Postmodernist Cinema and Questions of Reality
Postmodernist Cinema and Questions of Reality
Postmodernist Cinema and Questions of Reality
Robert Beshara
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Abstract
This Paper will address the representation of various levels of ‘reality’, especially the
Aristotle, Artaud, and Brecht. For instance, Godard clearly has been influenced
stylistically by some of the tenets of Brecht’s Epic Theatre, such as his emphasis on
levels of reality, in fact manages to capture the ‘real’ in a deeper way than
Michel in the early French New Wave masterpiece À bout de souffle (Godard, 1960) is a
viewers, feel less safe by breaking the cinematic fourth wall, hence, forcing us to think
that the film’s story is not just about Michel, the fugitive, but about us as well, that is,
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film styles vis-à-vis structural realism (SR), a scientific realist position known as the best
as the extreme form of scientific realism known as realism or as illogical as the other
reality, and in that sense it is formal. Also, it humbly tries to approximate reality as
opposed to suggesting that one can have direct access to or no access at all to objective
reality. In SR, two incompatible theories could imply the same structure regarding the
object of study (e.g., light as vibrations) and have predictive power, but still differ in
terms of representation; such was the case with the theory change from Fresnel’s
know the nature of the universe or its ontology independent of our minds; however, I am
not a hardcore idealist either, but perhaps I am sympathetic to this view known as, poly-
solipsism (Keiser, n.d.), that frames humans in my opinion as inter-idealists, who co-
construct a shared reality. It is hard to write about reality without thinking about truth.
Which theory of truth would contain SR? Perhaps a Neo-Kantian coherence theory of
truth, wherein there is a noumenal world (objective reality) or the thing-itself, and a
phenomenal world (subjective reality). How can we study the former objectively if we
are entirely embedded in it? The latter is our interpretation of the former based on our
limited senses as humans, but how reliable are we in terms of measuring reality, with or
without scientific instruments? SR, as a Middle Way, looks at the structure of reality
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Uncertainty Principle, wherein an observer affects observed reality blurring the line
Psychological reality is somewhat different from physical reality though not less
(Romanyshyn, 2001). Whereas with SR, we try to identify the mathematical structure of
reality. The key is that both structures reflect different realities, and to say reflect means
that each structure (reflection) is not exactly the same as what it is reflecting (reality). A
person in front of a mirror is not identical to her figure because the reflection is a two-
source of the image (i.e., the Subject) because it can be a glimpse into an aspect of the
spiritual or transpersonal reality. I do not necessarily see these layers in conflict; surely
there is tension or dissonance between these layers at certain nodes or even whole
curious about the potential marriages between different disciplines such as Buddhism and
psychology especially to see what their shared perspective will say about reality, and of
course I am aware that there are irreconcilable differences; however, I choose to focus on
individual is analysed within a matrix of relationships that turn out to be the central
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power in her/his psychological development. By realising why one has become the
present individual and how personal development is connected with relationships, the
freedom to choose and create a life that is independent from inner restrictions should be
2010). The notion of intersubjectivity spoken of here resonates with Edmund Husserl’s
phenomenological version of the same concept. Additionally, the two truths doctrine in
Buddhism of absolute and relative truths is echoed in the Kantian notions of the
noumenal and the phenomenal worlds, so clearly there are overlaps between these
view useful and encouraging principally in the context of the current common traps of
even on an international level (e.g., wars). This is an effort to build bridges that may lead
I see art as a reflection of a reflection, and I use the word ‘art’ here loosely mainly
to denote fine art, specifically film. As is clear so far, we are dealing with a multi-layered
reality, whether physical, psychological, philosophical or spiritual, and film handles these
layers of reality in different ways. With film, we try to construct or identify the dramatic
reality as an interlocking spiral. Aristotle laid down the early rules of dramatic structure
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in The Poetics more than two millennia ago, and many screenwriters as well as
by the clear-cut three-act structure of beginning, middle, and end that we see in most
films. Even though cinema is a young art—only more than a century old—in comparison
I will focus on film’s ancestor for a little bit because that is where dramatic
structure came from. Dramatic theorists did not necessarily see eye to eye when it came
to the purpose of drama. Aristotle thought that plays should move audiences on an
emotional level, Antonin Artaud—a surrealist and the founder of the Theatre of Cruelty
—, millennia later, was more for a visceral/gut-level experience, and Bertolt Brecht—a
Marxist and a proponent of the Epic Theatre—was far more interested in a dialectic
between plays and audience members on an intellectual level. In the world of theatre,
there are two broad categories for how reality can be handled on stage, through
life on stage and presentation means having an artistic license with how real life is
would belong to the first category, while more experimental and avant-garde films—esp.
