Satellite Communications in The New Space Era: A Survey and Future Challenges

IEEE COMMUNICATIONS SURVEYS & TUTORIALS (DRAFT) 1
Satellite Communications in the New Space Era:

A Survey and Future Challenges
Oltjon Kodheli, Eva Lagunas, Nicola Maturo, Shree Krishna Sharma, Bhavani Shankar,
Jesus Fabian Mendoza Montoya, Juan Carlos Merlano Duncan, Danilo Spano, Symeon Chatzinotas,
Steven Kisseleff, Jorge Querol, Lei Lei, Thang X. Vu, George Goussetis
Abstract—Satellite communications (SatComs) have recently This initiative named New Space has spawned a large number
entered a period of renewed interest motivated by technological
arXiv:2002.08811v2 [eess.SP] 2 Mar 2020
of innovative broadband and earth observation missions all of

advances and nurtured through private investment and ventures. which require advances in SatCom systems.
The present survey aims at capturing the state of the art in
SatComs, while highlighting the most promising open research The purpose of this survey is to describe in a structured
topics. Firstly, the main innovation drivers are motivated, such way these technological advances and to highlight the main
as new constellation types, on-board processing capabilities, non- research challenges and open issues. In this direction, Section
terrestrial networks and space-based data collection/processing. II provides details on the aforementioned developments and
Secondly, the most promising applications are described i.e. 5G associated requirements that have spurred SatCom innovation.
integration, space communications, Earth observation, aeronauti-
cal and maritime tracking and communication. Subsequently, an Subsequently, Section III presents the main applications and
in-depth literature review is provided across five axes: i) system use cases which are currently the focus of SatCom research.
aspects, ii) air interface, iii) medium access, iv) networking, v) The next four sections describe and classify the latest SatCom
testbeds & prototyping. Finally, a number of future challenges contributions in terms of 1) system aspects, 2) air interface,
and the respective open research topics are described. 3) medium access techniques 4) networking and upper layers.
Index Terms—satellite communications, space-based data col- When needed, certain preliminaries are provided in a tutorial
lection, 5G integration, non-terrestrial networks, new constella- manner to make sure that the reader can follow the material
tions, on-board processing, air interface, MAC protocols, net-
flow without reverting to external sources. Section VIII surveys
working, testbeds.
communication testbeds which have been developed in order
to practically demonstrate some of the advanced SatCom
I. I NTRODUCTION concepts. The last section is reserved for highlighting open
Since their inception, Satellite Communications (SatComs) research topics that are both timely and challenging. To
have found a plethora of applications, including media broad- improve the material flow we provide the structure of the paper
casting, backhauling, news gathering etc. Nowadays, following in Fig. 1 and the list of acronyms in Table I.
the evolution of Internet-based applications, SatComs are
going through a transformation phase refocusing the system II. M OTIVATION
design on data services, namely broadband SatComs. The
main motivation is a) the rapid adoption of media streaming A. New Constellation Types
instead of linear media broadcasting and b) the urgent need to Traditionally, Geostationary (GEO) satellites have been
extend broadband coverage to underserved areas (e.g. devel- mainly used for SatComs since they avoid fast movement
oping countries, aero/maritime, rural). Furthermore, a major between the terminals and the satellite transceiver and they
milestone of the 5th generation of communication systems allow for wide coverage using a single satellite. Multibeam
(5G) is the integration and convergence of diverse wired and satellite systems have been specifically developed to allow
wireless technologies. In this context, SatComs pave the way efficient frequency reuse and high-throughput broadband rates
for seamless integration targeting specific use cases which can across the coverage area, not unlike their terrestrial cellu-
take advantage of their unique capabilities. In parallel, private lar counterparts. However, new more ambitious constellation
ventures have led the development of a multitude of manu- types are currently being developed, motivated by advanced
facturing and launching options, previously only reserved for communication technologies and cheaper launch costs.
governments and a handful of large international corporations. In this direction, there has recently been a tremendous inter-
est in developing large Low Earth Orbit (LEO) constellations
This work was supported in part by the Luxembourg National Research
Fund (FNR) under the following projects: ASWELL, FLEXSAT, DISBUS, that can deliver high-throughput broadband services with low
ROSETTA, PROCAST, SIERRA, COHESAT and SATIOT. latency. This constellation type has been the holy grail of
O. Kodheli, E. Lagunas, N. Maturo, S. K. Sharma, B. Shankar, J. SatComs since Teledesic first proposed it 25 years ago [1].
F. Mendoza Montoya, J. C. Merlano Duncan, D. Spano, S. Chatzino-
tas, S. Kisseleff, J. Querol, L. Lei, T. X. Vu are with Snt - Interdisci- However, it appears that now the relevant manufacturing and
plinary Centre for Security, Reliability and Trust, University of Luxembourg, launching processes have matured and a viable implementation
29 Avenue J.F. Kennedy,Luxembourg City L-1855, Luxembourg (e-mail: and deployment may be within grasp. Multiple companies,
oltjon.kodheli@uni.lu)
G. Goussetis is with School of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Institute such as SpaceX, Amazon, OneWeb, TeleSAT, have already
of Sensors, Signals and Systems, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, U.K. announced large LEO plans including thousands of satellites
1. Satellite Use Cases for eMBB A. New Constellation Types 1. Interface with xG systems
I. Introduction through NTN
2. Satellite Use Cases for mMTC A. 5G NTN B. On-board Capabillities
2. Interface with the Cloud
3. Satellite Use Cases for uRLLC B. VLEO and satcom-assisted aerial C. Non-terrestrial Networks through a Ground Station
networks
D. New Space Network
C. Aeronautical and Maritime Tracking II. Motivation
1. Very Low Earth Orbit
and Communication
2. High Altitude Platforms 1. DVB
D. Earth Observation Data Collection A. Constellation types
3. Low Altitude Platforms 2. 5G NTN
E. Space Communications III. Applications & Use cases B. Communication architecture
3. CCSDS
C. Interface with other systems
1. ADS-B Protocol Overview
D. Spectrum
2. Maritime Automatic
Identification System (AIS) A. UHTS IV. System Aspects E. Standardization
1. Fixed Satellite
B. MAC Protocols for Satellite IoT
2. Mobile Satellite
1. Forward Link Scheduling
C. System Coexistence V. Air Interface: Enablers &
2. Return Link Scheduling A. Channel Modelling
Topics 1. Passive and focused reflector
3. New Scheduling Techniques B. Antennas antennas
4. Resource Allocation C. UHTS 2. Active Antenna Arrays

A. Software Defined Networking and VI. Medium Access Control:
5. Beamhopping Network Function Virtualization Enablers & Topics D. Data Collection 3. Trends in antennas for LEO/
E. Others MEO missions and the ground
6. Carrier Agregarion B. Caching over Satellite
segment
VII. Networking: Enablers and
Upper-layer Integration 1.Digital Payloads
E. Onboard regeneration / Flying Base A. PHY & MAC: SDR Based
1. Fixed Assignment Based Stations
B. Network Testbeds 2. Precoding/MIMO/MU-MIMO
2. Random Access Based F. Aggressive frequency reuse and 3. NOMA
VIII. Testbeds & Prototyping
dynamic spectrum manage-ment for
both GSO and NGSO 1. Satellite IoT Air Interface
1. Coordinated
G. Satellite network automation A. Digital twins for satellite systems 2. Wideband Downlinks
2. Uncoordinated IX. Future & Open Topics
H. Advanced satellite resource B. Cooperative satellite swarms and
orchestration clusters enabled by intersatellite links 1. Optical Communications
I. Quantum Key Distribution through C. Hierarchical Aerial Networks 2. Satellite swarms and
Optical Satcom synchronization
D. Internet of Space Things/ Planetary
X. Conclusions
J. Machine Learning Applications Communications 3. Deep Space Communications
Fig. 1. Structure of the paper and topic classification
and some have already launched demo satellites. As of January technologies have to be ultra-reliable and robust since there is
2020, SpaceX has deployed 242 satellites to build its Starlink very little chance of repairing/replacing after the asset is put in
constellation, with the goal to reach nearly 12000 satellites by orbit. Nevertheless, recent advances in the efficiency of power
mid-2020 [2]. generation as well as the energy efficiency of radio frequency
Moreover, we turn our focus to Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) and digital processing components have allowed for enhanced
where a constellation of 20 satellites (O3B) has been placed on-board processing which can enable innovative communi-
in a circular orbit along the equator at an altitude of 8063 km. cation technologies, such as flexible routing/channelization,
Each satellite is equipped with twelve mechanically steerable beamforming, free-space optics and even signal regeneration
antennas to allow tracking and handover of terminals. The (see Section V-C). Furthermore, space-hardened software-
next generation of O3B satellites is planned to use an active defined radios can enable on-board waveform-specific process-
antenna (see Section V-B2) which can generate thousands of ing which can be upgraded during the satellite lifetime. Finally,
beams along with an on-board digital transparent processor cheap launching cost and conveyor-belt manufacturing allow
(see Section V-C1). This constellation type is unique since for deploying more risky/innovative approaches while keeping
it manages to hit a trade-off between constellation size and up with the latest evolutions in communication technology.
latency.
