Hartmann DG

Distributed Generation
Protection & Control
Including IEEE 1547, Green Energy and Microgrids

May 29, 2014

Author Biography and Contact Information

Wayne Hartmann
Protection and Smart Grid Solution Manager
Beckwith Electric Company
whartmann@beckwithelectric.com
904‐238‐3844

Wayne Hartmann is a Protection and Smart Grid Solution Manager for Beckwith
Electric. He provides customer and industry linkage to Beckwith Electric’s
solutions, as well as contributing expertise for application engineering, training
and product development.

Before joining Beckwith Electric, Wayne performed in application, sales and
marketing management capacities with PowerSecure, General Electric, Siemens
Power T&D and Alstom T&D. During the course of Wayne's participation in the
industry, his focus has been on the application of protection and control systems
for electrical generation, transmission, distribution, and distributed energy
resources.

Wayne is very active in IEEE as a Senior Member serving as a Main Committee
Member of the IEEE Power System Relaying Committee for 25 years. His IEEE
tenure includes having chaired the Rotating Machinery Protection Subcommittee
(’07‐’10), contributing to numerous standards, guides, transactions, reports and
tutorials, and teaching at the T&D Conference and various local PES and IAS
chapters. He has authored and presented numerous technical papers and
contributed to McGraw‐Hill's “Standard Handbook of Power Plant Engineering,
2nd Ed.”

6190‐118th Avenue North (727) 544‐2326
Largo, FL 33773‐3724 www.beckwithelectric.com
DG Interconnection Protection
Presentation Objectives
- Define Distributed Generation (DG)?
- Explore Types of DGs
- Why DG?
- Utility and Facility Drivers for DG
- Mission Critical Power and Conversion to DG
- Rates and DG Operational Sequences
- Industry Concerns
- IEEE 1547: Industry DG Guide
- Sample Utility DG Interconnection Guide
Presentation Objectives
 Interconnection Protection: “The Five Food Groups”
 Interconnection Transformer Impacts
 Generator Types and Impacts
• Synchronous
• Induction
• Asynchronous (Inverter Based)
 Example Protection Applications
 Distribution Protection Coordination Issues
 Smart Grid / Microgrid and DG
 Impact of IEEE 1547A
 A Word on System Control with DG
 Summary and Q&A
2
1
What is DG?
 Generation of electricity from small energy sources

• Typically <=10MW
 May be based at facilities, including industrial, commercial
and residential, as well as utility based
 For this exploration, connected into distribution
 Distributed Generation (DG) allows collection of energy

from many sources and may provide lower environmental
impacts and improved security of supply
What is DG?
 Also called:
• Distributed Electric Resource (DER)
• Distributed Resource (DR)
• Dispersed Generation (DG)
• Embedded Generation
• Decentralized Generation
• Dispersed Storage & Generation (DSP)

• Decentralized Energy
• Distributed Energy
• Independent Power Producer (IPP)
• Non-Utility Generator (NUG)
4
2
Types of DG: Sorted by Utility Connection
 Prime Power
• On-site generation powers loads
• No connection to a Utility grid
• Does not require DG interconnection protection
• Things change if Utility power is brought out to site
 Emergency Power
• Normally power from the Utility; in the event of Utility power failure on-site
generation is used
• Momentary parallel connection of on-site power to Utility grid allowed
(<=100mS)
• Does not require DG interconnection protection
 Grid Paralleled (Emergency Power + Grid Paralleled Operation)

• Power from Utility, on-site power or combination of Utility and on-site power
in long term parallel operation
• Uses circuit breakers to control and allow parallel operation
• Utility DG interconnection protection is required
5
DG: Green or Conventional by Energy Source
 Conventional (Not Green )

- Burn conventional fuel
 Diesel, oil, gasoline
 Natural Gas (although natural gas being seen as “greener”)
 Green (Renewable)
- Use renewable sources to reduce reliance of fossil fuels:
 Hydro
 Solar (PV)
 Solar (thermal to steam generation)
 Wind
 Biogas (methane from decomposition)
 Biomass (direct burn or gasification)
 Biodiesel (instead of refined diesel)
 Tidal
 Storage (battery)
6
3
Conventional DG
Industrial Gas Turbine Reciprocating Diesel
Microturbine Gaseous Fuel Reciprocating Gaseous Fuel
Reciprocating aka: Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) 7
Conventional DG
Fuel Cell
4
Renewable DG
Solar (Thermal)
Solar (PV) Small Hydro
Renewable DG
Wind
• May be induction or
synchronous
generator output
• May be mixture of
generator and
inverter output
Biogas Biomass
10
5
Renewable DG
Biodiesel Tidal
11
Renewable DG
Storage Battery
12
6
Why Green Power ?
(aka: Renewable Energy)
 Federal and State Governments Push for Renewable Resources

“Green Power Is In.”
 Two Basic Penetration Drivers:

1. PUC mandates that a percentage of generation is green by a given
date. This typically fosters installation of large blocks of green energy
installation such as wind farms and large scale PV connected to transmission
systems
2. Increase the buy back rate and let market forces install green
generation. This typically fosters smaller generators connected to distribution
systems.
 Technological advances have reduced green power costs
13
Why DG: Utility Drivers
 T&D Issues
– Decrease losses
 DG at the point of use is not subject to transport loss
 T&D losses range 3-7%
– Demand Response (“Turn On Local DG to Turn Off Load to System”)
 No prebound/rebound effects in callable application
 Allows larger critical process C&I Customers to participate in
demand response programs
 aka: Peak Reduction
– Transmission decongestion
– Distribution decongestion
– Distribution build-out deferral
14
7
Reality of Grid Load Dynamics (Peak Demand)
THIS IS THE MOST EXPENSIVE, INEFFICIENT, AND

ENVIRONMENTALLY-DAMAGING POWER PER KWH OF
ELECTRICITY ACTUALLY CONSUMED
• Accumulated Annual Demand of Highest 5% occurs
about 400 Hrs/Year
• 100s of Billions of $ of equipment and capacity idle for
15
most of the time
DG in a Demand Response Role
 Without DG
DG  With DG
16
8
Sustainability & Losses:

Conventional Power Delivery
525 kVA
Bulk Generation Transmission Subtransmission Distribution

Asset Losses Losses Losses
500 kVA
Load
•Losses typically 3-7%

•5% used in this example
17
Sustainability & Losses:

