHOOD
Discrimination against women has contributed to gender wage
differentials, with Indian women on average earning 64% of
what their male counterparts earn for the same occupation and
level of qualification.
This has led to their lack of autonomy and authority. Although
equal rights are given to women, equality may not be well
implemented. In practice, land and property rights are weakly
enforced, with customary laws widely practiced in rural areas.
Women do not own property under their own names and usually
do not have any inheritance rights to obtain a share of parental
property.

GENDER INEQUALITY IN INDIA:

IMPORTANT DATA
 UNDP’s Gender Inequality Index- 2014: India’s ranking
is 127 out of 152 countries in the List. This ranking is only
above Afghanistan as far as SAARC countries are concerned.

 World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap Index-

2014: India’s ranks at 114 in the list of 142 countries of the
world. This Index examines gender gap in four major areas:

1. Economic participation and opportunity.

2. Occupational achievements.
3. Health and life expectancy.
4. Political empowerment.

India’s position on these indicators was as follows:

 Economic participation and opportunity: 134th

 Educational achievements: 126th
 Health and Life expectancy: 141st
 Political empowerment: 15th

ECONOMIC INEQUALITY
1. Access to credit
Although laws are supportive of lending to women
and microcredit programs targeted to women are prolific,
women often lack collateral for bank loans due to low levels of
property ownership and microcredit schemes have come under
scrutiny for coercive lending practices. Although many
microcredit programs have been successful and prompted
community-based women's self-help groups, a 2012 review of
microcredit practices found that women are contacted by
multiple lenders and as a result, take on too many loans and
overextend their credit. The report found that financial
incentives for the recruiters of these programs were not in the
best interest of the women they purported to serve. The result
was a spate of suicides by women who were unable to pay their
debts.

2. Property rights
Women have equal rights under the law to own property and
receive equal inheritance rights, but in practice, women are at a
disadvantage. This is evidenced in the fact that 70% of rural land
is owned by men. Laws, such as the Married Women Property
Rights Act of 1974 protect women, but few seek legal redress.

OCCUPATIONAL INEQUALITIES
1. Teaching
There are gender differences in the number of teachers and their
impact on education. During the mid-1970s, females were 25%
of teachers, increasing to 43% by 2008. Compared to male
teachers, female teachers had lower educational qualifications,
though a slightly greater proportion of female teachers had
received teacher training. In addition, on average, more female
teachers in the study compared to male teachers had over ten
years of teaching experience.
2. Scientific professions
A 2003 study of four science and technology higher education
institutions in India found that 40% of female faculty members
felt some form of gender discrimination in their respective
institutions, favouring male faculty members. In addition, in
terms of hiring practices, the interview committees of these
institutions asked female applicants how they would balance
their family with work, and why they were applying for a
position rather than being a homemaker. 
3. Military service
Women are not allowed to have combat roles in the armed
forces. According to a study carried out on this issue, a
recommendation was made that female officers be excluded
from induction in close combat arms. The study also held that a
permanent commission could not be granted to female officers
since they have neither been trained for command nor have they
been given the responsibility so far. Although changes are
appearing and women are playing important roles in army and
the defence minister is also female.

HEALTH AND SURVIVAL INEQUALITY

On health and survival measures, international standards
consider the birth sex ratio implied sex-selective abortion, and
gender inequality between women's and men's life expectancy
and relative number of years that women live compared to men
in good health by taking into account the years lost to violence,
disease, malnutrition or other relevant factors.
Sex-selective abortion
Mental health concern
Gender-based violence.

POLITICAL INEQUALITY
This measure of gender inequality considers the gap between
men and women in political decision making at the highest
levels.
 From the prime minister to chief ministers of various states,
Indian voters have elected women to its state legislative
assemblies and national parliament in large numbers for many
decades.
Women turnout during India's 2014 parliamentary general
elections was 65.63%, compared to 67.09% turnout for men. In
16 states of India, more women voted than men. A total of 260.6
million women exercised their right to vote in April–May 2014
elections for India's parliament. India passed 73rd and 74th
Constitutional Amendments in 1993, which provides for 33 per
cent quotas for women's representation in the local self-
government institutions.