surrealism with its historical affinity with psychodynamics—would belong to the second
category, but honestly there have been many films, too, that combine elements from both,
they can be labeled as trans-genre (Kaplan, 2005). All of these different styles differ on
the purpose of drama or its effects. For instance, to Aristotle the purpose of tragedy was
catharsis or the purging of emotions through pity and fear, which usually happens when
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we as audience members identify with the protagonist and her struggles empathically as
if they were our own. This sense of shared suffering can be healing or therapeutic but it
can also be numbing as a form of escapism from our own suffering as we project our
suffering onto film characters or repress altogether. Brecht saw it as the latter through the
lens of Marxism, to him the illusion of recreating reality on stage is a deceptive capitalist
mechanism that does not challenge us, so he wanted his theatre to have the opposite
effect. Put differently: “In representational theatre [or film] the artists strive to create a
visual and performance reality on stage [or on screen] that tricks the audience into
accepting the idea that what they are seeing is real. […] The artists in presentational
theatre [or film] try to challenge the natural passivity of the audience by creating a
moment to moment reality, forcing the viewers to actively participate in the creation of
the reality” ("Presentational Theater and Representational Theater", n.d.). Brecht did not
think highly of cinema because he saw it as a tool in the hands of a capitalist movie
industry (Hollywood), and in that sense he is right; in fact, movie producers got greedier
and more creative at marketing, and blockbuster films got more formulaic in terms of
their plots, often times relying on sentimental devices, such as tear-jerkers and jaw-
droppers. Not mentioning the fast-paced short-attention span inducing editing, our
desensitization through the glorification of sex and violence, and the computer-generated
imagery that are designed as eye candy to keep us entertained. Amidst this gloomy
picture, I argue that most moviegoers still long for transpersonal themes even from
mainstream movies, e.g., The Wizard of Oz (Fleming, 1939), Star Wars (Lucas, 1977),
The Shawshank Redemption (Darabont, 1994), Avatar (Cameron, 2009), and Cloud Atlas
(Tykwer, Wachowski, & Wachowski 2012). I also recognize the growing trend of
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technologies and the openness of the Internet as a democratic platform for freely sharing
creative projects—that runs parallel to mainstream cinema, and sometimes overlaps with
entertain us, but to educate us and to heal us, too. I suppose money is not the issue, it is
what you do with it; this takes us back to the beginning: to the purpose of dramatic
structure vis-à-vis its effects. Here is what Brecht thought about cinema and in some way
“What the film really demands is external action and not introspective psychology. […]
Great areas of ideology are destroyed when capitalism concentrates on external action,
dissolves everything into processes, abandons the hero as the vehicle for everything and
mankind as the measure, and thereby smashes the introspective psychology of the
bourgeois novel. […] [I]n the great American comedies the human being is presented as
and revolutionary. Its limits are those proper to its function under capitalism (the reflexes
are biological; only in certain of Chaplin’s films are they social)” (Brecht, & Willett,
1964, p. 50). Even though Brecht had little respect for cinema, his influence on some
cinema follows some of the conventions of dialectic theatre, such as the alienation effect
(A-effect). In comparing the new technique of acting he had developed to science, Brecht
wrote: “Characters and incidents from ordinary life, from our immediate surrounding,
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being familiar, strike us as more or less natural. Alienating them helps to make them
seem remarkable to us. Science has carefully developed a technique of getting irritated
