EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE PERFORMANCE

USING WASTE COOKING OIL (WCO) AS A FUEL

MOHD SHAHRIR BIN ABD SAMAD

(2007284344)

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONOURS) MECHANICAL

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA (UiTM)

JULY 2020
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE PERFORMANCE
USING WASTE COOKING OIL (WCO) AS A FUEL

MOHD SHAHRIR BIN ABD SAMAD

(2007284344)

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) Mechanical

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM)

JULY 2020
I declare that this thesis entitled “Experimental study on four stroke diesel engine
performance using waste cooking oil (WCO) as a fuel.” is the result of my own work except
as cited in the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not
concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.

Signature : ……………………………………………………………………..
Name : MOHD SHAHRIR BIN ABD SAMAD
Student I.D.: 2007284344
Date : 10 JULY 2020

1
I/We* hereby declare that I/we* have read this thesis and in my/our opinion this thesis is
sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Engineering (Honours) Mechanical.

Signature : ………………………………………………………..
Name of Supervisor I : PROF. DR. MOHD AKMAL BIN AMIR
Date : 10 JULY 2020

Signature : ………………………………………………………..
Name of Supervisor II: DR. SUHAIMI BIN ABD SHUIB
Date : 10 JULY 2020

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2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, I wish to thank God for giving me the opportunity to embark on my Final Year
Project and for completing this long and challenging journey successfully. My gratitude and
thanks go to my supervisor Assoc Prof Datuk.

My appreciation goes to the Captain and crewmembers of the MMC who provided the
facilities and assistance during sampling. Special thanks to my colleagues and friends for
helping me with this project.

Finally, this thesis is dedicated to the loving memory of my very dear late father and mother
for the vision and determination to educate me. This piece of victory is dedicated to both of
you. Alhamdulillah.

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3
4
 ABSTRACT

The lack of management data and not knowing what level of park quality local authorities
are trying to deliver is becoming a growing concern. The problem of urban landscape cannot
be solved simply by providing more parks and spending more money on development and
management. There is an urgent need for innovation, for better understanding of the current
and potential role of the park to meet the needs in modern urban life. Thus, the adoption of a
strategic approach is needed to planning and managing that urban landscape to carry out its
function and roles. This research aim is to study the factors of park attributes that influence
the development, planning and management of successful urban park in Kuala Muda. It
specifically studies on Taman Tasik Cini as the sole representative of urban park in the
context of Kuala Muda Structure Plan 2020. This research is based on data obtained from
survey questionnaire that polled public attitudes regarding the factors of park attributes based
on visitor’s perception and Harris’s (2008), park success factors. The data was analysed to
evaluate and determine the park attributes and its level of preferences that influence the
strategic approach to the planning and management of successful urban park. The research
suggested that successful urban park as are linked to the physical and functional qualities of
the park; security and comfort; visitors’ preferences and needs of the place. The results of the
study also suggested that a holistic strategic approach is needed for the local authority to
successfully managing the urban park. It is hope that the study can contribute to the
improvement of urban park planning and management in Kuala Muda.

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5
6
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

AUTHOR’S DECLARATION i
SUPERVISOR'S DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS 5i
LIST OF TABLES 8iii
LIST OF FIGURES 9x
LIST OF SYMBOLS x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi
LIST OF NOMENCLATURE xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 13

1.1 Research Background 13
1.2 Motivation 13
1.3 Problem Statement 13
1.4 Objectives 15
1.5 Significance of Study 16
1.5.1 Univariate Regression 17
1.5.2 Multivariate Regression 17

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 19

2.1 Introduction 19
2.1.1 Data Pre-Processing and Data Drift: The Utility of Principal Component
Analysis, Self-Organizing Maps and Class Separation Indices 20

7
 2.1.2 Multivariate Linear Regression 20
2.2 Environmental Studies 21
2.2.1 Airborne Particulate Matter Datasets 22
2.2.2 Meteorological Dataset 23
2.3 Quantitative Structure Activity Relationships Studies on the Active and Inactive
Antimalarial Compounds 24

