Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1013–1022

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Analysis and evaluation of small hydropower

plants: A bibliographical survey
Hira Singh Sachdev n, Ashok Kumar Akella 1, Niranjan Kumar 2
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, National Institute of Technology JSR, Jharkhand 831014, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Hydropower, large and small, remains by far the most important of the “renewable energy” for electrical
Received 23 August 2013 power production worldwide, providing 19% of the planet's electricity. Small-scale hydro is in most cases
Received in revised form “run-of-river”, with no dam or water storage, and is one of the most cost-effective and environmentally
22 March 2015
benign energy technologies to be considered for rural electrification in less developed countries. For
Accepted 30 June 2015
development of such small hydro-power plants, simple and generally applicable procedures and
methods for the design are lacking. The interest in small hydro-power resources is increasing but few
Keywords: published guidelines exist for project design. This study aims in providing a general guidance with
Renewable energy regards to economical design and practical realization of the main components of small hydro-power
Hydropower
plants and their interactions. There is abundant literature which has discussed various models and
Small hydro
control techniques used for small hydro-power plants. We envisage that summarizing such literature
and coming out with a review paper would greatly help the policy/decision makers and researchers in
arriving at effective solutions.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
1.1. Wind power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
1.2. Geothermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
1.3. Tidal power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
1.4. Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
1.5. Solar power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
1.5.1. Small hydro-power plants – a review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
2. Development, design, distributed generation and mathematical modeling of small hydro-power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
2.1. Development and design of small hydro-power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
2.2. Distributed generation in small hydro-power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
2.3. Mathematical modeling of small hydro-power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
3. Technical analysis and economics of small hydro-power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018
4. Control of small hydro-power plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
5. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021

1. Introduction

Energy has been an important factor in all round development

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 91 8102149571. of an area. The exploitation of renewable energy sources viz wind,
E-mail addresses: singhhira10@gmail.com (H.S. Sachdev),
geothermal, tidal, biomass, solar, small hydro, etc. has made major
akakella@rediffmail.com (A.K. Akella), nknitjsr@gmail.com (N. Kumar).
1
Tel.: þ91 9431952816. economic and social changes. These are naturally available in
2
Tel.: þ91 8002857194. periodic/intermittent form and are eco-friendly in nature. In order

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.06.065
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1014 H.S. Sachdev et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1013–1022

to study earlier, closely and sparsely related studies to exploit non- respectively. The Sunderban in West Bengal also has good loca-
conventional and renewable sources, especially, small hydro, a tions for installation of small-scale tidal power plants where the
literature survey has been carried out. Various journals like IEEE, maximum tidal height is around 5 m with an average of 3.9 m. The
research papers, technical notes and books have been referred to identified tidal power potential in India is estimated as 9000 MW,
this study. Some of the websites from internet have also been in the Gulf of Cambay, in the Gulf of Kuchchh and at Sunderban
scanned and relevant studies downloaded for the purpose of in W.B.
review.
The detail of the literature survey is as follows: 1.4. Biomass
Paswan et al. [56] emphasized the present trend of develop-
ment and growth in most of the sectors. Consequently the demand Mukhopadhyay [51] addressed that photosynthetic processes
for electrical energy is expected to increase many folds in future. A of plants and bacteria use solar radiation to convert carbon dioxide
well-planned and efficient utilization of all available energy and water into starches and celluloses with evolution of oxygen.
resources in general and renewable energy in particular is neces- These starches, celluloses and other similar products are called
sary to meet this energy demand. Conventional resources are not biomass. The typical sources of biomass are municipal solid waste,
going to last long and therefore renewable energy resources are crop residues, fuel wood, sawdust and sugar containing materials,
bound to become the ultimate source. manures produced by animals. Biomass is a renewable fuel. It
Gutierrez [30] discussed that electricity generation using can easily supplement fossil fuels for power generation at a
renewable energy sources could make a significant contribution small scale.
in meeting the growing demand for energy and in the electrifica-
tion of remote and rural areas because it may not be possible to
1.5. Solar power
make conventional grid power available to many remote villages.
To harness this energy source for electricity generation, small
Maduekwe et al. [46] presented that the solar energy can be
hydro systems need close attention.
tapped using thermal and solar photovoltaic (SPV) technologies.
The potential and prospects of various renewable energy
SPV is amongst the most widely disseminated Renewable Energy
sources are briefly presented as under the following sections:
Technologies (RETs) for electrification of remote areas. An exten-
sive study of characteristics of the monthly average hourly diffuse
1.1. Wind power
radiation for the southern and coastal city of Lagos and Zaria and
compared with five models from higher latitudes.
Sesto [67] overviewed the various aspects of wind energy for
Boyle [11] estimated that the total annual solar energy input to
the production of electricity with particular reference to available
the earth is more than 15,000 times as great as the earth's current
resources. Wind power is one of the most promising sources of
yearly use of fossil and nuclear fuels.
energy across the globe. Possible restraints and benefits of wind
plant integration in utility systems were also considered. A time-
sequential simulation technique was used. 1.5.1. Small hydro-power plants – a review
Wang et al. [76] evaluated the reliability cost/worth of a Paish [55] emphasized that small hydropower (SHP) has
distribution system including WTGs (Wind Turbine Generators). emerged as an energy source which is accepted as renewable,
A three-state model considering the time varying wind speed and easily developed, inexpensive and harmless to the environment.
the random failure of WTG was introduced to simulate the life These features have increased small hydropower development in
cycle of WTG output. value giving rise to a new trend in renewable energy generation.
Schwartz et al. [66] addressed the issue of small hydro as green
1.2. Geothermal power and discussed the fundamental differences between small
and large-scale hydro, and investigated small hydro implementa-
Chandrasekharam [16] discussed that geothermal energy tion from the stand point of its development philosophy, opera-
comes from radioactive decay in the core of the Earth, which has tional principles, construction features, the small hydro resource,
heating effects from inside out. The energy can be extracted from and equipment maintenance and scheduling.
the hot rock deep in the Earth through conduction. It requires that Baidya [7] gave a definition of small hydro-power-plants
the hot rock be relatively shallow. It is site-sensitive and there are followed in different countries including India. There is no inter-
only seven geothermal provinces in India. These resources can be national consensus on the definition of small hydro-power. The
utilized by using binary cycle method. The estimated potential in general tendency all over the world is to define small hydro by the
India is in the order of 10,000 MW, which is yet to be harnessed for power output. Different countries follow different norms keeping
generation of electricity. the upper limit ranging from 5 to 50 MW.
Reddy et al. [60] highlighted that the low capacity hydropower
1.3. Tidal power project is considered as a non-conventional and renewable energy
source. Quantitatively a small volume of water (such as hills
Khan [38] discussed that tides are generated through a combi- canals, falls, etc.) with small heads can be tapped easily for
nation of forces exerted by the gravitational pull of the sun and generating electricity using micro water turbine and generator.
moon and the rotation of the earth. The relative motions among The low capacity hydro projects are categorized as (i) small hydro
earth, sun and moon produce different tidal cycles. Creation of project (2–25 MW); (ii) mini-hydro project (100 kW to 2 MW);
suitable reservoirs is required for collecting tidal waters for (iii) micro-hydro project (5–100 kW) and (iv) pico project up to
extracting energy from tides. The extraction of tidal energy is 5 kW.
site-specific, as it requires a mean tidal height of around 4 m. It Saxena [64] emphasized that out of the total grid interactive
also requires favorable topographical conditions such as certain power generation capacity that is being installed, 2% should come
types of bays or estuaries suitable to build the reservoir at from small hydro-power (SHP) plants. There is a need to tap all
affordable cost. The most attractive sites for tidal power plants possible sources of energy to meet this challenge and SHP
are Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of Kachchh on the west coast of is considered as a reliable option. The estimated potential of
the country where the mean tidal heights are 6.77 m and 5.23 m, small hydro in India is of about 15,000 MW. The Indian SHP
 H.S. Sachdev et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1013–1022 1015

