BLOOD

§ Monocytes – macrophages –
phagocytic
Blood
§ Lymphocytes – immune response
• Transporting medium for nutrients, oxygen, wastes,
• Platelets (Thrombocytes)
hormones, defense cells, antibodies and other
o Small fragments of bone marrow cells with
factors in the blood-vascular or closed circulatory
procoagulants for clotting
system
o Fragments of megakaryocyte
• Lymph or hemolymph for the open type circulatory
o Lack nuclei
system
o Block injuries to damged blood vessels and
• Transports metabolites enabling metabolic to start the formation of blood clots
specialization
• Plasma
• Transports hormones o 55% of the volume
• Transports heat from the deeper organs to the body o Liquid extracellular material
surface for dissipation o Impart fluid properties
• Essential for large animals with high metabolic rates o Serum – plasma that lacks clotting factors
• Aid in conservation of body heat o More than 90% water by weight, includes
• Transmission of force for movement and locomotion proteins, electrolytes, nonprotein nitrogen
• Used for acid-base balance with the buffers it substances, nutrients, dissolved blood gases
contains and regulatory substances
• Defense against invading foreign organisms through Blood Plasma Proteins
phagocytosis • Albumins
• Connective tissue, specialized body fluid o Osmotic balance, blood viscosity, pH
• Primary medium for sustaining life in most animals buffering, colloid osmotic pressure
Human Blood • Globulins
• Approxiamately 8% of an adult’s body o Immunoglobins for defense; non-immune
• 5 liters globulins for carrier proteins
• mean temperature of 38C • Fibrinogen
• pH of about 7.35-7.45 (slightly basic) o Precursor for fibrin, a sticky protein that
o maintained by the concentration of forms the framework of a blood clot
electrolytes Blood Cell Count
• Complex Connective tissue • Measures RBC, WBC, and platelet count, hemoglobin
o Formed elements – RBC’s, WBC’s, Platelets level and hematocrit
o Plasma – Liquid portion (90% water), • Requires all components to be in ample
electrolytes, organic molecules, soluble concentration in order to function properly
proteins in suspension • Hemocytometer
Blood Composition o Thick glass microscope slide with a grid of
• Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) perpendicular lines
o Enucleated, biconcave, no organelles, has o Grid with specified dimension so that the
hemoglobin for gas transport area covered by the lines is known
o More dense o Raised edges of the hemocytometer
o 45% of the total volume (hematocrit) • Eryythropoiesis
o Membrane – glycoproteins and glycolipids o Production of RBC
o Cytoskeleton – proteins • Erythropoietin
o Cytoplasm - hemoglobin o Produced by kidneys
• White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) o Stimulates differentiation of precursor cells
o Part of the immune system which attacks in bone marrow
and kills foreign microbes • Adult males (4..7-61 million cell/microL), females
o Cream-colored buffy coat just above the (4.2-5.4 million cells/microL)
RBC’s o Androgens (testosterone) – stimulates
o Granulocytes erytropoiesis
§ Neutrophils – phagocytosis of o Males have more muscles mass and are
bacteria more physically active à greater need for
§ Eosinophils – allergic reactions and oxygen à greater need for hemoglobin
parasitic infections o Females have menstruation
§ Basophils – inflammatory reactions, • Infants (5.5-6 million cells/microL)
secrete histamine and heparin
o Agranulocytes

