Kramers 1946
Kramers 1946
Summary
The overall heat transfer coefficient of three small spheres in a forced
flow of air, water and oil was measured; in the latter two media at two
different temperatures. For this a stationnary method was used.
From these experiments the dependence of the heat transfer on the
velocity of flow and on the properties of the flowing substance is derived.
By using the dimensionless numbers characteristic of these quantities,
viz. Nu, ‘Re and Pr, the following generalized expression is obtained:
Nu = 2.0 + 1.3 (Pv)0.15 + 0.66 (PY)O.~I (Rc)O.~O.
For very small Re numbers this equation will give too high va lues of Nz5.
since for Re = 0 NU will be equal to 2.
Further it is shown that the known data on heat transfer fro m cylinders
and wires of circular cross section in a forced flow perpendicular to the
axis can be described very well by:
Nu = 0.42 (PY)O.~’ + 0.57 (PY)‘.~~ (Re)0.50
- 61 -
Physica XII 5*
62 H. KRAMERS
This applies only as long as ,,forced flow” exists and the hydro-
dynamical conditions are not affected by temperature differences
(,,free convection”).
When the expression
Nu = f(Re, Pr)
has once been obtained from measurements of a as a function of v
for a set of values of the parameters Y, A, v, p and cp, this same rela-
tion can then be used to calculate the heat transfer coefficient for
HEAT T.RAh’SFER FROM SPHERES TO FLOWIKG MEDIA .63
Q = 5 w3q = r~ . 4nr2At.
As At is an average value, a should also be considered as such.
Ry measuring Q and At under certain conditions of flow and for
certain sphere sizes we determined the corresponding values of CC
As we were particularly interested in u values at low Re numbers, it
was desirable to keep the size of the spheres to be used as small as
possible. This was effected by making use of high frequency heating,
thus avoiding the rather large dimensions and other difficulties con-
nected with direct electric heating.
quency current is passed through the coil, the sphere will be heated
as a result of eddy current losses and, if the sphere material is ferro-
magnetic, of hysteresis losses.
For measurements in liquids a liquid flow round the sphere
is obtained in the glass tube B. In this tube, which is 3.4 cm wide,
the liquid flows upward. After leaving the tube it passes through a
measuring cylinder C and a thermostat and is introduced again at
the bottom of the tube. The temperature and the velocity of the
liquid flow can be regulated.
For measurements in air a fan is placed
to compensator under coil A, giving an upward air flow
(fig. 2). The air velocity can be varied by
means of the adjustable diaphragmI). In
order to suppress the larger whirls caused
by the fan, a grid E is placed above it.
The determination of the various quan-
. tities necessary for the evaluation of a will
:A
:
: be discussed below in detail.
:
I
I .
.. :
The temperature difference.
We used three annealed steel spheres (ball
bearings) I, II and III, with a diameter of
1.26, 0.787 and 0.709 cm respectively. A
hole was drilled in the spheres and the
junction of a copper - constantan ther-
mocouple was fastened with solder in the
centre. The thermocouple wires had a
thickness of 0.1 mm; it had been carefully
Fig. 2. Arrangement for calibrated at different temperatures. The
the measurements in .air other (;,cold”) thermocouple junction was
flow. placed in the undisturbed flow. The e.m.f.
resulting from the temperature difference
At between the two junctions was measured by means of a Dies-
selhorst potentiometric compensator.
It should be observed that it is only permissible to use the value
of At, measured in this way, for the calculation of a, if the tempera-
ture differences in the sphere are small compared with At. It can
be shown that the temperature difference At’ between the centre
HEAT TRANSFER FROM SPHERES TO FLOWING MEDIA 65
.
and the surface of a uniformly heated sphere is represented by:
In that case v along the axis of the tube is equal to 26. In our
experiments in oil this condition was satisfied, as the distance from
HEAT TRANSFER FROM SPHERES TO FLOWING MEDIA . 67
the filter to the sphere was about 110 cm. With water parabolic
distribution had not been reached at this height for 5 > 2.5 cm/set,
but in all cases the flow was laminar. For the calculation of u in the
non-parabolic cases we used data furnished by N i k u r a d s e “)-
concerning the transition range from uniform to parabolic velocity
distribution in cylindrical pipes.
The fact that the sphere size relative to the tube diameter is not
negligible calls for two corrections to be made in ZI. First, it is more
correct to use in the calculations the average velocity over the cross
section of the sphere than the velocity along the axis of the tube.
For a parabolic distribution this gives the correction factor
[l - 3 (2r,/D)2] in 21.In the second place the presence of the sphere
itself in the relatively narrow tube causes a disturbance in the velo-
city field, resulting in an increase of the velocity near the sphere.
We tried to account for this by introducing the correction factor
[l + (2v/D)*], as the increase in 5 will be proportional to the ratio
of the areas of the sphere and tube cross sections. Thus the value of
u in the liquid flow was obtained with the following formula:
v=+ +p(g)2).5.
Here ‘p = 2 for parabolic velocity distribution and y < 2 in case
this has not yet been reached.
4 3. The mensurements. The hear rransfer of rhe three spheres was
investigated in five different media, viz. air at 1 atm. and about 20”
C, water at 6.5 and 19.O”C and a spindle oil at 19.0 and 34°C. For the
calculation of the characteristic numbers Nat, Re and Pv the values
of A, cp, p and v of these substances under the circumstances men-
tioned above had to be used. In the case of air and water these
values are sufficiently known. For the oil used they were determined
at different temperatures, the results of which are shown in table I.