Use of DG at Load
•Heat rates (efficiency) of modern engine/gensets applied in DG systems are as good if not better than
combustion turbines (CTs) [1,2].
• DG capacity has a heat rate of 9,800 btu/kWh saving approximately 2,200 btu/kWh of fuel input compared to the
overall peak power generation portfolio published by eGrid [3].
[1] California Energy Commission;

http://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/reciprocating_engines/reciprocating_engines.html
[2] California Energy Commission; http://www.energy.ca.gov/distgen/equipment/combustion_turbines/combustion_turbines.html
[3] http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-resources/egrid/index.html 18
9
Non-Signaled Passive Demand Response:

Rebound Effect
Rebound Load
Curtailed Load
Time of Day
19
Signaled Passive Demand Response:

Prebound-Rebound Effect
20
10
Signaled DG-based Demand Response:

No Prebound-Rebound Effects
21
Why DG: Utility Drivers
 T&D Issues (con’t)

– Grid Support
 Ancillary Services
o Voltage regulation (1547A)
o VAR Support (1547A)
– Firming of Green Power
 Green power has intermittency issues
 Can be answered with fast syncing DG
o Conventional DG
o Storage
– Ready and Standby Reserves
 Fast syncing prime movers
 Storage
– Spinning Reserves
 Storage (as it is synchronized)
22
11
Why DG: Consumer Drivers
 Rate Incentives
− Demand Reduction
− Interruptible Rates
− Load Curtailment Rates
− Energy Reduction (if power produced is less expensive than
Utility)
 Using renewable to offset energy costs

 Increase in CHP for greater fuel-to-power efficacy (>90%
possible)
– CHP: Combined Cooling, Heating and Power
 Also called “TriGen”
 Uses cheap natural gas and heat recovery
 Power Security
– Emergency Power Systems
 1st rule of power quality, “you gotta have some”
 Emergency Power Systems cab be repurposed and used
for demand rate reduction incentives 23
The first rule of power quality

is you have to have it!
 Provide constant power through redundancy and fault

elimination
 Redundancy is obtained by fault tolerant design
 Fault elimination attempts to design a “fault proof” system
 Emergency power systems used when the process or
operation cannot be interrupted
 Emergency power systems are designed for “Mission
Critical Facilities”
 Mission Critical Facilities with Emergency Power Systems
are often planned or retrofit for operation in parallel with
the Utility for demand deduction
24
12
Fault Tolerance:
Utility Outages
 Employs redundant feeds from utility

 Still susceptible to outage from complete utility failure
25
Fault Tolerance:
Utility Outages
 Employ utility feed(s) and on-site power

 On-site power functional even in the event of total
utility failure
26
13
Critical Power Systems:

Where Applied?
 Network Centered  Critical Service Sectors

Sectors  Government
 Electric Power  Law Enforcement
 IT and Comms  Emergency Services
 Banking & Finance  Health Services
 Oil and gas  Municipal Services
 Rail and Air
 Water
Not a coincidence………
this is where much of the Utility Interconnected DG is installed
27
On-Site Generation:
Sustainability Times
 For outages greater than

3 hours, fuel burning on-
site generation is
generally applied
 Short time outages may
be handled by electrical
storage, chemical
storage or stored energy
 Reciprocating engines
are used most widely to
provide sustainable on-
site power
28
14
ATS vs. Circuit Breakers

UTILITY UTILITY
G G
LOAD LOAD
ATS Circuit Breakers
• ATS does not protect

• ATS cannot long-term parallel
• Circuit Breakers cost more than an ATS, but provide
protection and operational flexibility
29
Conversion of ATS-based emergency system to

dual purpose emergency and “bumpless” peak
shaving system
UTILITY UTILITY
G G
LOAD LOAD
Facility Retrofit with Switchgear/
Existing Facility Protection/Controls for Grid Paralleled
Generator Operation
30
15
Greenfield dual-purpose emergency and

“bumpless” peak shaving system
31
Complex Application:
Dual Fed Facility Main-Tie-Main
32
16
Prime Power (No Utility Connection)

 On-Site Generation is supplying the Facility without any connection to the
Utility.
 Off-Grid Power
 Emergency Power (Standby)
 Generation is controlled to maintain a constant speed (frequency) and voltage.
 As the isolated Facility’s load changes, the generator must alter its output for
both the real load (watts) and reactive load (VARs). The control system will
accomplish this to the limits of the generation.
 As real power demand (watts) increases, the governor is signaled to increase the
fuel to the generation to maintain rated frequency output.
 As real power demand (watts) decreases, the governor is signaled to decrease
the fuel to the generation to maintain rated Hz frequency output.
 As reactive power demand (VARs) increases, the voltage regulator is signaled to
increase the field current, thereby increasing VAR output to maintain rated voltage.
 As reactive power demand (VARs) decreases, the voltage regulator is signaled to
decrease the field current, thereby decreasing VAR output to maintain rated
voltage.
33
Paralleled Operation (Interconnected to Utility)

 On-Site Generation and Utility are operating in parallel to supply the Facility
Off-Grid Power
 Load Management (Peak Shaving)
 Transfer Transition (Short or Long Term)
 Generation is controlled to maintain real power and reactive power output
per watt and power factor setpoints respectively.
 As the Utility interconnected Facility’s load changes, the generator must
alter its output for both the real load (watts) and reactive load (VARs).
 As real power demand (watts) increases, the governor is signaled to
increase the fuel to the generator per the watt output setpoint.
 As real power demand (watts) decreases, the governor is signaled to
decrease the fuel to the generator per the watt output setpoint.
 As reactive power demand (VARs) increases, the voltage regulator is
signaled to increase the field current, thereby increasing VAR output
to maintain power factor per the setpoint.
 As reactive power demand (VARs) decreases, the voltage regulator is
signaled to decrease the field current, thereby decreasing VAR output
to maintain power factor per the setpoint.
34
17
Monthly Demand: Facility and Supplying Utility
Non-Coincident Peak
(NCP) Rate Cost Saving Utility Demand
Using Generator 10,000MW on 7/27 10,000
@ 6-7 PM
Utility Total System Load

Facility Demand
Limited to 700kW
Facility Load
MW
1,000 5,000
kW
500
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
July
35
Monthly Demand: Facility and Supplying Utility
Utility’s Energy Total System Load
Facility Load
MW
kW
36
18
Consumer Demand Reduction Strategies
No electrical export to Utility

37
Consumer Demand Reduction Strategies
No electrical export to Utility

38
19
Operational Sequence Details
 Emergency Power
 Load Isolation
 Load Following
 Export
 To know how DG is controlled in parallel with a Utility is

important for DG Interconnection protection application
 When control fails, protection is the safety net
39
Emergency Power: Details
Generator Starts
Generator CB 52G Closes Utility CB 52M Closes,
Generator Picks Up Load Generator Unloads
Utility Power Fails,

