.

Uptake of Heavy Metals by Vegetables Irrigated Using Wastewater and the

Subsequent Risks in Harare, Zimbabwe

F. Mapanda1*, E.N. Mangwayana2, K.E. Giller3, and J. Nyamangara2

1
Chemistry and Soil Research Institute, P.O Box CY 550 Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe
2
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Engineering, Box MP 167, Harare, Zimbabwe
3
Department of Plant Sciences, P.O. Box 430, 6700 AK Wageningen, The Netherlands

*Corresponding Author email: faraimaps@yahoo.com

Abstract

Contamination of leafy vegetables (Brassica species) with copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cadmium

(Cd), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and chromium (Cr), and the subsequent human exposure risks, were

determined at two sites in the City of Harare, where wastewater is used for irrigating vegetables.

The concentrations of heavy metals (mg kg-1 dry weight) in vegetable leaves ranged from 1.0-3.4

for Cu, 18-201 for Zn, 0.7-2.4 for Cd, 2.5-6.3 for Ni, 0.7-5.4 for Pb and 1.5-6.6 for Cr. Bio-

concentration factors in the range of 0.04-3 were obtained, with Zn and Cd having the highest

concentration factors of 1.6 and 3, respectively. ERstimated intakes rates of heavy metals from

consumption of the vegetables in mg day-1 ranged from 0.04-0.05 for Cu, 0.6-3.3 for Zn, 0.02-

0.04 for Cd, 0.05-0.1 for Ni, 0.05-0.09 for Pb and 0.05-0.1 for Cr. Cadmium intake rates were

above their recommended Minimum Risk Levels (MRLs) at both sites, while Cu, Ni, Cr and Pb

had daily intakes above 40 % of their MRLs. Potential health risks, particularly from Cd intake,

existed for the daily consumers of the leafy vegetables at both Mukuvisi and Pension sites. Thus,

although the practice of growing leafy vegetables using wastewater for irrigation is aimed at

producing socio-economic benefits, it is not safe and may not be sustainable in the long-term.

There is need for an improved food quality assurance system to ensure that the vegetables

comply with existing standards on heavy metal concentrations.

1
Key words: contamination, heavy metals, soil, vegetables wastewater

1. Introduction

Consumers’ demand for better quality vegetables is increasing. The perceptions of what is

regarded as ‘better quality’ are however subjective. Some consumers consider undamaged, dark

green and big leaves as characteristics of good quality leafy vegetables. However, the external

morphology of vegetables cannot guarantee safety from contamination. Heavy metals ranks high

amongst the chief contaminants of leafy vegetables. In Zimbabwe, land disposal of sewage and

industrial effluents has been implicated as the chief source of heavy metal enrichment of

pasturelands and agricultural fields, particularly near Sewage Treatment Works in urban areas

(Mangwayana, 1995; Nyamangara and Mzezewa, 1999; Mapanda et al., 2005). The production

of leafy vegetables (Brassicas) using wastewater for irrigation is practiced in the City of Harare,

but little is known on the contamination of these vegetables with heavy metals. Studies

conducted by Kisku et al. (2000) in Kalipur, Bangladesh, on the uptake of Cu, Pb, Ni and Cd by

Brassica oleracea from fields irrigated with industrial effluent indicated widespread

contamination from heavy metals despite showing a healthy and gigantic external morphology.

The use of wastewater for agricultural purposes in Zimbabwe is recommended for surface

irrigation of grain crops, crops grown for industrial processing and pastures for slaughter stock

provided that certain standard are met. However, it is prohibited for the irrigation of leafy

vegetable crops (NRB, 1974). Informal surveys have indicated that in Harare alone, there are

more than 100 hectares of land under horticultural production that utilize wastewater for

irrigating crops, such as maize (Zea mays) and leafy vegetables (Brassica spp.). Wastewater use

occurs either indirectly, when partially treated and untreated effluents are discharged into rivers

such as Mukuvisi that supply water for horticulture along riverbanks, or directly, at municipal

farms such as Pension where partially treated sewage effluent is diverted into vegetable gardens

(Mapanda et al., 2005).

2
Leafy vegetables have greater potential of accumulating heavy metals in their edible parts than

grain or fruit crops. Studies on the uptake of heavy metals by plants have shown that heavy

metals can be transported passively from roots to shoots through the xylem vessels (Kirkham,

1977; Krijger et al., 1999). In addition, plant organs such as fruit and seed that have low

transpiration rates (e.g. fruits and seeds) did not accumulate heavy metals because the storage

organs are largely phloem-loaded and heavy metals are generally poorly mobile in the phloem.