power plant. The implementation of the VPP, using the water

sources, has an advantage on the reduction of major investments
for the grid and maintains the environment clean.
Roque et al. [61] described technical solutions to be used in
micro-hydro-power plants and proposes suitable equipment for a
particular solution, based on average values of water fall and water
flow. An economic analysis of the considered power plant is also
presented.Fig. 1
Adhau et al. [1] highlighted that micro-hydropower plants are
emerging as a major renewable energy resource today as they do
not encounter the problems of population displacement and
environmental problems associated with the large hydro-power
plants. In this paper the work is carried out for evaluating micro-
hydro-power plants (MHPP) generation availability that can be
Fig. 1. Diversion hydroelectric [81].
applied to generation systems reliability and to generation plan-
ning studies
development programme received a new dimension and tempo Ardizzon et al. [5] emphasized that hydropower is not only a
after the liberalization of economy and invitation to private sectors renewable and sustainable energy source, but its flexibility and
for investment in power. Today the SHP programme is essentially storage capacity also make it possible to improve grid stability and
private investment driven. Electricity generation from small hydro to support the deployment of other intermittent renewable energy
is becoming increasingly competitive with preferential tariffs and sources such as wind and solar power. As a result, renewed
some other concessions. The challenge is to improve reliability, interest in pumped-small hydro energy storage plants (PHES)
quality and reduce costs. The focus of the SHP programme is to and a huge demand for the rehabilitation of old small hydro-
lower the cost of equipment, increase its reliability and set up power plants are emerging globally.
projects in areas which give the maximum advantage in terms of
capacity utilization.
Gupta et al. [29] discussed the availability of hydro-power 2. Development, design, distributed generation and
potential, control and operation system for small hydro-power- mathematical modeling of small hydro-power plants
plants. Small hydropower (SHP) is one of the most appropriate
options to meet increasing energy demand especially in countries 2.1. Development and design of small hydro-power plants
like India and Sri Lanka where a huge power potential is available
in this sector. It is clean and renewable in nature in contrast to The primary objective of the design of the system is to improve
fossil fuel based generations which pollute the environment and the quality of power for a given load factor and to achieve this in
also their resources are depleting at a fast pace. High cost per unit an optimal way. This depends on parameters like the population,
generation is however, a constraint in case of SHP development. demand, and proximity to grid. A number of studies are available
The hurdle of cost effectiveness has slowed down the process of for design of both grids connected and stand-alone systems.
small hydropower development. Different techniques like optimization, simulation and other
Adhau Sarala [3] highlighted that energy production has mathematical modeling tools have been used for this purpose.
become highly expensive worldwide and its shortage has led to Turner et al. [73] described the implementation of an 1150 kW
intensified research studies for developing alternate sources of mini-hydro-power plant at Wemind ji, a remote community in
energy. Mini/micro/small hydro-power are some of the alternative Northern Canada. The analysis of the overall costs of energy
sources whose proper utilization can improve the overall energy available to the community led to the selection of a mixed energy
picture of the world. The increase in oil prices and subsequent supply system consisting of mini-hydro-power plant as the main
worldwide energy crisis in 1973 prompted many countries to element.
search and develop renewable sources of energy. Since each year Prabil Raj et al. [58] found that of the renewable energy
costs increase and the supply of fossil fuels is diminishing. The sources, SHP is the most attractive matured and reliable energy
installation and development of non-conventional energy sources source for a country like India, where SHP potential of about
have taken priority. Much of the small hydro potential is in the 15,000 MW is available in canal falls, irrigation dams, run-of-the
hilly and remote, inaccessible areas of India, where generation rivers and natural streams in the hilly regions. Only less than 6% of
from other sources or transmission of power over long distance this potential, i.e., about 900 MW has been tapped so far.
would not be feasible. The development of this local potential Maher [47] stated that pico-hydro-power has maximum capa-
meets a long felt need. city upto 5 kW and has the potential of providing energy to
Akella [4] discussed how conventional energy sources based on millions of rural people worldwide with a cheap and sustainable
oil, coal and natural gas have proven to be highly effective drivers source of electricity. With the development of cost reduction
of economic progress, but at the same time have damaged the approaches, e.g., local manufacturing and repair capability, pico-
environment and human health. The social, economical and hydro schemes might be adopted on a larger scale.
environmental effects of renewable energy system have also been A methodology was developed by Sharma et al. [68] for finding
discussed. The uses of renewable energy system instead of con- optimum design discharge for small hydro-power (SHP) plants on
ventional energy system to control the social, economical and the basis of benefits–cost (B/C) analysis by incorporating uncer-
environmental problems have been further identified. The results tainty in stream flows. A probabilistic hydrological model was
show that the trends of total emission reduction in different years developed which gave the optimum design discharge for SHP. The
are exponentially increasing after the installation of renewable model can be extended to all the run of the river projects
energy system in remote areas. Taneja [70] highlighted that high line losses of long transmis-
Stepanescu et al. [69] studied the possibilities of implementing sion lines, required to connect remote areas, makes extension of
small hydro-power plants in a valley from Romania using hydro- the grid prohibitive. Access to small clean energy is one of the
graphical data. These power plants are combined to form a virtual basic human needs. Electricity is one of the cleanest forms of
1016 H.S. Sachdev et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1013–1022