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 o Organs need more O2 to develop à either decrease the production of
erythropoiesis more pronounced (all sites WBC or destroy the red marrow
involved in RBC production) o Leukocytosis – above normal range
o At birth, infants acclimatize to their new § Indicate infection, allergy or
environment outside the mother womb diseases (ex. Leukemia)
with RBCs § Caused by bacterial infections that
o Adulthood – limited erythropoiesis, limited stimulate neutrophil production
the marrow in the vertebrae, ribs, sternum, o Leukemia – increase or decrease in one of
parts of the skull and proximal ends of the the 5 types of WBC
long bones Agglutination
• Physiological Alterations to RBC count • Clumping of red blood cells due to antigen-antibody
o High altitude à decrease in partial pressure reaction
of O2 in lungs à hypoxia • Based on ABO and Rh blood typing
o Increased muscle activity à more O2 • Important in blood transfusion
supplied to the muscle cells • Antigen
o Smoking à carbon monoxide exposure o Antibody generator
from cigarettes o Antigenic determinants of epitopes are
• Causes of deviations in RBC count found in the surface of the antigens
o Site of RBC production – failure of red bone o Induces immune response
marrow decrease RBC count o Molecule, substance or protein that
o Vitamin and mineral deficiencies – stimulates the immune system into
Deficiency, decrease in RBC count producing antibodies against it
o Oxygen concentration – decrease in oxygen, • Antibody
increase in RBC count o Immunoglobulin – contains an antigen-
• Abnormal Changes to RBC count binding site where antigens with matching
o Polycythemia – increase in RBC count antigenic determinants bind
§ Absolute – increase in number of o Produced by the immune system in
RBC due to RBC production response to foreign substrates
• Primary – autonomous o When bound with antigen, B cells divide
proliferation of erythroid and mature à clones containing the same
progenitors antigen-binding site
• Secondary – elevated o Chemical reaction with complement à lysis
levels of erythropoietin or phagocytosis
§ Relative – decrease in blood o B lymphocytes or B cells produce antibodies
plasma from loss of body fluids clones are called plasma cells
o Oligocythemia – deficiency in RBC count • Hemagglutination
§ Absolute – decrease in RBC o Blood also contains antigens
number in the blood o Can be recognized by antibodies in the
§ Relative – apparent decrease in blood plasma
RBC number due to the increase in o Antigen A & B and Antibody A & B
blood plasma volume o Incompatibility between blood donor and
o Anemia – decrease in red blood cells cause recipient
by decrease in precursor for RBC production, o Can cause blockages in blood vessels
massive blood loss due to hemorrhage and Blood Typing
abnormal destruction of RBC • Based on the presence of antigens on the surface of
• Normal WBC count red blood cells
o Adults (4,500-10,000 cells/microL) • Frequency of blood types is commonly dependent on
o No apparent difference in WBC between ethnicity
sexes • ABO Blood Type
• Abnormal changes to WBC count
o Leukopenia – below normal range ABO Antigen A Antigen B Antibody Antibody
§ Caused by bone marrow failure, anti-A anti-B
cytotoxic substances, AIDS A + - - +
§ Glucocorticoids, anticancer drugs, B - + + -
immunosuppressant drugs O - - + +
§ Brought about by tumors, drugs, AB + + - -
radiation or viral infections that • AB antigens are carbohydrates

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 • O universal donor
• AB universal recepient
Blood Type Genotype Antigen Antibody
AO AA
A I I , I I A B
BO BB
B I I , I I B A
O ii A, B None
AB
AB II none A,B
• Rhesus Blood Group System
o D-antigen
o Presence (Rh+) or absence (Rh-)
o Fetal and maternal RH factor
D-antigen Anti-Rh antibody
Rh+ + +
Rh- - -
o Rh+ fetus, - mother
st
§ 1 baby no problem until delivery
§ intermingle of blood during
delivery, mother makes antibodies
nd • Normal clotting time = 5-8 mins
§ 2 baby Rh+ fetal blood passing
• Possible Causes
through the bloodstream of the
o Rich supplement of Vit K
mother will activate the Rh
o Estrogen medication
antibodies of the mother which
o Birth control
will travel through the placenta to
o Hormone replacement
the fetal bloodstream, binding with
o Error in experiment
the RBCs and casuing their
Factors Affecting Coagulation
destruction through lysis
§ Erythroblastos fetalis • Empty Test Tube
o Glass: negatively-charged surface activates
§ Rhogam anti-Rh antibodies
factors in intrinsic pathway
o First discovered in rhesus monkey
• Paraffin
• Blood types determine compatibility between donor
o Resembles endothelium of blood vessels in
and recipient
terms of charge
• Adverse effects such as immunologic reactions
o Slower clotting time
Coagulation
• Cotton fibers
• Aggregation of blood due to activation cascade of
o Increases surface area
coagulation factors
o Act as synthetic meshwork for fibrin fibers
• Hemostatic mechanism
to adhere
• Prevents blood loss when blood vessels are injured
o Faster clotting time
before shock or possible death can
• Ice bath
• Thrombin
o No clotting
o Activates platelets and induce fibrin
o Decreased enzyme activity
formation
o Decreases available kinetic energy for
o Activates Factor XIII which stabilizes the clot
reaction
o Positive feedback loop
o Inhibits coagulation
§ Amplification of factors V, VIII, and
• Hot bath
XI (Activates factor IX)
o Increased enzyme activity
o Von Willebrand Factor
o Increases blood viscosity by evaporation
§ Carrier of Factor VIII, increases its
o Faster clotting time
half-life
• Continuously Stirred
§ Promotes platelet aggregation
o Clotting factors will not be able to gather
• Intrinsic System
o Minimize fibrin formation
o Contact with damaged surface cells in
*Ice cream after tooth extraction because:
contact w/ collagen
- Cold temperature induces vasoconstriction
• Extrinsic System
- Prevents accumulation of inflammatory substances (causes
o Damaged cells show factor III (Tissue
pain)
thromoplastin)