Zheljazkov and Neilsen (1996) found that the concentrations of heavy metals in vegetables per

unit dry matter generally follow the order: leaves >fresh fruits >seeds.

Contamination of the human food chains by heavy metals is not directly affected by the plants’

total uptake, but rather by the concentration in those parts that are directly consumed (Bieleski

and Launchli, 1983). Thus, in assessing exposure risks, heavy metal contents in roots and stems

of Brassicas are of less importance than those in the edible leaves. According to Alloway and

Ayres (1993) and Lee et al. (1996), sensitivity of organisms to heavy metal toxicity depends on

heavy metal accumulation rate in plants, intake rate (in animals) and age of the consuming

organism amongst other factors. The Consumer Council of Zimbabwe’s total dietary study

estimated a leafy vegetable consumption rate for low-income urban dwellers to be 66.7-79.8 kg

person-1 yr-1, or 183-219 g person-1 day-1 (Vhurumuku, 2000).

The main objectives of this study were to determine the concentrations of Cu, Zn, Cd, Ni, Cr and

Pb in Brassica juncea and B. napus leaves from gardens irrigated with wastewater from the

Mukuvisi River and partially treated sewage effluent at Pension farm in Harare, and to estimate

their intake rates by people consuming the vegetables. Results showing the long-term effects on

soils irrigated with wastewater at these sites were reported elsewhere (Mapanda et al., 2005).

3
Mapanda et al. (2005) reported elevated concentrations of Cu, Zn, Cd, Ni, Cr and Pb in the

topsoil of sites irrigated with wastewater compared with the control soils and subsoil.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Study Sites

Two vegetable production sites, Mukuvisi and Pension, were selected from Harare (Figure 1)

where various pollution problems as well as some significant commercial horticultural activities

have been reported (Mapanda et al., 2005). Harare experiences cold-dry winters and hot-wet

summers (sub-tropical) with an average annual rainfall of about 850 mm. Average annual

temperature ranges between 18-20 °C. The Mukuvisi site extends from 30° 58' E to 31° 03' E and

lies between 17° 54' S and 17° 57' S, while the Pension site is located on Pension Farm extending

from 30°52' E and 30°55' E and lying between 17°52' S to 17°55' S. The Mukuvisi site is located

along the riverbanks and irrigated with wastewater from the Mukuvisi River. Sources of

contamination of the Mukuvisi River wastewater include industrial discharges from Masasa and

Graniteside industrial areas, waste dumpsites along the riverbanks and sewage effluent partially

discharged from Firle Sewage Treatment Works (FSTWs) (Zaranyika et al., 1993). The Pension

site is located near FSTWs and has been under irrigation using a mixture of partially treated

sewage effluent and digested sludge for at least 10 years.

Vegetable gardens at the Mukuvisi site are scattered along the riverbanks on undulating terrains

of up to about 8 % slope while those at the Pension site are found in clusters on gently

undulating terrains of about 2-5 % slope. The volumes of wastewater used for irrigating

vegetables at the Mukuvisi site ranged from 6-29 ML ha-1 year-1 (average, 16 ML ha-1 year-1),

while the volumes of irrigation wastewater at the Pension site ranged from 24-36 ML ha-1 year-1

(average, 30 ML ha-1 year-1) (Mapanda et al., 2005). Vegetable production at Mukuvisi is

practiced along riverbanks by households from the surrounding high-density areas of Glen Norah

4
and Highfields, on areas ranging from about 200 m2 to >10 000 m2. Vegetable gardens at Pension

are irrigated using flood-beds and cultivated by over 50 households, each with a holding area

ranging from approximately 400-3 500 m2.

The underlying geology at the area surrounding the Mukuvisi River and Pension Farm is coarse-

grained granite (Baldock, 1991). Textures of the studied soils ranged from sands to sandy loams

(Arenosols). Soils at the Mukuvisi site had low cation exchange capacities (7.0-10.4 cmol (+) kg-
1
) and low to medium organic carbon (0.98-1.2 %) in the 0-10 cm depths, while soils at the
(+)
Pension site also had low cation exchange capacities (5.0-6.4 cmol kg-1) and medium organic

carbon (1.6-1.8%) in the 0-20 cm depths (Mapanda et al., 2005).

2.2 Sampling and Analyses

Soil and vegetable leaf samples were collected from the gardens irrigated with wastewater at the

Mukuvisi and Pension sites. A composite soil sample (about 1 kg) made up of five sub-samples

was collected with a bucket-auger from each garden under vegetables. The sub-samples were

collected along independent zigzag paths to achieve randomness. The samples were collected in

the 0-20 cm depths at Pension and in the 0-10 cm depths at Mukuvisi because of the shallower

effective depths. The soil samples (three from the Mukuvisi site and seven from the Pension

site) were collected in duplicates from the gardens where the leafy vegetables were currently

growing.