energy at the consumption stage. Electricity has a positive co- the location where the energy is used. To meet the country's need
relation with quality of life and prosperity. In India alone, only 55% for high-quality, reliable electricity, distributed energy resources
of households have access to electricity. Around 80,000 villages are (Distributed Power) offer a faster, less expensive alternative to the
still need to be electrified. The problem today is both quantative construction of large, central power plants and high voltage
and qualitative. The villages do not get power in sufficient quantity transmission lines. Installing distributed power at or near a
and the quality of the power that they get is also very poor. As per customer load can avoid the need to upgrade transmission and
the study of Planning Commission of India and UNDP, around 25% distribution lines to handle the extra power requirements. The
land of our country is remote and has inhospitable terrain. These matured technology with high efficiencies, environment friendly
areas have low load density. Laying of long transmission lines, projects, high energy density source, simple, reliable and flexible
consequent high line losses make extension of the grid and operations, good social benefits around the project and lastly wide
consequent price of electricity very prohibitive. Off grid solutions range in terms of capacity, makes small hydro a distributed
like wind, solar, tidal and hydro-power etc can provide electricity generation source of choice.
to such areas where the grid cannot reach. Peter et al. [57] focused on low-head run-of-river type gen-
erators generally known as “small hydro” or “distributed genera-
2.2. Distributed generation in small hydro-power plants tion”. He has discussed updates on turbine–generator options
applied to small hydro sites in the context of distributed genera-
Distributed generation (DG) is the integrated or stand alone use tion and run of river hydro generating plants.
of small, modular power generation units close to the point of Kongtripop et al. [40] discussed the effect of voltage variation
consumption. DG is emerging as a result of three independent from distributed generator on long distribution line with multiple
trends the utilities restructuring, the increasing system capacity voltage regulator. The mini-hydro-power-plant has been used as
needs and the technology advancements all of which concurrently distributed generator. This article considers the operation of DG
form the basis for its achievable wide spreading. and automatic voltage regulator (AVR) affected voltage along
Lettas et al. [43] discussed the role of distributed generation in distribution on varying load. From this study, the operation of
power system. The deregulation of the electricity markets and the DG and AVR has effected to voltage along the long distribution line
advances in the power generation technologies together with depended on load varying and location. It is therefore concluded
financial and environmental concerns have positioned distributed that, the size of the distributed generation has to be considered
generation as a very promising power generation alternative. In when it dispatches to the very long distribution system.
this paper some problems have been studied that are related to Londero et al. [44] focused on impact of distributed generation
voltage quality when distributed generation is implemented in a (DG) with different penetration levels on steady-state voltage
weak distribution network. The case under study is a 20 kV profile, losses, voltage and transient stability of power systems. A
distribution network containing 17 small synchronous and asyn- real network is simulated with two hydro-power plants: one
chronous hydro generators. The voltage variation along the dis- representing the main generation and the other the DG. The
tribution network is examined under variable loading conditions analyses are conducted using load flow program, continuation
and variable generation modes and by implementing voltage method and non-linear time-domain dynamic simulations. For
regulator, on load tap changer and compensation capacitors. voltage stability analysis, the demand is considered as constant
Results show that the distributed generation can act as a voltage power loads. However, for transient analysis, voltage dependency
supporting mechanism, together with the other regulating of static loads has been considered. Regarding the steady-state
devices, while it is essential to investigate the reactive power flow analysis, the utilization of DG improves the voltage profile and
in the network. decreases the active power losses. With more power from the DG
Goyal et al. [28] proposed a novel technique for automatic units, the voltage stability margin has also shown improvement,
control of small hydro-power plants. In this paper, necessity for giving the system more active power transfer capacity. Since the
speed control, various functions of governors, types, speed regula- DG plants do not participate in system frequency regulation,
tion of micro-hydroelectric power plants, functional block dia- frequency excursions are larger when DG penetration level is
grams of power generation and control systems, general models bigger. However, the DG penetration levels do not impact voltage
for speed-governing systems for hydro systems, conventional at DG terminals.
governors used, various block diagrams of a hydro turbine speed Molina et al. [48] presented a novel power conditioning system
control system are discussed along with derivation of hydraulic and control strategy of a three-phase grid-connected micro-hydro-
turbine transfer function. A new model is proposed for controlling power plant (MHPP), incorporating a MPPT for dynamic active
the flow by controlling the rotary motion of the spear valve or power generation jointly with reactive power compensation of
linear motion of the sluice gate by using servomotor and using the distribution systems. This paper proposes an advanced structure of
principle of servomechanisms. Then, general function of the a micro-hydro-power plant (MHPP) based on a smaller, lighter,
servomotor and different types of feedback control systems are more robust and more efficient higher-speed turbine.
also discussed. An analogy of the conventional system is given
with the proposed system using the principle of Type 0 servome-
chanism. This scheme will provide complete control of the gen- 2.3. Mathematical modeling of small hydro-power plants
eration and thereby maintain the frequency of the system at the
desired level. The most efficient approach to optimize the system perfor-
Chandrasekhar [15] referred to the distributed energy res- mance is through mathematical modeling. The mathematical
ources (Distributed Power) as a variety of small, modular power- models map the abstract real world into a world of comprehen-
generating technologies that can be combined with energy man- sible and interpretable numbers. In doing so, if only those para-
agement and storage systems and used to improve the operation meters which have a negligible effect in the abstract real world are
of the electricity delivery system, whether or not those technol- ignored in the mathematical model, then the real world is fairly
ogies are connected to an electricity grid. Distributed Power captured by the model. These decision support systems based on
systems range in size and capacity from a few kilowatts up to the models can be used not only to optimize the system operation
50 MW. They comprise a portfolio of technologies, both at the but also to design the favorable design and operational character-
supply-side and at the demand-side, that can be located at or near istics of the energy systems.
 H.S. Sachdev et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1013–1022 1017

Saleh et al. [62] presented an effective method used for Gao et al. [25] presented four models of hydro turbine, includ-
teaching power system dynamics and control. This method is ing the nonlinear analytical hydro turbine model, the linearized
based on utilizing SIMULINK in building system models and model based on the prototype characteristics, the linearized model
simulating their behavior. Rapid modeling of power system based on the internal characteristics, and the ideal model. The
models and subsequent simulation results in exploring the effect and the applicability of different detailed models of hydro
power system behavior under a variety of operating conditions, turbines on power system analysis are compared and analyzed on
thus, significantly broadening the knowledge of power system a test system. The simulation results show that For power system
dynamics and control. In the proposed work a small hydro-power transient stability analysis, the effect of different detailed hydro
plant model using dc servomotor as governor has been prepared turbine models is not evident, and the transient process of the
using MATLAB/SIMULINK tool. power system is not always a large disturbance to the hydraulic
Weber et al. [77] presented the most important steps for the system.
creation of a mathematical model of the hydro-power plant Diniz et al. [17] presented studies on two mathematical models
“Vrutok” that can be used for the static and dynamic behavior of for the turbine–generator efficiency. Model coefficients are com-
the units. Measurements were performed to obtain step response puted by a linear regression technique using points taken from the
time signals of all important functional parts of the plant to be able level sets of a typical hill curve. For each model, different variants
to identify the most important parameters of the mathematical are considered in order to satisfy some specific conditions. By
model needed for such investigations. analyzing each model's results, the variants that are most suitable
Jadid et al. [34] proposed a model of hydro-power-plant to for the dispatch problem of a hydro utility are chosen. For two
determine the amount of load pickup during power system important hydro plants in the Brazilian system, we give a com-
restoration. Restoration objectives are to restore the system to parative assessment between the generation obtained when con-
normal operation as quickly as may be consistent with system sidering an average unit efficiency factor and the generation
security, minimizing the amount of disconnected loads. In the resulting from considering the variation of efficiency with respect
initial phase of restoration, operators are often concerned with to the operating conditions of the unit.
load pickup problem. One of the important problems during load Cui et al. [78] presented the straight flow permanent magnet
pickup is keeping the frequency response in allowable range. synchronous generator design for small hydro-power plants.
Hydro-power-plants are considered for evaluating the stability Straflo Matrix system is considered as an innovative application
and frequency response during load pickup in the early stages of form in the area of Small Hydro-power, which operates with
power system restoration. Hydro-power-plants have the capability permanent magnet synchronous generators directly coupled to
of black start operation and can be used for early stages of power the grid. Two Straflo Matrix generator prototypes are presented
system restoration. Simulation results have been highlighted with their design featuring high voltage windings with open stator
based on an accurately proposed model of a hydro-power-plant. slots and the damper cylinder on the rotor. The no-load additional
The main characteristic of the developed model is to consider losses due to stator slot harmonics are calculated using a numer-
different parts of a hydro-power-plant. A linearized model pro- ical model with equivalent current layer. The Telephone Harmonic
posed in this literature shows a more detailed and precise Factors for both prototypes are calculated based on the FE analysis
calculation of the frequency response in the power system. This to be compared with the measurement results. The loss calculation
model is more appropriate for controller analysis using linear of two prototypes of the innovative Straflo Matrix turbine gen-
methods. Simulation results show that the proposed method helps erators, Agonitz1 (300 kVA) and Agonitz3 (700 kVA), with the PM
determine the amount of load pickup during power system generator rotor directly mounted on the propeller turbine rotor,
restoration. are presented. This integrated design of turbine and generator
Funabashi et al. [24] presented a generalization of the method allows axially very short turbine units, which may be installed
aimed at deriving some generator parameters. Surge tests were more easily into river dams to utilize excess water for electrical
performed to derive a generator model considering its frequency power production. The damper cylinders for damping the tor-
characteristics. Impulse voltages were applied to one terminal of sional oscillations due to direct grid operation are sensitive to slot
the generators after placing a variable capacitor at the same harmonics, caused by the open slots due to the high-voltage stator
terminal. The inductances and the core-loss resistances of a windings. The calculated rotor losses from two different machine
generator model can be determined from the measured oscillating designs are discussed, showing the advantage of the second design
voltages. The accuracy of the proposed method is confirmed to be with increased slot number, smaller slot opening and a lower
satisfactory after comparing measured and simulated transfer conductivity of the damper cylinder. The calculated and measured
voltages. THF are well within the demanded limits.
Khodabakhshian et al. [39] presented a new approach for Carmen et al. [14] presented a model for evaluating small
power system load frequency control of a hydro turbine hydro-power-plants generation availability that can be applied to
power system by means of a PID controller. Using a maximum generation systems reliability by considering the uncertainties of
peak resonance specification, the PID controller parameters are rivers inflows and generation units operation. It is usual to
adjusted such that the open-loop frequency response curve consider the energy source for generation as always available in
follows the corresponding contour. Comparative results of this generation systems reliability studies. This implies that the only
new load frequency controller and a conventional PI show the cause of generation unavailability is the failure of a generation unit
improvement in system damping considerably. of the power plant. In case of hydro-electric generation, if the
Hong-qing et al. [21] discussed how the simulation models of reservoir is large enough to guarantee the availability of energy,
hydraulic turbine regulating system were developed in a MATLAB/ through a constant regime of inflows, that modeling is correct.
Simulink-based software environment. These nonlinear character- However, in most of the small hydro-power-plants (SHPP), where
istics of hydraulic turbine and the no-elastic water hammer effect a reservoir does not exist or is very small in size to guarantee a full
of pressure water supply conduit were considered in the modeling. regularization, the energy availability cannot be considered 100%
Some simulation tests have been performed, such as step speed reliable.
disturbance test on no-load operation and step load disturbance Salhi et al. [63] developed a mathematical model for a micro-
test on isolated operation, which will cause small hydraulic hydroelectric power plant (MHPP). This model has been validated
transients in turbine hydraulic system. by analyzing a MHPP prototype's performances. The Prototype is
1018 H.S. Sachdev et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1013–1022

