Physics Practical Notes

Practical 1: Investigating resonant frequency

- Set up equipment as shown in the diagram.
- One of three variables can be varied to find
resonant frequency by using the equation
o Mass per unit length of the string; can
be changed by making the string
heavier
o Tension applied to the string; changed
by adding further masses to the stand
o Length of the string.
- Change the frequency of oscillation by using the signal generator. Continue this until the string
reaches the first harmonic with one loop on the whole string.
- Different graphs must be plotted depending upon which method you use
o Varying length; plot 1/frequency against length, the gradient will find the ½*speed of
the wave. Multiplying by 2 will find the speed of the wave
o Varying Mass per unit length: plot 1/f^2 against mass per unit length, the gradient will
find the 4c2/T
o Varying Tension of the string: plot a graph of f2 against T, the gradient of the graph will
be 4l2μ
o All of the graphs will show a directly proportional relationship which will be a straight
line through the origin.
Multiplying the resonant frequency by an integer will give you a harmonic of the wave.

Safety precautions of this practical are:

- Place a crash mat under the weights to prevent them hitting the floor if the wire breaks
- Don’t place feet near the weights to prevent the weights falling on them if the wire snaps
- Wear goggles for eye protection in case the wire breaks.

Repeats can be found by gathering the resonant frequency for the wire, then increasing the frequency
a small amount above the resonant value, and then decreasing it again to find a second value for the
actual resonant frequency that can be averaged.

Practical 2: Two-source interference and diffraction gratings

- Set up equipment as shown in the diagram
- Adjust the position of the laser until light is
evenly spread across the slits.
- Vary the distance of the laser and slit from
the screen and measure distance using a
ruler
o These measurements should be taken by drawing the position of the slits on a piece of
paper and then measuring with a ruler, they should not be taken directly there.
- Fringe spacing should be measured across a range of fringes and divided by the number of
fringes
o It can be measured using a vernier caliper, with care being taken to measure from the
centre of the slit and not from one end.
- Plot a graph of fringe width against distance from the screen
o A gradient can be calculated and multiplied by slit separation, given from the
manufacturer to find the wavelength of laser light that is used.

Precautions when using lasers:

- Lasers shouldn’t be shone towards someone
- Laser safety goggles should be worn
- The laser beam should not be shone at a reflective surface
 - A warning sign showing that the laser is in use should be put on display
- The laser should be turned off when not needed.
- Work in a well lit room to prevent the pupils of your eyes dilating and allow more laser light in.

This experiment allowed Young to provide evidence for the wave nature of light.

Diffraction gratings:
- Set up equipment as shown in the diagram
- Adjust the distance between the grating and the
screen until a number of orders can be seen so
that they are sufficiently apart that their
separation can be measured with a millimetre
scale.
- Adjust the position of the diffraction grating so
that it is perpendicular to the light from the laser
- Measure the distance between 0th and 1st order beams and 0th and 2nd order beams by marking
the position of these maxima onto a piece of paper and measuring the distance using that.
- As you know the distance from the screen, the angle between 0th and 1st beams etc, can be
found and then used in the formula below.
- Using the formula dsin(Θ) = nλ, the value for the wavelength of laser light can be found by
calculating the average from the different order beams which have different readings.

Diffraction gratings can be used in line absorption spectra join together the light that has been passed
through the gas to produce the spectra itself. They can also be used in xray crystallography.

Small angle approximation could be used in this experiment. Sin(Θ) ≈ Θ ≈ tan(Θ) cos(Θ) ≈ 1- Θ2/2

Uncertainty can be reduced in this experiment by moving the screen further away from the grating so
that there is a greater distance between maxima. Using gratings with smaller line separations also
reduces uncertainty as it means that the light diffracts through it more so the maxima are spaced
further apart.

Practical 3: Determination of g using freefall

Method 1: Using a timer circuit

- Set up equipment as shown in the diagram
- Measure the height from the bottom of the ball bearing
to the trapdoor
- When the switch is released, the electromagnet will
switch off and the ball bearing will be released, this
starts the timer.
- Record time shown on the timer when the ball reaches
the trapdoor.
- Repeat the experiment using different values for
height, as well as conducting repeats for each of the values.
- Plot a graph of height against time taken by the ball to fall squared.
o There will be a small positive y-intercept indicating that there is a systematic error. The
error can be from a delay in releasing the trapdoor after the timer has been started, the
measurement of h can also cause an issue if the heights used are too small.
- The gradient of this graph will give the value for 1/2g due to rearranging s = ut +1/2at2 to
become 1/2a = s/t2.
- Error bars can also be plotted on this graph
Random error will be most significant in the measurement of the height that the ball is dropped from.
There will be no human error as a computer is used to automatically stop when the ball has reached
the pad, meaning reaction times will not have any baring on the results. The computer acting as a
timer could cause for there to be systematic errors if there is a delay in the timing mechanism.