Vegetable leaf samples were collected by randomly picking up two or three mature bottom

leaves from the plants until a bundle of about 15-20 cm diameter was gathered from each garden.

The vegetable bundles (three from the Mukuvisi site and seven from the Pension site) were

collected for both Brassica juncea (6) and B. napus (4) and washed once with distilled water by

running the water through the leaves to mimic the general practice of unsuspecting consumers.

5
Each bundle was sub-divided in the laboratory to give triplicate samples weighing approximately

200 g (fresh weight). The fresh vegetable samples were dried in an oven at 70 °C for three days,

reweighed and ground to pass though a 1 mm mesh sieve (Campbell and Plank, 1992) prior to

ashing, digestion and analysis.

Soil pH was measured with a digital pH meter (Model: Philips W409) using the water method

(McNeal, 1982). The soil samples were digested for heavy metal analysis using the aqua regia

(mixture of concentrated hydrochloric (HCl) and nitric acids (HNO3) in the HCl: HNO3 ratio of

3:1) digestion method (Baker and Amacher, 1982) and refluxed. The digested mixture was

centrifuged at 1 500 rpm and the supernatant analysed for Cu, Zn Cr, Cd, Ni and Pb by atomic

absorption spectrophotometry.

About 2 g of oven-dried and ground leaf samples were accurately weighed into small crucibles

and ashed in a muffle furnace (Model: Wildbarfield M1354) housed in a fume hood. The

samples were ashed at 450 °C for 24 hours to a whitish-to-grey ash (Hanlon, 1992). The

crucibles were cooled in a desiccator and 5 ml of aqua regia were added to the residual ash. The

mixture was covered with watch glasses and digested on a homogenising hot plate (Model:

Philips 492-11) at 105 °C and 50 cycles per minute for 30 minutes. Evaporation was

compensated during digestion by drop-wise replenishment with distilled water. Three drops of 2

M HNO3 were added to the digestants before they were transferred to 50 ml volumetric flasks.

The crucibles were washed once with distilled water and the mixture topped up with 2 M HNO3.

Genstat statistical package, version 4.1 (Lawes Agriculture Trust, Rothamsted Experiment

Station, UK) was used for statistical analysis of the data.

The Daily Intake (DI) rates of heavy metals were estimated from the average concentrations

(fresh wt., derived at 91 % moisture) of heavy metals in vegetable leaves and the vegetable

6
consumption rate of 0.18-0.22 kg fresh wt. day-1 estimated from a Total Diet Study (Vhurumuku,

2000).

3. Results

3.1 Heavy Metals in Soil

The total concentrations of heavy metals in the soils from which vegetables were sampled at the

Mukuvisi and Pension sites were below the maximum permissible limits (MAFF, 1993). Soil pH

(in water) was higher in Mukuvisi gardens (6.1-7.8) than in Pension gardens (5.1-6.3), while the

concentrations of all heavy metals tested were lower at the Mukuvisi site than at the Pension site

(Table 1).

3.2 Heavy Metals in Vegetable Leaves

The total concentration of selected heavy metals in leaves of B. juncea and B. napus from

selected gardens at both studied sites are shown in Table 2. Concentrations of Cu in plant tissues

(dry wt.) averaged 2.4 mg kg-1 at Mukuvisi and 2.3 mg kg-1 at Pension. No significant

differences (P >0.05) in plant Cu were found between the sites, while all samples’ Cu

concentrations were below the permissible limit of 200 mg kg-1 dry wt. (Food Standards

Committee, 1950). Zinc concentrations in the vegetable leaves averaged 36 mg kg-1 at the

Mukuvisi site and 164 mg kg-1 at the Pension site. The concentrations of Zn in leaf tissues were

significantly (P <0.05) higher at the Pension site than at Mukuvisi. However, the concentrations

of Zn in all samples were below the permissible limit of 500 mg kg-1 dry wt. (Food Standards

Committee, 1950).

Cadmium concentrations in leaf tissues of the vegetables averaged 2.0 mg kg-1 at the Mukuvisi

site and 1.1 mg kg-1 at the Pension site. Significant differences (P <0.05) in plant Cd

concentrations were found between the sites and higher concentrations were found at Mukuvisi

7
than at Pension. The concentrations of Cd in plant tissues exceeded the permissible limit of 2 mg

kg-1 (Codex Alimentarius, 2001a) in 67 % of the vegetables from the Mukuvisi site. The

concentration of Ni in the vegetables averaged 3.1 mg kg-1 at the Mukuvisi site and, 4.9 mg kg-1

at the Pension site. Significant differences (P <0.05) in Ni concentrations were found between

the sites and higher concentrations were found at the Pension site than at Mukuvisi. However, all

Ni concentrations were below the tolerable limit of 680 mg kg-1 dry wt. (Weigert, 1991).