installed in the laboratory and downstream regulation is used simulation of power system, The results obtained by this method
which ensures good frequency regulation results. The used con- show good agreements with those by rigorous method and PSASP.
troller is the ‘PI’ one. The practical results obtained are similar for The module base can be conveniently used for the development of
those in simulation. the simulation model of power system.
Mon et al. [50] presented a linear mathematical model of the Zeng et al. [79] presented dynamic models of nonlinear hydro
synchronous generator with excitation system for power system turbine with elastic water column. The nonlinear differential
stability. For large systems the state space model has been used equations for hydraulic system (NDE-HS) are derived based on
more frequently in connection with a system described by linear transfer function model of it. The dynamic model I of hydro
differential equations. The flux linkage of each circuit in the turbine is built by combining NDE-HS with the algebraic equation
machine depends upon the exciter output voltage. The excitation of hydro turbine torque. By means of transfer coefficient, the
system models described use a pu system. The conversion of state differential equation of hydro turbine torque is derived and
space equation to transfer function is applied in the MATLAB/ combining with NDE-HS, the dynamic model II is built. Simulation
SIMULINK program. is done with actual hydroelectric plant. Simulation results show
Haque [32] proposed a simple method of evaluating the steady that dynamic responses of two type models are almost same, and
state characteristics of a stand-alone induction generator driven by the dynamic of hydro turbine is determined by hydraulic system.
a small hydro-turbine. The steady state operation of the generator
is first described by a set of nonlinear equations using the
conventional loop impedance approach. Simulation results
obtained in MATLAB by the proposed method are compared with 3. Technical analysis and economics of small hydro-power
the corresponding actual values found through an experimental plants
setup. The steady state characteristics of the generator for regu-
lated (constant speed) and unregulated (variable speed) opera- For any system either operating in grid connected or stand-
tions are also compared. alone mode, the assessment of the energy system for its techno
Ebru [20] further discussed the role of small hydroelectric economic feasibility is imperative if the system has to function
power plants. In order to carry out load-frequency control of small satisfactorily. The assessment begins with evaluating the techno-
hydroelectric power plants in computer, the models of turbine, logical appropriateness, economic viability and other financial
generator, and governor have been generated. A small hydro- incentives of a technology for it to get successfully disseminated
electric power plant model has been obtained by combining these at a given location.
models. Hydroelectric power plant models having linear turbine Birger et al. [10] described the structure and identification of a
have been acquired to test the variations of power and frequency price model that is used in stochastic optimization of hydro
with respect to time by being operated for different load values. operation and flexible contracts. Modeling of extremes is an
Adhau [2] discussed the present power crisis and suggested important factor for the simulation capabilities of the optimization
that small micro-hydro, non-conventional plants may be planned models. The paper shows examples of simulated optimal opera-
to work during the peak demand. This paper presents eight case tion of hydropower plants with the new price model. The paper
studies of micro-hydro plants in rural area of India, Madhya also shows how the price model is used in a model that integrates
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh having different site conditions as on hydro operation and financial hedging.
Irrigation canals, Dam toe and return canals of Thermal Power Bastos et al. [9] described “Portfolio Theory” in the Brazilian
Stations. Calculation of net head and discharge is given. Various electrical system, allowing more chances to entrepreneurs through
types of Turbines and Generators are discussed with their suit- the participation as agents on power generation. The construction
ability under different head and discharge conditions. of small hydro-electric power plants (SHP) has been incentive. The
Li et al. [45] demonstrated chaotic behavior on the IEEE 14-bus decision concerning investment options has been based on stan-
benchmark system, using a transient stability model and its dard economic analysis, e.g., “Net Present Value” – NPV.
associated differential-algebraic equations (DAE), and studied Kaldellis et al. [35] concluded by a sensitivity analysis properly
classical time-domain simulations, without the use of specialized adapted for the local market financial situation, in order to
software or simplifying assumptions. The dynamic behavior of the enlighten the decision makers on the expected profitability of
test system is studied for normal operating conditions and for a the capital to be invested. According to the results obtained, the
single contingency case, and the onset of chaos is verified through predicted internal rate of return (IRR) values are greater than 18%
a Fourier analysis and Lyapunov exponents. The addition of a for most SHP cases analyzed. Finally, as per the sensitivity analysis
power system stabilizer (PSS) to the system is shown to remove carried out, the installation capacity factor, the local market
the observed chaotic behavior. electricity price annual escalation rate and the reduced first
Bao et al. [8] developed a whole nonlinear dynamical model of installation cost are found to be the parameters that mostly affect
transient process in hydropower station with Francis turbine and the viability of similar ventures.
the control strategies of each transient process are studied. The Rajakaruna et al. [59] discussed cost savings in micro-hydro-
nonlinear characteristics of hydraulic turbine and the elastic water stations by operating the turbine without a speed governor.
hammer effect of pressure water supply conduit are considered in However, an electronic load controller is needed at the generator
the model. The developed model is accurate enough to represent terminals to regulate the load presented to the generator so that
and simulate each transient process of the plant and may enable a the load voltage and the frequency remain constant under varying
plant operator to carry out economical, convenient study for the consumer demands. Bulk of the cost savings of such micro-hydro-
static stability and transient stability of the hydropower station stations has stemmed from the operation of the turbine without a
under a wide range of transient processes. speed governor.
Zhu et al. [80] presented a modularization method for the Kesharwani [37] discussed the advantages of small hydro-
whole dynamic process simulation of power system. The module power-plants and the efforts of Government of India to encourage
base is developed to be composed of the electric network modules, development of small and mini-hydro-power projects in the
synchronous machine modules, excitation system modules, hydro- country. Hydro-power is recognized as a renewable source of
turbine and its speed governor modules, which can be used for energy, which is economical, non-polluting and environmentally
the electromagnetic transients and electromechanical process benign. Small and mini-hydel-projects have the potential to
 H.S. Sachdev et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1013–1022 1019