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 25

3.1 Introduction 25
3.2 Data Pre-Processing for Classifcation 25
3.2.1 Individual Transformation 26
3.2.2 Row Scaling 27
3.2.3 Column Scaling 27
3.3 Exploratory Data Analysis Principal Component Analysis 28
3.4 Quantitative Structure Activity Relationships Studies on The Active and Inactive
Antibacterial Compounds 30

CHAPTER FOUR:  RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ON THE PATTERN

RECOGNITION AND DATA MINING METHODS IN CHEMOMETRICS 32
4.1 Introduction 32
4.2 Chemometrics 32
4.3 PCA and PLS 33

CHAPTER FIVE:  CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 5

5.1 Contribution of present work 5
5.2 Direction of future work

REFERENCES 6

APPENDICES 7
Appendix 1 7
Appendix 2 7
Table 1.1 The Title for This Table is Here 14
Table 1.2 The Statistical Information of APM Dataset 14
Table 1.3 The Title for This Table is Here 14

8
Table 2.1 The Temperature Infomation 19
Table 2.2 The Environmental Dataset Infomation 19
Table 2.3 Summary of the Meteorological Parameters 21
Table 2.4 Title for Third Table in Chapter 2 22
Table 2.5 The Statistical Information of APM Dataset 22
Table 3.1 The QSAR Dataset the Sources in This Thesis for Regression and
Classification 31

Figure 1.1 The Spectrum of Cooking Oil 16

Figure 3.1 Compressive strength of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) concrete of Grade 30 26
Figure 3.2 Typical Steps Involved in QSAR Methodology 29
Figure 3.3 A Map Showing the Sampling Location in Islamabad, Pakistan 30
Figure 3.4 A PCA Plots for Data Processing Strategy 31

LIST OF SYMBOLS
Symbols
A Number of PLS or PCA components in the model and the number
of selected latent variable in the model
a Number of the PLS or PCA component
b PLS regression coefficient
b Number of blocks (b=1,2,3.....,K)
C Coarse APM block
Cp Pooled covariance matrix for the two classes

Cg Covariance matrix for class g

9
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Abbreviations
PCA Principal Component Analysis

LIST OF NOMENCLATURE
Nomenclatures
A Amplitude Ratio, (No Units)

C Centroid of pipe, inches

10
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

One.1 Research Background

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11
One.2 Motivation

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theme. Themes and styles also help keep your document coordinated. When you click
Design and choose a new Theme, the pictures, charts, and SmartArt graphics change to
match your new theme. When you apply styles, your headings change to match the new
theme.

One.3 Problem Statement

Video provides a powerful way to help you prove your point. When you click Online
Video, you can paste in the embed code for the video you want to add. You can also type a
keyword to search online for the video that best fits your document as shown in Table 1.1.1,
1.2 and 1.3.
To make your document look professionally produced, Word provides header,
footer, cover page, and text box designs that complement each other. For example, you can
add a matching cover page, header, and sidebar. Click Insert and then choose the elements
you want from the different galleries.

Table 1.1 The Title for This Table is Here

Title Title Title
To change the overall look of To change the overall look of To change the overall look of
your document your document your document
To change the overall look of To change the overall look of To change the overall look of
your document your document your document
Source: World Bank report 2016

Table 1.2 The Statistical Information of APM Dataset

Batch No of Average per month Percentage of LoD Percentage of LoD

samples (Coarse APM) (Fine APM)

1 100 8 samples 1.70% 6.48%

2 102 9 samples 9.29% 9.09%

3 176 9 samples 2.65% 4.34%

Table 1.3 The Title for This Table is Here

Chemical C Surface Area (m2g-1) Porosity
Composition (cm3g-1)
Neutral clay 0.68 0.68 Neutral clay 0.68 0.68
Neutral clay 0.68 0.68
Bleaching clay Bleaching clay
Bleaching clay

0.80 0.89
0.99

12
 Note: Influence of the physical chemistry properties of an acid activated bentonite in the bleaching of olive oil.
(Pradas et.al., 1993, p. 23)

Themes and styles also help keep your document coordinated. When you click
Design and choose a new Theme, the pictures, charts, and SmartArt graphics change to
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theme as shown in (1.1). Equation (1.2) gives example on the use of word “Equation” in
front of the equation numbering whenever a sentence starts with an equation.
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the Quick Styles gallery on the Home tab. You can also format text directly by using the
other controls on the Home tab.

y=mx +3 (1.1)

y=mx +4 (1.2)

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the Quick Styles gallery on the Home tab. You can also format text directly by using the
other controls on the Home tab.