Finally, the proliferation of new constellation types has
given rise to hybrid constellations which combine assets in C. Non Terrestrial Networks
different orbits. One such example is the combination of MEO
Non Terrestrial Networks (NTN) is a term coined under
and GEO connectivity, where the terminals can seamlessly
5G standardization to designate communication systems that
handover between the two orbits [3]. Another example is
include satellites, Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAVs) or High
the backhauling of LEO satellite data through higher orbit
Altitude Platforms (HAPs). The main objective of this initia-
satellites [4], [5].
tive is to seamlessly integrate these assets into the 5G systems
by studying their peculiarities in terms of architecture and air
B. On-board Capabilities interface. More importantly, the relevant stakeholders would
Traditionally, the on-board processing capabilities have been like to valorize unique characteristics of NTNs, such as wide
the limiting factor for advanced SatCom strategies. Firstly, coverage, multicast capabilities and the complementarity with
the majority of satellites operate as a relay which frequency- local terrestrial infrastructure. Furthermore from a deployment
converts, amplifies and forwards and thus the on-board pro- point-of-view, the cost can be largely decreased by using 5G
cessing has to be waveform agnostic. Secondly, there is chipsets/systems and tapping into economies of a larger scale.
usually a large path loss to combat and a limited power In this direction, a number of promising use cases have been
supply which is tightly correlated with the satellite mass put forward (see Section III-A) and specific adaptation points
and launch cost. Thirdly, employed on-board components and of the current 5G standards have been suggested through the
TABLE I
L IST OF ACRONYMS
Acronyms Definitions Acronyms Definitions

3GPP The 3rd Generation Partnership Project LLO Low Lunar Orbit
5G The 5th Generation of Mobile Communication Systems LoRa Long Range
ACM Adaptive Coding and Modulation LoS Line of Sigh
ADC Analog to Digital Converter LPWAN Low-power Wide Area Networks
ADS-B Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast LSA Licensed Shared Access
AFR Array Feed Reflector LTE Long Term Evolution
AIS Automatic Identification Systems LUT Look up Table
ATC Air Traffic Controller MAC Medium Access Control Layer
ATCRBS Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System MBAs Multibeam Antennas
ATM Air Traffic Management MEO Medium Earth Orbit
ATSC Advanced Television Systems Committee MFPB Multi Feed per Beam
AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise MF-TDMA Multi-Frequency Time Division Multiple Access
BS Base Station MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
BATF Backhauling and Tower Feed mMTC Massive MAchine Type Communications
CA Carrier Aggregation ML Machine Learning
CCSDS Consultative Committee for Space Data System MSS Mobile Satellite Services
COOM Communication on The Move MU-MIMO Multi-User Multiple-Input Multiple-Output
CN Core Network MUI Multi-User Interface
CR Cognitive Radio NB-IoT Narrowband Internet of Things
CSI Channel State Information NCC Network Control Center
CSS Chirp Spread Spectrum NFV Netowrk Function Virtualization
D2D Device-to-Device NGSO Non Geostationary Orbit
DRA Direct Radiating Array NOMA Non-orthogonal Multiple Access
DSP Digital Signal Processing NTN Non Terrestrial Network
DSS Dynamic Spectrum Sharing OBP On-board Processing
DVB Digital Video Broadcasting OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
DTPs Digital Transparent Processors OMA Orthogonal Multiple Access
EBU European Broadcasting Union PAPR Peak to Average Power Ratio
EDRS European Data Relay System PHY Physical Layer
EPC Evolved Packet Core QoS Quality of Service
EHF Extremely High Frequency RC Repetition Coding
eMTC enhanced Machine Type Communication RF Radio Frequency
eMBB Enhanced Mobile Broadband RN Relay Node
EO Earth Observation RTT Round Trip Time
ESA European Space Agency SatComs Satellite Communications
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute SC-FDM Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiplexing
FAA Federal Aviation Administration SDMA Space Division Multiple Access
FEC Forward Error Correction SDMB Satellite Digital Multimedia Broadcasting
FPGA field programmable gate arrays SDN Software Defined Networking
GEO Geostationary Orbit SDR Software Radio
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System SFPB Single Feed per Beam
GPS Global Positioning System SIC Successive Interference Cancellation
GW Gateway SLP Symbol Level Precoding
HAPs High Altitude Platforms SINR Signal to Interference plus Noise Ratio
HEO Highly Elliptical Orbit SNR Signal to Noise Ratio
HTS High Throughput Satellite SOTM Satellite on The Move
HYMP Hybrid Multiplay TDRSS Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force THEF Trunking and Headend Feed
IFF Identification Friend or Foe TT&C Tracking and Command
IMO International Maritime Organization TWTAs Traveling Wave Tube Amplifiers
IMT International Mobile Telecommunications UAT Universal Access Transceive
IOT In Orbit Testing UAVs Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
IoT Internet of Things UCSS Unipolar Coded Chirp Spread Spectrum
ISL Inter-satellite Link UE User Equipment
ISS International Space Station UHTS Ultra High Throughput Satellite
ISTB Integrated Satellite-Terrestrial Backhaul UNB Ultra Narrowband Signal
KPI Key Performance Indicators uRLLC Ultra Reliable and Low Latency Communications
LAPs Low Altitude Platforms USRP Universal Software Radio Peripheral
LDM Layered Division Multiplexing UT User Terminal
LDPC Low Density Parity Check VLEO Very Low Earth Orbit
LEO Low Earth Orbit VNE Virtual Network Embedding
relevant working groups, focusing on air interface compatibil- miniaturization, 3) novel services based on space data. Privati-
ity and architectural integration (see Section IV-C1). zation refers to the manufacturing and especially the launching
of satellites by private companies, such as SpaceX and Rocket
D. New Space Lab, in contrast to the traditional institutional approach. In
New Space does not refer to a specific technology, but it parallel, satellite and component miniaturization allowed easy
rather implies a new mentality towards space. It originated access to space by multiplexing multiple cube/micro/nano-
from three main aspects: 1) space privatization, 2) satellite satellites into a single launcher. The combination of the two
ctiv ity
onne Em
erge
IoT C ncy
aul Ae
&S
afet
a ckh ron y
kB M au
or ar tica
etw itim lB
nt
N roa
te
ed
rs
e db
on
Fix & an
Ca
Tr
rC
M
f
d
ei
ac
2M
Dire
ting
la
Rel
Backhauling
kin
pu
cte
Po
g
as
ct C
ne
ster
g
oadc
n
tin
Co
o
Disa
as
nne
dc
ia Br
oa
ctiv
Br
Med
ity
Urban Area Rural Area Remote Area
Fig. 2. The role of satellites in the 5G ecosystem
first aspects has lead to the latter, by allowing quick and enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), massive machine-type
relatively inexpensive access to space. In this direction, a communication (mMTC) and ultra-reliable and low latency
wealth of data collection constellations have made it into communications (uRLLC). The role that the satellites can play
orbit, spanning a wide range of services e.g. earth observation, in the 5G ecosystem is crucial and has been widely recognized.
radio frequency (RF) monitoring, asset tracking, sensor data The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) initiated new
collection etc. Bringing our focus back to communication activities in March 2017 to study the role of the satellites in
aspects, New Space has inspired new opportunities in terms the 5G, and two study items (SI) have already been concluded
of collecting data from ground sensors directly via satellites, [9], [10]. After two years of a study phase, it is now approved
i.e. Satellite Internet of Things. Currently, tens of private that NTN will be a new key feature of 5G and a work item
companies are building demonstrators and competing to launch (WI) will start from January 2020 [11].
a viable commercial service. Almost all such ventures rely Three major groups of use cases for NTN 5G systems have
on low earth orbits and this raises additional communication been defined by the 3GPP [12]. Firstly, NTN can significantly
challenges in efficiently downlinking the collected data back to enhance the 5G network reliability by ensuring service
the ground for processing. Conventionally, each such venture continuity, in cases where it cannot be offered by a single
would require an extensive network of earth stations for high or a combination of terrestrial networks. This is especially
availability. However, cloud-based services (e.g. Amazon Web true in case of moving platforms (e.g. car, train, airplane
Services) have rolled out ground station networks that can be etc.) and mission-critical communications. Secondly, NTN
shared among the various constellations, while providing easy can guarantee the 5G service ubiquity in un-served (e.g.