provide energy in remote and hilly areas where extension of grid generator and frequency is maintained by eliminating the mis-
system is un-economical. match between generation and load demand.
Nair [53] discussed the difficulty in electrifying the tribal Murty et al. [52] investigated the influence of water column
villages especially in Himalayan region. Himalayan region is elasticity on the stability limits of a hydro turbine generating
endowed with one of the world's largest water resources mostly unit with long pen-stock operating on an isolated load. D-
rain and snow fed rivers, rivulets and streams with perennial decomposition method is used for deriving the stability regions
flows. The mountainous hilly regions in the Himalayan belt suffer including the elastic water column. It has been shown that a
from the general impediments of difficult terrain, poor accessi- modified water column compensator enhances the stability
bility, poor transportation and poor communication facilities. Thus regions and dynamic performance considerably.
for such mountainous areas there is no other choice than to Tripathy et al. [71] presented the dynamics and control of a
depend on Decentralized Renewable Sources of energy of which small hydro-turbine driven generator, which commonly operates
SHP is the first option because of its higher energy intensity and in remote hilly areas. The simulation studies of the dynamics and
availability in the region. control were conducted in two different configurations of the
Kumar [41] presented a paper on Indian Initiative to Develop generator, firstly in the isolated mode and secondly in the grid
Standards, Guidelines and Manuals for Small Hydropower Global connected mode. Frequency and load of the generator were
increase in electricity requirement and renewed interest in renew- controlled entirely by the mechanical speed governor, in the
able energy sources make the small hydropower (SHP) develop- isolated mode, while in the grid connected mode, the frequency
ment a subject of interest worldwide. SHP needs to be made and the load were controlled by the combined effects of the speed
profitable and a long-term investment opportunity, while ensur- governor and the integral tie-line bias control.
ing quality and reliability of the power. Schleif et al. [65] described the methods of adjustment and
Kusakana et al. [42] discussed the advantages of using renew- operation of the governors of hydraulic turbine generating units,
able energy sources in the architecture of an off-grid hybrid power in attempting to meet conflicting requirements. The most promi-
system in rural areas. The studied system is composed of a diesel nent factors contributing to the divergence have been the obscur-
generator to which a micro-hydropower plant is added. Simula- ing of proper speed control for individual units by interconnection
tions using the Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewable into large systems, and the compromise of speed control char-
(HOMER) are performed for given annual values of hydro acteristics for the superposition of tie-line controls.
resources, power demands and hybrid system component costs. Bryce et al. [13] described the electro hydraulic governor
The highlight is the cost-effectiveness character and the reduction system which was developed for on-site evaluation of control
of gas pollutant emissions achieved by using such a system rather strategies on a 32–5 MW set at Sloy power station, and to
than a diesel generator to supply the same load. complement earlier work on a hybrid simulation of the plant. An
Tuomo et al. [72] presented the performance of a rotational electronic double-derivative governor is shown to improve greatly
speed controlled small-scale head dependent hydro-electric the response of the generator to frequency changes while at the
power plant. This new method of controlling the water level same time preserving operational stability.
(head) is by the use of rotational speed control of turbine, which Henderson [33] described the original research and develop-
reduces 97% of the income. ment of an Electronic Load Governor which is microprocessor
Wang Li et al. [74] presented economic-analysis results and based and incorporates three-phase balancing. The combined
calculated potentials to study future installation of micro-hydro- study and testing of the transient behavior of the governor
power (MHP) plants in some selected canals of Chia-Nan Irrigation indicated the need for an improved control algorithm. The result
Association in Taiwan. The potential and economics of seven of the implementation of the advanced algorithm are presented
irrigation canals with water heads higher than 2 m have been and compared with the original algorithm.
studied. Direct cost, indirect cost, standby budget, and mainte- Kato et al. [36] proposed a novel adjustable-speed cascaded
nance cost, etc. are employed to compare with the average annual induction generator system in which the second induction gen-
return that the generated electric energy delivers to the utility grid erator has double three-phase stator windings (or six-phase stator
using a simple payback-period method. windings). The proposed low-cost system provides a brushless,
Akella et al. [6] suggested Sizing and Cost Analysis for Inte- robust structure and less distorted currents without using an
grated Renewable Energy System. The total capacity based on expensive PWM rectifier on the machine side and an expensive
resources of MHP is 59 kW and its energy is 39,3341 kW h/y. The adjustable-blade water turbine.
capital cost of micro-hydropower system is Rs. 75,000/kW and Okafo et al. [22] suggested use of Doubly Fed Induction
operation and maintenance cost is 2% of its capital cost. Thus, the Generators (DFIG) for the energy conversion process in SHS in
total cost of MHP is Rs.75,000 plus Rs. 1500, i.e., Rs. 76,500/kW. place of conventional synchronous generators. This paper investi-
Li et al. [75] explained the functioning of a small hydro-power gates the use of a class of Doubly Fed Induction Generators (DFIG)
(SHP) system using outlet-water energy of a reservoir in southern for the energy conversion process in SHS. In contrast to the
Taiwan. The rated capacity of this SHP system is 8.75 MW and the conventional DFIG employing the so-called back-to-back config-
generated power is delivered to the 69-kV system of Taiwan Power uration, the proposed scheme utilizes two voltage source inverters
Company. This paper presents some details of the finished SHP (VSIs), each connected to the stator and rotor respectively. Simula-
system including engineering, electricity prices, capital cost, rev- tion studies of a 600 kW machine were carried out to show the
enue of power generation, etc. Some measured results of the SHP efficacy of the proposed scheme.
system including harmonics and flickers are also demonstrated. Foss et al. [23] described significant advances in low-cost
micro-controllers, data communications and personal computing.
Applying these technologies to small hydro automation as an
4. Control of small hydro-power plants
affordable multifunctional distributed processing solution is now a
commercial reality. The ability to reduce costs is facilitated by
In an electric power system, consumers require uninterupted
power at rated frequency and voltage. To maintain these para- innovative low-cost simulation tools. The successful application of
meters within the prescribed limits, controls are required on the these technologies to the control and protection of a 2 MVA hydro
system. Voltage is maintained by the control of excitation of the generating unit is discussed.
1020 H.S. Sachdev et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1013–1022