Safety precautions of this experiment are:

- Care should be taken to prevent a short circuit, despite the fact that low voltages are being
used.
- A container should be placed under where the ball bearing lands so that it is not on the floor
and causing a trip hazard.
-
Method 2: Double interrupt card
- Set up equipment as shown in the diagram
- Measure the width of the sides of the card to be dropped, these should both have an equal
width
- Use a data logger to record accelerating by inputting the width of the card.
- Drop the card through the two light gates that are clamped to a retort stand
- Repeat the experiment multiple times and calculate a mean for the recorded acceleration
- Ensure that any anomalous results are discarded.

The card have weight added to it to minimize the effect of air resistance. Adding it to the lower
corners of the card will make the centre of mass of the card lower down, reducing the likelihood of a
resultant moment.

Method 3: Ticker tape

- Set up equipment as shown in the diagram
- Secure a ticker timer vertically in a clamp towards the top of the stand
- Attach a mass to the end of the tape and thread it through the timer
- Start the timer and release the mass.
- Measure the distance between the 0th point and the next point, and continue this to find the
displacement of the mass after 0.02s. Distance should always be measured from the 0th dot.
- Conduct repeats of the experiment and find the mean value at each time interval, this can then
be plotted on a graph.
- Plot a graph of distance against time squared and the gradient of this will give you a value of
g/2 again.
- Line of best fit should go through the origin

Random error may occur as the person releasing the mass may not be in time with the ticker timer,
this could cause a delay in release of the mass.

Method 4: Two light gates and a ball

- Set up the experiment as in the diagram
- Set up a light gate to measure the time interval between
the two light gates
- Vary the distance between the two light gates, keeping the
distance that the golf ball is dropped from the same.
- Take repeat readings to find the time it takes for the golf
ball to drop over the range of heights.
- Plot a graph of 2h/t against t , the intercept of the graph
will be 2u and the gradient will give a value for g. 2h/t =
gt + 2u, the constant acceleration equation that has been
rearranged to suit y=mx + c
A counterweight should be added to the stand to ensure that there is not a resultant moment which
means that the stand will tip over.

Practical 4: Young’s Modulus.

- Set up the experiment as shown in the diagram
- The diameter of the wire should be found by using a
micrometer to measure the diameter in three separate
sections of the wire, and at different orientations, and
then finding the average. The cross sectional area of
the wire should then be calculated using these results
by assuming that it will be circular.
- Clamp the wire to the desk so weights can be hung off one side of it. The smallest weight
needed to straighten the wire should be added first.
- Measure the distance between the fixed end of the wire and the marker, this is the length of the
wire.
- Increase the weight in equal intervals, measuring how much the marker moves using the ruler
- Use results to calculate the stress and strain of the wire. Plot stress against strain on a graph
- The gradient of the graph, up until the limit of proportionality, will give you the value for
young’s modulus
- The area under the curve will give you the energy that is stored per until volume.

To reduce uncertainty, the wire should be kept as thin as possible, so that the extension that is
measured each time more mass is added is longer.

A pilot experiment can be conducted using similar pieces of wire to find the material’s limit of
proportionality. In this experiment, a force-extension graph should be plotted.

Searle’s apparatus can also be used to determine young’s modulus; this involves hanging the wire
from the ceiling that acts as a clamp.

Safety precautions that should be taken are:

- Place a crash pad under the weights to prevent them from directly hitting the floor when the
wire snaps
- Don’t place feet under weights
- Wear goggles for protection when the wire breaks.

Practical 5: Determination of the resistivity of a material

- Set up equipment as shown in the circuit diagram
- Attach the flying lead to a point on the test wire and measure the
length of the wire using a metre ruler.
- Measure the diameter of the wire using a micrometer to
measure three different points on the wire and then calculate an
average for the diameter. Use this value to calculate the cross-
sectional area of the wire.
- Close the switch, allowing for the circuit to flow and measure values of potential difference and
current.
- Repeat this method for different values of length for the wire.
- Conduct repeats for each of the lengths used so that anomalous results can be discarded.
- Calculate the resistance for each length using V = IR
- Plot a graph of resistance against the length of the wire, the gradient multiplied by the cross
sectional area of the wire, which remains constant, will give the value for the resistivity of that
material.
An ohmmeter is not suitable for this experiment as the wire will only have a resistance of a few ohms
meaning that the resistance cannot be measured to a suitable accuracy.