access to high performance computing for the data processing desert, oceans, forest etc.) or underserved areas (e.g. urban
(see Section IV-C2). areas), where a terrestrial network does not exist or it is too
impractical/cost-ineffective to reach. Last but not least, NTN
III. A PPLICATIONS & U SE C ASES can enable the 5G service scalability due to the efficiency of
the satellites in multicasting or broadcasting over a very wide
The aim of this section is to outline and briefly describe
area. This can be extremely useful to offload the terrestrial
some of the most relevant applications and use cases where
network, by broadcasting popular content to the edge of the
SatComs can play a significant role.
network or directly to the users. A more detailed list of the
satellite use cases for each 5G service group can be found
A. 5G Non Terrestrial Network below and an illustration is shown in Fig. 2.
5G will be more than just an evolution of the previous 1) Satellite use cases for eMBB: The authors in [13] come
standards, embracing a wide new range of applications so as to up with a consolidated list of satellite-based 5G uses cases for
satisfy future important market segments, such as automotive the eMBB service, as listed hereafter.
and transportation sectors, media and entertainment, e-Health, • Backhauling and tower feed (BATF): In this use case the
Industry 4.0, etc., [6], [7]. Three major groups of 5G use satellite provides a complementary role by backhauling
cases are defined by ITU-R for International Mobile Telecom- the traffic load from the edge of the network or broad-
munications (IMT) for 2020 and beyond (IMT2020) [8]: casting the popular content to the edge, hence optimizing
the operation of the 5G network infrastructure; GEO / MEO

• Trunking and headend feed (THEF): The satellite ensures
a direct 5G connectivity in remote areas where a terres-
trial infrastructure is difficult or impossible to implement;
• Hybrid multiplay (HYMP): The satellite enables 5G
service into home/office premises in underserved areas
LEO / VLEO
via hybrid terrestrial-satellite broadband connections;
• Communications on the move (COOM): The satellite pro-
vides a direct or complementary connectivity to support
5G service on board moving platforms, such as aircraft,
vessels, and trains.
HAPs
2) Satellite use cases for mMTC: The massive machine-
type communication, also known as internet of things (IoT),
has to do with low complexity and extremely cheap devices
(sensors/actuators) able to generate and exchange information.
Even though small in nature, the traffic generated by these IoT LAPs
devices, will have a significant impact on the network load.
Therefore, the satellites can help to offload the terrestrial IoT
network through backhauling, or provide service continuity
in cases where a terrestrial network cannot reach. This group Base
Station
Relay
Station
Ground
Station
of uses cases can be categorized into two smaller subgroups

depending on the type of application that the satellite can Ground
support and on how the IoT sensors are distributed on Earth.
• Wide area IoT services: This use case has to do with Fig. 3. Multi-layer communications architecture.
applications based on a group of IoT devices distributed
over a wide area and reporting information to or con-
B. VLEO and SatCom-assisted Aerial Networks
trolled by a central server. Typical applications where the
satellite can play a role include: During the last years, intermediate layers of communi-
– Energy: Critical surveillance of oil/gas infrastruc- cations systems between terrestrial and traditional satellite
tures (e.g. pipeline status) segments have emerged thanks to the technological advance
– Transport: Fleet management, asset tracking, digital of the aerial and miniaturized satellite platforms. Regardless
signage, remote road alerts of the application, these new platforms can be classified
– Agriculture: Livestock management, farming according to their operation altitude. Three major groups can
be distinguished: Very Low Earth Orbit (VLEO) satellites,
• Local area IoT services: The IoT devices in this kind High Altitude Platforms (HAPs), and Low Altitude Platforms
of applications are used to collect local data and report (LAPs). Their respective altitude ranges are [14], [15] 100 to
to the central server. Some typical applications can be 450 km for VLEO, 15 to 25 km for HAPs, and 0 to 4 km
a smart grid sub-system (advanced metering) or services for LAPs. The advent of these new platforms enables a new
to on-board moving platforms (e.g. container on board a multi-layer communications architecture [16] with multiple
vessel, a truck or a train). inter-layer links capable to overcome the most challenging
3) Satellite use cases for uRLLC: This 5G use case is ex- scenarios. Fig. 3 shows a schematic approach of this new
pected to support services where the delay in the communica- multi-layer communications paradigm. The following subsec-
tion link (lower than 1 ms) and the reliability (1 packet loss in tions summarize the benefits ad challenges of LAPs, HAPs
105 packets) is of utmost importance. Some typical application and VLEO satellites.
examples include autonomous driving, remote surgery, factory 1) Very Low Earth Orbit: VLEO platforms operate closer
automation etc. It is clear that the satellite, regardless of the to the Earth than LEO satellites. This allows them to be
selected orbit altitude, is not able to directly support these simpler, smaller, and thus, cheaper [14]. However, such low al-
services due to the increased latency in the communication titudes contain a denser part of the atmosphere, and therefore,
link. However, it can be crucial in certain cases by playing a larger aerodynamic forces. This can be seen as a challenge,
supporting role. A typical example is content broadcast over but they can also represent an opportunity for orbit and
a wide area and intelligently cached locally (either at the attitude control [17]. Moreover, the increased drag represents
network edge or directly at the terminals), which can enable a shortening of the orbital lifetime, but this also means
the low ”perceived” latency (lower than 1 ms) at the user a more frequent fleet replacement of smaller and cheaper
side. Also, if we consider the autonomous driving use case, spacecrafts, thus, becoming more responsive to technology
the satellites can be extremely useful for car software updates, and market changes [18]. Several private companies such
traffic updates, etc., because of its broadcasting over a wide as SpaceX, OneWeb or Telesat are planning to launch their
area capabilities. Mobile Satellite Services (MSS) at VLEO.
2) High Altitude Platforms: HAPs have the potential to high rate transmissions[24], [25]. The main benefits of UAVs
complement conventional satellite networks. Indeed, they are (and LAPs) are similar to the HAPs ones, but at a cellular
also known as High Altitude Pseudo-Satellites [19], [20]. level: fast and flexible deployment, strong line-of-sight (LoS)
Due to their working altitude, HAPs have the potential to connection links, and additional design degrees of freedom
provide communications services at a regional scale. There with the autonomous and controlled mobility. Moreover, UAV-
are two main ways of cooperation between satellites and HAPs enabled aerial base stations may establish, enhance, and re-
according to [19], [20]: cover cellular coverage in real-time for ground users in remote,
• Backhauling: HAPs can be an intermediate element be- densely populated, and disastrous areas.
tween the satellite and the ground receiver. This two-step Despite the technological maturity of UAVs, UAV-based
downlink communication will have a first hop between communication networks have not been widespread because
satellite and HAPs, and a second hop between HAPS of several limiting factors such as cost constraints, regula-
and ground. The former is prone to the use of high tory frameworks, and public acceptance [15]. The use of
bandwidth optical links, as it suffers little atmospheric autonomous UAVs as 5G aerial base stations or as relays in a
effects, whereas the latter has a much shorter path than multi-layer vertical architecture is also a major research topic
the satellite height, which improves the link budget en- [26]. The technical challenges to be overcome are:
abling smaller antennae (cost-saving) or wider bandwidth • Improve the operation range and safety of the drones.
(revenue increase). • Integrate trustfully beyond-visual-line-of-sight communi-
• Trunking: HAPs have a good balance between regional cation.
coverage and reduced signal degradation. This triggers • Assessing the applicability of all 5G capabilities in UAV
their use as low-cost deployment solution for broadcast or base stations.
multicast services, allowing the users to directly connect Further work related to wireless communications using
within its coverage area and going to the satellite for HAPs and LAPs may be found in [27] and [28].
inter-coverage communications.