Doolla et al. [18] suggested a novel technique for load fre- small hydro-power-plant emulator associated with a fixed-speed
quency control of an isolated small-hydro plant. In general, the wind generator emulator. This kind of wind generator is often
frequency is controlled by using a dump load, whose rating is used in small or medium power isolated networks. Tests show that
equal to the rated power output of the plant. The new scheme the frequency and the voltage are well controlled in spite of load
proposed reduces the size of the dump load by controlling input variations.
power of the hydro-power plant using on/off controls. The water Marinescu et al. [49] presented two solutions for voltage and
flowing through the penstock is rerouted in smaller pipes, two or frequency control of an autonomous induction generator (IG). In
three fitted with motor operated valves. The opening or closing of order to control voltage and frequency of an autonomous induc-
the valves is achieved by on/off controls. The on/off control linearly tion generator (IG) voltage source inverter (VSI) with a dump load
raises or lowers the generation. A generalized transfer function (DL) circuit on its dc side has been employed. The IG frequency is
model for the system is developed with an on/off control logic. controlled by keeping constant the VSI synchronous frequency. For
Finally, the transient performance of the system is compared for the IG voltage regulation two cascaded regulators have been used,
the two-pipe case (50% dump load) and the three-pipe case (30% which have as reference the line voltage and the VSI dc voltage.
dump load). Emhemed et al. [19] devised an analytical method by which the
Goyal [26] presented a flow control approach for the speed transient stability of an induction machine is maintained regard-
control of hydro turbines. Power can be controlled by controlling less of the fault clearance times is introduced. The method can be
the rotary motion of the spear valve. In this paper, a flow control applied in order to improve the transient stability of a large
based model is proposed for the automatic control of small hydro- penetration of low-voltage (LV) connected micro generation that
power plants. In the proposed model, a servomotor is used to can be directly interfaced by single-phase induction generators
control the flow of water by controlling the rotational motion of within domestic premises.
the spear valve. The spear valve causes a ‘continuous’ control of
the flow of water. ‘Discrete’ flow control is achieved by the use of a
butterfly gate which is activated by a dc motor. The suitability of 5. Discussion
servomotors for the control of small hydro-power plants is
discussed and PI controllers are used to further enhance their It is recognized that renewable energy could assist in diversify-
governing capability ing energy systems, providing reliable power to the required
Hanmandlu et al. [31] proposed an electric servomotor as a quality standards, contributing to the struggle against global
governor for a micro-hydro-power plant especially those plants warming and creating employment in rural-remote areas. It is
that are operated in isolated mode. An advanced controller is mainly the integration of energy networks and the deregulation of
developed combining four control schemes for the control of the the energy electricity market that form a new base on which the
governor following the concept that the control action can be split development of renewable energy should be addressed. Small
up into linear and non-linear parts. The new controller has a hydro resources have more consistency as compared to other
superior performance over other control schemes. renewable sources and relatively better capacity factor. Small
Breban et al. [12] validated on the test bench the solutions hydro-power is attracting great deal of attention as an eco-
proposed in earlier studies. The studied system is composed of a friendly renewable energy source and offers many advantages
doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) linked mechanically and including major social ones. It is available in remote areas away
electrically (through back-to-back power electronic converters in from the main center of population and so it is a convenient source
the rotor circuit) to a permanent-magnet synchronous machine for giving electricity benefits to the isolated small communities. In
(PMSM) which may recover or supply the slip power. One of the today's scenario the share of small hydro-power plants in total
advantages related to this system is that the PMSM and the power hydro potential across the world is increasing and the electrical
converters are designed for only about 25% of the plant network grids are nowadays being fed also by these small hydro-
nominal power. power plants. Some of these power plants of very low capacity are
Goyal et al. [27] concluded that hydropower is emerging as a of decentralized type, and are not connected to the grid and feed
major contributor to world energy requirement. It is inexhaustible, only the local hamlets according to the requirement. Small hydro-
clean and has many other benefits like flood mitigation, water power plants thus are now a reality and one of the most
supply, irrigation, etc. However, large-scale hydropower genera- appropriate options to meet increasing energy demands especially
tion suffers from inherent disadvantages, such as massive financial in remote areas. Various designs to connect different components
outlays, long gestation periods, geological surprises, environmen- have been developed and are being installed. Further study is
tal factors and rehabilitation of the displaced population. Small needed to be conducted to optimize the units. Lowering the high
power hydro stations, being devoid of these problems have initial cost of the small hydro-power plants and its popularization
become a viable alternative. Control systems and governors are is today's challenge. This paper describes the impact of small
key components of small hydropower stations as they have to hydro-power on economy, investment and innovation in small
supply stable power while accommodating varying load condi- hydro-power system, modern control techniques, importance of
tions and erratic water flows. They may also be required to operate modeling and simulation and role of the small hydro energy in
in a ‘stand-alone’ mode i.e., not connected to any grid. This paper sustainable development.
examines the role, functioning and design of control systems for
small hydropower stations. The characteristics of control systems
and traditional and modern designs of governors are discussed. 6. Conclusion
Recent technological advances in the field of governors and control
systems are discussed subsequently. Utilization of renewable energy sources like solar and wind
Nasser et al. [54] shown experimentally that the variable speed energy by human beings is in practice since early days of civiliza-
hydro-power-plants compensate and smoothen the fluctuating tion for different purposes. With advancement in technologies and
wind power when feeding isolated loads. This has been shown social setup, the need of processing these renewable energies and
in this paper with the help of a 3 kW laboratory test bench which converting them to electrical energy was realized. The importance
is able to emulate a hybrid wind/hydro-power-system. The test of these energies to the economy of the nation has been under-
bench is equipped with a doubly fed induction generator based stood in recent years. Adequate amount of energy generation in a
 H.S. Sachdev et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1013–1022 1021

