Deep Foundations 13

13.1 INTRODUCTION

Deep foundations include piles, pile groups, and piers. Piles are slender structural elements
made of timber, concrete, steel, or composites. They are commonly circular in cross section,
but square, hexagonal, and octagonal sections are also common among precast concrete
piles. Steel piles can simply be I-sections (i.e.) H-piles) that are driven into the ground. A
pile group consists of two or more piles under the same pile cap that share the column load.
Piers are large diameter piles used for carrying larger loads in bridge abutments, etc. They
are typically greater than 750 mm in diameter. Cast-in-place piers are also known as drilled
piers or drilled shafts.
By definition, a deep foundation has a greater depth than breadth. Generally, the depth
(i.e., the pile length) is significantly greater than the breadth (i.e., the pile diameter). Even
for short piers, the length to diameter ratio is more than 5. In the case of piles, this ratio can
exceed 50. Pilings require specialist contractors and skills, and consequently, they cost more
than shallow foundations. For this reason, deep foundations are preferable only when
shallow foundations are inadequate.
Piles are commonly used when the column loads are too large (e.g., in high-rise
buildings), for a pad footing, or when the underlying soils are weak (e.g., soft clay). They
carry their loads through the tip and the shaft. When most of the- load is carried by the
shaft, they are known as friction piles (Figure 13. la). When most of the load is carried by
the tip, they are known as endbearing piles (Figure 13.1b). When the column loads are quite
large, it may be better to provide a pile group as shown in Figure 13.lc. Piles can also be
provided to resist uplift forces on the foundation (Figures 13.ld and 13.le). The one shown
in Figure 13.ld is known as an underreamed pier or belled pier. A special underreaming
tool is used to make the enlarged base in clayey soils, thus increasing the load carrying
capacity of the tip. It can also provide good anchorage against uplift in expansive soils.
Franki pile also has an enlarged base, where a concrete plug at the bot tom of the hole is
rammed into the soil, thus forming the enlarged base. Piles are also useful for resisting
lateral loads (Figures 13.1f and 13.lg). In Figure 13.lf, batter piles, also known as raker
piles, are used to provide lateral resistance to the anchor. They are also useful in wharves
and jetties carrying lateral impact force from berthing ships, offshore platforms, etc. Figure
13.lg shows a transmission tower resting on piles, which are provided to resist the uplift

341
350 Geotechnical Engineering
induced by the wind load mall diameter micro piles or root piles (pali radice), typically 50-
200 mm in

2
342 Geotechnical Engineering

Figure 13.1 Applications of deep foundations

diameter can be used in underpinning work to restore foundations that have settled
excessively, as shown in Figure 13.1h. Compaction piles can be driven into loose sand in an
attempt to densify them and to provide reinforcement.

13.2 PILE MATERIALS

Piles arc commonly made of timber, concrete, steel, or composites. While timber, concrete,
and steel are the traditional and most common types, composites also have their place. They
are effective in marine environments, which can have adverse effects on concrete, timber, or
steel.

13.2.1 Timber Piles

Timber is cheaper than concrete or steel, but is becoming shorter in supply. It is light, easy to
handle, and readily trimmed to required lengths. Timber trunks are tree trunks that have their
 Deep Foundations 343

branches, and bark removed, generally forming a circular cross section with a natural taper,
with the upper end (butt or head) larger in diameter than the lower end (tip). The load
carrying capacity of a timber pile, generally limited to about 500 kN, is significantly lower
than that of a concrete or steel pile. Timber piles are available in up to 20 m lengths, but can
be spliced to make longer piles. They are generally installed by driving, and arc better used
as friction piles than as end-bearing piles. Very high driving stresses can cause brooming or
splitting at the head. and can also damage the tip. This can be minimized by using a cushion
at the pile head and by providing a steel shoe at the tip.
Timber can rot when attacked by marine organisms such as marine borers and fungi.
This happens only when there is oxygen and water, and is more serious under a fluctuating
water table when it is exposed to both. They are pressure impregnated with creosotes and
oils to make them durable. Figure 13.2a shows a drop hammer driving a timber pile into the
ground.

13.2.2 Concrete Piles

The two major types of concrete piles are precast and cast-in-place. Precast piles can be
conventionally reinforced or prestressed, cast in yards from where they were transported to
the site, and generally installed by driving or jetting (with the help of a water jet, mostly in
sands). Their load carrying capacities are greater than the cast-in-place piles; conventionally
reinforced piles carry up to 3000 kN, and when prestressed, they carry as much as 8000 kN.
Splicing is still possible with concrete piles, but is undesirable. Therefore, precast concrete
piles have to be made to required lengths. Pile driving can be noisy and the vibrations can
have adverse effects on nearby buildings. They require casting yards, storage space,
transport, and special care in handling. Figure 13.2b shows a group of precast piles that have
been driven into the ground, waiting for the pile cap to be cast. Precasting an octagonal
concrete pile, its storage in the yard and transport to the site are shown in Figures 13.2c,
13.2d, and 13.2e. Cast-in-place or bored piles are made by placing a reinforcement cage
inside a hole and by filling it with a lower grade of concrete than what is used in precast
piles (Figure 13.2f). They can be cased or uncased. When cased, a shell is driven into the
ground, with or without a mandrel, and is filled with reinforced concrete. In the uncased
type, the shell is withdrawn as the concrete is poured. The base can be underrc eamed to
increase the load carrying capacity. Franki pile is also a cast-in-place pile that has a bell
formed by hammering a concrete plug into the soil at the bottom of the pile.

13.2.3 Steel Piles

Steel piles are relatively expensive, but their higher load carrying capacity, high resistance to
driving, and relative ease of splicing make them an attractive option. They are generally
driven into the ground in the form of pipes or rolled H-sections. In marine environments,
they are prone to corrosion and require cathodic protection.
344 Geotechnical Engineering

Figure 13.2 Pile installation: (a) timber pile driven by drop hammer (b) group of precast concrete driven piles (c)
casting a concrete pile (d) storage of precast piles (e) transporting precast piles ( f ) bored pile (g) composite pile
(Photos: Courtesy of Dr. Warren Ng, Dynamic Pile Testing and Ms. Mary Balfour, Balfour Consulting)
 Deep Foundation 345

13.2.4 Composite Piles

The traditional composite pile is a pile made of two different materials. Figure 13.2g shows
a composite pile being made by placing a steel H-pile in a hole and filling it with concrete.
Similarly, a driven steel pipe filled with concrete is a composite pile. To avoid exposure of
timber piles to a fluctuating water table, it is common to have the upper portion of the pile
above the water table in concrete. Lately, there are piles made of fiber-reinforced polymers
(FRP) and other composite materials.