Lead concentrations in leaf tissues averaged 2.5 mg kg-1 at the Mukuvisi site and 4.0 mg kg-1 at

the Pension site, and were significantly (P <0.05) higher at the Pension site than at the Mukuvisi

site. The Pb concentrations in Pension and Mukuvisi vegetables exceeded their permissible limit

of 3 mg kg-1 (Codex Alimentarius, 2001b) in 60% of the vegetables. Chromium concentrations in

the leaf tissues averaged 5.1 mg kg-1 at the Mukuvisi site and 2.9 mg kg-1 at the Pension site.

Significant differences (P <0.05) in Cr concentrations were found between the sites and higher

concentrations were found at the Mukuvisi site than at the Pension site. However, Cr

concentrations at both sites did not exceed the tolerable limit of 23 mg kg-1 (Weigert, 1991).

The mean bio-concentration factors (CFs) of the selected heavy metals at the Pension and

Mukuvisi sites, calculated as the concentration of the heavy metals in leaves relative to

concentration in soil, ranged from 0.04-3 depending on the element (Table 3). The order was:

CFCd >CFZn >CFNi >CFPb >CFCu>CFCr at Mukuvisi and CFZn >CFCd = CFNi >CFPb >CFCu >CFCr at

Pension. The proportions of studied heavy metal in vegetable leaves, expressed as a percentage

fraction of their added total concentration in the leaves were in the order: Zn >Cr >Ni >Cu >Cd

>Pb for vegetables at the Mukuvisi site and Zn >Ni = Pb >Cu = Cr >Cd for vegetables at the

Pension site. Zinc made the highest fractions of 48-75 % (Mukuvisi) and 88-92 % (Pension).

3.3 Intake Rates for Heavy Metals

8
The heavy metals daily intakes of by consumers of the vegetables, estimated from the average

concentrations of heavy metals in leaves and the vegetable consumption rate (183-219 g person-1

day-1), were below the Minimum Risk Levels (MRLs) for all studied heavy metals, except Cd.

All Cd intake rates were above the MRL of 0.012 mg Cd day-1, and the highest Cd intake rate

was 333 % of the MRL.

4. Discussion

No evidence of phytotoxicity of Cu and Zn in the vegetables could be found from the

concentrations of Cu and Zn in the vegetable leaves at both Pension and Mukuvisi sites. The

concentrations of Cu in the leaves were all below the toxic range of 20-100 mg Cu kg-1 dry wt.

(Ross and Kaye, 1994). Studies by Berry and Wallace (1989) indicated that Zn phytotoxicity in

most leafy vegetables (expressed by reduced growth) occurs when Zn accumulates to an average

tissue concentration of 500 mg kg-1 dry wt, more than twice the concentration of Zn found in the

vegetables at the Pension site.

Although the total concentrations of Cu in soils at the Pension site were more than twice the

concentrations found in soils at the Mukuvisi site, the uptake of Cu by vegetables at the two sites

were comparable. This was also confirmed by the mean Cu bio-concentration factor of 0.13 at

the Mukuvisi site and 0.05 at the Pension site, indicating higher Cu uptake efficiency at the

Mukuvisi sites. This could be attributed to higher soil organic matter content in the gardens at the

Pension site than in soils at the Mukuvisi site, despite the generally lower pH of the soils at

Pension. Gardens at the Pension site are irrigated with treated effluent mixed with digested

sludge, which contains a lot of organic matter (Nyamangara and Mzezewa, 1999), while gardens

at Mukuvisi site are irrigated with river water that is mainly contaminated by inorganic effluent

from industries like fertilizer companies (Zaranyika, 1996). Studies by Sauve et al. (2000) on the

uptake of heavy metals by plants from contaminated soil indicated that of all the studied heavy

9
metals Cu2+ had the strongest affinity for organic matter and was easily complexed, reducing its

availability for plant uptake.

The estimated intake rates of Cu and Zn suggested that the contribution of leafy vegetables to the

intake of these heavy metals is low and does not pose potential health risk to consumers of

vegetables. No adverse, non-cancerous health effects are thus expected from Cu and Zn intake

from the leafy vegetables unless other additional and richer sources of these heavy metals in the

diet contribute significantly to their intake.