Utility CB 52M Opens Generator CB 52G Opens,
Generator Shuts Down
Facility Demand
Generator Output
Utility Import
Time
Emergency Power Mode 40
20
Load Isolation: Details
Load
Management
Generator
Generator Starts, Breaker Opens,
Synchronizes and Main Breaker to
Picks Up Load Utility Opens
Facility Demand Generator Shuts
Down
Main Breaker to
Utility Closes,
Generator
Unloads
Utility Import Generator Output
Time
Load Management Period 41
Load Following: Details
Load Management
Generator Starts, Generator
Synchronizes and Unloads
Picks Up Load Generator
Breaker Opens,
Facility Demand Generator Shuts
Down
Power
Utility Import Generator Output
Time
Utility Import
Load Management Period 42
21
Export: Details
Load Management
Power
43
Example DG System
44
22
Interconnection Protection in LV Switchgear
45
Interconnection Protection in LV Switchgear
46
23
Protection and Control
47
Factors that discourage DG installations:
 Capital Equipment Cost

• Generator, prime mover, infrastructure
 EPC Cost
 Cost of DG interconnection protection
 Utility charges
• Studies
• Infrastructure, control and protection changes
• Cost for transfer trip (if required)
 Cost for telemetry equipment (if required)
 Increase in fuel costs
48
24
Industry Concerns
Utility Concerns
 Safety of personnel (utility and public)
 Safe work practices (disconnects)
 Fault duty limitation
 Not exceeding load carrying and interrupting capabilities of utility
equipment
 Prevent misoperation of utility protection and control equipment
• Relays, reclosers, fuses, regulators, caps
• Power quality issues
DG Owner and General Interest Concerns

 Cost of interconnecting equipment, including protection
 Minimizing utility involvement and promoting standardized
methods
 Achieve simple, non-controversial interconnection requirements
so DG is not discouraged
49
What is DG Interconnection Protection?
 Protection that allows the DG to operate in parallel to the

utility
 Large non-utility generators do not require specific

interconnection protection
- Integrated into transmission system
- Interconnection breaker(s) are tripped by transmission
line/bus/transformer protection.
 Smaller DGs do require specific interconnection

protection
50
25
DG Protection Engineering Challenges

 Seamless integration of DGs into the utility protection system
despite:
- “Too many cooks in the kitchen”

 Owner, Consultant, Packager, Utility
- Ownership boundaries
- Conflicting objectives of DG Owners vs. Utility

 DG Owner: “We do not want to pay for anything”
 Utility: “We want everything and for you to pay for it”
 Ensuring protection is correct over the life of the installation

- Settings are properly developed
- If installation or the EPS changes, assess the impact on the
existing protection
51
Industry Developments
 IEEE has developed DG Standards and Guides
 UL has developed DG Standards and Guides
 Utilities have developed DG Interconnection Guides
• These typically reference IEEE 1547 for base requirements
• Some Utilities add on requirements
 Interest from Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
(FERC)
 To supply DG interconnection needs, manufacturers have
developed protective relay systems and self-protecting
power electronic systems (embedded in UL-1741
complaint inverters)
52
26
DG Interconnection Guides
 IEEE 1001 – 1988 (Withdrawn)
• IEEE Guide for Interfacing Dispersed Storage and Generation Facilities with
Utility Systems
• Published in 1988
• First standard addressing DG protection
• Although withdrawn, still a good work and full of application information
 IEEE 929 – 2000

• Covers small inverter based systems sourced from PV, Fuel Cells,
Microturbines, Battery Storage. Harmonized with UL 1741.
 UL 1741 - 2005
• Covers testing of inverters, converters, charge controllers, and interconnection
system equipment intended for use in utility-interactive (grid-connected) power
systems . Harmonized with IEEE 929.
 IEEE-1547 (Multiple Guides; Base, .1 to .8)

• A “universal” DG interconnection protection document set to used as a minimum
technical requirement base
• Harmonized with UL 1741
 http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/scc21/ 53
IEEE SCC21: IEEE 1547’s “Home”
 IEEE SCC21 Standards Coordinating Committee:

Fuel Cells, PV, Dispersed Generation, and Energy
Storage
 Oversees the development of standards in the areas of

fuel cells, PV, dispersed generation, and energy storage
 Coordinates efforts in these fields among the various

IEEE Societies and other affected organizations to ensure
that all standards are consistent and properly reflect the
views of all applicable disciplines.
 Reviews all proposed IEEE standards in these fields

before their submission to the IEEE Standards
Association for approval and coordinates submission to
other organizations.
54
27
IEEE Std. 1547A; Ride through (2014)
IEEE 1547
55
IEEE 1547 Definitions
DR Unit Area EPS

Interconnection
system
 DR Unit: Distributed Resource (DG)

 EPS: Electric Power System
 Interconnection: The result of the process of adding DR to
an Area EPS.
 Interconnection Equipment: Individual or multiple devices
used in an interconnection system.
 Interconnection System: The collection of all interconnection
equipment and functions, taken as a group, used to
interconnect DR unit(s) to an Area EPS.
56
28
Area EPS
• Area EPS is the portion of

the power system that is
impacted by the DG
• Typically the distribution
system including the
connected substation
• If DG capacity is large,
transmission could
possibly be effected
57
IEEE 1547 Definitions
 PCC: Point of Common Coupling

 PI: Point of Interconnection
 EPS: Electric Power System
58
29
IEEE-1547: 50,000’ Overview

 Safety
• Personnel working on a Utility system must be protected from
backfeed or accidental energization from DG
 Impact of size
• Intended to cover up to 10MW
• Local Disturbances
• Quality of service on the utility system should not be degraded
(voltage, frequency, harmonic limits)
• Impact to Existing Distribution Protection
• Dealing with bi-directional power flows and coordination in
radial systems turned multiple source systems
 Impact of Islanding
• Creation of unintentional islands must be detected and
eliminated as fast as possible 59
Islanded Operation of DG with Utility Load Is Generally Not Allowed

Utility Substation Loads Loads Loads
Loads Loads
Loads Loads Loads
Loads Loads
Loads Loads Loads
Feeder Island
Loads
If DG creates a feeder island,

reclosing requires synchronizing at
the utility substation
 Greatly complicates restoration Loads
DG
- Requires synchronizing at utility substation
- Inhibits automatic reclosing
 Power quality issue
- DG may not be able to maintain voltage, frequency and harmonics
within acceptable levels (load  generation; no harmonic “sink”)
 SmartGrid and Microgrid may allow islanding in future 60
30
DG Facility Islanding to the Utility is Allowed
Utility Substation Loads Loads Loads
Loads Loads
Loads Loads Loads
Loads Loads
Loads Loads Loads
Loads
DG can create its own island,

and synchronize to the utility
 Feeder deenergizes when utility opens feeder Loads