The crocodile clips should not be placed too firmly on the wire to prevent the wire from breaking. The
placement of the crocodile clips can also be a cause of a systematic error. This is because they can
cause a small amount of contact resistance.

To minimize how much the wires heat up, which will increase the value calculated for resistance, the
switch should be opened between readings. The main source of the random errors in this experiment
will be due to the wire heating up as well as the measurement of the length of the wire.

The voltmeters and ammeters can be assumed to be ideal in this circuit, meaning that there is infinite
resistance in the voltmeter, so no current flows, and there is no resistance in the ammeter, so there is
no potential difference.

Risks in the experiment include the wire that is being used being un-insulated, meaning that it could
burn, or shock, someone if they touch it whilst the switch is closed.

Safety precautions that should be taken are:

- Caution with wiring to prevent any short circuits.
- The wire could become hot due to the current running through it.
Practical 6: Determination of internal resistance and EMF of a cell
- Set up equipment as shown in the circuit diagram.
- Set the variable resistor to its highest resistance and record the
current and potential difference. Repeat this three times by opening
and closing the switch
- Decrease the resistance of the circuit and repeat the method.
- After 10 different readings for separate resistances have be
retrieved plot a V-I graph from the average data.
- The y-intercept of the graph will give you the value for EMF and the
gradient will give the value for negative magnitude of internal resistance. This is because E – Ir
= V which is in the form of y=mx+c
The switch should be opened between readings to prevent the EMF of the cell reducing. The work
done that is required to move a current through the voltmeter will also mean that there are lost volts
here, so the overall number of lost volts is higher than what is recorded from the cell.

Before the experiment, a voltmeter could be connected across the terminals of the power supply to
measure the terminal pd.

Safety precautions for this experiment are:

- Taking care to avoid any short circuits.
- Handling digital metres with care to prevent damage.

Practical 7: Simple Harmonic Motion

Method 1: Simple pendulum to measure value of g
- Set up equipment in the diagram shown
- The string should be clamped between two small wooden
blocks.
- A pin attached to blue tack should be set at the equilibrium
position and will act as a reference point.
- Pull the pendulum to the side and release allowing the
pendulum to oscillate with a small amplitude and in a straight
line.
- Determine the time period of the oscillation by timing 10 complete oscillations and dividing.
 - Repeat the method above for different values of the length of the pendulum rod.
- Plot a graph of time period squared against the length of the pendulum rod.
- The gradient can be used to find g by doing 4π2/gradient

The only two forces that act on this pendulum will be the weight of the mass and the tension that acts
up the pendulum.

Small amplitude oscillations should be used. The equations used are only valid for small angles as you
are using the small angle approximation that sinΘ = θ.

An angle sensor can also be used, allowing the experiment to have its data recorded by a computer,
reducing human error. Measuring time period manually will introduce more random errors.

The time period of the pendulum is independent of the mass of the object or the amplitude at which
oscillations begin.

Method 2: Mass-spring system to measure the spring constant of a spring.

- Set up equipment as in the diagram shown
- Use a fiducial marker similar to the one in the method above.
- Attach masses to the bottom of the spring, this can be varied over the course of the experiment
- Pull the spring down and allow for it to oscillate. Measure the time taken for 10 oscillations and
then divide by ten to find the time for one oscillation.
- Add more mass to the spring and then repeat.
- Plot a graph of T2 against m to find the gradient
- Gradient can be used to find the value for the spring constant by doing 4π2/gradient

A data logger connected to a position sensor can also be used to find the displacement of the system
against time taken.

The experiment can also be done by varying the spring constant of the spring and keeping the mass
applied to the system constant, this means that a graph of T2 against 1/k should be plotted instead.

Once again, amplitude has no impact on the time period for this type of oscillation too.

Safety precautions that should be used for this method are:

- A shock pad placed below the weights to prevent them from dropping onto the floor directly
- Securing the stand to the table to prevent a resultant moment.