13.3 PILE INSTALLATION

The response of a pile to the applied load is very dependent on the method of installation. A
pile can be installed into the ground by boring, driving, jetting, or screwing. Depending on
the extent of lateral displacement of the surrounding soil, a pile can be of the
nondisplacement, low-displacement, or high-displacement type. Bored piles, except for
Franki piles, are non-displacement piles. H-piles, open-ended pipe piles, or screw piles cause
little lateral displacements and are therefore low-displacement piles. A large diameter
concrete pile and a closed-ended pipe pile become high-displacement piles due to the large
lateral displacement. A displacement pile will generally have a higher load carrying capacity
than a nondisplacement pile.
Timber steel, and precast concrete piles can be driven into the ground by a pile hammer.
Pile-driving hammers can be one of the two major types, impact or vibratory. The impact
type can be a gravity, or drop hammer, single-acting hammer, or a double-acting hammer. A
drop hammer (Figure 13.3a) is lifted mechanically by a hoist or crane and dropped under
gravity. It is the oldest and simplest type of impact hammer. In a Single-acting hammer,
compressed air or steam is used to raise the hammer on the upstroke, which is then allowed
to fall freely. In a double-acting hammer, compressed air or steam is also used to push the
hammer down during the downstroke to accelerate its downward movement. In a single-
acting or double-acting diesel hammer (Figure 13.3b and 13.3c), a fuel mixture injected into
the combustion chamber is ignited at the end of the downstroke, with the combustion forcing
the anvil down and the hammer up in preparation for the next stroke. Figure 13.3c shows a
diesel hammer driving a raker pile into the ground.
Vibratory hammers (Figure 13.3d) can come in low, medium, and high frequencies.
Rotating, eccentric weights are used for producing vertical vibration. The horizontal
components of the vibrations get cancelled. They are very effective for driving
nondisplacement piles in sand. In clays, low frequency hammers work well.
Jetting is an effective technique for installing piles in granular soils, but is quite
ineffective in clays. A high-pressure water jet through a nozzle at the pile tip loosens the soil
beneath, enabling the pile to advance further. A screw pile consists of a cylindrical concrete
or steel cylinder with helical blades at the tip. The tip is screwed into the ground and can
provide good uplift resistance.
346 Geotechnical Engineering

Figure 13.3 Pile installation: (a) pile driving by drop hammer (b) pile driving by diesel hammer (c) driving a
raker pile (d) vibratory hammer (Photos: Courtesy of Dr. Warren Ng, Dynamic Pile Testing and Ms. Mary
Balfour, Balfour Consulting)

13.4 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY OF A PILE━STATIC ANALYSIS

 Deep Foundation 349
In shallow foundations, the entire column load is transferred through the base of the footing.
In deep foundations, the load is transferred to the soil partly through the tip and the rest
through the shaft.
Figure 13.4a shows a column load Q being applied to the head of a pile, which is
transferred to the soil through the shaft and the tip, with the loads carried being
Qs and Qt
respectively. The length of the pile is l and the diameter is d. For equilibrium,
Q=Q s +Q t .The stress distributions along the shaft and the tip are shown in Figure
13.4b, where
f s ( z ) is the skin friction/adhesion along the shaft at depth z, and q ult is
the ultimate bearing capacity at the pile tip. When the load Q is increased gradually from 0,
the variations of
Qs , Qt , and Q with the settlement of the pile are shown in Figure
13.4c. It can be seen that the shaft resistance is mobilized well before the tip resistance. The
full capacity of the shaft is reached when the pile settlement is only about 0.5-1.0% of the
shaft diameter, whereas only a small fraction of the tip capacity is reached at this time. Full
tip resistance is mobilized only at very large settlements of about 10% of the pile diameter
for driven piles and as much as 30% for bored piles.The gross ultimate load carrying
Q
capacity ult is determined by computing the ultimate load carrying capacities of the shaft
Qs,ult and tip Qt,ult separately, and adding them up. As in the case of shallow
foundations, a

Figure 13.4 Load transfer mechanism: (a) pile loads (b) stress distribution (c) load-
settlement plot
348 Geotechnical Engineering
safety factor of 2-3 is applied on the ultimate load to calculate the allowable load. For piles
in compression, the U.S. Army (1993) suggests a safety factor of2.0 when verified by pile
load test, 2.5 when verified by pile driving analyzer, and 3.0 when not verified. In tension
(i.e., uplift), a slightly higher safety factor may be appropriate. When the ultimate bearing
q
capacity ult of the pile tip is known, the ultimate load carrying capacity of the pile tip can
be estimated as:
Q t,ult  qult Atip 13.1
where
A tip
is the cross-sectional area of the tip, which is πd /4 for circular cross
2

sections. The shear resistance along the shaft

f s , often known as skin friction or
adhesion, varies with the depth. Once its variation with depth is known, the ultimate load
carrying capacity of the pile shaft can be estimated as:

Q s,ult  
z 1
f s  z  p z  z  dz 13.2
z 0
where p(z) is the perimeter at depth z, which is πd in the case of circular piles with no
q
taper. Now, let's see how we can determine ult and s
f ( z ) . What is discussed below is
applicable mainly to driven piles. In bored piles where the installation technique is quite
different, such estimates are very approximate. For bored piles, the ultimate load carrying
capacity can be conservatively estimated as 50% of what is obtained for driven piles.
Meyerhof (1976) suggested the following empirical formulae for estimaling
f s and
qult in terms of standard penetration test results in cohesionless soils.
f
Large displacement driven piles: s (kPa)
=2 N 60

Small displacement driven piles:

f s (kPa) =N 60

Bored pile:
f s (kPa) =0 . 67 N 60
where
N 60 is the average value of N 60 over the pile length.
40 N 60 l
Driven piles in sands and gravels:
q ult

(kPa) d
 400 N 60

40 N 60 l
q 
Driven piles in nonplastic silts: ult (kPa)
 300 N 60
d

Bored piles in any granular soils:

qult (kPa) 14 N 60 l
d

where the 60 Nvalues are those at the tip of the pile. In terms of cone resistance
qc
from a static cone penetration test, he suggested the following equations:

qc
Driven piles in dense sands: fs 
200
qc
Driven piles in loose sands: f 
s 400
q
Driven piles in nonplastic silts: fs  c
150

where
qc is the average cone resistance along the pile. The ultimate bearing capacity at
the tip
q ult is assumed equal to the cone resistance at the tip.
 Deep Foundation 349

qult
13.4.1 Ultimate Bearing Capacity at the Tip
The ultimate bearing capacity at the tip can be computed by treating the pile as a footing of
width d at depth I. In the case of granular soils, the bearing capacity equation (Equation
12.2) becomes:
'
q ult =σ v , tip N q +0 . 5 dγN γ (13.3)

where
'
σ v,tip γ D
replaces the term 1 f in Equation 12.2. The bearing capacity factors
N q and N γ are different from those we used for shallow foundations due to different
and N q and
'
failure surfaces within the surrounding soil. Since σ v , tip >> 0 .5 dγ ,
N γ are of the same order, the second term in Equation 13.3 can be neglected. Therefore:

qult   v, tip N q (13.4)