DG
 Restoration responsibility on the DG
DG Island
- Requires synchronizing to Utility
61
IEEE 1547 Standard Series: Addressed Areas

 Transformer connections
 Effect on EPS fault duties
 Effect on possible overvoltage conditions
 Interaction with generator connections
 System modifications
 Grounding of the DR system
 Grounding for safety
 Effect on EPS ground protection
 Abnormal system configurations
 Alternate source
 Abnormal sectionalizing
 Alternate breaker or transfer bus
62
31

 Radial versus bidirectional power flow
 Effect on protective equipment
 Effect on voltage regulators
 System modifications
 System costs
 Voltage deviations
 Three-phase
 Single-phase
 Induction versus synchronous
 Voltage rise phenomenon
 Surges, sags, and swells
63

 Unintended islanding
 Reclosing
 Main or source circuit breaker
 Reclosers and sectionalizers
 DR equipment
 Harmonics
 Flicker
 Spot Networks
64
32
Spot Network
• Network Protectors are not rated for fault duty that DG can backfeed through
them
• They are also not rated for larger than rated voltage that can occur when DG 65
is on-line and the network protector is open
IEEE 1547 Standard Series Addressed Areas

 Synchronization
 Loss of synchronism
 Operational safety practices
 System capability
 Short-circuit capability of EPS equipment
 Loading capability of Area EPS
66
33
What Utilities Generally Specify

 Utility-Grade interconnection relays
- Pass all pertinent ANSI standards
- C37.90-1,2,3
 CT and VT requirements (quantities sensed)
 Winding configuration of interconnection transformers
 Functional protection
- 81U/O, 27, 59, etc.
- Settings of some interconnection functions
 Pick ups
 Trip times
67
Sample: Utility Flowchart for DG Interconnection
68
34
Protection Elements and Use

– “The Five Food Groups”:
• Loss of Parallel Operation (utility disconnected)
 Anti-Islanding
• Abnormal Power Flow
 Anti-Islanding
• Fault Backfeed Removal
• Detection of Damaging System Conditions
• Restoration
– Impact on interconnection protection
• Interconnection transformer configuration
• Various types of DGs
 Induction, Synchronous, Asynchronous (Inverters)
69
Interconnection Protection
“The Five Food Groups”
 Loss of Utility Parallel (Anti-Islanding)

– Voltage and frequency (27, 59, 81-U, 81-O)
– Rate-of-change of frequency (81R, aka ROCOF)
 Based on load (real and reactive) not equaling generation
 Abnormal Power Flow (Anti-Islanding)

– Power (32F, 32R-U)
 Based on power flow violations across the PCC
70
35
Low Import
52
Power:
Reverse Forward
G
Power Power 32R-U
SUPPLY,
Low Side UTILITY
52
I  32R-U Relay pickup set
to at least 5% of total
connected generator
LOADS 52 Relay 52 b
G
52 b
I
rated KVA
L
Control/Status Input programmed to block
32R-U if either/both the generator breaker or
interconnection breaker are open  32R-U Relay
REVERSE UNDERPOWER (32R-U) programmed to trip
when imported power
NO TRIP TRIP falls below the
pick-up level
-P +P
 Switching off a large
amount of Facility load
may cause nuisance
Pick up
tripping
Reverse Forward  Generator Control
should have proper
bias power margin set
Low Import Power: 32R-U
 Bias is made in the genset controller to ensure import of 40kW when

paralleled
 32R-U is set lower with appropriate margin (trips if import goes below
genset control setpoint
72
36
 Fault Backfeed Detection

– Phase and overcurrent (51V, 51), grounded systems
 Directional overcurrent (67) may be used
– Ground overcurrent (50N/51N) for grounded systems
 Directional ground overcurrent (67N) may be used
– Ground over/under voltage (27N, 27N/59N) for ungrounded
systems
– Negative sequence overcurrent (46)
 Based on abnormally high current or abnormally low/high
voltage as a result of faults
73
Direction vs. Non-Direction Elements at the PCC
 When applying non-directional phase or ground elements for fault
backfeed protection (50P, 50N, 51P, 51N), they must be coordinated
for faults in the facility and on the Utility
 This could lead to longer clearing times for Utility faults.
 To speed up response of Utility faults, use of directional elements
(67, 67N, 21P), set to only trip in the utility’s direction, will provide
maximum trip speed
74
37
 Damaging System Conditions
– Open phase condition or load imbalance (46, 47), negative sequence
current and voltage
– Phase sequence reversal (47), negative sequence voltage
– Instantaneous overvoltage (59I)
 Based on current or voltage imbalance (including reverse phase
rotation), power system and DG going out-of-step, or
ferroresonance
 Facilitate proper restoration
– All elements reset, voltage and frequency within limits
– Reconnect timer (79) (all DG)
– Sync check (25)
• Synchronous generators and some self-commutating inverters
75
Ungrounded Primary
UTILITY
27 59
N N
1 or 3
1
Grounded Primary
Fault Backfeed Removal
50 51
79 N N
25 Damaging Conditions
59 81 81 2 or 3
59 47 27
I R 0/U
Loss of Utility Parallel
67
N
50 46
60
FL
78 67
51
V
32 21 (Anti-Islanding)
3Y
LED Targets Waveform Capture

Programmable I/O Sequence of Events 52
Abnormal Power Flow
Metering Integral HMI I
IRIG-B Input Multiple Setting Groups
Communications Ports Dual Power Supply
Restoration
1
BUS
52
Protection Element Usage G
76
38
Interconnection Transformer Winding
Arrangements Impact Protection
 The winding arrangements facing the

Utility and the Facility have an impact on
protection
 Interconnection Transformer convention:

• Utility = Primary
• Facility = Secondary
77
Interconnection Transformers
Primary (Utility) Grounding Impacts
Grounded Primary:
 Pros:
• No overvoltage for ground fault at F1
• No overvoltage for ground fault at F2
• No ground current from feeder for faults at
F3 (delta sec. only)
 Cons:
• Provides an unwanted ground current for
feeder faults at F1 and F2
• Creates a ground source even when delta

secondary circuit is disconnected
• May cause coordination problems
within facility as well as increased
ground fault current to Utility
• Allows feeder relaying at A to respond to a

secondary ground fault at F3 (Ygnd-Ygnd
only) 78
39
Interconnection Transformers
Primary (Utility) Grounding Impacts
Ungrounded Primary:
 Pros:
• No ground fault backfeed for fault at F1
& F2
• No ground current from breaker A for a
fault at F3
 Cons:
• Supplies the feeder from an
ungrounded source after substation
breaker A trips causing overvoltage
79
Ungrounded Primary: System Backfeed Overvoltage
Backfeed to Utility
DG
DG Facility
a
Van=Vag Ground Fault
n=g ground a
vag=0
Van= -Vng
c b
Vbn=Vbg Vbn=Vbg Vcg Vbg
n
Unfaulted
c b
80
Vcn Vbn
40
Sensing Ungrounded System Ground Faults
with 3 Voltage Transformers
a
Van=Vag Ground Fault
n=g ground a
vag=0
Van= -Vng
c b
n
Unfaulted
c b
Vcn Vbn
81
Sensing Ungrounded System Ground Faults
with 1 Voltage Transformer
a
Van=Vag Ground Fault • Subject to ferroresonance
n=g ground a • Place maximum resistive
vag=0
Van= -Vng
burden on VT to help
c b prevent
n
Unfaulted
c b
Vcn Vbn 82
41
Impact of Overvoltage:
Saturation Curve of Pole-Top Transformer
 Many utilities only allow use of ungrounded primary windings only if the DG sustains at
least a 200% overload on islanding
 The overload prevents the overvoltage from occurring
83
Types of Power Sources
 Induction
 Synchronous
 Asynchronous (Static Power Converters)
84
42
Types of Power Sources
 Capable of limited fault current

 Line-commutated and self commutated variants
 Self-commutated may be capable of fault
backfeed and fault ride-through capability
 Self-commutated may require sync check
depending control sensing/design
85
Induction Generator
VAr Source
 Induction
Types of Generators
- Excitation provided externally by system
 VAR drain  Some Wind Power
- Less costly than synchronous machines  Some Small Hydro
 No excitation system or control  Some small prime
 No sync equipment needed mover driven
- Limited in size to <=500 KVA
- May cause ferroresonance after disconnection from
utility (self-excitation from nearby caps)
86
43
Ferroresonance
 Ferroresonance can take place between an induction

generator and capacitors after utility disconnection from
feeder
• Ferroresonance can also occur on Synchronous Generators!
 Generator is excited by capacitors if the reactive

components of the generator (XG) and aggregated
capacitors (XC) are close in value
 This interplay produces non-sinusoidal waveforms with

high voltage peaks. This causes transformers to
saturate, causing non-linearities that exacerbate the
problem.
87
Test Circuit Setup for Ferroresonance
New York Field Tests- 1989

Field Test Circuit
88
44
Ferroresonance: New York Field Tests- 1989

Test Circuit Setup Field Test Circuit
Conditions:
Wye-Wye Transformers, 100kVAr capacitance, 60kW generator, 12kW load
89
Induction Generator: Ferroresonance
 Overvoltage from ferroresonance can damage

insulation, damage arrestors and cause flashovers
 Standard overvoltage (59) element may not detect this

condition…they filter the waveform, missing the high
peaks, and may have a long time delay (e.g. 30+ cycles)
 A peak instantaneous overvoltage (59I) element will

detect and protect against this condition
-This element should sense on all three phases
90
45
Synchronous Generator
 Synchronous  Types of Generators

- Excitation provided by field - Prime mover driven
 May be a VAR source - Some wind
 Requires excitation system and control - Some hydro (larger)
- Sync equipment needed
- Sized 10kW and up
91
Small Generator
Fault Current Contribution
 It’s all about x”d - t”d, x’d - t’d, and xd, plus
how excited (self or PMG)
 x”d used for initial fault level determination
• x”d and t”d is subtransient current time
 x”d used for next interval of fault level
determination
• x'd and t’d is transient current time
 Consult genset manufacturer for alternator data sheets!
92
46
≈400kVA Generator
Rated Amps = 482A
93
Fault Current for
≈400kVA Generator
Self Excited
Genset
94
47
Small Genset Current Decrement for PMG
• PMG =
Permanent
Magnet
Generator
• Uses PM
Excitation that
does not fully
collapse fault
current
• This example is
from a small
genset, about
600A rated
current
95
“Cummins Power Generation: Application Manual -- Liquid Cooled Generator Sets” -- Ver.G.EN
Asynchronous Generator:
Static Power Converter or Inverter
VARs
 Asynchronous Types of Generators

- Static Power Converter (SPC) converts generator •Solar, PV
frequency to system frequency (dc-ac or ac-dc-ac) •Fuel Cells
•Wind
•Microturbine
•Storage
96
48
Self-Commutated Inverter
 Can provide limited fault current to the grid

 Fault current is in the order of 1.1-1.3 pu rated load current
 Can provide fault ride-through
 Fault current will be maintained as long as trip settings allow
• Operating as Unity Power Factor: Fault current will have a real
component if inverter is operating at unity power factor
• Operating in Voltage Control Mode: Fault current reactive
component will increase as the inverter contributes to a fault
 Can cause system transient overvoltages if power output to
connected load ratio suddenly decreases (transient control
issue)
97
Line-Commutated Inverters
 Can provide limited fault current

• Fault current is in the order of 1.1-1.3 pu rated load current
• Fault current will decay when Utility disconnects
• If overloaded current will diminish even faster
 Can cause system transient overvoltages if power output to
connected load ratio suddenly decreases (transient control
issue)
 Most line commutated inverters have built-in anti-islanding
protection (if UL 1741 compliant)
• SPC tries to periodically change frequency
• If grid is hot, SPC cannot change the frequency
• If grid has tripped, the frequency moves and the controller
trips the machine
 Difficult to test; some utilities do not trust and require
other protection
98
49
Inverters, Sudden Load Rejection
and Overvoltage
• Tests run on inverter to

connected to 480V Bus,
then connected to
Utility MV feeder
• Used different
ISOLATION transformer
winding arrangements
and PCC transformer
winding arrangements
• Varied the level of load

rejection (load:gen) to
see transient voltage
response effects
“Effective grounding of distributed generation inverters may not mitigate transient and temporary overvoltage”;
WPRC Conference 2012; M. E. Ropp, Member, IEEE, M. Johnson, Member, IEEE, D. Schutz, Member, IEEE, S. Cozine,
Member, IEEE 99
and Overvoltage
Typical response seen when load is suddenly rejected and load:gen ratio changes 100
50
and Overvoltage
Transient overvoltage an inverter control issue, not a grounding issue 101
DG Reconnect Timer & Reclose Permissive
 Used to assure utility has gone through successful reclose cycle
• Set longer than total reclose cycle
• All clearing and shot time, plus longest possible reclaim time
• Typically set in minutes
DG must trip from