REASONS
Gender inequality has been historic worldwide phenomena, a
human invention and based on gender assumptions. It is linked
to kinship rules rooted in cultures and gender norms that
organizes human social life, human relations, as well as
promotes subordination of women in a form of social strata.   In
extreme cases, the discrimination takes the form of honour
killings where families kill daughters or daughters-in-law who
fail to conform to gender expectations about marriage and
sexuality. When a woman does not conform to expected gender
norms she is shamed and humiliated because it impacts both her
and her family's honor, and perhaps her ability to marry. The
causes of gender inequalities are complex, but a number of
cultural factors in India can explain how son preference, a key
driver of daughter neglect, is so prevalent.
1. Patriarchal Society
Patriarchy is a social system of privilege in which men are the
primary authority figures, occupying roles of political
leadership, moral authority, control of property, and authority
over women and children. Most of India, with some exceptions,
has strong patriarchal and patrilineal customs, where men hold
authority over female family members and inherit family
property and title. Examples of patriarchy in India include
prevailing customs where inheritance passes from father to son,
women move in with the husband and his family upon marriage,
and marriages include a bride price or dowry. This 'inter-
generational contract' provides strong social and economic
incentives for raising sons and disincentives for raising
daughters. The parents of the woman essentially lose all they
have invested in their daughter to her husband's family, which is
a disincentive for investing in their girls during youth.
 2. Son Preference
A key factor driving gender inequality is the preference for sons,
as they are deemed more useful than girls. Boys are given the
exclusive rights to inherit the family name and properties and
they are viewed as additional status for their family. In a survey-
based study of 1990s data, scholars found that son are believed
to have a higher economic utility as they can provide additional
labour in agriculture. Another factor is that of religious
practices, which can only be performed by males for their
parents' afterlife. All these factors make sons more desirable.
Moreover, the prospect of parents 'losing' daughters to the
husband's family and expensive dowry of daughters further
discourages parents from having daughters. Additionally, sons
are often the only person entitled to performing funeral rights for
their parents. Thus, a combination of factors has shaped the
imbalanced view of sexes in India. A 2005 study in Madurai,
India, found that old age security, economic motivation, and to a
lesser extent, religious obligations, continuation of the family
name, and help in business or farm, were key reasons for son
preference. In turn, emotional support and old age security were
main reasons for daughter preference. The study underscored a
strong belief that a daughter is a liability.
3. Discrimination Against Girls
While women express a strong preference for having at least one
son, the evidence of discrimination against girls after they are
born is mixed. A study of 1990s survey data by scholars found
less evidence of systematic discrimination in feeding practices
between young boys and girls, or gender based nutritional
discrimination in India. In impoverished families, these scholars
found that daughters face discrimination in the medical
treatment of illnesses and in the administration of vaccinations
against serious childhood diseases. These practices were a cause
of health and survival inequality for girls. While gender
discrimination is a universal phenomenon in poor nations, a
2005 UN study found that social norms-based gender
discrimination leads to gender inequality in India.
4. Dowry
In India, dowry is the payment in cash or some kind of gifts
given to bridegroom's family along with the bride. The practice
is widespread across geographic region, class and religions. The
dowry system in India contributes to gender inequalities by
influencing the perception that girls are a burden on families.
Such beliefs limit the resources invested by parents in their girls
and limit her bargaining power within the family.
The payment of a dowry has been prohibited under The 1961
Dowry Prohibition Act in Indian civil law and subsequently by
Sections 304B and 498a of the Indian Penal Code (IPC). Several
studies show that while attitudes of people are changing about
dowry, the institution has changed very little, and even
continues to prevail.
5. Marriage laws
Men and women have equal rights within marriage under Indian
law, with the exception of all men who are allowed to
unilaterally divorce their wife. The legal minimum age for
marriage is 18 for women and 21 for men, except for those
Indians whose religion is Islam for whom child marriage
remains legal under India's Mohammedan personal laws. Child
marriage is one of the detriments to empowerment of women.
LEGAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL
SAFEGUARDS AGAINST GENDER
INEQUALITY

Indian Constitution provides for positive efforts to eliminate

gender inequality; the Preamble to the Constitution talks about
goals of achieving social, economic and political justice to
everyone and to provide equality of status and of opportunity to
all its citizens. Further, women have equal right to vote in our
political system. Article 15 of the Constitution provides for
prohibition of discrimination on grounds of sex also apart from
other grounds such as religion, race, caste or place of birth.
Article 15(3) authorizes the Sate to make any special provision
for women and children. Moreover, the Directive Principles of
State Policy also provides various provisions which are for the
benefit of women and provides safeguards against
discrimination.
Other than these Constitutional safeguards, various protective
Legislations have also been passed by the Parliament to
eliminate exploitation of women and to give them equal status in
society. For instance, the Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 was
enacted to abolish and make punishable the inhuman custom of
Sati; the Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 to eliminate the practice
of dowry; the Special Marriage Act, 1954 to give rightful status
to married couples who marry inter-caste or inter-religion; Pre-
Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of
Misuse) Bill (introduced in Parliament in 1991, passed in 1994
to stop female infanticide and many more such Acts.
Furthermore, the Parliament time to time brings out amendments
to existing laws in order to give protection to women according
to the changing needs of the society.

So there are varied legislative safeguards and protection

mechanisms for women but the ground reality is very different.
Despite all these provisions women are still being treated as
second rate citizens in our country; men are treating them as an
object to fulfill their carnal desires; crimes against women are at
alarming stage; the practice of dowry is still widely prevalent;
female infanticide is a norm in our homes.

HOW WE CAN ELIMINATE GENDER

INEQUALITY

The list of legislations as well as types of discriminations or

inequalities may go on but the real change will only come when
the mentality of society will change; when the male species of
human beings would start treating women as equal to them. In
fact not only men but women also need to change their mindset
as through cultural conditioning they have also become part of
the same exploitative system of patriarchy and are strengthening
men’s agenda of dominating women.

Therefore, what is needed is the movement for Women’s

empowerment where women can become economically
independent and self-reliant; where they can fight their own
fears and go out in the world fearless; where women have good
education, good career, and ownership of property and above all
where they have freedom of choice.

Let’s hope and wish that our democracy and with the efforts of
both women and men, would be able to found solutions to the
problem of gender inequality.

RAGHAV GUPTA
ELECTRICAL

18104075