A wide range of values have been proposed by Terzaghi (1943), Meyerhof (1976),
Berezantzev et al. (1961), and several others based on the different failure surfaces assumed.
These are shown in Figure 13.5 along with those suggested by the u.s. Army (1993). The
values proposed by Berezantzev et al. (1961) appear to be more popular. The values
suggested by The Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual (2006) for driven and cast-in-
place piles arc summarized in Table 13. 1.
Right next to driven piles in granular soils, including silts, the vertical stress does not
increase indefinitely with depth. Beyond a certain depth, known as critical depth
d c , the
vertical stress remains constant. The critical depth is approximately 10-20 times the pile
diameter with the lower and upper ends of the range for loose and dense granular soils
respectively (U.S. Army 1993).
For driven and bored piles in clays, the ultimate load carrying capacity of lhe pile
Qult is generally calculated in terms of total stresses, using undrained shear strength (I.e.,
short-term analysis). Assuming undrained conditions,
φu =0 and N C =9 for piles with
l /d >4 (see Section 12.3 and Figure 13.9b), the net ultimate bearing capacity at the tip is
given by:

qult  cu N c  9cu (13.5)

13.4.2 Ultimate Shear Resistance along the Shaft f s

In granular soils at depth z, the effective overburden stress
σ'
is v . The effective
K σ '
, Ks
horizontal stress next to the pile can be written as s v where is an earth
pressure coefficient, which depends on the degree of lateral displacement taking
place during the pile insta llation. Bored piles are nondisplacement piles , as they
cause no lateral displacement to the surrounding soils. Driven piles can be of low-
or high-displacement type. H-pile and open-ended pipes are low-displacement piles
and other driven piles including closed-ended pipe piles are high-displacement
K s σ 'v tan δ ,
piles. The skin friction is therefore where δ is the angle of friction.
348 Geotechnical Engineering
 Figure 13.5
Nq values

Table 13.1 N. Values (after The Canadian Foundation

Engineering Manual 2006)
Soil Driven piles Cast- in-place piles
Silts 20-40 10-30
Loose sands 30-80 20-30
Medium sands 50-120 30-60
Dense sands 100-120 50-100
Gravel 150-300 80-150

between the soil and the pile material, similar to what was used in Section l 0.4. Suggested
values for δ and
K s are given in Tables 13.2 and 13.3 respectively. K o can be
estimated from Equation 10.2.
K s tan δ is sometimes referred to as β -coefficient in
the literature and is used in effective stress analysis in clays too. The typical ranges for
Ks
tan δ for driven and bored piles in granular soils are summarized in Table 13.4.
 Table 13.2 δ /φ' values (after Kulhawy 1984 and U.S. Army 1994)
Pile material-soil Kulhawy (1984) the U.S. Army (1994)
Timber- sand 0.8- 0.9 0.8- 1 .0
Smooth steel-sand 0.5-0.7 0.67-0.80
Rough (corrugated) steel-sand 0.7-0.9
Precast concrete-sand 0.8- 1.0 0.8-1.0
Cast-in-place concrete-sand 1.0

Table
Table
K s / K o β−
13.313.4 Typi cal (after
values rangesKulhawy
for
Installation method Ks / Ko 1984)K s tan δ
orcoefficient (after The
Jetted piles 0.5-0.7 Canadian Foundation Engineering
Bored and cast-in-place piles 0.7-1.0

low displacement driven piles 0.75-1.5

Soil Driven piles Cast in place piles
High displacement driven piles 1.0-2.0 Silts 0.3-0.5 0.2-0.3
Loose sands 0.3-0 .8 0.2-0 .4
Medium sands 0.6- 1.0 0.3-0.5
Again, the critical depth must be considered in Dense sands 0.8- 1.2 0.4-0.6

the case of driven piles in' granular soils. The Gravels 0.8- 1.5 0.4-0.7

effective vertical stress σ v does not increase beyond this depth. This fact should be
remembered in computing the skin friction .
When computing the load carrying capacity of a driven or bored pile in clays in terms of
f
total stresses s is taken as the adhesion between the pile and the clay. Adhesion is a
fraction of the undrained shear strength, typically in the range of 0.35- 1.0. Defining
adhesion as α
c u , for driven piles in clays, The Canadian Foundation Engineering
Manual (2006) suggests:

Pa
α =0 . 21+ 0. 26 <1 . 0
Cu (13.6)

where
p
a is the atmospheric pressure (= 101.3 kPa). For driven piles, API (1984)
suggests an adhesion factor α of 1.0 for u
c ≤ 25 kPa and 0.5 for c u≥ 70 kPa, with
linear interpolation in between these values. This is also supported by the U.S. Army (1993).
For bored piles, 0.5 can be used as the adhesion factor.

For heavily loaded piles driven to deep penetration such as in offshore structures,
Tomlinson (1995) noted that adhesion depends on the overconsolidation ratio and
slenderness ratio of the pile and suggested that:

f s =αcu =F1 F 2 c u (13.7)

 F
where 1 accounts for the overconsolidation ratio and
F2 for the slenderness ratio. They
are given by:

cu
F1 =1 .0 for ≤0 . 35
σ 'v 0 (13.8a)

cu cu
F1 =0 . 3649−1 .393 log for 0 .35≤ ≤0. 8
σ 'v 0 σ 'v 0 (13.8b)

cu
F1 =0 . 5 for '
≥0 . 8
σv 0 (13.8c)

1
F2 =1 .0 for ≤50
d (13.9a)

Example 13.1 : A 12 m-long and 400 mm-diameter concrete pile is driven into sands where
3
φ' =34 ° . The unit weight of the sand is 18.0 kN/ m . Estimate the maximum load allowed on this
pile.
'
Solution: For φ =34 ° , d c =13 d=5 . 2m :
δ=0 . 9 φ' =30 . 6 °
From Equation 10.2:
'
K o =1−sin { φ =0 . 44 →K 1=1 .5 ¿ K o =0 .66
β=K s tan δ=0 . 39 , which is at the low end of the range given in Table 13.4.
Let's increase it slightly, and use
K s tan δ of 0.5.
' '
At depth d c , σ v=18×5 .2=93 .6 kPa . The variation of σ v with depth is shown on page 353.
Let's compute the tip load first: l/d=12/0 . 4=30
From Figure 13.5:
N q =40 , , which is lower than the values from Table 13.1 .
Continues
 Example 13.1: Continued

'
σv
(kPa) 93.6

5.2 55.2

12.0
12.0
(□)
(□)

Let's increase
Nq to 50
'
q ult ≈σ v , tip N q ≈93 . 6×50=4680 kPa
π
(
Qt,ult =q ult A tip =4680 ×0 . 4 2 =588
4 )kN
Let's compute the shaft load, using
K s tan δ of 0.5.
'
Area of the σ v−z diagram = 0.5 X 93.6 X 5.2 + 93.6 X 6.8 = 879.8 kN/m:
z=1
Qs,ult =∫z=0 f s ( z ) p z ( z ) dz=879.8×0.5×π×0. 4=553
kN
Qult =Q t,ult +Qs,ult =588+553=1141
kN
With a safety factor of 2.5, the maximum allowable load on the pile is 456 kN.