with the everyday, ‘self-evident’, universally accepted occurrence, and there is no reason
why this infinitely useful attitude should not be taken over by art” (Brecht, & Willet,
1964, p. 140). The A-effect distances us as film viewers from film characters, this
disidentification takes us on a metalevel where we are not just engaged emotionally with
the characters but dialectically with the actors, too. This is an added layer of complexity
that can make us realize the illusory nature of cinematic reality inspiring us to question
our multi-layered reality and perhaps to transform aspects of it, if need be. Jean-Paul
Belmondo’s Michel in the early French New Wave masterpiece À bout de souffle
very likeable as a character, he has his share of hubris, and in that sense as the film’s
protagonist he is like an anti-hero, but he has some redeeming qualities about him:
possibly, his Bogartian suave (i.e., chain smoking and quirky humor). Michel breaks the
fourth wall towards the beginning of the film by looking into the camera and addressing
us, film viewers, directly. This A-effect makes us feel less safe and it can force us to
think that this story is not just about Michel, the fugitive, but about us as well:
conceivably, what we are running from in our lives. Godard was a film critic before being
cineaste. Since the film was produced on a low budget, Godard asked the actors to do
extended improvisations during shots or scenes based on his directions. Out of necessity,
Godard used ‘jump cuts’ to omit the non-workable parts of these improvisations, and that
was the birth of the infamous jump cut! Then the jump cut became a stylistic device,
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which constituted part of the film’s syntax as a jarring device that effectively intensified
the A-effect. Today, many filmmakers use jump cuts superficially without giving much
reflection to that device’s relationship to form and content within the world of a given
film.
Let us focus on Godard for a little bit now, as an exemplar from Brechtian
Godard counterbalances his reality effects with eccentric editing strategies (his
reality-based shooting style merges with storytelling tactics), does not claim to
possess answers for the vast set of questions he raises, and has little interest in a
formal procedures that abandon the familiar rules of linear narrative, and aims to
make films in which fictional elements are inseparably linked with the physical
image combinations and juxtapositions (the sights and sounds of cinema do not
present us with self-evident truths). […] ‘[…] Godard replaces the psychological
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fiction and the fictions of reality (Godard likes to blur distinctions between word
2011).
I find that postmodernist cinema ironically captures reality through the use of
artificial techniques—which it is at least aware of and does not try to completely hide—
more authentically than, let us say, observational cinema (e.g., direct cinema or cinema
vérité), wherein the documentary filmmaker is supposedly a fly on the wall. In other
words, observational cinema is not more objective than postmodernist cinema because
particular way, so clearly the filmmakers’ intersubjectivity enters into the equation of the
filmmaking process, with or without our awareness of that fact. Postmodernist film
auteurs are guilty of the same intersubjectivity but they do not try to hide it necessarily;
in fact, there is often a sense of self-reflexivity at work, such as in David Lynch’s cryptic
critique of the Hollywood system using the surreal mise en abyme structure of a film-
within-a-film, e.g., Mulholland Dr. (Lynch, 2001) and its sequel INLAND EMPIRE
(Lynch, 2006). Metafilms are reminiscent of Edgar Allan Poe’s poem A Dream Within A
Dream as well as Arthur Koestler’s notion of holons or “[t]he idea of hierarchy and of
Ken Wilber. Other examples of postmodernist cinema that are worth highlighting here
include the film essays, e.g., F for Fake (Welles, 1973) and Sans Soleil (Marker, 1983),
and confessional cinema, e.g., Tarnation (Caouette, 2003) and I Am a Sex Addict (Zahedi,
2005).