The concentrations of Cd in vegetable leaves at the Mukuvisi site were above the FAO/WHO

recommended limit (<2 mg Cd kg-1, dry wt.), indicating that exposure to Cd may be high. Higher

Cd concentrations in vegetable leaves were found at the Mukuvisi site than at the Pension site,

despite the generally higher Cd concentrations in the soil at the Pension site. This could also be

attributed to higher organic matter at the Pension site than at the Mukuvisi site as was recorded

for Cu. Brown et al. (1998) studied Cd uptake in sludge-amended and Cd-salt treated soils

maintained at high and low soil pH. They found that Cd uptake by plants grown in sludge

amended soils was significantly lower than Cd uptake by plants grown in the Cd-salt treated soils

at low and high pH. Similarly, the availability of Cd at the Pension site would be lower since the

treated effluent applied is sometimes mixed with digested sludge (with higher organic matter).

This increases soil organic matter in the gardens, unlike at the Mukuvisi site where most Cd in

river water may be in the inorganic form originating from acid-battery factories and surrounding

industries that discharge their partially treated effluent into the Mukuvisi River (Zaranyika et al.,

1993).

The result of the study showed a 25 % prevalence of Pb in vegetables from both sites exceeding

the FAO/WHO recommended limits (<3 mg Pb kg-1, dry wt.). This is an indication of a high

10
potential risk of Pb exposure at both Pension and Mukuvisi sites. Lead is a non-essential element

for plants and animals, and should be available to plants in low quantities (Alloway and Ayres,

1993). The mean Pb bio-concentration factors were comparable at the Mukuvisi and Pension

sites despite the lower pH values found in the gardens at the Pension site. The relatively high

plant Pb found at the Mukuvisi site could be attributed to dry deposition from industrial and

vehicle fumes. According to Wild (1993), most Pb taken up by Brassica plants is retained in the

roots, but the greatest threat is Pb deposited on leaves because only half of the Pb is removed by

washing.

Typical daily intakes of Pb by adults range from 0.015-0.1 mg day-1, depending on the

composition of the diet and where the consumer lives (Codex, 1995). Lead intakes from leafy

vegetables at the Pension and Mukuvisi sites were 34-79 % of the upper limit of this typical Pb

intake rate. Thus, the vegetables at the sites under this study could be contributing significantly

to Pb intake. Children are more susceptible to adverse effects of Pb because they eat more food

relative to their body mass than adults. They absorb Pb more readily than adults and their major

organs, including the brain, are still under developed (Carrington and Bolger, 1992), making

them the most susceptible.

Nickel is found in small quantities in many foodstuffs (0.001-0.01 mg kg-1, fresh wt.), but in

higher concentrations in foodstuffs such as grain, nuts, and seeds (up to 0.8 mg kg-1, fresh wt.)

(National Food Agency of Denmark, 1995). Weigert (1991) indicated that Ni concentrations of

up to 68 mg kg-1, fresh wt. may still be safe for consumption since more than 90 % of Ni taken in

is held in the organic form that can be safely excreted. Thus the risk of exposure to Ni at the

studied sites could be low.

11
Chromium concentrations in vegetables from the Pension and Mukuvisi sites were generally low

and the daily intakes of Cr from leafy vegetable were about 50 % of the estimated typical daily

intake rates of 0.025-0.2 mg day-1 (Codex, 1995). Thus, approximately 50 % of daily Cr intake

from foodstuffs could come from the leafy vegetables grown at the study sites.

5. Conclusion

Based on the results of this study, leafy vegetables grown at the Pension and Mukuvisi sites

where wastewater is used for irrigating the vegetables were contaminated Cu, Zn, Cd, Ni, and

Pb. Potential public health hazards, especially from Cd, are high at the sites. It is possible that

other sites receiving wastewater for irrigation in Harare have similarly been affected. Although

the practice is aimed at producing socio-economic benefits it is not safe and may not be

sustainable in the long-term. There is need for an improved food quality assurance system and

promotion of the production of vegetables that comply with existing standards on heavy metal

concentrations.

Acknowledgements

This study was sponsored through a grant from the Department For International Development

(DFID) UK, for which the authors are extremely grateful.

References

Alloway, B. J. and Ayres, D. C., (1993). Chemical Principles of Environmental Pollution.

Blackie Academic and Professional. An imprint of Chapman and Hall, Oxford, UK, 291 pp.

ATSDR, (1999). Health Guidelines Comparison Values (First Quarter of 1999), Agency for
Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.

ATSDR, (2003). Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs) for Hazardous Substances. Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry: (http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/mrls.html). (accessed March 2004)

Baker, D. E., and Amacher, M. C., (1982). Nickel, copper, zinc and cadmium. In Methods of
Soil Analysis. Part 2, Chemical and Microbiological Properties. (Eds. A.L. Page, R.H. Miller and
D.R. Keeney) pp. 323-336. ASA Inc., SSSA Inc. Publishers, New York, USA.