13.4.3 Negative Skin Friction

Throughout this chapter, we have assumed that the pile load is carried partly by the
shaft in the form of skin friction or adhesion. This is true if the pile moves downward
relative to the surrounding soil. Sometimes, in compressible materials such as soft
clays or fills that are still undergoing settlements, the soil can move down relative to
the pile and induce a down drag on the pile, thus reversing the direction of the skin
friction. This is known as negative ski n friction,which can have adverse effects on
the load carrying capacity of the pile. In addition to reducing the shaft capacity, the
tip has to carry a load greater than what is applied on top of the pile. Lowering the
water table can also induce negative skin friction.
13.5 PILE-DRIVING FORMULAE

Pile-driving formulae can be used to estimate however crudely, the ultimate load carrying
capacities of driven piles. When a hammer of weight
W R falls over a distance h, the work
done is
W R hη , where η is the efficiency of the setup, accounting for any energy loss. The
penetration of a driven pile into the soil per blow is known as set S, a very important term in pile
driving. Assuming that the work done by the pile is also given by
Qult s, these two terms can
be equated as:

W R hη=Qult s (13.10)

Equation 13.10 is the basis for all pile-driving equations. Typical values of η for different
pile driving hammers are given in Table 13.5.
W R h can be replaced by the hammer's energy
rating. The allowable load on the pile is estimated by dividing the ultimate load computed from
Equation 13.10 by a large safety factor, often of about six, reflecting the crudeness of the
method. Is it a factor of safety or a factor of ignorance?

The Engineering News Record (ENR) formula is one of the oldest and simplest, and was
developed for timber piles. It suggests that:

WRh
Qult =
s+c (13.1 1)

where the constant c accounts for the energy loss (or efficiency), and is 25.4 mm for drop
hammers and 2.54 for steam hammers. With 5- 10 blows per minute, drop hammers arc very
slow in operation and are used only for small jobs.

The modified ENR formula suggests that:

W R hη W R +n2 W P
Q ult = ×
s+c W R+ W P (13. 12)

where c = 2.54 mm,

W R = weight of the ram, W
P = weight of the pile, and n = coefficient of
restitution between the ram and the c pile cap that varies from 0.25 for timber to 0.50 for steel
(Bowles 1988).
The Michigan State Highway Commission formula is of the same form as Equation 13.12,
where
W hR is replaced by the hammer's energy rating multiplied by 1.25. The Navy-McKay
formula is given by:
η×Energy rating
Qult =
WP
(
s 1+0 .3
WR )
(13.13)
 Table 13.5 Typical values of η (after Bowles 1988)
Efficiency,
Hammer η
Drop hammer 0.75-1.00
Single-acting hammer 0.75-0.85
Double-acting hammer 0.85
Diesel hammer 0.85- 1.00

The Danish formula is given by:

  Energy rating
Q ult  13.14
  Energy rating  l
s
2 AP E P

where
A P = cross-sectional area of the pile and
E
p = Young's modulus of the pile.
A safety factor of six must be applied to the above equations to estimate the allowable load
on the pile.

Example 13.2: A 300 mm x 300 mm-square precast concrete pile, 25 m in length, is driven into
the ground with a hammer having an efficiency of 0.8 and maximum energy rating of 40
kJ. The weight of the ram is 35 kN. The coefficient of restitution = 0.35. Econcrete = 25
3
GPa. The unit weight of concrete = 24 kN m . Estimate the maximum allowable load on
the pile using the modified ENR and Danish formulae when the set is 3.5 mm.

Solution:
Q =0. 3×0. 3×25×24=54 kN; A P=0 .3×0 . 3=0 . 09 m2 :
ult
Modified ENR:
2
W R hη W R +n W P 40 ,000×0 . 8 3 .5+0 .35 ×54 2
Qult = × = × kN=2477 kN
s+c W R +W P 3 . 5+2 .54 35+54
⸫ Allowable load,
Qall=Q ult /6=4 13 kN
η×Energy rating 0 . 8×40000
Qult = = N=1901 kN
η×Energy rating×l 3 .5 0 . 8×40000×25
Danish:
s+
√ 2 AP EP 1000
+
√
2×0 . 09×25×10 9

⸫ Allowable load,
Qall=Q ult /6=317 kN
13.6 PILE LOAD TEST
The proof of the pudding is in the eating. The same is true for piling. Now that we have so many
dodgy assumptions, how reliable is our estimate of the load carrying capacity of a pile? The best
way to assess this is to carry out a pile load test (ASTM D1143). The pile load test loads the pile
and develops the load-settlement: plot, thus determining the allowable load. A

Figure 13.6 Pile load test: (a and b) using kentledge (c) using reaction pile (d) using pile-driving
analyzer (Courtesy of Mr. Martyn Ellis, PMC, UK)

hydraulic jack is jacked against a kentledge shown in Figures 13.6a and 13.6b, or a reaction
beam tied to a reaction pile shown in Figure 13.6c. During the loading, a load cell measures the
applied load and a dial gauge measures the settlement. Kentledges can be used to apply loads as
high as 5000 kN, provided a safe, stable arrangement can be made. For higher loads, the reaction
piles would be better. Settlement of the pile head is plotted against the applied load. Pile load
tests arc expensive and are therefore carried out on a few randomly selected piles. A pile-driving
analyzer (PDA) is a quick and economical alternative to static pile load tests (Figure 13.6d).
Here, sensors attached to the pile are wired to the computer. During driving, the pulse is
monitored and analyzed using a wave equation program (Smith 1960) such as CAPWAP. It
gives hammer energy, driving stresses, pile integrity, and static bearing capacity. PDAs can also
be used on nondriven piles such as bored piles－a process that uses
 Load (kN) Load
(kN)
(kN)

Settlement (mm)
Settlement (mm)

(a) (b)
Figure 13.7 Load-settlement plot from a pile load test: (a) gross settlement
(b) net settlement

a drop weight to cause an impact and create a pulse which is then analyzed. The lower safety
factor that is allowed with the pile load test justifies its cost.
A typical load test plot from a loading-unloading cycle is shown in Figure 13.7a. The
s
settlement measured at the head of the pile gross is the gross settlement of the pile, which
s
includes the settlement of the tip or net settlement net and the elastic shortening of the pile
s e . When the pile is unloaded there is rebound, which is equal to the elastic shortening. The
net settlement plot shown in Figure 13.7b is obtained by subtracting the elastic settlements from
the gross settlements. The allowable pile load is determined from Figure 13.7a or 13.7b based on
relevant design standards, some of which are discussed below.
Common criteria based on the gross settlements define the ultimate pile load as the one
Ql d
that corresponds to a limiting value: 10% of d (UK), 25 mm (Holland), or mm
AE (Canada),

30
the first one being more popular. De Beer (1968) suggested plotting both load and gross
settlement on logarithmic scales, which defines the ultimate load by the point of maximum
curvature. In log-log space, the plot often consists of two straight-line segments. Davisson's
(1973) method is quite popular. It defines ultimate pile load as the one that corresponds to a
d Ql
gross settlement of 4 mm .  
120 APile EPile

The U.S. Army (1993) recommends computing the ultimate load using three different
methods and averaging them. The suggested three loads are: (a) the load when the net
settlement is 6 mm, (b) the load obtained by the intersection of the two tangents drawn at the
start and end of the net settlement plot, and (c) the load where the slope of the net settlement
plot becomes 0.0254 mrn/kN (0.01 in/ton).
13.7 SETTLEMENT OF A PILE
The settlement under a pile is less than what is seen in a pad or strip footing. The settlement
of a pile can be crudely estimated as about 1% of the pile diameter under the working load.