One.4 Objectives

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a) To perform data pre-processing and exploratory analysis by using PCA, SOMs and
Class Separation Indices.

b) To analysis analysis Multiblock methods and regression analysis of environmental

dataset.

c) To find the trend using pattern recognition in method QSAR with the application of
SOMs and PLSDA.

d) To test model validity using data Splitting Methods for Regressions and
Classifications.

13
One.5 Significance of Study

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On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate with the
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diagrams, they also coordinate with your current document look. You can easily change the
formatting of selected text in the document text by choosing a look for the selected text from
the Quick Styles gallery on the Home tab. You can also format text directly by using the
other controls on the Home tab. The sample of plates shown in Figure 1.1Error: Reference
source not found.

HB
0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

-0.05
0 5000 10000 15000

Figure 1.1 The Spectrum of Cooking Oil

One.5.1.1 Univariate Regression

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One.5.1.2 Multivariate Regression

One.5.1.2.1 Principal Components Regression

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One.5.1.2.2 Multivariate Regressions using PLS Method

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14
 a) On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate with the
overall look of your document.

b) You can use these galleries to insert tables, headers, footers, lists, cover pages, and
other document building blocks. When you create pictures, charts, or diagrams, they
also coordinate with your current document look.

On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate with the
overall look of your document. You can use these galleries to insert tables, headers, footers,
lists, cover pages, and other document building blocks. When you create pictures, charts, or
diagrams, they also coordinate with your current document look. You can easily change the
formatting of selected text in the document text by choosing a look for the selected text from
the Quick Styles gallery on the Home tab. You can also format text directly by using the
other controls on the Home tab. Most controls offer a choice of using the look from the
current theme or using a format that you specify directly. To change the overall look of your
document, choose new Theme elements on the Page Layout tab. To change the looks
available in the Quick Style gallery, use the Change Current Quick Style Set command. Both
the Themes gallery and the Quick Styles gallery provide reset commands so that you can
always restore the look of your document to the original contained in your current template.
On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate with the overall
look of your document.

15
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

Two.1 Introduction

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The information shown in Table and Table 2.22.2 [1–3].

Table 2.1 The Temperature Infomation

Variable Minimum Maximum Average Standard
deviation
Minimum temperature over 24 hours 0.0 30.0 15.33 7.06
preceding 0300 GMT (0C)
Maximum temperature over 24 hours 12.5 44.7 29.85 6.93
preceding 1200 GMT (0C)

Table 2.2 The Environmental Dataset Infomation

Variable Minimum Maximum Average Standard

deviation

Average relative humidity (%) 31.0 97.0 63.70 14.80

Average pressure (hPa) 994.37 1022.43 1009.04 6.48

Average wind speed (Knot) 0.0 9.0 0.79 1.43

Average rainfall (mm) 0.0 140.0 3.82 14.05

Two.1.1.1 Data Pre-Processing and Data Drift: The Utility of Principal Component
Analysis, Self-Organizing Maps and Class Separation Indices

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given in (2.1). On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate
with the overall look of your document. You can use these galleries to insert tables, headers,
footers, lists, cover pages, and other document building blocks. When you create pictures,
charts, or diagrams, they also coordinate with your current document look as shown in
equation (2.2).

y=mx +3 (2.1)

y=mx +dx+5 (2.2)

Two.1.1.2 Multivariate Linear Regression

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Page Layout tab. To change the looks available in the Quick Style gallery, use the Change
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Two.2 Environmental Studies

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Page Layout tab. To change the looks available in the Quick Style gallery. Both the Themes
gallery and the Quick Styles gallery provide reset commands so that you can always restore
the look of your document to the original contained in your current template. The
information shown in 2.3 [3–5].