Practical 8: Gas Laws

Boyles Law
- Set up equipment as shown in the diagram
- Remove the plunger from the syringe and measure the diameter
of the rubber seal using a micrometer, use this to calculate its
cross sectional area
- Draw in a small amount of air
- Fold the rubber tubing over the nozzle and clamp it with the
pinch clam.
- Move the plunger gently to ensure that it is not sticking
- Add a mass to the mass holder and record the volume on the
syringe
- Repeat the experiment, adding 100g to the mass holder each time
- The whole experiment should be repeated to find a second set
results from which a mean value can be calculated.
 - Pressure can be calculated by doing P = F/A as the force is equal to the weight of the masses
that have been applied to the plunger.
- A graph of 1/v against pressure should be plotted.
- A straight line through the origin should be obtained providing that the plunger did not stick
throughout the experiment.

Sufficient room should be provided so that the plunger with masses attached can move downwards.

Initial pressure of the system will be atmospheric pressure.

The conditions needed so that boyles law is being follow can be ensured by making sure that the air
inside of the tube is not leaking out so the mass remains constant and that changes to pressure are
made slowly, allowing time for thermal equilibrium to be reached to keep the temperature of the air
constant.

The temperature of the room should be controlled, boyles law does not apply when the temperature is
not constant. The same gas syringe should be used in repeats so that if it does stick, then it will do the
same each time and there will be a systematic error in this case.

Safety precautions for this experiment are:

- Avoid excessive pressure and ensure that connections are secure to prevent oil being sprayed
at high pressures.

Charles’ Law
- Set up apparatus as shown in the diagram with the open
end of the capillary tube at the top
- Stir water using thermometer to ensure that there is a
constant temperature throughout the bath.
- Record the value of temperature and the length of the air
sample in the tube
- Repeat this each time the water cools by 5oC. Water can be
removed from the beaker and cold water added to increase
the rate at which the water cools. This allows the volume
to be kept constant.
- A graph of the length of the air sample against temperature should be plotted, it will have a
form of l = mΘ + c where c = l1 – mΘ1
- An estimate for absolute zero can be found by substituting l = 0 into the equation for the form
of the graph, so absolute 0 will equal –c/m, with c being the y intercept and m the gradient.

Sulfuric acid is used in the capillary tube meaning that as this is corrosive and can cause breathing
problems, safety goggles and lab coats should be worn and work could be done inside of a fume
cupboard.

Reasons that the value for absolute zero determined by this experiment might be different to the true
value are:
- The system may not have had time to reach thermal equilibrium so the temperature in the air
was different to that recorded by the thermometer.
- When a plunger is used inside of an ice bath for this experiment:
o Friction between plunger and the walls makes it harder for the air inside to expand
- Air could leak out of the system causing the mass of the air inside of the system to decrease.
- A large amount of extrapolation is required in this graph meaning that an accurate value for
the intercept can be difficult to determine.

Practical 9: Discharging a capacitor through a fixed resistor

 - Set up equipment as shown in the circuit diagram
- Charge the capacitor ensuring that the polarity of the capacitor matches the direction that the
current is flowing in.
- Switch the switch to the other direction to allow the capacitor to discharge through the fixed
resistor.
- Start the stop clock and record the voltage reading at 5s intervals as the capacitor discharges,
take readings over longer time periods as the rate of discharge decreases.
- Plot a graph of voltage against time since the start of the decay.
- This should give an exponential decay curve shown by the equation V = Voe-t/RC
- To prove that the graph has an exponential relationship, plot a graph of ln(v/vo) against t
which should give a straight line with a gradient of -1/RC, this can therefore be used to find the
time constant.

A trial experiment can be conducted beforehand to see how long it will take for the capacitor to
discharge. The time constant will be very short unless a large resistance is used so an oscilloscope or
data logger may be required to take readings more frequently.

The values on resistors and capacitors are nominal values meaning that they are subject to
manufacturers tolerance.

Safety precautions should be:

- No water spillages anywhere to prevent a short
circuit
- Don’t touch exposed metal attached to the
circuit, such as crocodile clips
- Switch off circuit between readings to prevent
heat building up
- Connect the capacitor to the correct poles to prevent explosion
- Ensure that the capacitor is discharged after the circuit is switched off to stop any electric
shocks.
- Care should be taken to prevent any short circuits.
- Check that the value of the potential difference being use dis compatible with the voltage
sensor being used.

Accuracy of final results can be improved by:

- Using an automatic data logger, means that there is no delay between reading and the time that
the reading is recorded
- Calculate more repeats to prevent anomalous results affected the overall trend
- Hold the stopwatch next to the voltmeter so that there is a smaller delay in the readings taken
- Film the experiment, this allows for it to be paused so readings can be taken at the exact
moment it corresponds to.