13.7.1 Poulos and Davis Method

A more rational estimate based on elastic analysis can be obtained from the chart developed
by Poulos and Davis (1974) for an incompressible pile, the settlement given by:
Q
settlement  I
lE soil (13.15)

where Q = pile load at the head, l = pile length ,

E soil = Young's modulus of the soil, and
I ρ = influence factor from Figure 13.8. h is the depth of the soil above the bedrock and v
is Poisson's ratio. The elastic compression of the pile can be estimated separately as 0.5
Ql/ A Pile EPile and added to the above settlement to give the settlement of the pile head.
This method was further refined by Poulos and Davis (1980), where they account for several
factors including the stiffness of the pile relative to the soil, etc.

13.7.2 Vesic Method

The load transfer mechanism of a pile is quite complex. The shaft resistance is mobilized well
before the tip. Vesic (I977) proposed a method that breaks the settlement in to three
s,
components: the elastic shortening of the pile 1 the settlement due to the tip load 2
s,
and the settlement due to the shaft load
s 3 . Let's see how we can determine these three
components.
Figure 13.8 Influence factor
Iρ for incompressible piles (after Poulos and Davis 1974)

Elastic shortening ( 1 ):
s
When there is no shaft friction/adhesion, the pile load is the same at any cross section, and
hence the elastic compression would simply be
Ql/ A Pile EPile . When f s ( z ) > 0, the load
acting on the cross section of the pile decreases with depth. Considering the element shown in
Figure 13.4b, it can be seen that:
dQ
  f s  z d (13.16)
dz
Therefore, the variation of the normal load Q ( z )− z acting at the cross section of the pile
with depth depends on how
f s ( z ) varies with depth. This is illustrated in the following
example.

Example 13.3: For the four different scenarios of the Q(z) - z variations shown below, deduce
the variation of with depth using Equation 13. 16.
Q(z)

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Solution:

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Let
Qwt and Qws be the working loads carried by the tip and shaft respectively (i.c.,
Q=Q wt +Qws ). Vesic (1977) suggested that the elastic shortening can be written as:

s1 
 Q wt  ξQ ws  l (13.17)
APile EPile
Where ξ is a constant that depends on the skin friction distribution. If the variation of s f
with depth is uniform or parabolic as shown in (i) or (iv) in Example 13.3, 1 f
ξ  ;2if s varies
linearly

2
ξ=
with depth as shown in (i) and (iii) in Example 13.3, 3 . See Worked Example to for the
proof for scenario (i).

s
Settlement due to the tip load ( 2 ):
Based on elastic analysis, Vesic expressed the settlement due to the tip load as:

s2 
Qwt d
APile ESoil
 
1  v 2 I wt (13.18)

I
where wt is the influence factor that can be assumed as 0.85. Vesic (1977) also suggested a
s
semi empirical expression for estimating 2 as:

Qwt Ct
s2  (13.
d qult 19)

where
qult is the ultimate bearing capacity at the tip and
Ct is an empirical coefficient
given in Table 13.6.

s
Settlement due to the shaft load ( 3 ):
Vesic (1977) suggested the following equation for estimating the settlement due to the shaft
load:
 Q  d
s3   ws  
1  v 2 I ws  (13.20)
 pPile l  Esoil
where
pPile is the perimeter of the pile, and I ws is an influence factor given by:

l
 2  0.35
I ws (13.21)
d
Vesic (1977) also suggested an empirical expression for estimating
s 3 as:

Qwt Ct
s3  (13.22)
l qult
where
C s is an empirical coefficient, given by:
 l 
C s   0.93  0.16 Ct
 (13.23)
 d 
Now that we have the three components, the settlement of the pile head is given by:
 s  s1  s2  s3 (13.24)

Soil type Driven piles Bored piles

Sand(dense to loose) 0.02-0.04 0.09-0.18
Clay (stiff to soft) 0.02-0.03 0.03-0.06
Table 13.6 C,
Silt (dense to loose) 0.03-0.05 0.09-0.12
values for
driven and bored piles
(after Vesic 1977)

The U.S. Army (1993) and The Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual (2006) recommend
the empirical Equations 13.19 and 13.22 for
s 2 and s 3 respectively.

13.8 PILE GROUP

A pile group consists of more than one pile, which are connected at the head by a reinforced
concrete pile cap, often at the ground level as in Figure 13. 1c. In the case of off-shore
platforms, the pile cap would be well above the ground—in fact, above the sea level. Typically,
the piles in a group are spaced at a minimum of 2.5d (see Figure 13.2b). When piles are spaced
closely, there is overlap in the stresses induced by the adjacent piles, leading to a reduction in
the bearing capacity.
The efficiency η of a pile group is defined as:

Ultimate load carrying capacity of the group

 (13.25)
No. of piles  Ultimate load carrying capacity of a pile

Computing the load carrying capacity of a pile group can be difficult. A simpler approach is to
compute the capacity of a single pile and use an assumed value of efficiency to estimate the
capacity of the group. In loose sands, pile driving further densifies the sand and may lead to η
exceeding 1. Nevertheless, it is not recommended to use an efficiency greater than 1. In dense
sand, pile driving loosens the sand; hence η can be less than I. Generally η is taken as 1 for
2
driven piles in sands and is slightly reduced for bored piles, where it can be as low as 3 .
In friction pile groups, assuming that the entire load is carried by the sides, η is simply
the ratio of the perimeter of the pile group to the sum of the perimeter of all piles. It is given by:
2 m  n  2  s  4d
  (13.26)
mnd
where m = no. of piles in a row, n = no. of rows of piles, s = center-center spacing, and d = pile
diameter (see Figure 13.9a). One of the earliest equations used to calculate the group efficiency
was proposed by Converse and Labarre as (Bolin 1941):

ε  m  1 n   n  1 m (13.27)
  1
90 mn

Figure 13.9 Pile group: (a) dimensions (b)

Nc values
−1
where ε=tan ( d /s ) , expressed in degrees. In days, η is generally less than 1. Here, the
piles and the soil in between them can act as a monolithic block, and the ultimate group capacity
can be estimated as:

Q ult,group  2 B  L  D f s  cu N c BL (13.28)

where B, L, and D are the breadth, length, and depth of the pile group (see Figure 13.9a). The
first component is the contribution from the sides due to adhesion and the second component is
the contribution from the base. The
N c values as suggested by Skempton (1951) are shown in
Figure 13.9b. The skin friction
f s can be assumed as αc u (Equation 13.7). The ultimate
group capacity can also be estimated as the single pile capacity multiplied by the number of
piles, assuming η=1 . It is recommended to use the lesser of the two values as the ultimate
group capacity.
Example 13.4: A 3×4 pile group consists of 12 piles of a 300 mm-diameter and a 15 m-
length, spaced at 900 mm, center-to-center. The top 6 m consists of clay with
c u = 50 kPa,
c c
followed by 6 m of day with u = 65 kPa, which was underlain by stiff day with u = 90 kPa.
Estimate the allowable load carrying capacity of the pile group.
Continues

Example 13.4: Continued

Solution: B = 2.1 m, L = 3.0 m, and D = 15.0 m.
Adhesion factors (Equation 13.6):
c u =50 kPa→α=0 . 74 ; c u =65 kPa→α=0 . 62 ;cu =90 kPa→α=0 . 50
Single pile:
Qs,ult =π×0 . 3× [ 6×0 .74×0. 50+6×0 . 62×65+3×0 .50×90 ] =564 . 4kN
Qt,ult =( π/4 )×0 .32 ×90×9=57 . 3 kN
∴Q ult =564 . 4+57 .3=621. 7 kN
∴Q ult,group = 12 × 621.7 = 7460 kN
Block:
Qsides,ult = 2 X (2.1 + 3. 0) X [6 X 0 .74 ×50 + 6 X 0.62× 65 + 3 × 0.50 ×90] = 6108 kN
D/B = 15 .0/2.1 = 7 . 1, B/L = 2.1/3.0 = 0.7 → N c = 8.6 (Figure 13.9b)
Qbase,ult = 90 × 8.6 ×2. 1 ×3 = 4876 kN
∴Q ult,group = 6108 + 4876 = 10,984 kN
We will take the lowest of the two values (i.e., 7460 kN and 10984 kN).
The allowable load on the group is 7460/2.5 = 2984 kN

In all soils, the settlement of a pile group can be significantly greater than that of a single pile. In
sands, Vesic (1970) suggested estimating the settlement of a pile group by:
B
setllement = settlement single pile
(13.29)
group
d

A simplified approach is adapted for computing the settlement of a pile group in general. Here,
it is assumed that the column load is actually acting on an imaginary equivalent raft well below
the pile cap, and the settlement is computed using the methods discussed for shallow
foundations.
2
In the case of friction piles as shown in Figure 13.l0a, the equivalent raft: is at
l
3 depth. In end-bearing piles as shown in Figure I3.l0b, the equivalent raft: is at the bottom
of the piles. Once the equivalent raft is defined, it is a common practice to assume that the loads
spread 1 (horizontal):2 (vertical) for computing the vertical stresses at various depths, using
Equation 7.6.
Figure 13.10 Equivalent raft for settlement calculations: (a) friction piles
(b) end-bearing piles

 In piles, shaft resistance is mobilized well before the tip resistance.

 The adhesion factor is dose tn 1.0 in soft clays and reduces with
increasing undrained shear strength.
 The ultimate load carrying capacity of a bored pile can be
conservatively estimated as half of that of a driven pile .
 There is Significant judgment involved in selecting the values of
N q , K s ,δ,and α . . Therefore, the estimated load carrying capacity
of the pile can vary substantially depending on the factors used.
 Pile-driving formulae are very approximate, and hence we use high
safety factors.
 The efficiency of a pile group in granular 2
soils is taken as 1 for
driven piles and reduced to as low as 3 for bored piles.
 Treat the pile group as an equivalent raft in computing settlement.
WORKED EXAMPLES

1. An 8 m-long and 300 mm-diameter precast concrete pile is driven into a sand with φ' = 37°
3
and γ = 19 . 0 kN/m . Estimate the maximum load allowed on the pile.
Solution: For
φ ' = 37 °, d e = 15d = 4.5 m:
 = 0.91  = 33.3; K 0 = 1 - sin   = 0.40  K s = 1.5 K 0 = 0.60
 = K s tan  = 0.60 less
 tanthan
33.3the range recommended in Table 13.4. Let's increase it to 0.6.
= 0.39
' '
At depth d c , σ v= 19 X 4 .5 =85 .5 kPa . The variation of σ v with z is shown.

85.5

4.5

8.0

(m)

Tip load: l/d = 8/0. 3 = 27→ From Figure 13.5,

N q = 85, which is slightly less than the
values in Table 13.1. Let's increase it to 100:
q ult ≈σ 'v , tip N q =85 .5×100=8550 kPa
π
∴Q t,ult = q ult × A tip =8550×( ×0 . 32 )=604 kN
4
'
Shaft load: The area of σ v−z diagram = 0. 5 × 4 .5 × 85.5 + 3 . 5 × 85.5 = 491 .6 kN/m:
∴ Qs,ult =49 1.6 ×π×0.3 × 0.6 =278 kN
∴Q ult =604 + 278 = 882 kN
∴Q all = 882/2. 5 = 353 kN 2
2. A 12 m-long and 300 mm-diameter precast concrete pile is driven into a clay where the
3
unconfined compressive strength is 70 kPa and the unit weight is 19 kN/m . Estimate its
load carrying capacity. What fraction of the load is being carried by the shaft?

Solution:
Tip load:
π
Qt ,ult = cu N c A tip = 35 ×9× ×O.32 kN = 22.3 kN
4
Shaft load: From The Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual (2006) and API (1984),
the adhesion factor α = 0 . 9:
Qs,ult = 0.9 ×35 ×π× 0.3 × 12 = 356 .3 kN
Qult = 22 .3 + 356 .3= 378 .6 kN
∴ Qall = 378.612.5 =151.4 kN
94% of the pile load is carried by the shaft → Friction pile
3. 'An 8 m-Iong and 300 mm-diameter 3 precast concrete 3pile is driven into a sand with
'
φ =37° and γ sat = 19. 5 kN/m , and γ m = 17 . 0 kN/m The water table is at 2m below
the ground level. Estimate the maximum load allowed on the pile. How does it compare with
the load carrying capacity estimated in Worked Example 1?
Solution: As in' Worked Example 13.1,
d c = 4.5 m, δ = 33.3°, and K s tan δ=0.6 . The
variation of σ v with z is shown.