Table 2.3 Summary of the Meteorological Parameters

Variable Minimum Maximum Average Standard
deviation
Minimum temperature over 24
0.0 30.0 15.33 7.06
hours preceding 0300 GMT (0C)

Maximum temperature over 24

12.5 44.7 29.85 6.93
hours preceding 1200 GMT (0C)

Average relative humidity (%)

31.0 97.0 63.70 14.80

17
 Average pressure (hPa)
994.37 1022.43 1009.04 6.48
Average wind speed (Knot)
0.0 9.0 0.79 1.43
Average rainfall (mm)
0.0 140.0 3.82 14.05

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Two.2.1.1 Airborne Particulate Matter Datasets

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Page Layout tab. To change the looks available in the Quick Style gallery. Both the Themes
gallery and the Quick Styles gallery provide reset commands so that you can always restore
the look of your document to the original contained in your current template. The
information shown in Table4 and Table 2.22.5 [5–8].

Table 2.4 Title for Third Table in Chapter 2

Title Title Title
To change the overall look of To change the overall look of To change the overall look of
your document your document your document
To change the overall look of To change the overall look of To change the overall look of
your document your document your document

Table 2.5 The Statistical Information of APM Dataset

Batch No of Average per month Percentage of LoD Percentage of LoD
samples (Coarse APM) (Fine APM)
1 100 8 samples 1.70% 6.48%
2 102 9 samples 9.29% 9.09%
3 176 9 samples 2.65% 4.34%

18
Two.2.1.2 Meteorological Dataset

Two.2.1.2.1 Data Pre-Processing and Data Drift

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Or Diagrams, They Also Coordinate With Your Current Document Look [3,4,6,8].

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You can also format text directly by using the other controls on the Home tab. Most
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that you specify directly.

To change the looks available in the Quick Style gallery, use the Change Current
Quick Style Set command. Both the Themes gallery and the Quick Styles gallery provide
reset commands so that you can always restore the look of your document to the original
contained in your current template.
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also format text directly by using the other controls on the Home tab. Most controls offer a
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Page Layout tab. To change the looks available in the Quick Style gallery, use the Change
Current Quick Style Set command. Both the Themes gallery and the Quick Styles gallery
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original contained in your current template.

Two.3 Quantitative Structure Activity Relationships Studies on the Active and

Inactive Antimalarial Compounds

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Current Quick Style Set command. Both the Themes gallery and the Quick Styles gallery

19
provide reset commands so that you can always restore the look of your document to the
original contained in your current template.
On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate with the
overall look of your document. You can use these galleries to insert tables, headers, footers,
lists, cover pages, and other document building blocks. When you create pictures, charts, or
diagrams, they also coordinate with your current document look.
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choosing a look for the selected text from the Quick Styles gallery on the Home tab. You can
also format text directly by using the other controls on the Home tab. Most controls offer a
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To change the overall look of your document, choose new Theme elements on the
Page Layout tab. To change the looks available in the Quick Style gallery, use the Change
Current Quick Style Set command. Both the Themes gallery and the Quick Styles gallery
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20
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Three.1 Introduction

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Three.2 Data Pre-Processing for Classification

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Style gallery, use the Change Current Quick Style Set command. Both the Themes gallery
and the Quick Styles gallery provide reset commands so that you can always restore the look
of your document to the original contained in your current template.
On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate with the
overall look of your document. You can use these galleries to insert tables, headers, footers,
lists, cover pages, and other document building blocks. When you create pictures, charts, or
diagrams, they also coordinate with your current document look. You can easily change the
formatting of selected text in the document text by choosing a look for the selected text from
the Quick Styles gallery on the Home tab as shown in Figure 3.1.

21
 Figure 3.2 Compressive strength of Rice Husk Ash (RHA) concrete of Grade 30

Three.2.1.1 Individual Transformation

On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate with the
overall look of your document. You can use these galleries to insert tables, headers, footers,
lists, cover pages, and other document building blocks. When you create pictures, charts, or
diagrams, they also coordinate with your current document look The sample for writing an
equation are shown at (3.3) and (3.4);

sq n (3.3)
x ij =√ x ij

x ij=log 10 x ij (3.4)

To change the overall look of your document, choose new Theme elements on the
Page Layout tab. To change the looks available in the Quick Style gallery, use the Change
Current Quick Style Set command. Both the Themes gallery and the Quick Styles gallery
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original contained in your current template. On The Insert Tab, The Galleries Include Items
That Are Designed To Coordinate With The Overall Look Of Your Document.
Save time in Word with new buttons that show up where you need them. To change
the way a picture fits in your document, click it and a button for layout options appears next
to it. When you work on a table, click where you want to add a row or a column, and then
click the plus sign.
Reading is easier, too, in the new Reading view. You can collapse parts of the
document and focus on the text you want. If you need to stop reading before you reach the
end, Word remembers where you left off - even on another device.