Despite their promising applications, HAPs are still facing C. Aeronautical and Maritime Tracking and Communication
some major challenges for their deployment at a global scale,
In addition to the above-mentioned uses cases, satellites can
although they have been successfully deployed in emergency
also play an important role in the aeronautical and maritime
scenarios [21], [22]. One of the main challenges is the limited
tracking systems. These systems share many similarities with
autonomy, especially in higher latitudes due to the reduced
other kinds of Device-to-Device (D2D) communications and
amount of daylight hours. Another is the weather conditions
the IoT. Such similarities are the very low data rates, the
since high wind speeds may drag HAPs away from their
sporadic nature of the communications, and the simplicity of
operating area and low temperatures reduce the lifetime of
the protocols.
the batteries. However, their benefits have been studied in
1) Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast: Air trans-
depth in [15], [19], [20]. The following list highlights the main
portation has been continuously increasing in the last years
advantages of the use of HAPs in communication networks:
up to a number of two billion passengers per year in 2018,
• Geographical coverage: HAPs provide an intermediate and is expected to continue growing to more than eight
coverage range between terrestrial and satellite systems. billion by 2037 [29]. This exponential increase may cause a
• Fast deployment: aerial base-stations can be deployed shortage of the radio resources and collapse the Air Traffic
for operation within hours. They can be a supplement Management (ATM) system, on which will rely the safety of
or complement to the existing terrestrial and satellite billions of future passengers [30]. Next generation air traffic
communications networks when they are overloaded or management systems are increasingly supported on Automatic
in case of failure. Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B). Although ADS-
• Reconfiguration: HAPs can be operated for long periods, B is not mandatory yet in all the regions of the world, it will be
but they can also return to the ground for reconfiguration. operational in most of the flying aircrafts by 2020. The ADS-
• Propagation delay: the propagation delay (∼50-85 µs) B system is based on the capability of the aircraft to navigate
is significantly lower compared to the GEO (∼120 ms), to a destination (typically using Global Navigation Satellite
MEO (∼15-85 ms) and even LEO satellites (∼1.5-3 ms), System (GNSS) data and barometric altitude), communicate
offering important advantages for delay-sensitive appli- to an air traffic controller, and to participate in cooperative
cations. surveillance to air traffic control for separation and situational
• Less infrastructure: a simple aerial platform can serve a awareness services. ADS-B is automatic as it requires no hu-
large number of terrestrial cells, limited by its antenna man intervention, and it is dependent on the data coming from
technology. the aircraft navigation system. The ADS-B signals are received
3) Low Altitude Platforms: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles by the available sensors, which are connected in the ATM
(UAVs) are the most prominent example of LAPs, but other network. These sensors have been usually deployed on ground
systems, such as tethered balloons [23], have been also used in the proximity of the Air Traffic Controller (ATC). However,
for communication purposes. UAVs are expected to be an as the under-the-horizon transmission is not feasible, ground-
important component of the near-future wireless networks. based ADS-B receivers cannot accurately receive signals from
They can potentially facilitate wireless broadcast and support flights passing over areas without ground stations, such as
and more reliability [37]. Since 2008, satellites equipped

with AIS receivers have been able to detect AIS signals
GNSS transmitted by AIS transceivers on a global scale. Space-based
satellites
AIS receptions open the possibility of unmanned transoceanic
journeys, convenient for the transport of hazardous materials,
which consequently enables the elongation of the duration of
ISL ISL non-time-critical journeys, optimize the fuel consumption or
ADS-B in ADS-B in
even allows the direct use of electrical or solar power [38],
GNSS [39]. Additionally, these satellites serve as supplementary data
sources for vessels and coastal authorities in busy port areas
where conventional AIS receivers may not be able to cope
ADS-B out in
with the large volume of ocean traffic [40]. Satellite-based
ADS-B out AIS provides an easy way for collecting AIS data on a global
scale in almost real-time [41], [42]. Commercial exploitation
in of space AIS has been carried out during the last decade
ADS-B out by companies such as SpaceQuest, Elane, ExactEarth, Marine
ADS-B in
Traffic, ORBCOMM, and SPIRE [34]).
ADS-B in Ground
station
ATC Ground ATC D. Earth Observation Data Collection
network
Traditionally, Earth Observation (EO) has been used by
Fig. 4. ADS-B hierarchy, with integration of the satellites in low orbit into Governmental or International agencies to report the weather,
the scenario performing ADS-B reception. monitor the oceans, detect changes in vegetation and analyse
the damage done by natural disasters like earthquakes or
hurricanes. It provides objective data on what really happens,
in the middle of the oceans or in the Arctic regions. As a showing trends and changes over time in a way that could
result, a large part of the airspace still remains unsupervised never be observed from the ground.
[30], [31] and the ground stations become congested by the However, in the last few years the space industry is expe-
workload they require to process. For these reasons, during riencing a trend towards investment in so-called agile space
the last years, it is proposed to implement space-based ADS- activity as opposed to traditional big space government’s
B receivers using a LEO constellation of small satellites which program. Agile space has the potential to open up space
can become part of the complete ATM relay network. In this program to a wider, more flexible range of players, such as
way is possible to achieve low latency and secure global ADS- universities, companies and developing countries. The agile
B coverage [31], [32]. An illustration of a satellite-based ADS- space sector is broadly split into two segments: upstream
B system is shown in Fig. 4. and downstream. Upstream space is focused on hardware,
Frequent and reliable ADS-B communication from space launchers, rockets and satellites, whereas downstream space
allows to improve the efficient use of the aerospace and data activities take information from the upstream and turn it
increase the aircraft security. This is explained by the fact into useful applications for business.
that the aircraft climbing trajectory is optimized for a given Private space data collection and space data analytic com-
security constraints, saving millions of dollars per year in fuel panies, like SPIRE [34], are proposing new type of services by
consumption [33]. However, this comes up with the cost of combining together satellite technology to collect information
having an increased amount of data generated which has to be and modern data analysis techniques (e.g. machine learning).
routed towards the control centers. Some specialized compa- A field where satellite information collection and machine
nies offer the services of satellite based ADS-B reception and learning data analytic can be very effective is the field of
networking. Some examples are SPIRE [34] and Aireon [35]. logistics. Consider, for instance, the task of monitoring the
Both companies provide global air traffic surveillance system number of containers that are moved in an harbor during the
using a space-based ADS-B network, and with the help of day. An effective way to accomplish this objective is to take
cloud computing. pictures of the harbor container storage zone trough a fleet
2) Maritime Automatic Identification System: The Auto- of small LEO satellite. Then, these pictures are sent back to
matic Identification System (AIS) is currently used on ships Earth, where they are processed using some machine learning
as a short-range tracking system and it is regulated by the technique in order to efficiently count the number of containers
International Maritime Organization (IMO) [36]. It provides that have been moved between the different satellite passages.
the vessels and shore stations with information on identifi- This allows to get a count of the total number of containers
cation and positioning on real-time in order to avoid ship moved in that harbor during the day [43].
collision accidents. Despite having been specified in the late While the LEO orbits guarantee some advantages for EO
part of the twentieth century it has only gained popularity purposes, it also poses some challenges from the telecommu-
over the last decade due to the use of satellite-based receivers nication point of view. First of all, satellites in LEO orbit
which provides global coverage, improved response times move relatively fast and because of this they can guarantee
coverage of a certain area only for a few minutes each several The challenges related to Deep Space Communication and
hours. Hence, to guarantee continuous coverage a large fleet of the available solutions are detailed in V-E3.
satellites is needed. For the same reason, a Gateway (GW) can
stay in contact with the satellite for a very limited amount of IV. S YSTEM A SPECTS
time. To guarantee full-time connectivity between the ground This section covers the system aspects of a satellite com-
and the satellites’ fleet either a large number of GWs must munication system. Some preliminaries regarding SatComs are
be built all around the globe, or inter-satellite link (ISL) included in order to introduce terminology and facilitate the
capabilities must be implemented in the satellites. More details reader to follow the material flow.
on this matter can be found in Section IV-B.
A. Constellation types
E. Space Communications
A fundamental aspect of satellite constellations is the orbit’s
Telecommunications play a fundamental role in space ex- altitude, which severely affects the latency of the communica-
ploration. Seeing Apollo 11 land on the Moon, downloading tion, the signal attenuation and the coverage. As anticipated,
Plutos pictures from New Horizon, receiving scientific data three basic orbit configurations are LEO, MEO, and GEO. The
on 67-p/Churyumov-Gerasimenko comet from Rosetta, com- respective altitude ranges are 500 to 900 km for LEO, 5,000
manding Voyager 1 to turn its camera and take a photograph to 25,000 km for MEO, and 36,000 km for GEO [47]. One
of Earth from a record distance of about 6 billion kilometers- might notice how extensive altitude ranges are not considered
all these and many other incredible achievements would have for the aforementioned satellite orbits. The reason for this is
been impossible without very efficient communication systems related to the Van Allen belts, which are regions containing
between us and our space explorers. energetic charged particles, most of which originate from the
The Space Exploration age began in 1957 with the launch solar wind, that are captured by and held around the Earth
of the Sputnik, and until now has been carried out mainly by by its magnetic field. The radiation levels of these zones are
either robotics missions, or very short human missions outside deemed to be unsuitable for the typical commercial satellites.
the Earth orbit, as in the case of the Apollo Program. The Therefore, LEO, MEO, and GEO altitudes are such that the
paradigm shift that we see today in space activities is best radiation field is within specific design constraints, consistent
encapsulated by the term Space 4.0, where the different space with achieving operating lifetimes in the range of 10 to 20
agencies are planning to have stable human presence in other years.