Tip load:
N q −100 as before:
'
q ult ≈σ v ,tip N q =58. 2×100 = 5820 kPa
 ∴ Q t ,ult =q ult × A tip= ( π4 ×0 .3 )=411. 4 kN
2

Shaft load:
'
The area of σ v−z diagram = 0.5 × 2×34 + 0.5 ×(34.0 + 58.2)× 2.5 + 3.5 × 58 . 2 =
353.0 kN/m :
∴Qs,ult = 353.0 ×π×0.3 ×0.6 = 199 .6 kN
∴Q ult =4 11. 4 + 199. 6=611. 0kN
∴Q all=611. 0/2.5=244
Due to the presence of the water table, the effective stresses are less. Therefore, the shaft
load as well as the tip load is reduced. The allowable load is reduced from 353 kN to 244
kN.
3. A 350 mm -diameter and 12 m-long concrete pile is driven into the ground where the top 5 m
c
has u = 30 kPa, which was underlain by clay with
c u = 100 kPa. Estimate the maximum
load allowed safely on the pile.

Solution:


Tip load: Q t ,ult = cu N c Atip  100  9   0.352 kN = 86.6 kN
4

Shaft load: Equation 13.6 → For

c u = 30 kPa, α=1.0 ; for c u = 100 kPa, α =
0.47
∴ Qs,ult = π× 0.35 × 5.0 × 1.0 × 30 + π× 0.35 × 7.0 × 0.47 ×100 = 526.7 kN
∴Q ult = 86.6 + 526.7 = 613.3 kN
613 . 3
= =245 kN
Allowable load 2 .5
5. The undrained shear strength varies linearly from 20 kPa at the ground level to 60 kPa at a
depth of 10 m. Estimate the load carrying capacity of a 600 mm-diameter and 10 m-long
bored pile.

Solution: Let's assume α = 0.5:

Qs,ult =π× 0.6 × 10 × 0.5×35 =329.9 kN
 π
Qt,ult = ×0 .6 2×60 ×9 = 152. 7 kN
4
∴ Q ult = 329.9 + 152.7= 482.6 kN
482. 6
= =193 kN
Allowable load 2 .5

6. A 900 mm-diameter bored pile with a 1.75 m underream at the base is constructed in a
clayey soil as shown. Estimate its load carrying capacity.

Solution: Let's assume α = 0.5 in all layers:

Qs,ult =π×0.9 × [ 6 × 0.5 × 30 + 8 ×0. 5× 50 + 2 ×0.5 × 75 ] 032 kN
π
Q t ,ult = ×1 .752 ×75×9= 1624 kN
4
∴Qt ,ult =1624 + 1032=2656 kN→ Qall=2656/2.5 =1062 kN
7. A 20 m-long 350 mm bored concrete pile is load tested and the data are given below:

Load (kN) 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1000 150 500 250 0
Settlement (mm) 0 2.0 5.0 8.2 15.0 39.6 39.5 38.2 37.5 36.1 33.5
Econcrete = 25 GPa. Estimate the allowable pile load using Davisson's (1973) method.
Solution: The load vs. gross settlement plot is shown on the top of page 369:
d 350
4+ =4+ =6 . 9 mm
120 120
 l 20
= m/N=0 . 0083 mm/kN
AE π 2 9
×0 . 35 ×25×10
4
Let's draw a straight line with a slope of 0.0083 mm/kN with an intercept of 6.9 mm on the
settlement axis. The intersection of this line (dashed) with the settlement curve gives the
ultimate load as 1000 kN.
The allowable pile load is 500 kN, with safety factor of 2.0.

8. A 400 mm-diameter and 15 m-long concrete pile is driven into 12 m of loose sand that was
underlain by very stiff clay. Estimate its load carrying capacity. The geotechnical parameters
of the sand and stiff clay are given below:
3
Sand: φ
'
=29° ; γ = 18 kN/m
2 3
Stiff clay: c u = 90 kN/m ; γ = 19 kN/m

Solution: Critical depth in loose sand,

d c = 10d= 4.0 m:
' '
For , φ = 29° , δ = 0 .9 φ = 26 °
K 0 = 1-sin 29 =0. 52 →K s = 1. 8 K 0 = 0.94 → β=K s tan δ= 0 .46
Let's take β as 0.5 (see Table 13.4).
' '
At a depth of 4 m, σ v=4 × 18 = 72 kPa →f s =β σ v =0 . 46 ×72 = 33 .1 kPa .
Skin friction increases linearly from 0 at GL to 33. 1 kPa at a depth of 4.0 m, and remains
he same for 4-12 m depth.
 In the stiff clay, from Equation 13.6,
α=0 .50 →f s=0 . 5 × 90 = 45 kPa:
Qs,ult = π ×0 .4 ×[ 0 .5 ×(12 + 8 )×33 . 1 + 3 × 45 ] = 585 . 6 kN
π
Qt ,ult = ×0 . 4 2×90 × 9=101 .8kN
4
687 . 4
∴Q ult =585 .6+ 101 . 8=687 . 4 kN → Qall = = 275 kN
2 .5

9. The design capacity of a 300 mm-diameter

and 15 m-long concrete pile is 400 kN. A Vulcan 08 single-acting steam hammer (maximum
energy rating = 35.2 kN-m; ram weight= 35.6 kN; stroke height 3 = 991 mm) is used to drive
the pile into the ground. E concrete =30 GPa; γ concrete =24 kN/m . What is the set that would
ensure the above design capacity? Estimate this by all possible pile-driving formulae.

Solution: Let's assume η = 0.8 from Table 13.5, and n = 0.35:

π π
W p = ×0 .3 2× 15× 24 =25. 4 k N; A p= ×0. 32 = 0 . 0707 m 2
4 4
With a safety factor of 6,
Qult =6 × 400= 2400 kN.
ENR
WRh 35 .6×991
Qult = = =2400 →s= 12. 2 mm
s+c s+2 .54
Modified ENR:
 2
W hη W R +n W P 35 . 6×991×0 . 8 35 . 6+0 . 352 ×25 . 4
Qult = R × = × =2400 k N
s+c W R +W P s+2 .54 35 . 6+25 . 4
∴s=4 . 9 mm
Danish:
η×Energy rating 0 . 8×35200
Qult = = =2 400×103 kN
η×Energy rating×l s 0. 8×35200×15
s+
√ 2 AP EP 1000
+
√2×0 . 0707×30×10 9
∴s=1.8 mm

Navy-McKay:
η×Energy rating 0 . 8×35200
Qult = = =2400 kN
WP 25. 4
(
s 1+0 .3
WR ) ( s 1+0 . 3×
35. 6 )
f
10. If the skin friction s is uniform with depth as in Ex.ample 13.3 (i), show that ξ in
Equation 13. 17 should be 0.5.

Solution: Let
Qs = k Q and Qt =( 1−k ) Q where Q is the pile load at the head.