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programming genre it can be seen as an oxymoron. A lot of reality shows, if not most of
them, are scripted, hence, are somewhat fake. As a filmmaker, I know that once you start
filmmaking people they become self-conscious and so they start sort of performing for
the camera. I am not suggesting however that there is an essence to people that could be
experienced off-camera, but that most people feel more ‘natural’ perhaps or less self-
conscious when they are not being filmed. Surely, filming people for a documentary can
seem contrived or even invasive, but often after some time the film subjects may forget
about the intruding presence of the camera. I am convinced that we all perform in real life
anyhow à la social constructionism, but the camera, as an artificial eye that captures
aspects of reality that later can be screened to a public audience, brings about a sense of
shared voyeurism, which adds a strange ‘observer effect.’ The film that perfectly explores
this idea of the influence of the camera on the filmed subject is Film (Schneider, 1965),
which is written by absurdist playwright Samuel Beckett and stars silent film legend
watched, but he is not sure by whom. Little does he know as a character that there is a
camera filming him as an actor. In 1988, Godard shared some of his thoughts on
cameraman: “This is the enemy, not him as a man, but the culture, this is the enemy. […]
The way you have to shoot me is so disgusting, so disgusting, that it’s no wonder some
people after like Le Pen can say that the concentration camp is only a detail. It comes
from that way of seeing, of looking at things. With TV, you know you can’t even think of
something different. With movie [sic], you can. And that’s why there is this strange affair
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of love and hate between TV and movie” (Festival de Cannes, 1988). It seems like
Godard regards the random cameraman he is addressing in the beginning of that quote,
who is the foot soldier of the TV industry, as a peeping tom for perhaps a degenerate
culture? This distortion of reality being referred to here could be symbolic of some kind
of social perversion, wherein the subject being filmed becomes objectified in the eyes of
cinema that bend reality in such a way that perhaps the shadow of a culture gets exposed;
in this sense, cinema becomes an uncomfortable mirror to look at, a therapeutic one that
narcissistic fantasies.
Eminent film critic André Bazin asks us to distinguish between two broad and
opposing trends: “‘those directors who put their faith in the image and those who put
their faith in reality’” (quoted in Galenson, & Kotin, 2007). Several film theorists have
explored the notions of reality and representation; this is a view I sympathize with since it
delineates between illusion and reality in cinema vis-à-vis hallucination and hypnosis:
the fact that only illusion includes an aisthetic [sensory] dimension in which
perception and projection inseparably interact, while the aspect of perception can
consciousness […] as in a state of light hypnosis. […] Relating this thought back
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to the special case of the cinema, the situation can be described as follows:
because of the darkened room and the relatively limited mobility allowed by the
movie seat, the vital valence [lebendige Wertigkeit] of the film spectator's
can be absorbed by sound and image sequences, so that in their visible and
spectator. The difference between the mode of presence of the events on-screen
and that of (empirical) reality may remain latently perceptible, but it is forced
from the spectator's consciousness to the benefit of a perception of the events on-
screen that includes projective additions” (Voss, Pollmann, & Hediger, 2011).
On the subject of movie magic, it is fair to realize that there are different forms of
illusions; two broad ones, include: projective illusion or “a loss of awareness of the
fictional, world”, and reproductive illusion, which “usually occurs in the context of
nonfiction film that employs actuality footage as evidence of its subject matter” (Allen,
1993). Again, to go back to the early themes of this paper and sum them up, projective
world, relative truth, or subjective reality, while reproductive illusion resonates more with
objective reality. However, to transcend this false dilemma, I shall allude to more hybrid
example of a film that seems to blur fact and fiction stylistically is the docudrama The
Thin Blue Line (Morris, 1988), which depicts the story of Randall Dale Adams who was
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convicted in the murder of a Dallas police office. The film was controversially seen as
less factual at first because it was made up of dramatized reenactments that were
juxtaposed to talking heads. However, thanks to this film, which was used as evidence to
prove Adam’s innocence, Randall was released from prison in 1989 after having spent 12
years in confinement for a crime he did not commit. Another highly influential
documentary film Koyaanisqatsi (Reggio, 1982), which is a Hopi word that means life
out of balance. I see Koyaanisqatsi, which has been described as a tone poem, as
a unique story through rhythmic juxtapositions of Earth before the existence of humans,
humans. Even though the film is extremely stylized, being shot on 70mm and employing
macroscopic view of our relationship with the Earth and technology through an audio-
visual rollercoaster ride, capturing some kind of inter-objective reality in the process.