celestial bodies of our solar system. One of the most promising A GEO satellite can cover about one third of the Earths
in this sense is the Moon Village concept developed by ESA surface, with the exception of the polar regions. This cov-
[44], which seeks to transform this paradigm shift into a set erage includes more than 99% of the worlds population and
of concrete actions and create an environment, where both economic activity. The LEO and MEO orbits require more
international cooperation and the commercialisation of space satellites to achieve such global coverage, since non-GEO
can thrive. Such an ambitious goal will not be achievable if satellites move in relation to the surface of the Earth, hence
we are not able to guarantee high capacity and very reliable a higher number of satellites must be operating to provide
communication between Earth and these human outposts in continuous service. The fundamental trade-off is that the GEO
the solar system. satellites are farther and therefore are characterized by a longer
Until now, all the space exploration activities have been path length to Earth stations, while the LEO systems promise
carried out by National or Transnational Space Agencies (e.g short paths analogously to terrestrial systems. The path length
NASA, ESA, ROSCOMOS, JAXA, etc.), but this scenario introduces a propagation delay since radio signals travel at
is going to change soon with the private sector entering the the speed of light. Depending on the nature of the service, the
space exploration sector. In particular, there is a huge interest increased latency of LEO, MEO and GEO orbits may impose
from young start-ups to exploit the resource available on some degradation on the quality of the received signals or the
asteroids and on the Moon. Asteroids contain, in fact, a huge delivered data rate. The extent to which this influences the
amount of minerals, including gold, platinum, cobalt, zinc, acceptability of the service depends on several factors, such
tin, lead, indium, silver, copper, iron, and various rare-Earth as the degree of interactivity, the delay of other components
metals. For millennia, these metals have been mined from of the end-to-end system, and the protocols used to coordinate
the Earth’s crust, and they have been essential to economic information transfer and error recovery.
and technological progress. In addition, there are thought Another relevant characteristic of satellite orbits is the
to be many asteroids and comets that are largely composed eccentricity. While for most SatCom services the orbits are
of water ice and other volatiles (ammonia, methane, etc.). circular, there are cases of elliptical orbits with high eccen-
Water ice could be harvested to satisfy a growing demand for tricity, typically referred to as highly elliptical orbits (HEO).
freshwater on Earth, for everything from drinking to irrigation Examples of inclined HEO include Molniya orbits and Tundra
and sanitation. Volatile materials could also be used as a source orbits. Such extremely elongated orbits have the advantage of
of chemical propellant like hydrazine, thus facilitating further long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to,
exploration and mining ventures. In fact, in [45] it is indicated and descent from, apogee. Bodies moving through the long
that there are roughly 2 trillion metric tons (2.2 trillion US apogee dwell appear to move slowly, and remain at high alti-
tons) of water ice in the Solar System. tude over high-latitude ground sites for long periods of time.
This makes these elliptical orbits useful for communications Space Segment
towards high latitude regions.
Inter Satellite
Besides the constellations of satellites orbiting around the Links
Earth, it is also worth mentioning the existence of lunar
orbiting satellites, which orbit around the moon. Among the
User
k
Lin
k
l
in
different types of lunar orbits, low lunar orbit (LLO) are of tro
Link
rL
on
de
C
particular interest for the exploration of the moon. Such orbits
s
Fe
have an altitude below 100 km and a period of about two Forward
Link
hours. Further, highly eccentric orbits are used for the moon Satellite TT&C Ground
Operator Station
exploration, too.
User
In general, in the design of a satellite constellation for Return
Terminals
Link
SatCom services, it is important to assess a number of param- Network
eters and to evaluate their respective trade-offs. The principal Operator Gateway/Hub
performance parameter is the coverage, as the first requirement

Ground Segment User Segment
to guarantee the communication link is to reliably cover the
regions of interest. Typically, the coverage of the satellite Fig. 5. SatCom System Architecture
is assessed taking into account various practical restrictions,
such as the minimum elevation angle for the user terminal
and required service availability. Another fundamental perfor- node
mance parameter to be considered is the link latency, which
sat
is directly related to the constellation altitude, as previously
node
mentioned. While high altitude constellations, such as GEO sat
ones, allow wide coverage, they suffer a much higher latency sat node
Hub
compared to the lower altitude ones. Furthermore, satellites
at lower altitudes move faster, which leads to higher Doppler
sat sat
frequency offset/drift and can be crucial for the design of the
user equipment, especially for wideband links, as described node node
in Section V-D2. This trade-off in the altitude choice clearly a)
needs to be addressed taking into account the type of service peer
to be provided. Concerning the cost of constellations, the sat
principal parameter is clearly the number of satellites, thus it peer
sat
is important to achieve the desired performance keeping this sat

number as low as possible. Also, the number of orbital planes sat
sat peer
affects the overall cost, as changes require large amounts sat sat sat
of propellant. Ultimately, once the constellation altitude is sat
selected based on the specific service to be provided, the con-
stellation design aims at guaranteeing coverage in the regions peer sat peer
b)
of interest, using the lowest possible number of satellites and
orbital planes. After that, the satellite payload and architecture Fig. 6. Communication topology: a) star; b) mesh.
are designed by taking into account the system requirements.
More details on communication architecture can be found in
Section IV-B. In this context, the number of supporting ground from the user through the satellite to the GW is referred to as
stations and the frequency plan are decided with respect to the return link. The link connecting the GW with the satellite (in
optimized resource allocation, such as signal bandwidth and both directions) is named the feeder link. The link connecting
transmit power. Based on the maximum resources needed in the satellite with the user terminal is referred to as user link.
order to satisfy the service demand at all times the system The control of the satellites is performed by the so-called
architecture is finalized. Telemetry, Tracking and Command (TT&C) stations. The
main task of TT&C stations is to monitor the status of the
satellite sub-systems, run tests and update the configuration.
B. Communication architecture Such control mechanisms are needed for the maintenance
The basic structure of a satellite communication system con- purposes and in order to keep the satellites on the respective
sists of a space segment that includes the satellite constellation, orbits. Correspondingly, the operation of TT&C stations falls
a ground segment including GW stations and large ground into responsibility of the satellite operator. In contrast, the
facilities for control, network operations and backhauling, and GW stations are run and maintained by the network operator,
a user segment with the user terminals deployed on fixed and since they manage the network access and backhauling. As
mobile platforms (e.g. airplanes and ships), see Fig. 5. The link the coverage area of MEO satellites is typically larger than the
between the GW station and the user terminal via intermediate coverage area of LEO satellites, LEO constellations require a
satellite is named the forward link, whereas the link coming substantially larger number of supporting GWs compared to
Transparent Regenerative
Payload Payload ISL
(gNB)
NR Feeder NR Feeder
Interface Link Interface Links
Gateway
gNB
Gateway
NGC NGC
RN RN
User Equipments Data Network User Equipments Data Network
a) b)
Fig. 7. 5G-NTN architecture options with a) transparent payload; b) regenerative payload.
MEO constellations. In contrast, GEO satellites require only of-the-art types of digital payloads can be found in Section
one GW for backhauling due to their fixed position. For more V-C1.
information on ground segment, we refer to [48]. In order to enhance the performance of satellite constella-
The communication topology depends primarily on the tar- tions, ISLs can be created, such that multiple satellites can
get application of the communication system. The two typical cooperatively accomplish complicated missions. Correspond-
topologies are star and mesh. In both cases, the satellite acts ingly, the complexity of each satellite is reduced. Furthermore,
as a relay between each node and the hub (backhaul) or be- ISLs can be employed for data offloading. The implementation
tween multiple peer nodes, respectively. Here, we differentiate of the ISLs can be done using traditional RF antennas or
between point-to-point and point-to-multipoint transmissions. optical wireless technology. The latter is beneficial due to nar-
The point-to-multipoint connectivity as in traditional broadcast rower beams generated by the employed lasers. A distinct ad-
services, internet connections via satellite and data collection vantage of this technique is the substantially reduced antenna
from the sensors deployed on the earth surface, the star size. The link can be established between multiple satellites of
topology is used, where each terminal is connected to the the same orbit (e.g. LEO-LEO) as well as between satellites
hub via satellite on a single-hop basis, see Fig. 6a). The data of different orbits (e.g. GEO-LEO). A typical example for
collection from the sensors deployed on board of the satellite the latter is the use of GEO satellites as relays for the links
(e.g. in earth observation applications), can be viewed as a between LEO satellites and GWs. As mentioned earlier, this
special case of star topology, since the satellite acts both as a technique is employed by specifically designed GEO satellite
relay and as a signal source. For point-to-point connectivity as constellations, such as European Data Relay System (EDRS)
in video conferencing, the star topology would imply two-hop or Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) in order
transmissions, which might be crucial with respect to the end- to improve the connectivity and coverage. Both systems are
to-end latency of packet transmission. Hence, mesh topology is intended to provide the requested on-demand services in nearly
usually preferred, where each peer node can communicate with realtime, especially for emergency applications. However, the
another peer node via satellite relay, see Fig. 6b). However, coexistence of multiple satellites belonging to different orbital
this topology may require intelligent routing of data packets by planes with coordinated and uncoordinated access is very
the satellite. As an example, the mesh topology is employed challenging and therefore plays an important role in the
by AIS (see Section III-C2). In addition, mesh topology has system design/operation. We will discuss the inter-plane access
been recently proposed for various LEO and GEO satellite technology in more detail in Section VI-C.