The capacitor is fully discharged when the potential difference across the plates and the current in the
circuit are both 0.

Advantages of using a data logger and a computer for this experiment are:
- A printout of data can be acquired
- The data can easily be processed using a computer
- Data can directly be used to plot a graph on the computer, it must be done by hand when an
oscilloscope is used.

Charging a capacitor
- Set up equipment as shown in the diagram
 - Voltmeter should read 0 when the switch is open and capacitor
is initially uncharged
- Close the switch and record the voltage every 5 seconds
- Plot a graph of potential difference against time, this should
show an exponential growth.

Sources of error in this experiment were:

- Zero error in the data logger, they should be calibrated before
each experiment
- There may have been a systematic error in the data logger

Steps that could be taken to reduce uncertainty in this experiment:

- Use a larger starting voltage, a capacitor with a higher capacitance
- Ensure that if there is a zero error, it is recorded before the experiment begins so that it can be
taken away from the results after the experiment has been conducted.

Determining the particles emitted from a radioactive source

This can be done by:
- First background count rate must be recorded for 1 minute when there is no radioactive source
near to the detector. This can be taken multiple times and averaged to improve the accuracy
- The unknown source should be placed near to the detector and count rate recorded for a
minute
- The distance of the source from the detector should be increased in values of 10cm up to 80cm.
- The experiment should be repeated with the detector being covered by aluminium or paper.
The background count rate should be recorded again before placing the source in front of the
detector again.
- If there is no difference in the count rate that is close to the detector and further from the
detector when paper is placed in front of it, there is no alpha radiation in the source.
- If there is no difference in the count rate compared to the background count rate when
aluminium is placed infront of the detector, there is no gamma radiation.

Safety precautions that can be taken are:

- Keep radiation at an approximate length of 30cm away from the source at all times
- Use tongs to handle the radiation, do not touch the source.
- Keep sources in lead storage containers when they are not in use
- Keep the source pointed away from your body.
- Wash hands after working with a radioactive source.
- Keep exposure time with radiation to a minimum
- Label all radioactive sources accordingly.

There will be a greater scatter in the count rate of results at further distances as there is a lower count
rate so the randomness of this decay becomes much more apparent.

Practical 10: Investigating the force on a current carrying wire

- Set up apparatus as shown in the diagram
- Ensure that the balance is set to zero when there is no current through the wire
- Allow a current to flow and measure the mass on the balance
- Repeat for different currents
- Repeat for each reading and calculate an average.
- Measure the length of the permanent magnets to find the length of the wire inside of the
magnetic field.
- Plot a graph of average mass against length
- The gradient can be multiplied by gravitational field strength divided by the length of the wire
in the magnetic field to find a value for magnetic flux density.
To produce forces that are measurable, a large current
may need to be used which can cause the wire to heat
up so the circuit should be switched off in-between
readings. The variable resistor used to vary the current
in the circuit should have a large power rating to cope
with the large current.

It should be ensured that the wire is perpendicular to

the direction of the magnetic field so that the
relationship F = BIl applies.

Issues with this experiment may be that:

- The magnetic field may not be completely
uniform within the magnetic bars as the edges
will have a slightly weaker field.
- The field will extend slightly beyond the end of
the magnets so the actual length of the wire
inside of the field cannot be determined.
- The connections to the wire will create a field
which will exert an unknown force on the wire.

Practical 11: Investigating flux linkage

- Set up the experiment as shown in the diagram.
- Clamp the search coil so that the plane of the coil is parallel to the plane of the large circular
coil, so that it is perpendicular to the field lines produced by the circular coil
- Conduct a preliminary experiment to determine the appropriate voltage to use on the circular
coil and to select suitable time and voltage bases for the oscilloscope trace.
- With the search coil inside of the circular coil, record induced EMF by recording the peak-to-
peak value of the trace.
- Tilt the angle of the search coil, measuring using a protractor.
- Measure EMF for angles from 0-90.
- Plot a graph to show how induced EMF varies with the angle of the search coil in the field.

Uncertainty can be reduced in this experiment by:

- Repeating measurements for each angle taken as it is difficult to accurately measure the angle
subtended. An average can then be taken.
- The oscilloscope y gain should be adjusted so that the largest line that can fit on the screen is
used to increase the precision in the measurement of induced emf.
- Focus setting on oscilloscope should be adjusted to give the sharpest line to enable the most
 accurate measurement to be made.
- An ammeter and variable resistor should be included to ensure that the current and amplitude
of the magnetic field remains constant.