Utility in this interval
• Uses permissive from voltage and frequency functions to assure

utility source is back and viable
102
51
DG Protection Coordination
 Tripping Order
• Utility
• DG Interconnect
• DG Generator
 Restoration Order
• Utility Substation Breaker (or Recloser)
• DG Interconnection Breaker
• DG Generator Breaker (if tripped)
103
Typical Trip/Reconnect Logic
TRIP
GENERATOR
CB
GENERATOR
OR
PROTECTIONS
TRIP
UTILITY (PCC)
CB
UTILITY (PCC)
PROTECTIONS OR
UTIILTY (PCC) CB
T
NOT RECONNECT
0
PERMISSIVE
RECONNECT
TIMER AND
SYNC CHECK
FUNCTION
NOTES:
“T” in the timer function is the preset time delay. Timer is time delay on pickup type.
Generator protections sourced from generator CTs and PTs
Utility (PCC) protections sourced from Utility CTs and PTs
Sync check function(s) sourced from PTs from the load bus and the Utility (PCC)
104
52
Interconnection Protection Placement
105
106
53
107
Utility
Ungrounded
Primary
Only
3Y- or 1
Point of
Interconnection
Common
Transformer
Coupling
DG Interconnection Point of
Protection Interconnection
3Y or
Sync
1
DG Loads Loads
108
54
Ungrounded Primary
UTILITY
27 59
N N
1 or 3
1
Grounded Primary
50 51
79 N N
25 Damaging Conditions
59 81 81 2 or 3
59 47 27
I R 0/U
67
N
50 46
60
FL
78 67
51
V
32 21 (Anti-Islanding)
3Y

Abnormal Power Flow
Metering Integral HMI I
IRIG-B Input Multiple Setting Groups
Communications Ports Dual Power Supply
Restoration
1
BUS
52
109
Ungrounded Primary
UTILITY
27 * 59 *
N N
1
Grounded Primary
79
Damaging Conditions
* **
25
59 81 2 or 3
59 47 27
I 0/U Loss of Utility Parallel
(Anti-Islanding)
51 60 51
46 32
N FL V
3Y
Abnormal Power Flow
Communications Ports Integral HMI I
Multiple Setting Groups
Restoration
1
BUS
52
* = Use of 27N & 59N excludes 25 from use

* = Use of 25 excludes 27N and 59N from use
** = If using 27N, 59N or 25, VTs must be open delta
110
55
Modern Convergent Protection Attributes
 Ethernet  Extended Logging

• 7 Concurrent • Distributed Data Storage at PCC
Sessions  Power Quality Monitoring
 Protocols • 128 samples per cycle
• DNP 3.0 • Harmonics to the 63rd
• IEC-61850 • THD, TDD
 Cyber Security • Sag/Swell/Flicker
• NERC CIPS • DME Oscillography Capture
• FIPS
• Radius
• IEEE Complaint
Passwords
Overvoltage Undervoltage UTILITY

59 27
Vx Vx VX
1 or 3
IG Fault Backfeed Removal
5 5 5
67G 50G 51G

Directional Time Inverse Time
Overcurrent Overcurrent Overcurrent
Ground Ground Ground
Damaging Conditions
4 4
81R
2
81 OU
4
59 PP
N
P
59I 47 27 PP
N
P
24
3
V1, V2, V3 ,VN (3 V )
Reconnect 0
25 79
Frequency
Rate of
Frequency
• Over
Overvoltage
• Phase
Peak
Overvoltage
Negative
Sequence
Undervoltage
• Phase
Volts/Hz
1
(Anti-Islanding)
Change • Under • Neutral Overvoltage • Neutral
• Phase-to-Phase • Phase-to-Phase
Sync Check
P
67 QN
5
60 51
P-VR
5
50 NP
5
50 46
5
37 32
4
Abnormal Power Flow
FL P-VC BF
N
Directional VT Fuse Inverse Time Definite Time Breaker Negative Under Directional
3
Time
Overcurrent
Loss Overcurrent
• Phase with
Overcurrent
• Phase
Failure Sequence
Overcurrent
Power
Relay
Power I1, I2, I3, IN (3 I )
0
• Phase
• Neg. Seq.
Voltage Restraint
• Phase with
• Neutral 52
• Neutral Voltage Control I
• Neutral
Restoration
LOAD BUS
52
112
56
IEEE Distribution Practices Survey – 1/02
Interconnection Transformer
 2002 Survey
- Grounded wye primary – 58%
- Delta primary – 9%
- Other – 33%
 1995 Survey
- Grounded wye primary – 33%
- Delta primary – 33%
- Other – 33%
113
Impact on Utility Protection

 No effect – 22%
 Revised feeder coordination – 39%
 Added directional ground relays – 25%
 Added direction phase relays – 22%
 Added supervisory control - 22%
 Revised switching procedures – 19%
114
57
Bidirectional Fault Currents:
Coordination
• Use directional elements in substation protection, mid-
line reclosers and DG
– Substation
• Directionalize using 67 and 67N (instead of 50/51 and 50/51N)
• Trip toward DG (downstream) to avoid sympathy trips for out-of-
section faults
• Trip toward Substation for remote breaker failure
– Reclosers
• Trip toward Substation for remote breaker failure
– DG
• Trip direction away from DG (upstream)
115
Regular
51
N
51
N Distribution
50 50
N N
51 51
3 51
N 50 50
50
N
51
51
2 N 1 51
N
50 50
50 N N
51 51
50 50
50 51
50 51
N N
 Non-directional phase and

ground overcurrent elements
116
58
DG on System:
Directionalization toward DG helps prevent sympathy trips
from out-of-section faults
2 1
• Directional phase and ground

overcurrent elements
• Use voltage polarization
117
DG on System:
Directionalization toward Substation provides
remote breaker failure protection
3 2
1
• Directional phase and ground overcurrent elements
• Use voltage polarization
• All reverse looking elements trip slower than all forward
looking elements
118
59
DG Impact on Utility Reclosing