constellations based on optical ISLs in order to ensure a
sufficient connectivity and cooperation between satellites. C. Interface with other systems
Upon being employed as a relay, the satellite can be 1) Interface with xG systems through NTN: From the
either transparent or regenerative. Transparent satellites do not system level point of view, in order to create an interface
perform any signal processing besides amplification, spatial between the satellite and the 5G network, different architecture
filtering and frequency conversion. Hence, the functionality options have been identified within 3GPP studies for NTN
of the satellite resembles an amplify-and-forward relay struc- [10]. The different architecture options are categorized based
ture from traditional wireless communications. In contrast, on the payload type (e.g. transparent or regenerative) and the
regenerative satellites perform additional signal processing, user access link type (direct or non-direct). They are illustrated
e.g. decoding, interference cancellation, signal regeneration, in Fig. 7. In case of a transparent payload, the satellite provides
etc., similar to decode-and-forward relaying. The payload of connectivity between the users and the base station, which
the satellite is designed accordingly. More details on the state- is on ground. On the other hand, in case of a regenerative
payload, the base station functionalities can be performed by

the satellite. This option, even though it is more complex, Data Center
would improve significantly the round trip time (RTT) of the
communication. In addition, due to the regenerative payload,
an ISL can be also established, which would be beneficial for
hand-over procedures in case of a constellation of satellites
(typically in LEO and MEO orbits). Both architecture options
can ensure direct or non-direct access to the user equipments AWS Ground
Satellites Clients
Stations
(UE) on ground. In the latter case, the access link to the users
is provided by the relay nodes (RN), which are then connected Fig. 8. AWS Ground Station System Architecture
to the base stations through the satellite link. The functionality
of the RN and the air interface for the link between base
stations and the RN is still under definition in the 3GPP.
However, assuming that they would have a similar role as
the RN in the Long Term Evolution (LTE) network, they can
simplify the integration of the satellites in the 5G network, by
aggregating the traffic coming from many users on ground. For
interested readers [49] provides a more detailed explanation
of each component in these architecture options, whereas the Fig. 9. Satellite spectrum
challenges of a 5G satellite-terrestrial network integration and
possible solutions can be found in [50][51].
2) Interface with the Cloud through a Ground Station and some communications satellites, especially those of NASA
Network: As already mentioned in Section II-A, it is expected for communication with International Space Station (ISS) and
that in the near future thousands of satellites will be in the Space Shuttle [53]. L and S bands are also used for TT&C. In
LEO orbit. Therefore, the amount of data to be collected particular, the frequency bands between 2-2.3 GHz are shared
by these satellites will be tremendously high. In order to co-equally by the space research, space operation, and EO
have access to this data, the interested customers must either satellite services [54]. Clearly, there is not much bandwidth
build their own ground stations and antennas, or lease them available in lower bands, so it has become a costly commodity.
from ground station providers. In addition, servers, storage Satellite communications, especially TV broadcasting, pre-
and routing capabilities are needed in order to store, process dominately operate in C and Ku bands. Because of recent
and transport the data coming from the satellite. This requires developments in satellite communications [55], [56] together
a significant investment since the cost of each of the above with the conventional fixed spectrum allocation policy, conges-
mention components is high. tion of C and Ku bands has become a serious issue. To enhance
Through a Ground Station Network that can be shared the spectral efficiency and leave room for new broadband
among the various constellations, the data can be collected applications, satellite systems have moved from single-beam
from the different satellites orbiting the Earth and stored in to multi-beam satellites with smaller beam spots. In essence,
a central cloud. In such a case, the interested customers will the multi-beam satellite payloads are designed to allocate a
only need to access the cloud, without the need for a long-term fixed bandwidth segment to each beam according to a regular
investment towards a personal ground station infrastructure. A frequency reuse scheme and constant equal power. Therefore,
typical example of such a system is the AWS Ground Station, the maximum system capacity of current multi-beam satellites
which is an initiative launched by Amazon, and an illustration is limited by the fractional frequency reuse factor. Since the
of the system architecture is shown in Fig. 8. Such a cloud same frequency band is shared by different beams, the problem
based service solution, not only lowers the cost of sending of multiuser interference arises. Aggressive frequency reuse
data from space to Earth, but also it significantly reduces the schemes have been shown to be a promising approach towards
data access delay [52]. enhancing the spectral efficiency of satellite communications
(see Section V-C2).
Due to the spectrum scarcity, satellite operators are mov-
D. Spectrum ing from the conventional C-band and Ku-band to Ka-band,
Satellite communications operate in the Extremely High which offers much greater signal bandwidth than C and Ku
Frequency (EHF) band, in particular between 1-50 GHz. bands altogether. However, Ka-band systems are much more
Different frequency bands are suitable for different climate susceptible to adverse weather conditions than Ku-band and
conditions, types of service and types of users. For simplicity, especially C-Band. On the other hand, moving to higher
the frequency bands used for satellites are identified by simple frequencies allows for smaller antenna size thus promoting
letters: (i) Lower frequencies (L, S, X and C-bands), and (ii) the use of multi-antenna systems.
Higher frequencies (Ku, K, Ka, Q/V bands). A schematic The 5G system deployment have posed numerous chal-
illustration of the satellite spectrum is provided in Fig. 9. lenges, mainly in terms of supporting very high data rates with
Radio navigation systems, like GPS or Galileo, operate in low end-to-end delays [57]. The success of 5G heavily depends
L-band. S-band is used for weather radar, surface ship radar, on national governments and regulators, as they are responsible
to provide the new spectrum bands and operational guidelines E. Standardization

for 5G deployment. The main representatives of the digital
technology industry have released a list of recommendations Standardization is also an important aspect of all the
on the commercial spectrum for 5G in Europe [58], where telecommunication systems. The usage of common open stan-
the frequency band 3400-3800 MHz (C-band) is identified as dards is fundamental to guarantee interoperability between
a potential candidate for the initial deployment of 5G mobile devices from different manufacturers on both the transmitter
service. and the receiver side. This reveals an open market with
different manufacturers competing to offer the best possible
C-band spectrum has been traditionally reserved exclusively devices in order to acquire more market shares. Apparently,
for satellite use and the reallocation of C-band spectrum to this is hugely beneficial for the development of the technology
other telecommunications would inevitably have an impact and also for consumers. The main set of standards for SatComs
on the satellite systems. In this regard, C-band should be can be found hereafter.
carefully assigned to new 5G systems so as to ensure the 1) DVB: Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) [74] is a set
continuity of vital satellite communication services. In this of international open standards for digital television. DVB
context, it is worth citing the recent developments in EEUU, standards are maintained by the DVB Project, an international
where a satellite alliance is proposing ways to clear the C-band industry consortium, and are published by a Joint Technical
spectrum and accommodate the 5G wireless services [59]. Committee (JTC) of the European Telecommunications Stan-
Recently, moving the feeder link from Ka-band to the Q/V- dards Institute (ETSI), European Committee for Electrotechni-
band (40/50 GHz) has been investigated as a solution to the cal Standardization (CENELEC) and European Broadcasting
Ka-band congestion [60]. This migration, not only frees-up the Union (EBU).
whole Ka-band spectrum for the user link, but also provides DVB standards are recognized as the most important set
higher bandwidth for feeder link that can accommodate a of standard for Television Broadcast and are widely used
broadband HTS system. Unfortunately, weather impairments around the World, well beyond the European Border where the
heavy affect Q/V band, claiming for the use of GW diversity standards have been originally developed. The DVB standards
techniques to ensure the required availability [61], [62]. cover different TV broadcast technology from satellite to cable
to terrestrial television. They cover both the physical and data
Last but not least, new Non Geostationary Orbit (NGSO)
link layer of the ISO-OSI stack. The most important standards
satellite systems are gaining momentum due to the low free
developed by DVB for the Physical Layer are: i) DVB-S,
space attenuation and small propagation delay of lower orbits
DVB-S2 and DVB-S2X for Satellite TV; ii) DVB-C and DVB-
[63]. Still, the available usable radio spectrum is limited and
C2 for cable TV; iii) DVB-T and DVB-T2 for terrestrial TV.