22
Three.2.1.2 Row Scaling

To change the overall look of your document, choose new Theme elements on the
Page Layout tab. To change the looks available in the Quick Style gallery, use the Change
Current Quick Style Set command. Both the Themes gallery and the Quick Styles gallery
provide reset commands so that you can always restore the look of your document to the
original contained in your current template.You Can Use These Galleries To Insert Tables,
Headers, Footers, Lists, Cover Pages, And Other Document Building Blocks.
When you create pictures, charts, or diagrams, they also coordinate with your current
document look. You can easily change the formatting of selected text in the document text
by choosing a look for the selected text from the Quick Styles gallery on the Home tab.
You can also format text directly by using the other controls on the Home tab. Most
controls offer a choice of using the look from the current theme or using a format that you
specify directly.

Three.2.1.3 Column Scaling

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To change the overall look of your document, choose new Theme elements on the
Page Layout tab. To change the looks available in the Quick Style gallery, use the Change
Current Quick Style Set command. Both the Themes gallery and the Quick Styles gallery
provide reset commands so that you can always restore the look of your document to the
original contained in your current template.
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overall look of your document. You can use these galleries to insert tables, headers, footers,
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23
Three.3 Exploratory Data Analysis Principal Component Analysis

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The information shown in Figure 3.2 and 3.3.

Data entry and curation

Molecular descriptor generation

Data visualization

Model development

Model evaluation

Figure 3.3 Typical Steps Involved in QSAR Methodology

24
 N
il
o
r
e

Figure 3.4 A Map Showing the Sampling Location in Islamabad, Pakistan

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Three.4 Quantitative Structure Activity Relationships Studies on The Active and

Inactive Antibacterial Compounds

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25
 PCA Biplots PCA Biplots PCA Biplots
0.5
2003 2003 2003
2004a 0.4 2004a 2004a
0.8 0.8
2004b 2004b 2004b
I I
2005 0.3 Ba 2005 2005
I S
0.6 2006 Cr 2006 0.6 2006
0.2 2007
2007 BC 2007
0.1 V P Br

PC 2 (28.1%)
0.4

PC 2 (18.3%)
Pb Na

PC 2 (28.4%)
0.4
Cl Zn As Rb
0 Ba Al
Ba Al Al Sc Sr
Co Ni Se
0.2 CuF GaGe Hg 0.2 S
S -0.1
Mo Cr
Cr Mn K
-0.2 P
VCl
P
VCl 0 BrSc
Co
Mn
Ni
Cu
As
Ga
0 BrSc
Co Ge
Se Fe
Ni
AsMn
Ga
Cu
Ge
Se Fe Zn PbMo
Rb
Na
Hg Ti
Zn Pb
Rb
MoTi
Na
Hg
Sr
F -0.3 Mg
Sr
F
K
K Fe Ca
Ti Si -0.2 BC
-0.2 BC -0.4 Mg Ca Si
Mg Ca Si
-0.5 -0.4
-0.4
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
-0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 PC 1 (39.0%)
PC 1 (20.3%)
PC 1 (39.4%)

a) Pre-process data: b) Pre-process data: c) Pre-process data:

A1, R1 and C1 A1, R1 and C2 A1, R1, C3
PCA Biplots PCA Biplots PCA Biplots

2003 2003 2003

0.8 0.5
2004a 0.8
2004a 2004a
I 2004b
0.4 2004b I 2004b
0.6 2005 Fe Ti Si
Ca 2005 0.6 2005
2006 0.3 2006 2006
2007 Mn
0.4 Al 2007 2007
0.2 Al K 0.4
PC 2 (29.2%)

Mg Al

PC 2 (18.1%)