12
Baldock, J.W., (1991). The Geology of the Harare Greenstone Belt and Surrounding Granitic
Terrain. Zimbabwe Geological Survey Bulletin No. 94.

Berry, W.L. and Wallace, A., (1989). Zinc phytotoxicity: Physiological responses and diagnostic
criteria for tissues and solutions. Soil Sci., 147: 390-397.

Bieleski, R. L. and Lauchli, A., (1983). Inorganic plant nutrition, synthesis and outlook. In
Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology (Eds. R. L. Bieleski and A. Lauchli) pp. 745-755. Springer-
Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.

Brown, S.L., Chaney, R.L. Angle, J.S. and Ryan, J.A., (1998). The phytoavailability of Cd to
lettuce in long-term biosolids-amended soils. J. Environ. Qual. 27: 1071-1078.

Campbell, C. R. and Plank, C. O., (1992). Sample preparation. In Plant Analysis Reference
Procedures for the Southern Region of the United States (Ed. O.C. Plank) pp. 71-71.Southern
Cooperative Series, USA.

Carrington, C. D. and Bolger, P. M., (1992). An assessment of the hazards of Lead in Food.
Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 16: 265-277.

Codex Alimentarius, (2001a). Codex maximum levels for Cadmium in Cereals, Pulses and
Legumes, Joint FAO/WHO Standards, CAC/GL 39-2001.
http//www.codexalimentarius.net/standards_search.asp. (accessed March 2004)

Codex Alimentarius, (2001b). Maximum levels for Lead, Joint FAO/WHO Standards, Codex
STAN 230-2001, http//www.codexalimentarius.net/standards_search.asp (accessed March 2004)

Codex, (1995). Codex general standard for contaminants and toxins in foods. Joint FAO/WHO
Food standards program. Rep. No. CX/FAC 96/17.

Food Standards Committte, (1950). Reports on Copper and Zinc, Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Food, UK, http//archive.food.gov.uk/maff/achive/food/infsheet.htm) (accessed
March 2004)

Hanlon, E. A., (1992). Determination of total manganese, iron, copper and zinc in plants by
atomic absorption techniques. In Plant Analysis Reference Procedures for the Southern Region
of the United States (Ed. O.C. Plank) pp. 48-50. Southern Cooperative Series Bulletin, USA.

Kirkham, M. B., (1977). Trace elements in sludge on land: Effects on plants, soil and
groundwater. In Land as a Waste Management Alternative (Ed. C.R. Loehr) pp. 209-247. New
York: Ann Arbor Science Publishers.

Kisku, G. C., Barman, S. C. and Bhargava, S. K., (2000). Contamination of soil and plants with
potentially toxic elements irrigated with mixed industrial effluent and its impact on the
environment. Water Air and Soil Pollution. 120: 121-137.

Krijger, G. C., Vliet, P. M. and Wolterbeek, H. T., (1999). Metal speciation in xylem exudate of
Lycopersicon esculentum. Plant and Soil. 212: 165-173.

13
Lee, S., Allens, E. H., Huang, C. P., Sparks, D. L., Sanders, P. F. and Peijnenburg, W. J. G.,
(1996). Predicting soil-water partition coefficients for Cd. Environmental Science and
Technology. 30: 3418-3424.

MAFF, (1993) Review of the rules for sewage sludge application to agricultural land, Report of
the Independent Scientific Committee PB 1561.United Kingdom Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Forests and Department of the Environment, MAFF Publications, London.

Mangwayana, E., (995) Heavy Metal Pollution from Sewage Sludge and Effluent of Soils and
Grasses at Crowborough Farm, B. Sc. Thesis, Department of Soil Science and Agricultural
Engineering, University of Zimbabwe, 57pp (unpublished).

Mapanda, F., Mangwayana, E.N., Nyamangara, J. and Giller, K.E., (2005). The effect of long-
term irrigation using wastewater on heavy metal contents of soils under vegetables in Harare,
Zimbabwe. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 107: 151-165.

McNeal, E. O., (1982). Soil pH and lime requirement. In Methods of Soil Analysis 2, Chemical
and Microbiological Properties. 2nd Edition (Eds. A.L. Page, R.H. Miller, and D.R. Keeney) pp.
1159-1159. New York: ASA, Inc., SSSA, Inc. Publisher.

Mtetwa, S., (1996). Effluent and wastewater standards in Zimbabwe. In Lake Chivero. A
Polluted Lake (Ed. N.A.G. Moyo) pp. 124-133. Harare, Zimbabwe: University of Zimbabwe
Publications.