 Revise reclosing practices – 50%
 Added voltage relays to supervise reclosing – 36%
 Extend 1st shot reclose time – 26%
 Added transfer trip – 20%
 Eliminate reclosing – 14%
 Added sync check – 6%
 Reduce reclose attempts – 6%
119
IEEE 1547 Addendum: IEEE 1547A
It’s all about “Ride-Through” and Active VAR/Voltage Control
 As DG penetration increases, the ability to “ride-though”

transient faults on adjacent feeders and transmission is
becoming more important
 IEEE 1547 is currently under revision to include “loosening”
of voltage and frequency limits to allow fault “ride-through”
 IEEE 1547 ”A” addresses ride-through by making it a utility
choice to allow or disallow it
 Off-nominal voltage and frequency may be greatly widened,
offering ride-through capability
 Impact: Changes for protection setpoints for all types of DG
120
60
IEEE 1547 Addendum: IEEE 1547A
 If large amounts of DG are easily “shaken off” for transient out-of-

section faults, voltage and power flow upset can occur in:
• Feeders
• Substations
• Transmission
 Fault ride-through capability makes the system more stable
o Distribution: Having large amounts of DG “shaken off” for
transient events suddenly upsets loadflow and attendant voltage
drops.
• Impacts include unnecessary LTC, regulator and capacitor control switching
• If amount of DG shaken off is large enough, voltage limits may be violated
o Transmission: Having large amounts of DG “shaken off” for
transient events may upset loadflow into transmission impacting
voltage, VAR flow and stability
121
Present IEEE 1547 Trip values for Voltage (59, 27)
aBase voltages are the nominal system voltages stated in [ANSI C84.1] Table 1.
bDR ≤ 30kW, maximum clearing times; DR >30kW, default clearing times.
122
61
Proposed IEEE 1547A Trip values for Voltage (59, 27)
Default settingsa 1
Voltage range (% of base Clearing time: adjustable up to and including (s)
Clearing time (s)
voltageb)
0.16
V < 45 0.16
45 < V < 60 1 11
60 < V < 88 2 21
110 < V < 120 1 13
V > 120 0.16 0.16
a Under mutual agreement between the EPS and DR operators, other static or dynamic voltage and
clearing time trip settings shall be permitted 1
b Base voltages are the nominal system voltages stated in ANSI C84.1-2006, Table 1. 1
123
Present IEEE 1547 Trip values for Frequency (81-0, 81-U)
DR size Frequency range (Hz) Clearing time(s)a

> 60.5 0.16
≤ 30 kW
< 59.3 0.16
> 30 kW > 60.5 0.16
< {59.8 – 57.0} Adjustable 0.16 to 300
(adjustable set point)
< 57.0 0.16
124
62
Proposed IEEE 1547A Trip values for Frequency (81-0, 81-U)
Default settings Ranges of adjustability(a)

Function Frequency Clearing time Frequency (Hz) Clearing time
(Hz). (s) (s)
UF1 57 0.16 56 – 60 0 – 10
UF2 59.5 20 56 – 60 0 – 300
Power reduction 60.3 n/a 60 - 64 n/a
(b)
OF1 60.5 20 60 – 64 0 – 300

OF2 62 0.16 60 - 64 0 - 10
(a) Unless otherwise specified, default ranges of adjustability shall be as stated.
(b) When used, the DR power reduction function settings shall be as mutually
agreed to by the area EPS and DR operators.
125
1547A: Active Voltage/VAR Control
 Coordination with and approval of, the area EPS

and DR operators, shall be required for the DR
to actively participate to regulate the voltage by
changes of real and reactive power.
 The DR shall not cause the Area EPS service
voltage at other Local EPSs to go outside the
requirements of ANSI C84.1-2006 1 1995,
Range A.”
63
Example DG Control Interface
Contacts for
Operation Modes
Power (W) and

VAR Control
Power (W) Control
Controls incorporate
setpoints, deadbands,
ramp timers, etc.
DG Variability: V/VAR Issues
 Coping Methods for Fast DR Variability:

• Consider that regulators change taps sequentially
ensure voltage on feeder is quickly restored
 Using sequential over non-sequential operation shortens time to
restore voltage
• Consider substation caps be controlled on VAR/pf
with high voltage and low voltage override
• Consider line caps be controlled on VAR/pf with high
voltage and low voltage override
128
64
DG Variability: V/VAR Issues
Coping Methods for Fast DR Variability:

 Using DMS and Controllable Assets
 “Ramp Rate” or “Capacity Fill” Dispatch
 Conventional “fast start” distributed generation to supply
real/reactive power
 Distributed synchronous condensers to supply/sink reactive
power
 Storage/conversion to supply/sink real power
 Storage/conversion to supply reactive power
 May be accomplished by DSM or local control from
nearby large DG variable asset
 Starting/Stopping
 Direct setpoint control or initiating setting group changes
129
= Variable DR Output
Constant Capacity
= Output Firmed
from “Capacity
Fill”
Output
 Not Assets
Firmed
Time
Output
 Firmed
Time
130
65
= Variable DR Output
= Output Firmed Ramped Capacity

Output
from
“Capacity Fill”
• Not Assets
Firmed
Time
Output
• Firmed
Time
131
Storage Applications
Utility Distribution Substation Storage

132
for Demand Response Use
66
Storage Modularity and Scalability
Build Capacity for

133
Storage Demand and Duration
Storage Applications
Adjust Storage Capacity for

Scalable Demand and Duration 134
67
Storage Placement
135
DG Today Bulk
Generation
Transmission
Sub
Transmission
Distribution Distribution Distribution

Substation Substation Substation
DG
Substation
DG
With DG
Distribution
DG
With DG
GenTranSubTranDistUtilization 136
68
DG Bulk
Generation
Tomorrow
Transmission
Sub
Transmission

Substation Substation Substation
DG DG DG
DG DG DG
DG DG DG
DG DG DG
With DG With DG With DG
Bi-Directional Powerflows 137
Smart Grid and DG
 Enables Green Power Interconnected at the Distribution Level
 Smart Grids Must Overcome Many Limitations:

- Loss of Protective System Coordination
- Voltage Control (reactive support)
- Restoration Problems
- Capacity/Load balance
- Green power variability and non-dispatchability
 IEEE 1547 is presently too restrictive for large amounts of DG

• Issue with high amount of DG capacity being lost at once for disturbance or
other recoverable event
• 1547A helps address that.
138
69
Smart Grids
Full Integration of all Components of the Distribution

System Through By-Directional Communication
• Peer-to-Peer Relay and Control Communication
• Adaptive Relaying
• Control with Real-Time Feedback
• Load Control (for demand response)
• Full Control of DG Output (watt and VAR output)
• Energy Storage (to firm variable and non-dispatchable
renewable DG)
• MircoGrid Operation System During Contingencies
139
University Campus Microgrid
Creation of DER and load islands

for economic, power quality or
power security reasons
140
70
Smart Grids --- MicroGrids
Just as a single DER is synced to the Utility, groups of DER as a Microgrid are
synced to the Utility after operating islanded
141
Smart Grid Application of DG: Microgrids
142
71
High Penetration of DG on Distribution Systems