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 o Always dissolved in hemolymph
Anticoagulants o Oxygenated – blue
• 0.1% Heparin o Deoxygenated – colorless
o Natural anticoagulant § Cu > Cu++
o Sulfated polysaccharide (MW=3000 to o Gastropods, cephalopods, arthropods and
30000 Da) crustaceans
o Anti-thrombin – inactivates thrombin by • Hemoglobin
allosteric changes o Iron porphyrin (heme) compound
o Maintains clotting factors at inactive state o Most common respiratory pigment among
o Inhibits thrombin synthesis many taxa
• 1% Sodium oxalate and 1% Sodium citrate o 4 iron containing heme + globin (tetrameric)
o Sequester Ca2+ ions in the blood § can bind 4 oxygen molecules; 1:1
o Addition of CaCl2 à Increases Ca2+ à with Fe
clotting o Oxygenated – bright red
o Sodium citrate preferred over sodium o Deoxygenate – dark red
oxalate Blood Buffer Systems
§ Sodium oxalate poisonous to • Blood pH must be kept close to 7.4
cells/tissues • Hydrogen ion is extremely reactive and affects many
§ Calcium oxalate is insoluble molecules which regulate physiological processes
§ Sodium oxalate causes cellular • Blood pH is set at a slightly alkaline level
distortion in blood samples • A change of pH of 0.2 units in either direction is
Blood Pigments considered serious
• Test tube 1 (O2 à CO2) • Blood pH below 6.9 or above 7.9 usually fatal
o Dark red à bright red à brighter red Bicarbonate Buffer system
• Test tube 2 (CO2 à O2) • Accept H+ for form carbonic acid in acidic conditions
o Dark red à Darker red à bright red • Donate H+ in alkaline conditions
• Respiratory pigments; metalloproteins • Important for metabolic acids
o Metallic ions give color to pigment due to Phosphate buffer system
changes in valency • Uses H2PO4- as proton donor in alkaline conditions
• Enhance oxygen carrying capacity and as proton acceptor in acidic conditions
• Reversible binding with oxygen Plasma Protein Buffer System
• Humans: hemoglobin • Amino and carboxyl ends
• 4 protein chains • Acidic amino acids take the form of aspartic acid and
• iron-containing prosthetic group (heme) glutamic acid in acidic pH
• O2 à diffusion à hemoglobin à 4O2 transported • Aspartate and glutamate in alkaline pH
• Oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin • Amino groups take the form of NH3+ in acid to
• Positive cooperativity neutral pH
• Oxygenated à Bright red • Takes the from of NH2 in basic pH
• Deoxygenated à Dull red ADDITIONAL NOTES:
Four Types of Blood Pigments Difference in color of oxygenated and deoxygenated bblood
• Chlorocruonin • Color change is due to complex of hemoglobin and
o Iron porphyrin ring – mutated hemoglobin O2 undergoing conformational changes when O2
o Freely dissolved binds
o Dichroic: Green when dilute, red when o Biplanar – 4 nitrogens pair up in the
concentrated presence of O2, nitrogen pairs align
o Present in Polychaete worms o Lobe – without CO2
• Hemerythrin • Based on amount of hemoglobin
o Non-heme iron protein • Iron end of proteins bind to heme
o Pair of iron atoms bound to imidazole rings • Oxyhemoglobin – bright red
o Oxygenated – pink/violet • Deoxyhemoglobin – dull red
o Deoxygenated – colorless
§ Fe++ > Fe+++
o Found in nucleated cells
o Branchiopods and sipunculids
• Hemocyanin
o Uses copper atom instead of the usual iron
atom

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 Factor Trivial Name(s) Pathway Characteristic

Prekallikrein (PK) Fletcher factor Intrinsic Functions with HMWK and factor XII

Co-factor in kallikrein and factor XII

activation, necessary in factor XIIa
High molecular weight contact activation cofactor; Fitzgerald, activation of XI, precursor for
Intrinsic
kininogen (HMWK) Flaujeac Williams factor bradykinin (a potent vasodilator and
inducer of smooth muscle
contraction

I Fibrinogen Both

II Prothrombin Both Contains N-term. gla segment

III Tissue Factor Extrinsic

IV Calcium Both

Proaccelerin, labile factor, accelerator (Ac-)
V Both Protein cofactor
globulin

Proconvertin, serum prothrombin

VII conversion accelerator (SPCA), Extrinsic Endopeptidase with gla residues
cothromboplastin

Antihemophiliac factor A, antihemophilic

VIII Intrinsic Protein cofactor
globulin (AHG)

Christmas Factor, antihemophilic factor

IX Intrinsic Endopeptidase with gla residues
B,plasma thromboplastin component (PTC)

X Stuart-Prower Factor Both Endopeptidase with gla residues

XI Plasma thromboplastin antecedent (PTA) Intrinsic Endopeptidase

XII Hageman Factor Intrinsic Endopeptidase

Protransglutaminase, fibrin stabilizing

XIII Both Transpeptidase
factor (FSF), fibrinoligase

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