the structure of the universe is quantum mechanics. Again, modern physics is showing us
the structure of the universe using mathematical models, but it will still be hard to
represent reality accurately because we are using a purely formal system whose
not the thing-itself); however, we can try an approximation. We can think about the
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marriage between science, spirituality, and art; perhaps, through physics, Buddhism, and
cinema. Here are two strong clues as to the overlap between physics and Buddhism,
teach us something quite different that one could express metaphorically: everything is
built on sand, and not even the grains of sand have a solid core or nucleus. Their stability
is based on the unstable interactions of their component parts” (Kohl, 2007); and b) the
illusory nature of reality, “if the concreteness of the world is but a secondary reality and
what is ‘there’ is actually a holographic blur of frequencies, and if the brain is also a
hologram and only selects some of the frequencies out of this blur and mathematically
transforms them into sensory perceptions, what becomes of objective reality? Put quite
simply, it ceases to exist. As the religions of the East have long upheld, the material
world is Maya, an illusion, and although we may think we are physical beings moving
compelling that some of the ancient sages were on to something, particularly when some
of their philosophies are not considered outdated by today’s standards, but rather are
confirmed by the latest findings in modern science. I am strongly drawn to this notion of
quantum consciousness; perhaps because I was a math major growing up and so I happen
to have a bias towards physics. I am, however, skeptical of quantum mysticism, or the
forced marriage between quantum mechanics and consciousness studies, a position that is
widespread in the New Age subculture and is summed up in the following statement:
must be related.
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To conclude, I would like to reflect on how all of these layers of reality can
inform cinema structurally, and how filmmakers can approximate reality on the big
cinema. This may seem like a completely foreign concept and it is, but it is based on a
literary genre that has become recently popular called quantum fiction, which is defined
participant in the creation of physical reality are central to the story” ("Quantum Fiction
Literature & Books", n.d.). Based on this definition, one can imagine all sorts of surreal
science fiction films that are based on the findings of quantum mechanics; a recent one
that comes to mind is the non-linear almost three-hour long film Cloud Atlas (Tykwer,
Wachowski, & Wachowski 2012), which features multiple plotlines set across six
different eras with reincarnation acting as the over-arching thread that units the whole
film.
In addition to quantum cinema, two other film styles come to mind that also deal
The former looks at video, as a syncretic art form that combines all sorts of new
anthropologist Jean Rouch. Valie Export, a luminary of EC, comments on her work with
Peter Weibel, another EC artist and theoretician: “My/our works were/are always
intended to be seen within the context of a social struggle, as an attack on state reality so
as to destroy the limits of state reality and the traditional concept of art, for expanded
cinema also means expanded reality. Transformed media produce a transformed world,
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and a world pressing toward transformation presses toward transformed media. Expanded
cinema was not only an expansion of the scale of the optic phenomenon, but also was
intended, in this phase, to do away with reality and with the language that construes it”
(Export, 2003). I am drawn to Export’s attitude regarding how EC’s goal is ultimately to
expand our sense of reality. Again, this supports the view that cinema is not just about
Jean Rouch did something similar with a more rigorous practice-based qualitative
research (QR) methodology that—like SR—combines the best of both worlds—film and
fiction in his ethnographic films […]. For Rouch, practice was as much of a fun game as
it was surrealist art or ethnography. Fun and adventure seem to have been the
predominant motivations for him and the other participants of the ethnofictions, and
Rouch regarded their shared pleasure to be crucial for the ethnographic film production.
[…] As a fourteen-year-old Parisian boy Rouch had been inspired by jazz and surrealist
art […] and similar to previous French anthropologists, he would infuse ethnographic
research and representation with elements of surrealism and poetry” (Sjöberg, 2008). As
academic/researcher, I see ethnofiction as the ideal methodology of choice that will allow
ethnofiction, research participants do not just talk about their experiences; they re-live the
memories they re-collect and, in the process, re-interpret them through improvised re-
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interviews.
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