sustainable manner is a major challenge in the present energy Proceedings of IEEE Porto power tech conference. Porto, Portugal; 10–13
scenario. September 2001.
[11] Boyle, G. Renewable energy: power for sustainable future. 2004. p. 66–104.
Conventional sources of energy are probably no answer for the ISBN: 0-19-856451.
energy requirement of developing and poor countries. Though [12] Breban, S, Ansel, A, Nasser, M, Robyns, B, Radulescu, MM. Experimental results
renewable energy resources are not evenly distributed throughout on a variable-speed small hydro-power station feeding isolated loads or
connected to power grid. In: Proceedings of IEEE international aegean
the world, every region has some kinds of renewable energy
conference on electrical machines and power electronics. 2007. p. 760–65.
resources. This paper focuses on the impact of small hydro energy [13] Bryce GW, Agnew PW, Foord TR, Winning DJ, Marshal AG. On-site investiga-
on socio-economic development. tion of electro hydraulic governors for water turbines. Proc Inst Electr Eng
Where a small hydropower resource exists, experience has 1997;124(2):147–53.
[14] Borges Carmen LT, Pinto Roberto J. Small hydro-power plants energy avail-
shown that there is no more cost-effective, reliable and ability modeling for generation reliability evaluation. IEEE Trans Power Syst
environmentally-sound means of providing power than a small 2008;23(3):1125–35.
hydropower system. There are many hilly or mountainous regions [15] Chandrasekhar, S. Distributed power generation – the small hydro option. In:
Proceedings of international conference on small hydropower – hydro Sri
of the world where the grid will probably never reach, but which Lanka. 22–24 October 2007.
have sufficient hydro resources to meet basic domestic needs of [16] Chandrasekharam, D. Geothermal energy resources of India: country update.
the local populations. The data pertaining to system costs, opera- In: Proceeding of world geothermal congress. Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan; 28 May–
10 June 2000.
tion, maintenance and other relevant cost details are readily
[17] Diniz, AL, Esteves, PPI, Sagastizábal, CA. A mathematical model for the
available along with the informative case studies. The economic- efficiency curves of hydroelectric units,. In: Proceedings of IEEE power
financial assessment objective could be thus easily accomplished. engineering society general meeting. 2007. 1–7.
For a realistic estimate it is important to capture uncertainty in [18] Doolla S, Bhatti TS. Load frequency control of an isolated small-hydro-power
plant with reduced dump load. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2006;21(4):1912–9.
systems and hence mathematical modeling and simulation studies [19] Swissi Emhemed Abdullah, Tumilty Ryan M, Singh Nand K, Burt Graeme M,
have to be encouraged in the field of energy studies. It is important McDonald James R. Analysis of transient stability enhancement of LV-
for policy makers and modeling experts to study the systems connected induction microgenerators by using resistive-type fault current
limiters. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2010;25(2):885–93.
collectively with other allied interdisciplinary sciences for a clear
[20] Ebru O. Modeling of small-hydro-power plants. IEEE Trans Power Syst
representation of the energy problem and effective implementa- 2008;21(4):272–82.
tion of the solutions. Researchers all over the world are working [21] Hong-qing, Fang, Zu-yi, Shen. Modeling and Simulation of hydraulic transients
overtime to devise simple and efficient methods of utilization of for hydropower plants. In: Proceedings of IEEE/PES transmission and distribu-
tion conference and exhibition: Asia and Pacific. 2005. 1–4.
renewable/small hydro-power resources more and more. [22] Okafo, Frank N., Hofmann, W. Modelling and control of slip power recovery
In future, the other benefits of many renewable energy sources schemes for small hydro-power stations. In: Proceedings of IEEE AFRICON. 15–
will become increasingly recognized. The need to specifically focus 17 September 2004. 1053–58.
[23] Aidan Foss, Grandmaitre Yves, Kemp William. Enhancing small hydro auto-
on greater supply diversity, energy security, rural development,
mation using distributed micro-controllers and simulation. Int J Global Energy
employment generation and suitability for increasingly decentra- Issues 2005;24(Nos. 1–2):19–28.
lized energy markets. [24] Funabashi T, Ito T, Sugimoto T, Miyagi K, Sano T, Ueda T, et al. Generalized
generator model for transformer transfer voltage studies. IEEE Trans Energy
Convers 2004;19(3):526–5319.
[25] Huimin, Gao, Wang, Chao. Effect of detailed hydro turbine models on power
Acknowledgment system analysis. In: Proceedings of IEEE power systems conference and
exposition. 2006. 1577–81.
[26] Goyal Himani. A three gate neural network based approach for automatic
The authors are thankful to All India Council of Technical control of small hydro-power plants. Int J Emerg Electr Power Syst 2006;7
Education (AICTE), Ministry of Human Resources Development (2):91–102 Article 3.
(MHRD) and Govt. of India for providing financial assistants to [27] Goyal H, Bhatti TS, Kothari DP. Control systems for small hydro-power plants:
a review. Int J Energy Technol Policy 2007;5(1):97–105.
do the research work under Quality Improvement Programme
[28] Goyal H, Bhatti TS, Kothari DP. A novel technique proposed for automatic
(TEQIP). control of small hydro-power plants. Int J Global Energy Issues 2005;24(No. 1–
2):29–46.
[29] Gupta, Raju, Singh, SN, Singal, SK. Automation of small hydropower station. In:
References Proceedings of international conference on small hydropower – hydro Sri
Lanka. 22–24 October 2007.
[30] Gutierrez, Jorge-Vera. Renewables for sustainable village power supply. In:
[1] Adhau, MSP, Moharil, RM, Adhau, PG. Estimation of micro hydro-power plant
Proceedings of IEEE winter power meeting. Singapore; 2000.
capacity from potential sites. In: Proceedings of IEEE power electronics, drives
and energy systems conference, (PEDES). Nagpur, India; 2012. 1–5. [31] Hanmandlu, M, Goyal, H, Kothari, DP. An advanced control scheme for micro
[2] Adhau, SP. A comparative study of micro hydro-power schemes promoting self hydro-power plants. In: Proceedings of IEEE international conference on
sustained rural areas. In: Proceedings of international conference on sustain- power electronics, drives and energy systems. 2006. p. 1–7.
able power generation and supply, SUPERGEN '09. 2009. 1–6. [32] Haque, MH.Characteristics of a stand-alone induction generator in small
[3] Adhau Sarala, P. Economic analysis and application of small micro/hydro- hydroelectric plants. In: Proceedings of Australasian universities power
power plants. In: Proceedings of international conference on renewable engineering conference, (AUPEC'08). 2008.
energies and power quality. Valencia, Spain; 2009. [33] Douglas, Henderson. An advanced electronic load governor for control of
[4] Akella A. Social, economical and environmental impacts of renewable energy micro hydroelectric generation. In: Proceedings of IEEE transactions on energy
systems. Int J Renew Energy 2009;34:390–6. conversion. September 1998; Vol. 13, No. 3: 300–4.
[5] Ardizzon G, Cavazzini G, Pavesi G. A new generation of small hydro and [34] Jadid, S, Salami, A. Accurate model of hydroelectric power plant for load
pumped-hydro-power plants: advances and future challenges. Renew Sustain pickup during power system restoration. In: Proceedings of IEEE Region 10
Energy Rev 2014;31(Issue C):746–61. conference, 21–24 Nov. 2004. 307–10.
[6] Akella A, Saini RP, Sharma MP. Sizing and cost analysis for integrated [35] Kaldellis JK, Vlachou DS, Korbakis G. Techno-economic evaluation of small
renewable energy system in a study area. Int J Eng Technol 2007;2(1):1–5. hydro-power plants in Greece: a complete sensitivity analysis. Energy Policy
[7] Baidya, G. Development of small hydro. In: Proceedings of Himalayan small 2005;33:1969–85.
hydropower summit. Dehradun; 12–13 October 2006. [36] Kato Shinji, Hoshi Nobukazu, Oguchi Kuniomi. Small scale hydropower:
[8] Haiyan, Bao, Yang, Jiandong, Fu, Liang. Study on nonlinear dynamical model adjustable-speed cascaded induction generators. IEEE Ind Appl Mag 2003;9
and control strategy of transient process in hydropower station with Francis (4):32–8.
turbine. In: Proceedings of IEEE power and energy engineering conference. [37] Kumar, Kesharwani Manoj. Overview of Small Hydro-power Development in
2009. 1–6. Himalayan Region. In: Proceedings of Himalayan small hydro-power summit.
[9] Bastos, PRM, Bortoni, EC Portfolio analysis applied to small hydroelectric plant Dehradun; 12–13 October 2006.
investment. In: Proceedings of IEEE International conference on probabilistic [38] Khan BH. Non-conventional energy resources. New Delhi: TMH Publishing
methods applied to power systems. Iowa State University: Ames, Iowa; 12–16 Company Limited; 2006.
September 2004. [39] Khodabakhshian, A, Golbon, N. Robust load frequency controller design for
[10] Birger, MO, Gjelsvik, A, Grundt, A, Kiresen, K. Optimisation of hydropower hydro-power systems. In: Proceedings of IEEE conference on control applica-
operation in a liberalised market with focus on price modeling. In: tions; August 2005. 1510–15.
1022 H.S. Sachdev et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 51 (2015) 1013–1022

