MILTON PUBLIC SCHOOL

BIOLOGY PROJECT
FILE
TOPIC- BIOTECHNOLOGY

SESSION – 2019-2020

SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-

Mrs. Ritu Jain Amit Kumar

CLASS-XII
 Certificate

This is to certify that AMIT KUMAR of Class XII has

satisfactorily completed the “BIOLOGY” project

under the guidance of Mrs. Ritu Jain during the

session 2019-2020.

……………………

Signature
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks

to Mrs. Ritu Jain for this encouragement and for all the

facilities that he provided for this project work.

I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of

gratitude for this invaluable guidance, constant

encouragement, constructive comments, sympathetic

attitude and immense motivation which has sustained

my effort at all stages of this project work.

AMIT KUMAR
CLASS-XII
 Biotechnology

Biotechnology is the use of living systems and

organisms to develop or make useful products, or
“any technological application that uses biological
systems, living organisms or derivatives there, of, to
make or modify products or processes for specific
use"
 Applications
A rose plant that began as cells grown in a. tissue culture.

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including

health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food
(industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics,
vegetable ,oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of

biotechnology for example:

Bioinformatics

 Epigenome association studies

 Biomarker development
  Directed differentiation  Familial cancers
 Trans differentiation  Mouse models

>

It is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems

using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization
and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be
referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as,
"conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying
informatics techniques to understand and organize the information
associated with these molecules, on a large scale."

Green biotechnology: - it is biotechnology applied to

agricultural processes

Red biotechnology: - It is applied to medical processes.

White biotechnology:- it is biotechnology applied to industrial

processes.

The investment and economic output of all of these types of applied

biotechnologies is termed as bio economy.
 MEDICINE
In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas
as

o PHARMACOGENOMICS
o GENE THERAPY

PHARMACOGENOMICS
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual
affects his/her body's response to drugs. It is a portmanteau derived from the
words "pharmacology" and °genomic?. It is hence the study of the relationship
between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to
be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person's genetic
makeup.

Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:

 Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics,

pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins,
enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and
diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize
therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.
 More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages.
Knowing a patient's genetics will enable doctors to determine how well
his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize
the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.
 Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery
of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes
have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With
 modern biotechnology, these ge6s can be used as targets for the
development of effective new therapies, which could significantly
shorten the drug discovery process.

 Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by

organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines
will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection.
They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being
engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once.

PHARMACEUTICA-L PRODUCTS
Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively small molecules that bind
to particular molecular targets and either activate or deactivate biological
processes. Small molecules are typically manufactured through traditional
organic, synthesis, and many can be taken or all. In contrast,
Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules such as proteins that are
developed to address targets that cannot easily be addressed by small
molecules. Some examples of biopharmaceutical drugs include Infliximab, a
monoclonal antibody used in the treatment of autoimmune diseases,
Rituximab, a chimeric monoclonal antibody used in the treatment of cancer.
Due to their larger size, and corresponding difficulty with surviving the
stomach, colon and liver, biopharmaceuticals are typically injected.

Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered

microorganisms such as E. colt or yeast for the production of substances like
synthetic insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or
transgenic plants, such as Bt corn.
Modern biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily
and relatively cheaply human growth hormone, clotting factors for
hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs.

GENETIC TESTING
Gel electrophoresis:-
Genetic testing involves the direct examination molecule itself. A

scientist scans a patient's DNA sample for mutated sequences.

There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may
design short pieces of DNA ("probes") whose sequences are complementary to
the mutated sequences. These probes will seek their complement among the
base pairs of an individual's genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the
patient's genome, the probe will bind to it, and flag the mutation. In the
second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the
sequence of DNA bases in a patient's gene to disease in healthy individuals or
their progeny.

Genetic testing is now used for:

 Carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who
carry one copy of a' gene for a disease that requires two copies for the
disease to manifest;
 Conformational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals;
 Determining sex;
 Forensic/identity testing;
 Newborn screening;
 Prenatal diagnostic screening;
 Presymptomatic testing for estimating the. ribs of developing adult-
onset cancers;
  Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders.

Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in
developed, countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations
associated with rare genetic disorders like sickle cell anemia, and Huntington's
disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful
of more complex conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers.

GENIE THERAPY

Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired
diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace
defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. It can be
used to target somatic cells or gamete cells, In somatic gene therapy, the
genome of the recipient is changed, but this change is not passed along to the
next generation. In contrast, in germ line gene therapy, the egg and sperm cells
of the parents are changed for thè purpose of purpose of passing on the
changes to their offspring.

There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment:

1:-- Ex vivo, which means "outside the body" - Cells from the patient's blood or
bone marrow are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then
exposed to a virus carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the
desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to
grow in the laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a
vein.
2;- In vivo, which means "inside the body" - No cells are removed from the
patient's body.

Gene therapy faces many, obstacles before it can become a practical

approach for treating disease. At least two of these obstacles are as follows:

1:- Gene delivery tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers
called vectors. The most common vectors now are viruses, which have evolved
a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a
pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate the genome of the virus by
removing the disease-causing genes and inserting the therapeutic genes.
However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce problems like toxicity,
immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues

2:- High costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental
stage, it is an expensive treatment to undertake. This explains why current
studies are focused on illnesses commonly found in developed countries,
where more people can afford to pay for treatment. It may take decades
before developing countries can take advantage of this technology.

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT

The Human Genome, project is an initiative of the U.S. Department of Energy
(“DOE) and the National Institutes of Health (“NIH") that aims to generate a
high-quality reference sequence for the entire human genome and identify all
the human genes.