is costly for the NGSO satellite operators. This has led to the
For the second layer of the ISO-OSI stack, the most important
concept of spectrum coexistence of LEO/MEO satellites with
DVB standards are: i) DVB-MPEG; ii) DVB-GSE.
the already existing GSO satellites [64] and/or the spectral
coexistence among different NGSO satellites [65]. 2) 5G NTN standardization: The standardization of 5G,
like the previous mobile communications generations, is led by
Cognitive Radio (CR) is a well-known spectrum manage- the 3GPP. Traditionally, satellite and terrestrial standardization
ment framework to solve the spectrum scarcity, as it enables have been separate processes from each other. However, in
unlicensed systems to opportunistically utilize the underuti- recent years, there has been an increasing interest from the
lized licensed bands. Within the satellite communications satellite communication industry in participating in the 3GPP
context, CR has been considered in [66], [67], where the standardization effort for 5G, due to the market potential of
non-exclusive Ka-band (17.7-19.7 GHz for Space-to-Earth and an integrated satellite-terrestrial network. As a matter of fact,
27.5-29.5 GHz for Earth-to-Space) is considered for spectrum 3GPP initiated in March 2017, as part of Release 14, a study
coexistence between incumbent terrestrial backhaul links and item in order to analyse the feasibility of satellite integration
the non-exclusive satellite links. into 5G network [12]. The initial goal was to bring together
In order to further improve the capacity and reliability of satellite operators and other companies to create aligned con-
mobile wireless backhaul networks, the concept of seamlessly tributions in the support of NTNs in the 5G standardization.
Integrated Satellite-Terrestrial Backhaul Network (ISTB) has Two study items have already been concluded [9] [10], where
been proposed in [68]–[70]. In ISTB, satellite and the ter- the role that the satellites can play in the 5G ecosystem
restrial system intelligently collaborate not only to enhance has been studied. In addition, the challenges of a satellite-
the backhaul network capacity but also to overcome current terrestrial network co-existence have been analysed taking into
spectrum scarcity while reducing the spectrum licensing costs. account different architecture options and all the layers of
communication. After two years of a study phase, it is now
In both Satellite CR and ISTB scenarios, spectrum coex-
approved from the 3GPP that NTN will be a new key feature
istence results in undesired interference which needs to be
of 5G and a work item (WI) will start from January 2020
carefully addressed to truly leverage the full potential of such
[11]. It is agreed that as a starting phase only the LEO and
schemes (e.g. [71]–[73]).
GEO satellite orbits will be considered having a transparent
For more information on system coexistence scenarios, payload. Last but not least, initial studies on the support of
the reader is referred to the subsection VI-C of the present IoT technologies, such as Narrowband Internet of Things (NB-
manuscript. IoT) and enhanced Machine Type Communications (eMTC),
Fig. 10. Areas and Working Groups (topic) that are currently developing new standards in CCSDS.
will be performed. configurations using different frequencies. Hence, satellite sys-

3) CCSDS: The Consultative Committee for Space Data tems encounter a variety of channels [76]. However, common
System (CCSDS) was established in 1982 by the major space to these models are the following:
agencies of the world to provide a forum for solving common • Absence of scatterers near the satellite transmit antennas.
problems in the development and operations of space data • Long term components
systems. It develops recommended standards and practices for • Dynamic channel components
data and communications systems with two main aims: to In the following, we present a canvas of the channel models
promote interoperability and cross support among cooperat- encountered in satellite communications.
ing space agencies, so reducing operations costs by sharing 1) Fixed Satellite: The next generation satellite systems
facilities, and also reduce costs performing common data would be typically operating at frequencies higher than 10
functions, by eliminating unjustified project-unique design and GHz. According to [76], such channels are characterized
development within the various agencies. by line of sight (LoS); the satellite channel essentially cor-
On the official CCSDS website, [75], all standards and responds to an Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)
practices developed by CCSDS are published and available for channel. However, on top of this, propagation at the Ku and,
free. CCSDS publications are organized into seven categories: especially, Ka-band is subjected to various atmospheric fading
Blue book, Magenta book, Green book, Orange book, Yellow mechanisms (see references in [76] for details). These effects
book, Red book and Silver book. can be modelled as,
The Architectural Overview in Fig. 10 shows the Areas and • Long Term Channel Effects: The key constituents to
Working Groups (topics) that are currently developing new this category include, attenuation due to precipitation,
standards in CCSDS. As we can see there are six technical gaseous absorption and clouds, tropospheric scintillation,
areas with twenty-three working groups, responsible to pro- signal depolarization among others. The models for such
duce new standards. The working body responsible to define effects typically involve first-order statistics [76].
communications standards is the Space Link Service (SLS), • Dynamic Channel Effects: These effects determine the
composed of six working groups. It defines two main links temporal properties of the AWGN channel when impacted
between Earth and space probes: telemetry and telecommand. by rain. Such models allow for the calculation of several
second-order statistics, such as fade slope and fade dura-
V. A IR I NTERFACE : E NABLERS & T OPICS tion.
This section covers the main technical aspects related to the Clearly, since the distance between the user terminal and
air interface of a satellite communication system. the satellite is quite large compared to the distance between
antennas (either on-board or on the ground). This, and the
absence of scatterers near the satellite antennas, tend to make
A. Channel Modelling the fading among all the channels between the satellite and
Channel and propagation characteristics play a key role the user terminal correlated. This spatial correlation negatively
in determining the system design and determining the right impacts the use of Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)
techniques. These aspects are typically determined by the for Fixed Satellites [76], [77]. Further, with regard to the rain-
frequency of operation in addition to the system configuration. fading, the ground terminals need to be several miles away to
The satellite communication system provides a plethora of ensure a significant decorrelation of fading.
contiguous coverage [81], [82], leaving little or no space

to accommodate additional missions on the satellite. This
is in order to accommodate for horns of relatively large
electrical aperture (typically in the range 2-3 wavelengths) that
lead to favourable antenna efficiency and reduced sidelobes.
Consequently, the minimum displacement of adjacent feed
horns leads to a large separation of the associated beams,
which are then interleaved by beams produced by another
a) b) reflector.
In the alternative MFPB architecture, each beam is produced
Fig. 11. Imaging antenna systems: a) defocused and b) confocal by a cluster of feeds. This allows adjacent feed clusters to
overlap as individual feeds may contribute to multiple adjacent
beams. An advantage of MFPB is therefore that contiguous
2) Mobile Satellites: As mentioned in [76], the channel
coverage can be achieved with one or two main reflectors [81],
characteristics in mobile satellite systems differ from their FS
[82]. On the other hand, MFPB antennas require more complex
counterparts since mobility implies the presence of diffuse
beam-forming network and can give rise to challenges in terms
multipath (or Non-LoS) paths in addition to LoS. Narrow-
of e.g. the operating frequency bandwidth or lower aperture
band and Broadband channel models have been proposed in
efficiency. Consequently, MFPB does not always represent the
the literature. Typically, these models involve a multi-state
choice of preference within passive antenna architectures [83].
Markov model, with each state determining the parameters
The SFPB and MFPB architectures outlined above, have so
and nature of distribution of the corresponding channel. As
far been the most widely used architectures for GEO High
a case in point, ITU Recommendation P.681 [78] presents a
Throughput Systems [84]. The use of multiport amplifiers
narrowband 3-state Markov model with related state statistics.
[85] is increasingly being deployed in these architectures
The states represent (i) Deep shadow state, (ii) Intermediate
to add flexibility in power allocation (e.g. Eutelsat 172B
shadow state and (iii) a good state with very slow variations.