National Food Agency of Denmark, (1995). Food monitoring 1988-1992,

http//www.unece.org/stats/documents/ces (accessed December 2003)

NRB, (1974). Working Party on the Use of Sewage Effluent and other Wastewater, Natural
Resources Board, Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), 19 pp.

Nyamangara, J., Mzezewa, J., (1999). The effects of long-term sludge application on Zn, Cu, Ni
and Pb levels in clay loam soil under pasture grass in Zimbabwe. Agriculture, Ecosystems and
Environment. 73: 199-204.

Ross, S. M. and Kaye. J.K., (1994). The meaning of metal toxicity in soil-plant systems. In Toxic
Metals in Soil-Plant Systems (Ed. S.M. Ross) pp. 27-62. England: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.

Sauve, S., Hendershot, W. and Allen, H.E., (2000). Solid-Solution Partitioning of Metals in
Contaminated Soils: Dependence on pH, Total Metal Burden, and Organic Matter.
Environmental Science and Technology. 34: 1125-1131.

Vhurumuku, E., (2000). Measurement of food security and vulnerability in Zimbabwe urban
areas. USAID famine Early Warning Systems Network, Harare, Zimbabwe, 10 pp.

Weigert P., (1991). Metal loads of food of vegetable origin including mushrooms. In Metals and
Their Compounds in the Environment, Occurrence, Analysis and Biological Relevance (Ed. E.
Marian) pp. 458-68. Weinheim, VCH.

Wild, A., (1993). Soils and the Environment. An Introduction, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.

14
Zaranyika, M.F., (1996). Sources and levels of pollution along Mukuvisi River: A review. In
Lake Chivero. A Polluted Lake (Ed. N.A.G. Moyo) pp. 35-42. Harare, Zimbabwe: University of
Zimbabwe Publications.

Zaranyika, M. F., Mathuthu, A. S., Mtetwa, L. S. and Gongora G., (1993). The effect of
industrial effluent and leachate from landfills on the levels of selected trace heavy metals in the
waters of upper and middle Mukuvisi River in Harare, Zimbabwe. Bull. Chem. Soc. Ethiop. 7: 1-
10.

Zheljazkov, V. D., Nielsen, N. E., (1996). Effect of heavy metals on peppermint and cornmint.
Plant and Soil. 178: 59-66.

N
NW Highlands N
Avondale
Avonlea Borrowdale
Mabelreign Hatcliff
Vainona
W Tynwald
Dzivarasekwa Mt. Pleasant
W. Park
Marlborough
E
Rugare, Kuwadzana,
Crowborough CENTRAL
DISTRICT Eastlea CLEVELAND DAM
(CITY CENTER) Cranboughn
Eastern Highlands
WSW Mufakose
SE Mandara
Budiriro Masasa
Glen view SW Mabvuku

Mukuvisi River

Highfields
Glen Norah
34
S
Mbare
Chadcombe, Hillside
Sunningdale, Hatfield
Masasa Park
4
(to lake Chivero) Uplands

Pension Site
Mukuvisi Sites (Plots 4 and 34)
4
Waterfalls

Sewage Treatment Works

Industrial Areas 10 000 0 10 20 Kilometers
Meters
City of Harare boundary
Administrative District boundary

Figure 1. The City of Harare’s nine administrative Districts showing residential and industrial
areas found in Harare and the Mukuvisi River. The Pension Farm is located near Firle Sewage
Treatment Works, while the Mukuvisi sites are along the riverbanks of the Mukuvisi River.

15
Table 1. Mean concentrations of heavy metals in mg kg-1 dry weight in the topsoil of the gardens from which vegetable leaves were sampled at the
Mukuvisi and Pension sites in Harare. The number in brackets are standard errors.

Site Gardens No. pH (water) Cu Zn Cd Ni Pb Cr

Plot 4a 7.8 (0.20) 14 (1.0) 26 (3.0) 0.5 (0.02) 7.2 (1.0) 6.7 (3.0) 70 (2.0)
Mukuvisi Plot 34 6.1 (0.60) 22 (1.5) 40 (25) 0.7 (0.20) 4.2 (0.7) 21 (7.0) 50 (17)
Plot 4b 7.6 (0.30) 20 (4.0) 51 (11) 0.9 (0.20) 8.6 (2.0) 11 (0.9) 66 (4.0)
1 6.3 (0.01) 62 (4.0) 107 (26) 2.6 (0.20) 13 (2.0) 26 (2.0) 141 (29)
2 6.0 (0.30) 41 (7.0) 117 (4.0) 2.6 (0.20) 12 (2.0) 25 (3.0) 63 (4.0)
3 6.2 (0.10) 73 (21) 190 (38) 2.4 (0.01) 15 (2.0) 29 (3.0) 145 (0.2)
Pension 4 6.2 (0.06) 61 (2.0) 128 (23) 2.9 (0.06) 14 (0.7) 24 (1.0) 98 (11)
5 5.1 (0.03) 29 (3.0) 87 (15) 2.2 (0.20) 11 (2.0) 24 (3.0) 75 (8.0)
6 5.4 (0.20) 31 (5.0) 112 (31) 2.5 (0.01) 14 (2.0) 27 (3.0) 77 (1.0)
7 5.3 (0.10) 39 (6.0) 74 (14) 2.5 (0.50) 11 (1.0) 25 (3.0) 52 (16)
≤ 5.5 50 200 3 50 300 400
Maximum permitted limit
5.5 ≤ 6.0 100 250 3 60 300 400
(MAFF, 1993)
6.0 ≤ 7.0 135 300 3 75 300 400