PC 2 (29.1%)
Ba
0.2 0.1 Sc CoMo Ba
S Cl
Cr Cu 0.2
Cl 0 V F
Ni S
VPCo Fe Ga
0 Br
NiSc
MnTi Zn Ge Cr
Cu
Ga
As
Ge
Se Cr SeHg
Zn PbMo
Rb
HgNaK I P V Cl
PCo Fe
SrF -0.1 0 Br
NiSc
MnTi
Si AsNa RbSr Ga
Cu
As
Ge
Se
Br
-0.2
Ca Ba Pb Zn PbMo
Rb
FNaK
Hg
Sr
Mg -0.2 S Si
Ca
BC BC -0.2 Mg
-0.4 -0.3
BC
-0.4 -0.4
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
PC 1 (37.6%)
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
PC 1 (20.1%)
PC 1 (37.3%)

d) Pre-process data: e) Pre-process data: f) Pre-process data:

A1, R2 and C1 A1, R2 and C2 A1, R2, C3
Figure 3.5 A PCA Plots for Data Processing Strategy

Table 3.4 The QSAR Dataset the Sources in This Thesis for Regression and Classification
No Name Dimension Classes/ Types Reference
1 Blood Brain 406 × 926 Non-penetrating (class 1), 136 [150]
Barrier compounds
2 Antimalarial 57 × 1661 Regression [151, 152]

26
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ON THE PATTERN RECOGNITION AND DATA
MINING METHODS IN CHEMOMETRICS.

Four.1 Introduction

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i) On the Insert tab, the galleries include items that are designed to coordinate with the
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Four.2 Chemometrics

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Four.3 PCA and PLS

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28
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

Five.1 Contribution of Present Work

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Five.2 Direction of Future Work

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30
 1. Abbas, M., Shehab, A. A.-M., Hassan, N., & Al-Samuraee, A.
(2011). Effect of temperature and deposition time on the optical
properties of chemically deposited nanostructure PbS thin films.
Thin Solid Films, 519(15), 4917–4922.
2. Abdulgafour, H., Hassan, Z., Al-Hardan, N., & Yam, F. (2010).
REFERENCES Growth of high-quality ZnO nanowires without a catalyst. Physica
B: Condensed Matter, 405(19), 4216–4218.
3. Abdulgafour, H., Hassan, Z., Al-Hardan, N., & Yam, F. (2010). Growth of zinc
oxide nanoflowers by thermal evaporation method. Physica B: Condensed Matter,
405(11), 2570–2572.
4. Abdulgafour, H., Hassan, Z., Yam, F., & Chin, C. (2013). Sensing devices based on
ZnO hexagonal tube-like nanostructures grown on p-GaN heterojunction by wet
thermal evaporation. Thin Solid Films, 540, 212–220.
5. Jaafar, M. Z., Hasan, M. N., & Wong, T. W. (2006). Quantitative structure-activity
relationships of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor Y agonist. Thin Solid
Films, 519(15), 4917–4922.
6. Jaafar, M. Z., Khan, A. H., Adnan, S., Markwitz, A., Siddique, N., Waheed, S.
(2011). Multiblock analysis of environmental measurements: A case study of using
Proton Induced X-ray Emission and meteorology dataset obtained from Islamabad
Pakistan. Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems, 107(1), 31–43.
7. Lazim, A. M., Jaafar, M. Z., Phang Wei Shong, P., & Jamil, S. (2013).
Determination of Commercials Cooking Oils and Fats Using Chemometrics
Methods. Physica B: Condensed Matter, 405(11), 2570–2572.
8. Sim, S., Ling, T., Lau, S., & Jaafar, M. (2015). A novel computer-aided multivariate
water quality index. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 187(4), 1–11.

31
APPENDICES

32
 APPENDIX 1

Example of the Codes in PLS Algorithms

33
 APPENDIX 2
Table of Parameters Used in Data Processing for PLS Testing Precuders on the
Classification of Biological Activity

Type Formula Description

C1 x ij=x ij− x̄ j Mean centring

C2 xij − x̄ j Standardisation
x ij=
I

C3
√ 1
∑ ( x − x̄ j )2
I i =1 ij
xij −min ( xi ) Range scaling
x ij=
max( xi )−min( x i )

34