Will Require Smart Grid Technology to Control System Voltage
 Voltage control with high levels of
DG require some type of adaptive
watt/VAR control
 Advanced control will be needed
on DG, voltage regulating and
reactive support (capacitors)
elements
 Normal power from Utility to load
 Utility strong source
 DG may backfeed
 Typically a weaker source
 What to do with power reversal

from sectionalizing?
 What to do with power reversal
from DG?
 What to do about LDC with DG
influencing? 143
Voltage Control Considerations from Loop Restoration
 Consider this system with a two lines with an normally open tie
 Regulator forward direction is toward normally open tie point
52 = circuit breaker at station
R = Recloser on the line
144
72
Voltage Control Considerations from Loop Restoration
 Normally open tie breaker senses voltage on one side, and closes to deenergized
side
 In loop restoration mode, the circuit will reconfigure and power will flow backwards
through some reconfigured sections
 The regulator control should be set to REVERSE to adopt to the reconfigured line’s
source power flow
 It should regulate in the reverse direction, and use settings for the new direction 145
and line model for LDC
Effects of Reverse Power from DG on
Line Drop Compensation (LDC)
 If reverse power flow is large enough, the regulator

control will operate to lower voltage unless the
operating mode is changed
 Use of a regulator control that recognizes reverse

power flow can be set to BLOCK reverse power LDC
effects
 The regulator control then ignores the negative LDC

effects and maintains regulation in the forward
direction
146
73
Effect of DG on Regulator Line Drop Compensation (LDC)
Voltage
 LDC is reduced when DG
contributes power
 More DG power = less load =

less LDC = voltage setpoint
lowers
 If DG is in PF mode, it maintains a
VAR output to not import or export
any VARs, so it cannot control
voltage
Voltage
 Result: Lower voltage at end of

line than desired
147
What do you do if your system is highly
reconfigurable?
 DG all over the place

 Multiple locations to sectionalize making modeling
difficult
 The DG move “move around” as the system is
sectionalized and reconfigured
 The DG is highly variable, and can provide all the load or
even backfeed to supplying substations
 You have Microgrid, and what is normally “top down”
becomes multiple sources, variable sources and varying
toplogies
Communications and Smart Controls
148
74
Use of an End-of-Line Monitor (EOL) to
Transmit Voltage Value to the Regulator
 With EOL feedback, you are not modeling the EOL voltage. You measure it.
 EOL monitoring, working with a regulator, can handle dynamic situations and
multiple sources to adjust line voltage
149
Summary
 Properly designed interconnection protection addresses
concerns of both DG owners and Utility
 State and National Regulators, and the IEEE, continue to
create and update interconnection guidelines
 Interconnection transformer configuration plays a pivotal
role in interconnection protection
 Restoration practices need to be part of the overall
interconnection protection
 Smart Grid Solutions will be needed to meet high
penetrations of DG
 Protective relays for DG interconnection protection will find
greater application in inverter-based systems due to the
adoption of IEEE 1547A
 Active VAR control of DG will allow compensation for
variable power output 150
75
Recommended Reading
 IEEE 1547 Series of Standards for Interconnecting Distributed
Resources with Electric Power Systems,
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/scc21/
 On-Site Power Generation, by EGSA, ISBN# 0-9625949-4-6
 Intertie Protection of Consumer-Owned Sources of Generation 3 MVA

or Less, IEEE PSRC WG Report
 Update on the Current Status of DG Interconnection Protection--What

1547 Doesn’t Tell You, Charles Mozina, Beckwith Electric, presented
at the 2003 Western Protective Relay Conference On Beckwith Web
site
 Standard Handbook of Power Plant Engineering, McGraw Hill, ISBN#

0-07-0194351 Section 4.3, Electrical Interconnections, W. Hartmann
151
Recommended Reading
 Distribution Line Protection Practices Industry Survey Results, Dec.

2002, IEEE PSRC Working Group Report
 Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook, Marcel Dekker, by

Neil Petchers, ISBN# 0-88173-349-0
 How to Nuisance Trip Distributed Generation, W. Hartmann,

presented at the Power System Conference, Clemson University,
Clemson, SC, March 2003
 Relay Performance in DG Islands, Ferro, Gish, Wagner and Jones,

IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, January 1989
 Effect of Distribution Automation on Protective Relaying, 2012, IEEE

PSRC Working Group Report
152
76

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 Generation of electricity from small energy sources

 For this exploration, connected into distribution

 Distributed Generation (DG) allows collection of energy

• Dispersed Storage & Generation (DSP)

 Grid Paralleled (Emergency Power + Grid Paralleled Operation)

 Conventional (Not Green )

Industrial Gas Turbine Reciprocating Diesel

Microturbine Gaseous Fuel Reciprocating Gaseous Fuel

Reciprocating aka: Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) 7

Solar (PV) Small Hydro

 Federal and State Governments Push for Renewable Resources

 Two Basic Penetration Drivers:

 Technological advances have reduced green power costs

Why DG: Utility Drivers

Reality of Grid Load Dynamics (Peak Demand)

THIS IS THE MOST EXPENSIVE, INEFFICIENT, AND

DG in a Demand Response Role

Sustainability & Losses:

Bulk Generation Transmission Subtransmission Distribution

•Losses typically 3-7%

Sustainability & Losses:

[1] California Energy Commission;

Non-Signaled Passive Demand Response:

Signaled Passive Demand Response:

Signaled DG-based Demand Response:

 T&D Issues (con’t)

 Using renewable to offset energy costs

The first rule of power quality

 Provide constant power through redundancy and fault

 Employs redundant feeds from utility

 Employ utility feed(s) and on-site power

Critical Power Systems:

 Network Centered  Critical Service Sectors

 For outages greater than

ATS vs. Circuit Breakers

• ATS does not protect

Conversion of ATS-based emergency system to

Greenfield dual-purpose emergency and

Prime Power (No Utility Connection)

Paralleled Operation (Interconnected to Utility)

Utility Total System Load

Consumer Demand Reduction Strategies

No electrical export to Utility

Consumer Demand Reduction Strategies

No electrical export to Utility

Operational Sequence Details

 To know how DG is controlled in parallel with a Utility is

Emergency Power: Details

Utility Power Fails,

Emergency Power Mode 40

Utility Import Generator Output

Load Management Period 41

Utility Import Generator Output

Load Management Period 42

Factors that discourage DG installations:

 Capital Equipment Cost

DG Owner and General Interest Concerns

What is DG Interconnection Protection?

 Protection that allows the DG to operate in parallel to the