16
Table 2. Mean concentrations of selected heavy metals in vegetable leaves (mg kg-1 dry wt.) from selected gardens at the Mukuvisi and Pension sites,
and their maximum permissible limits (mg kg-1 dry weight, derived from fresh weight at 91 % moisture).

Site Garden No. Species Cu Zn Cd Ni Pb Cr

Plot 4a B. napus 2.2 18 2.3 3.3 2.8 5.0
Mukuvisi Plot 34 B. napus 1.4 29 1.2 2.5 0.8 3.6
Plot 4b B. juncea 3.5 60 2.4 3.6 3.9 6.6
Standard errors of means differences (SED) 0.6 6.2 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.4
1 B. napus 1.7 87 0.7 4.0 2.6 1.5
2 B. napus 1.0 145 1.0 5.0 5.2 2.3
3 B. juncea 2.5 153 1.2 3.7 2.7 2.7
Pension 4 B. juncea 3.4 170 0.7 6.3 3.3 1.9
5 B. juncea 2.3 199 1.4 4.5 5.4 3.3
6 B. juncea 2.4 201 1.2 5.7 4.2 3.9
7 B. juncea 3.1 19 1.4 5.4 4.7 4.7
SED 0.7 26 0.1 0.6 0.6 0.3
Permissible limits (mg kg-1 dry wt.) <200# <500# <2‡ <680‡‡ <3‡ <23‡‡

#
Food Standard Committee (1950) Guidelines (UK); ‡FAO/WHO (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 2001a,b); ‡‡Weigert, 1991

17
Table 3. The concentrations of tested heavy metals in leaves of Brassica juncea and B. napus
relative to their concentrations in soil (bio-concentration factors, CFs) at the Mukuvisi and
Pension sites in Harare.

Site Garden No. Species CFCu CFZn CFCd CFNi CFPb CFCr
4a B. napus 0.16 0.7 4.6 0.5 0.4 0.07
Mukuvisi 34 B. napus 0.06 0.7 1.7 0.6 0.03 0.07
4b B. juncea 0.18 1.2 2.7 0.4 0.4 0.10
Mean CF value 0.13 0.9 3.0 0.5 0.3 0.08
1 B. napus 0.03 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.01
2 B. napus 0.02 1.2 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.04
3 B. juncea 0.03 0.8 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.02
Pension 4 B. juncea 0.06 1.3 0.2 0.5 0.1 0.02
5 B. juncea 0.08 2.3 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.04
6 B. juncea 0.08 1.8 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.05
7 B. juncea 0.08 2.6 0.6 0.5 0.2 0.09
Mean CF value 0.05 1.6 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.04

18
Table 4. Mean concentrations of heavy metals in vegetables (fresh wt.) and the heavy metals
intake rates by an adult (of 60 kg body wt.) from the Mukuvisi and Pension sites relative to
the Minimum Risk Levels (MRLs).

†
Average content in leaves Intake rate MRL
Metal
(mg kg-1, fresh wt.) (mg day-1) (mg day-1)
Mukuvisi Pension Mukuvisi Pension

Cu 0.2 0.2 0.04-0.05 0.04-0.05 1.2

Zn 3.2 15 0.58-0.71 2.66-3.26 18
Cd 0.2 0.1 0.04-0.04 0.02-0.02 0.012
Ni 0.3 0.5 0.05-0.06 0.08-0.10 0.12
Pb 0.3 0.4 0.05-0.06 0.07-0.09 0.18
Cr 0.5 0.3 0.08-0.10 0.05-0.06 90

†
Minimal Risk Levels (developed by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) and the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) are intake rates below which adverse, non-cancerous
health effects are not likely to occur (for Cu, Zn and Cd) (ATSDR, 1999), or daily human exposure for a
lifetime below which non-cancer and other adverse health effects are unlikely to occur (for Ni, Cr and Pb)
(ATSDR, 2003).

19