[40] Kongtripop, S, Kasirawat, T, Premrudeepreechacharn, S, Pongsriwat, C. Effect [67] Ezio Sesto. Wind energy in the world reality and prospects. Renew Energy
of voltage variation from distributed generation on very long distribution line 1999;16:888–93.
with multiple voltage regulators. In: Proceedings of power and energy [68] Sharma MG, Das DD, Sharma JD. Selection of optimum discharge for run of
engineering conference (APPEEC). Asia–Pacific; 27–31 March 2009. 1–4. river power plant. Indian J Power River Val Dev 2001;19:149–53.
[41] Kumar, Arun. Indian initiative to develop standards, guidelines and manuals [69] Stepanescu, S, Rehtanz, C, Arad, S, Fotau, I, Marcu, M, Popescu, F. Implementa-
for small hydropower. In: Proceedings of International conference on small tion of small water power plants regarding future virtual power plants. In:
hydropower – hydro Sri Lanka. 22–24 October 2007. Proceedings of IEEE enviornment and electrical energy conference (EEEIC).
[42] Kusakana, K, Munda, JL, Jimoh, AA. Economic and environmental analysis of Rome; 2011. p. 1–4.
micro hydropower system for rural power supply. In: Proceedings of the 2nd [70] Taneja, V. Community participation in SHP development. In: Proceedings of
IEEE international conference on power and energy (PECon 08). Johor Baharu, Himalayan small hydro-power summit. Dehradun; 12–13 October 2006.
Malaysia; 1–3 December 2008. [71] Tripathy SC, Bhardwaj V. Automatic generation control of a small hydro-
[43] Lettas, N, Dagoumas, A, Papagiannis, G, Dokopoulos, P, Zafirakis, A, Fachour- turbine driven generator. IIT New Delhi: Centre of Energy Studies; 1995.
idis, S, et al. A case study of the impacts of small hydro-power plants on the [72] Lindh, Tuomo, Risto, Tiainen, Jero, Ahola, Markku, Niemela, Ville, Sarkimaki.
power distribution network with the combination of on load tap changers. In: Performance of rotational speed controlled small – scale head dependent.
Proceedings of IEEE Power Tech. Russia; 1–7 June 2005. 2008.Magdalena Royal Palace (Santander- Spain). p. 12-14.
[44] Londero, RR, Affonso, CM, Nunes, MVA.Impact of distributed generation in [73] Turner B, Simpson RJ, Gillaud Ch. Developing a mini-hydro plant in the remote
steady state, voltage and transient stability-real case. In: Proceedings of IEEE Canadian North. IEEE Trans. on Energy Convers 1988;3(1):18–25.
Bucharest, power tech conference. Bucharest, Romania; 28 June–2 July 2009. [74] Li, Wang, Lee, Dong-Jing, Liu, Jian-Hong, Chen, Zan-Zia, Kuo, Zone-Yuan, Hsu,
[45] Li, X, Caizares, CA. Chaotic behavior observations in a power system model. In: Jin-Shi, et al. Economic analysis of installing micro hydro-power plants in
Proceedings of IEEE Bucharest Power Tech. 2009. p. 1–5. Chia-Nan Irrigation Association of Taiwan using water of irrigation canals. In:
[46] Maduekwe AAL, Garba B. Characteristics of the monthly averaged hourly Proceedings of IEEE power and energy society general meeting on conversion
diffuse irradiance at Lagos and Zaria, Nigeria. Renew Energy 1999;17:213–25. and delivery of electrical energy in the 21st century. 2008. p. 1–5.
[47] Maher P. Pico hydro-power for rural electrification in developing countries. [75] Li, Wang, Lee, Dong-Jing, Liu, Jian-Hong, Chen, Zan-Zia, Kuo, Zone-Yuan, Lee,
Intern J Ambient Energy 1998;19(No. 3):143–8. Wei-Jen, et al. A Small Hydro-power (SHP) system in taiwan using outlet-
[48] Molina, Marcelo G., Pacas, Mario. Improved power conditioning system of water energy of a reservoir: system introduction and measured results. In:
micro-hydro-power plant for distributed generation applications. In: Proceed- Proceedings of IEEE power & energy society general meeting. 2009. p. 1–7.
ings of IEEE international conference on industrial technology (ICIT). 2010. p. [76] Wang P, Billinton R. Time-sequential Simulation Technique for Rural Distribu-
1733–38. tion Systems Reliability Cost/Worth Evaluation including Wind Generation as
[49] Marinescu, C, Ion, CP. Optimum control for an autonomous micro hydro- Alternative Supply. IEEE Proc Gener Transm Distrib 2001;148(4):355–60.
power plant with induction generator. In: Proceedings of IEEE Bucharest [77] Weber, H, Fustik, V, Prillwitz, F, Iliev, A. Practically oriented simulation model
Power Tech; 28 Jun–2 July 2009. p. 1–6. for the hydro-power plant “Vrutok” in Macedonia. In: Proceedings of Balkan
[50] Win Mon Tin, Aung Myo Myint. Simulation of synchronous machine in power conference. Belgrade; 2002.
stability study for power system. World Acad Sci Eng Technol [78] Cui, Xiaoli, Andreas, Binder, Erwin, Schlemmer. Straight-flow permanent
2008;39:128–33. magnet synchronous generator design for small hydro-power plants. In:
[51] Mukhopadhyay K. An assessment of a biomass gasification based power plant Proceedings of international conference on clean electrical power (ICCEP).
in Sundervans. Biomass Bioenergy 2004;22:167–80. Capri; 2007. p. 323–28.
[52] Murty MSR, Hariharan MV. Analysis and improvement of the stability of a [79] Yun, Zeng, Zhang, Lixiang, Xu, Tianmao, Dong, Hongkui. Building and analysis
hydro-turbine generating unit with long penstock. IEEE Trans Power Appar of hydro turbine dynamic model with elastic water column. In: Proceedings of
Syst 1984;103(2):360–7. IEEE power and energy engineering conference (APPEEC). Asia–Pacific; 2010.
[53] Nair, PD. Small Hydro-power (SHP) development in the Himalayan region. A p. 1–5.
brief history and a few case remembrances. In: Proceedings of Himalayan [80] Zhu, Jianguo, Li, Xianshan. Modularization modeling of the full-scope dynamic
small hydro-power summit. Dehradun; 12–13 October 2006. simulation for power system. In: Proceedings of power and energy engineer-
[54] Nasser, M, Breban, S, Courtecuisse, V, Vergnol, A, Robyns, B, Radulescu, MM. ing conference (APPEEC). Asia–Pacific; 2010. p. 1–4.
Experimental results of a hybrid wind/hydro-power system connected to [81] Website: 〈http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/technology/hydro.com〉.
isolated loads. In: Proceedings of power electronics and motion control
conference (EPE-PEMC). 1–3 September 2008. p. 1896–1903.
[55] Paish O. Small hydro-power: technology and current status. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2002;26:537–56.
[56] Paswan, MK, Sharma, SP. Energy for the year 2000s. In: Proceedings of
Hira Singh Sachdev, born in India, received the B. Tech. in Electrical Engineering
national seminar on energy technologies for sustainable development, BIT
from H.P. University, Shimla, India M.E in Instrumentation and Control from Panjab
Measure. Ranchi; 1998. p. 44–9.
University, Chandigarh, India in 2007 and 2011, respectively. Currently, he is
[57] Peter J, Donalek PE. Update on small hydro technologies, and distributed
pursuing his Ph.D. Degree in Electrical Engineering Department, NIT Jamshedpur,
generation including run-of-river plants. IEEE Spectr 2007;44(07).
India. His main research interests are Control System, Renewable Energy System
[58] Prabil Raj, CP, Mohapatra, NK. Micro hydro – a mega VISION (case study). In:
and Power Quality.
Proceedings of national seminar on energy technologies for sustainable
development. BIT Sindri, Ranchi; 1998. p. 205-221.
[59] Rajakaruna, S, Maw, Naing Naing. Unregulated performance of an induction
generator in an isolated micro hydro-power plant. In: Proceedings of the 7th
international power engineering conference. 29 November–2 December 2005.
[60] Reddy VR, Utto JI, Frans DR, Matin N. Achieving global environment benefits Ashok Kumar Akella, born in India, received the B.Sc. (Engineering) and M.Tech.
through local development of clean energy – the case of hilly hydel in India. (Control System) degree from MIT Muzaffarpur, India in 1987 and 1992, respec-
Energy Policy 2006;34:4069–80. tively and completed his Ph.D., (Renewable Energy System) from IIT Roorkee, India
[61] Roque, A, Sousa, DM, Casimiro, C, Margato, E. Technical and economic analysis in the year 2006. He is a life member of ISTE. Since 1996, he is serving as a faculty in
of a micro hydro plant – a case study. In: Proceedings of the 7th international Department of Electrical Engineering, NIT Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India. His main
conference on Energy Market (EEM). Madrid; 2010. p. 1–6. research interests are Control System, Renewable Energy System and Power
[62] Saleh Aboreshaid, Faried Sherif O. Teaching power system dynamics and Quality.
control using SIMULINK. J King Saud Univ Eng Sci 1998(1):139–52.
[63] Issam, Salhi, Chennani, Mohammed, Doubabi, Said, Ezziani, Nabil. Modeling
and regulation of a micro hydroelectric power plant. In: Proceedings of IEEE
international symposium on industrial electronics. 2008. p. 1639–44.
[64] Saxena, P. Overview of small hydro-power development in India. In: Proceed-
ings of Himalayan small hydropower summit. Dehradun; 2006. Niranjan Kumar, born in India, received the B.Sc. (Engineering) and M.Tech.
[65] Schleif FR, Wilbor AB. The coordination of hydraulic turbine governors for (Power System) degree from NIT Jamshedpur, India in 1988 and 1996, respectively
power system operation. IEEE Trans Power Appar Syst 1996;85(7):750–8. and completed his Ph.D., (Power Systems Engineering) from IIT Roorkee, India in
[66] Schwartz, F, Pegallapati, R, Shahidehpour, M. Small hydro as green power. In: the year 2009. He served in the industry also. Since 1998, he is serving as a faculty
Proceedings of IEEE power engineering society general meeting. 2005. Vol. 2, in Department of Electrical Engineering, NIT Jamshedpur, Jharkhand, India. His
p. 2050–57. main research interests are power system restructuring issues and Power Quality.