TABLE I
Properties of spindle oil used
t 1 20 / 30 1 40 j "C
II
1.20
1.53
15.6
20.2
85
156
450
840 --
8.00
_
27.5 3.47
.- 26.5
5
III 1.56 18.6 135 640 -
1.72 20.4 197 920 3.86* 7.5 0.10: 0.42
I .99 23.6 270 1280 5.22’ 10.1 0.30 1.23
2.19 25.9 310 1460 5.40 10.4 0.36 1.45
- - III 6.90 13.3 0.90 3.64
8.28 lb.0 1.61 6.50
9.90 19.1 2.83 11.4
-
I 0.05
-
19.5 2.03
- 11.4
TABLE IV TABLE V
Sphere
103.Q NU ii Re
nr.
-
4.47* 15.7 0.68 IO.1 l5.6* 14.5 0.47 90
5.70 19.8 1.33 19.4 24.6’ 22.8 1.29 246
I 5.92 20.7 1.58 23.2 I 35.0 32.4 2.79 520
7.42 25.9 2.71 39.6 38.6 35.7 3.20 590
-- -- 49 45 5.35 920
6.55 14.3 0.80 6.95
7.04 15.3 1.13 9.75 28.6 16.5 1.06 118
II 7.64 16.6 1.53 13.2 30.6 17.7 1.26 141
9.34 20.4 2.72 23.6 39.3 22.7 2.20 246
-- -- II 49.8 28.8 3.44 370
7.61 14.9 1.14 8.79 57.2 33.1 5.10 520
III 8.61 16.9 1.67 12.8 73.4 42.2 8.40 800
9.95 19.5 2.72 21.0 --
24.8 12.9 0.65 65
34.8 18.1 1.13 113
TABLE VI 35.3 18:4 1.27 127
Water 19.O”C
- -
Pr = 7.3
- 1 III
47.2
51.1
59.7
24.6
26.6
31.1
2.35
3.33
4.30
234
320
400
Sphere
nr.
*o”,a,
29.2*
I
2-
NU
25.9
-
1.88
-
RC
505
74.0
80.6
38.5
42.0
7.8
10.6
670
870
30
NU
10
,
,’
,’
8’
0 -..-. ..
I 200 2 8 I I
0 10 30 40 50
VKG
Only the value for water at 19°C appears to be too low by 1So/b.
This will probably be caused by the air bubbles on the sphere surface.
Although with less accuracy, f can be represented by a similar
expression :
f = 1.3 (P,)O.?
“0 2 4 6
-fiG
Fig. 4. Measurements in spindle oil.
30
Nu
f 20
were dropped through a heated air zone, after which the rise in
temperature was measured in a calorimeter. The results of -both
authors show a considerable spread. A few of the data in J o h n-
s t o n e’s paper point to Nu values which are less than 2. A syste-
matic effect may have played a part here, this probably being a
circulation of air inside the vertical heating space resulting from
cooling and entrainment by the falling particles. When the velocities
of this ,,reinforced convection” become comparable to the falling
speeds of the particles, this effect may lead to too low Re numbers,
if it is not accounted for. In particular for the heating process as a
whole, investigated by these authors, their conclusions are very
b,._.__._
-.Alr ;
c.,._._......
water 100-c ;ownr*sulh
-crpcr1msnta1
sl+-H-t ------E.L cul.tcd I
OI
0 100 200 500 1000 2wo 5oal lo.ooo 2c.000
-Re
Fig. 7. Comparison with L j a c h o w s k i’s results for spheres.
Here too the part of Nu which depends on the flow velocity is pro-
portional to (Pr)*. The numerical coefficient of this part, however,
is about 20% lower then was found by us, whereas a small term
dependent on Pr only is not present. In our opinion the absence of
this term is surprising, the more so, since F r ij s z 1 i n g’s experi-
ments extend to very low Re numbers. An explanation for this
discrepancy cannot be offered at the present, but it should be point-
ed out that F r ii s z 1 i n g measured the ratio between the rate of
evaporation in a forced air flow and in air at rest, assuming in the
latter case Nu to be equal to 2. Thus, a slight deviation from this
condition might affect the interpretation of the results considerably.
*) F u c h s 10) has shown that for Re < I in first approximation Nlc will not differ
appreciably from the value at Rr = 0, if S t o k e s’ distribution law is t&en to be valid.
This is not supported by the experimrntai facts mentioned in this paper, which on the
contrary suggest a quick rise in Nu at very low Re numbers. Even F r 6 s z 1 i n g’s
results do not point in that direction.
78 H. KRAMERS
expressions for the heat transfer from spheres and cylinders starting
from certain simplifying assumptions regarding the velocity field
around the body. These assumptions may be divided into two groups
viz. potential flow and a velocity field according to P r a n d t l’s
boundary layer theory. From both theories the heat transfer appears
to be proportional to (Re)*.
P o t e n t i a 1 f 1 o w can only be realized with incompressible
fluids having no viscosity. Thus, the heat transfer number Nu must
be a function of Re x Pv = Pe' (P C c 1 e t number), since this
dimensionless group does not contain the viscosity.
B o u s s i n e s q’l) has calculated the heat transfer from bodies
of different shape in a potential flow. After an elegant transforma-
tion and assuming the temperature gradient in the direction of the
flow to be negligible as compared with the gradient perpendicular
to it, i.e. for low heat conductivities and high velocities, he obtained
the following results, which are expressed here in dimensionless
form :
for spheres: Nu = 1.13 (Pk)*
for cylinders: NZL = 1.62 (Pe')'.
REFERENCES