The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U.S. Congress to

develop new energy resources' and technologies and to pursue a deeper

understanding of potential health and environmental risks posed by their

production and use. In 1986, the DOE announced its Human Genome,

Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and National Institutes of Health

developed a plan for a' joint Human Genome Project (UHGPU), which officially

began in 1990.

The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological

advances and worldwide participation accelerated the completion date to

2003 (making it a 13 year project). Already it has enabled gene hunters to

pinpoint genes associated with more than 30 disorders.

CLONING

Cloning involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in
an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed.

There are two types of cloning:

1:- Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into a
uterus where it is allowed to develop into a fetus that is genetically identical to
the donor of the original nucleus.
2:- Therapeutic cloning. The egg is placed into a Petri dish where it develops
into embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several
ailments.

AGRICULTURE
Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two genes may be
transferred to a highly developed crop variety to impart a new character that
would increase its yield. However, while increases in crop yield are the most
obvious applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most
difficult one. Current genetic engineering techniques work best for effects that
are controlled by a single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics' associated
with yield (e.g., enhanced growth) are controlled by, a large number of genes,
each of which has a minimal effect on the overall yield. There is, therefore,
much -scientific work to be done in this area.

Increased nutritional qualities:

Proteins in foods may be modified to increase their nutritional qualities.

Proteins in legumes and cereals may be transformed to provide the amino
acids needed by human beings for a balanced diet. A good example is the work
of Professors Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer in creating Golden rice

Improved taste, texture or appearance of food:-

The first genetically modified food product was a tomato which was
transformed to delay its ripening. Researchers in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand,
Philippines and Vietnam are currently working on delayed-ripening papaya in
collaboration with the University of Nottingham and Zeneca.

Biotechnology in cheese production: enzymes produced by micro-organisms

provide an alternative to animal rennet - a cheese coagulant - and an
alternative supply for cheese makers. This also eliminates possible public
concerns with animal-derived material, although there are currentl7 no plans
to develop synthetic milk, thus making this argument less compelling. Enzymes
offer an animal friendly alternative to animal rennet. While providing
comparable quality, they are theoretically also less expensive.

Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals:-

Most of the current commercial applications of modern biotechnology in

agriculture are on reducing the dependence of farmers on agrochemicals, For
example, Bacillus

Thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil bacterium that produces a protein with insecticidal

qualities. Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to produce an
insecticidal spray from these bacteria. In this form, the Bt toxin occurs as an
inactive protoxin, which requires digestion by an insect to be effective. There
are several Bt toxins and each one is specific to certain target insects. Crop
plants have now been engineered to contain and express the genes for Bt
toxin, which they produce in its active form. When a susceptible insect ingests
the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt protein, it stops feeding and soon
thereafter dies as a result of the Bt toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now
commercially available in a number of countries to control corn borer (a
lepidopteran insect).

ANIMALS BIOTECHNOLOGY
In animals, biotechnology techniques are being used to improve genetics and
for pharmaceutical or industrial applications. Molecular biology techniques can
help drive
breeding programs by directing selection of superior animals. Animal cloning,
through somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), allows for genetic' replication of
selected animals. Genetic engineering, using recombinant DNA, alters the
genetic makeup of the animal for selected purposes, including producing
therapeutic proteins in cows and goats. There is a genetically altered salmon
with an increased growth rate being considered for FDA approval.
Criticism:-
There is another side to the agricultural biotechnology issue. It includes
increased herbicide usage and resultant herbicide resistance, "super weeds,'
residues on and in food crops, genetic contamination of non-GM crops which
hurt organic and conventional farmers, etc.

BIOTECHNOLOGICAL ENGINEERING
Biotechnological engineering or biological engineering is a branch of
engineering that focuses on biotechnologies and biological science. It includes
different disciplines such as biochemical engineering, biomedical engineering,
bio-process engineering, bio system engineering and so on. because of the
novelty of the field, bioengineer is still not clearly defined. However, in general
it is an integrated approach of fundamental biological sciences and traditional
engineering principles.
Biotechnologists are often employed to scale up bio processes from the
laboratory scale to the manufacturing scale. Moreover, as with most
engineers, they often deal with management, economic and legal issues. Since
patents and regulation (e.g.,U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulation in
the U:S.) are very important issues for biotech enterprises, bioengineers are
often required to have knowledge related to these issues.
The increasing number of biotech enterprises is likely to create a need
for bioengineers in the years to come. Many universities throughout the world
are now providing programs.-in bioengineering and biotechnology (as
independent programs or specialty programs within more established
engineering fields).

BIOREMEDIATION AND BIODEGRADATION

Biotechnology is being used to engineer and adapt organisms
especially microorganisms in an effort to find sustainable ways to clean up
contaminated environments. The elimination of a wide range of pollutants and
wastes from the environment is an absolute requirement to promote a
sustainable develojm-e11f of our society with low environmental impact.
Biological processes play a major role in the removal of contaminants and
biotechnology is taking advantage of the astonishing catabolic versatility of
microorganisms to degrade/convert such compounds. New, methodological
breakthroughs in sequencing, genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics and
imaging are producing vast amounts of information. In the field of
Environmental Microbiology, genome-based global studies open a new era
providing unprecedented in silico views of metabolic and regulatory networks,
as well as clues to the evolution of degradation pathways and to the molecular
adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions. Functional
genomics and metagenomic approaches are increasing our understanding of
the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to
carbon flux in particular environments and for particular compounds and they
will certainly accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies and
bio transformation processes.