From equilibrium considerations of the top z length of the pile, the normal load on the cross
section at depth can be written as:
 z kz
Q z =Q−kQ =Q 1−
l l ( )
The elastic shortening of the element of thickness dz is give n by:
Qz dz Q kz
d s 1= =
AE AE
1− dz
l ( )
Q 1 kz Ql k
∴ s1 =
AE
∫0 ( )
1− dz=
l AE
1−
2 ( )

Applying Equation 13.17:

s1 
 Q wt  ξQ ws  l   1  k  Q  ξkQl  Ql
 1  k   ξk 
APile EPile AE AE

Equating the two expressions for

s1 :

k
1− =1−k +ξk →ξ=0. 5
2
11. A 450 mm-diameter and 18 m-long concrete pile driven into medium-dense sand carries
1200 kN, 400 kN is carried by the tip and 800 kN by the shaft. Assuming
Esoil = 35 MPa
E
and concrete = 27 GPa, estimate the settlement of the head using the Poulos and Davis
(1974) and Vesic (1977) methods.
Solution:
Poulos and Davis (1974): Assuming an incompressible pile and the depth of sand to be
I
infinite, assuming v = 0.2, l/h = 0 and l/d = 40 gives ρ = 1.8 (from Figure 13.8):
3
1200×10 ×18
Elastic shortening = 0 .5 × m = 2 .52 mm
π
(
4
2
)
×0 . 45 ×27 × 10 9

∴Settlement= 3. 43 + 2 .52 = 5 . 95 mm
1
Vesic (1977): Let's assume skin friction remains the same at any depth (i.e., ξ= 2 ):

( Qwt +ξQ ws ) l (400+0 .5×800 )× l03 × 18

s 1= = m=3 .35 mm
A Pile E Pile π
( 4 )
×0 . 45 2 ×27×109
 Q wt d 3
s2= ( 1−v 2 ) I wt = 400×10 ×0 . 450 ×( 1−0. 22 ) ×0 . 85 m=26 . 39 mm
A Pile ESoil
( π4 ×0 . 45 )×35×10
2 6

l
I ws =2+0 .35
√ d
=2+0. 35×√ 40=4 . 2

Q ws d 3
s 3=
( ) ( 1−v 2 ) I ws = 800×10
( ×
0 . 45
) 6
×( 1−0 . 22 ) ×4 . 2 m=1 . 63 mm
p Pile l Esoil π×0. 45×18 35×10

∴ Settlement of pile head = 3.35 + 26.39 + 1.63 = 31.4 mm

REVIEW EXERCISES
l. Write a 500-word essay on root piles. also known as pali radice. Include diagrams or figures
as appropriate.

2. Discuss how timber, concrete, and steel piles are being spliced.

3. Discuss the difference between the construction of an underreamed pile and a Franki pile.

4. Discuss three pile-driving formulae not included in this chapter, clearly identifying the
variables recommended safety factors, and any limitations.

5. Surf the Internet and collect some videos and images on pile installation. There are a few on
YouTube.

6. An MKT-SI0 single-acting steam hammer has a maximum energy rating of 44.1 kNrn. The
weight of the striking ram is 44.5 kN. What is the drop height?
 Answer: 991 mm

7. What would be the load carrying capacity of a 250 mm-diameter and 15 m-long limber pile
driven into soft clay with an unconfined compressive strength of 40 kPa? What percentage of
the total load ir; carried by the shaft? Use a safety factor of 2.5.
Answer: 98 kN, 96%

8. It is required to drive a 350 mm ×350 mill square precast concrete pile into a day where
the undrained shear strength is 35 kPa. With a safety factor of 2.5, what pile length can
support a column load of 250 kN?
Answer: 15 m
9. A 12 m-long and 800 mm-diameter drilled pier is constructed in a clayey soil with a 1.5 m
c
diameter bell at the base. The top 7 m of the clay has an average u of 40 kPa and the day
c
underneath has a u of 90 kPa. Estimate its load carrying capacity assuming a safety factor
of 2.5.
Answer: 940 KN

10. A 250 mrn-diameter and 16 m-long timber pile is driven into a sandy soil where γ = 18
kN/m3 and φ' = 34°. Estimate the maximum load allowed on the pile with a safety
factor of 2.5.
Answer: 270 KN

11. A Delmag D-22 diesel hammers with a maximum energy rating of 53.8 kNm and ram
weight of 21.6 KN is used to drive a 300 mm-diameter and 20 m-long concrete pile into the
ground. Calculate the blows per 100 mill that would ensure that the pile could carry 400 KN
E γ
based on the Danish formula. concrete = 25 GPA; concrete = 24 kN/m .
3

Answer: 27

12. A 500 mm-diameter and 16 m-long driven concrete pile carries an 1100 KN load. A load cell
placed at the bottom of the pile shows that the load carried by the tip is 300 kN. Assuming
that the pile load (i.e., load at the pile cross section) decreases linearly with depth. Estimate
the skin friction at the middle of the pile. If the underlying soil is sand with a friction angle
3
of 36° and a unit weight of 18 kN/m ), what is the safety factor of the pile with respect to
bearing capacity failure? What is the elastic shortening of the pile?
Econcrete = 30 GPA.
Answer: 32 kPa, 2.4, 1.9 mm
'
13. The soil profile at a site consists of 10m of sand wit h φ = 32° and γ = 18 kN/m 3
c u =120 kPa and 3
followed by a thick deposit of very stiff clay with γ=19 kN/m . The
 water table lies 3m below the ground level. It is requires to design a driven pile foundation to
carry a column of 350 kN.
Apropos two alternate design
b. Estimate the settlement in each case
c. Suggest a pile hammer and the appropriate set value

14. A 600 mm-diameter and 18 m-long concrete bored pile is constructed using the continuous
flight auger technique. The pile passes through 8 m of gravelly sand followed by 8m of stiff
clay, with the bottom two meters founded in very dense sand. A pile load test was carried out
on this pile and the load test data are summarized on page 375.

Load (kN) 0 330 660 990 1321 1650 1982 660 330 0
Settlement 0 0.33 0.9 1.64 2.40 2.92 3.98 3.19 2.69 2.34
(mm) 3

[Data: Courtesy of Mr. Martyn Ellis, PMC, UK]

a. Plot the load vs. gross settlement.
b. Plot the load vs. net settlement.
c. Estimate the allowable load on the pile with a safety factor of2.0.
d. For the load estimated in (c), estimate the gross settlement.
e. How does your estimate in (d) compare with the load test value?

f
15. If the skin friction s is increasing linearly with depth as in Example 13.3 (ii), show that
ξ in Equation 13. 17 should be 0.67.
 Quiz 8. Pile Foundations

Duration: 20 minutes

1. State whether the following are true or false.

a. Skin friction is greater for displacement piles than for nondisplacement piles
b. Skin friction is greater for bored piles than for driven piles
c. In a driven pile, tip resistance is fully mobilized before the skin friction
d. Bored pile is a nondisplacement pile
(2 points)

2. List five different applications of piles.

1
(2 2 points)

3. Describe each of the following terms in your own words, within three lines.
(a) underreamed pile (b) kentledge (c) frict ion pile (d) negative skin friction
(2 points)

4. What is another name for baitter pile?

1
( 2 point)

5. W hat is the difference between a single-acting and a double-acting hammer?

(1 point)

6. What is known as set in pile driving?

(l point)