[86]). Larger reflectors enabled by deployable technologies
The severity of mean attenuation increases with the shadow
are also being developed for delivering more directive beams
strength. Another approach for a narrowband 2-state land-
for telecommunications and other missions [87]. Meanwhile,
mobile satellite channel model at 2.2 GHz is presented in
the pressing needs for flexibility in coverage and an ever-
[79]. This approach assumes a Loo distributed RX signal
increasing number of beams is driving major efforts for the
defined by a parameter triplet and the channel state statistics
developments of active array solutions [84], [88], [89]. Active
is determined by the User Terminal (UT) (vehicle) speed.
arrays decouple the number of beams from the number of feeds
Further, a wideband satellite channel model comprises the 2-
and, in conjunction with beamforming technologies, enable
state semi-Markov model for shadowing and the ITU multi-
both flexibility in the coverage as well as the power sharing
tap model [80] for the multipath propagation. Typically, the
between the beams [89].
channel properties are assumed quasi-stationary over short-
2) Active antenna arrays: By definition, in active antennas
time periods, and during these periods are represented by
the amplifiers are integrated with the radiating elements. A
stationary stochastic processes.
marking difference from passive antennas is thus the dis-
tributed amplification of the radiating signal. The spatial RF
B. Antennas power distribution and reduced peak RF power levels in active
1) Passive and focused reflector antennas: The shift from arrays improve reliability (including reducing multipaction
broadcast to broadband missions marks a transition from thresholds [91]) and graceful degradation. Recent develop-
contour beam coverage, which is designed to serve a given ments in wide bandgap semiconductor technologies (e.g. GaN)
geographical region, to multibeam antennas (MBAs) that by are promising to improve the relatively low power and thermal
virtue of narrower beams enable both higher gains and fre- efficiencies of MMIC amplifiers at Ku-band and beyond [92],
quency reuse thereby maximising the spectral efficiencies. which is otherwise a natural choice for active arrays in place of
The corresponding evolution of traditional passive antenna the more traditional vacuum (travelling wave tube) amplifiers
architectures for GEO missions has driven shaped reflector due to the advantageous integration.
antennas towards single feed per beam (SFPB) and multiple Active antennas can be deployed in either direct radiating
feed per beam (MFPB) MBAs [81], [82]. For telecommunica- array (DRA) or array fed reflector (AFR) architectures. The
tions missions in the Ku- and Ka-band, both SFPB and MFPB choice and associated trade-offs strongly depend on the system
architectures involve an array of feed horns at the focal plane requirements. For LEO and MEO systems, the large field
(i.e. focused architecture) of the reflector, often in an offset-fed of view coupled and the reduced demands on gain favor
parabolic architecture. DRA solutions. For GEO High Throughput Satellite (HTS)
In SFPB antennas, each beam is produced by the illumi- missions, the large electrical sizes required to achieve the
nation from a single feed. SFPB MBAs provide high gain gain targets are preferentially achieved with reflector-based
and low side-lobe level thereby leading to an advantageous geometries that provide magnification of the radiating aperture
carrier to interference ratio. On the other hand, the SFPB [88]; the best active array architecture for GEO thus remains
architecture typically requires 3 or 4 reflectors to achieve an open question [84]. Two AFR architectures are primarily
a) b) c)
Fig. 12. a) : Double layers of Rotman lenses producing pencil beams in two directions; b) Continuous parallel plate waveguide lens-like antenna; c)Prototype
of a QOBF antenna [90]
considered, namely the defocused parabolic reflector (typically assigned value [95]. A drawback of this approach is that the
in an offset configuration) or a combination of two parabolic antenna development is in general bespoke to a mission and
reflectors, often referred to as a confocal reflector config- thereby complexity and costs do not necessarily scale down.
uration, Fig. 11 [89]. Both configurations typically require The realisation of lightweight and efficient reconfigurable
oversized reflectors to minimise spillover losses during beam antennas can also benefit from quasi-optical beamforming
scanning. Defocused reflectors provide pathways for trading (QOBF) networks [96]–[98]. An example of this is the Rotman
off between RF performance and the number of feeds per lens, where beamforming is achieved by virtue of the phasing
beam. They typically suffer from higher aberrations compared propagated waves in a parallel plate waveguide [96]. A single
to confocal systems but are compatible with a reduced number Rotman lens offers beam steering along one axis, whereas
of feeds. Comparatively, they also provide advantages in terms two layers of stacked Rotman lenses offer the possibility to
of complexity and accommodation. generate pencil beams that can be steered along 2 principal
The development of on-board digital processing capability axes (see Fig. 12. a). An example of Rotman lens development
(see Section V-C1) is, together with distributed amplification, for GEO VHTS mission is presented in [97]. In order to
another major underpinning technology towards active arrays remediate the complexities associated with the discrete an-
for telecommunication payloads. It enables control of analogue tenna ports of the Rotman lens as well as the losses from
beamforming networks, direct digital beamforming or their the dielectric substrate, a continuous parallel plate waveguide
hybrids. Reducing the number of active elements in an array lens-like multiple-beam antenna is presented in [98] (see
provides advantages in terms of cost, complexity, thermal Fig. 12. b). A prototype involving this beamformer targeting
management as well as digital demands for the control of the LEO/MEO missions (see Fig. 12. c) is presented in [90] and
phased array. Significant efforts are therefore placed in this an analysis of the performance of this solution in the presence
context. and absence of beam-hopping under varying traffic scenarios
Since the gain of an antenna is strongly linked with the is presented in [99].
size of the illuminating aperture, one technique to reduce the 3) Trends in antennas for LEO/MEO missions and the
number of elements in an array without reducing the overall ground segment: MEO and LEO satellites experience a spatial
surface area is to increase their size. Antenna array theory evolution of the traffic along the satellite orbit. Therefore,
suggests that in this case grating lobes are likely to appear [93]. a reconfigurable antenna is needed to match the satellite
In multibeam satellite systems, grating lobes can be tolerated coverage with the spatial distribution of the traffic. The LEO
as long as they do not compromise the system performance, constellations by Telesat, Starlink and Akash are aligned
primarily due to causing unwanted interference (e.g. typically with this approach [100]. The MEO constellation by O3B is
by being kept outside the field of view of the Earth [84]). also adopting a steerable beam approach [101]. For smaller
Depending on the orbit, this can provide some margin to platforms, such as cubesats, the priorities in terms of the
increase the size of radiating elements and thereby reduce their antenna selection are defined by the mission specifics, such as
number for a fixed size of the illuminating aperture. the limited capacity for on-board accommodation. A review of
An alternative approach for reducing the number of el- antenna solutions for smaller satellite platforms (e.g. cubesats)
ements in an active antenna is based on array thinning can be found in [102].
techniques. The latter relies on sparse and aperiodic arrays, Antennas for ground terminals is also a rapidly evolving
which provide opportunities for a trade-off between side- area of technology development. Of particular commercial
lobe levels and number of elements [94], [95]. Sparse array interest remains the development of flat panel antennas with
design typically targets a suitable combination of the radiating beam steering capability that enables satellite on the move
element positions along an aperiodic lattice with the tapering (SOTM) applications as well as connectivity to non-GEO
of the excitation amplitude across the aperture. The size platforms [103]. A number of mechanical, electronic and
of the radiating elements can also be modulated along the hybrid approaches are reported in the literature and are actively
aperture. Aforementioned techniques enable the control of the being pursued by a vibrant academic and industrial research
beamwidth while maintaining side lobe levels kept under an community. They typically use two narrow-width arrays on
a 2-axis positioner for tracking in azimuth and elevation. A analog front-end receiver processing including antenna sys-
significant disadvantage with this type of antennas is the broad tems, analog beamforming network, Low noise amplifiers,
beamwidth along the narrow plane of the aperture, which can down conversion (mixer, filter) and automatic gain control that
lead to interference problems [104]. A mechanically steerable appear before the digital processing is not detailed. The key
flat panel antenna product that overcomes the aforementioned components in OBP are listed below, the reader can refer to
high skew angle problem [104] and has successfully been de- [112], [107] for further information.
ployed in the avionic industry is provided by [105]. Alternative • High Speed Analog to Digital Converters (ADC) and
approaches that target to maintain performance while reducing Baseband/IF Conversion.
costs include the use of nematic liquid crystals [106]. • Channelizers comprising an analysis filter bank for de-
multiplexing uplink signals and a synthesis filter bank to
regenerate appropriate bands.
C. Ultra High Throughput Satellites (UHTS)
• Processing Block includes processing of individual
1) Digital Payloads: Due to the diversification of markets, streams like (de)modulation, decoding/ encoding as well
satellite communications need to meet enhanced demand for as joint processing using Multiple-Input Multiple-Output
reliable and flexible connectivity at higher throughput. Novel (MIMO) technique. It also includes a Look-up Table
architectures like multibeam systems, migration to higher (LUT) for predistortion, beamforming, precoding and
frequencies and novel techniques such as precoding, predistor- spectrum calculation.
tion, interference and resource management have already been • Switching Block affects routing in spatial (e. g, from one
considered [107]. To fully exploit these developments in the beam to another), temporal (e.g.,store and forward) and
emerging contexts, and impart flexibility in design, additional spectral (e.g., frequency hopping) domains.
resources need to be considered. In this context, space-based As mentioned earlier, on-board processing with digital pay-
assets are considered with on-board processing (OBP) being loads are being considered by satellite manufacturers and
the widely accepted methodology. operators. With the emergence of novel signal processing
Providing digital processing on-board the satellite is not a and digital communications, digital payloads offer an ideal
new concept and has been discussed in the last decades [108], platform to overcome many of the short-comings of traditional
[109], [110]. A perusal of the literature indicates two key OBP on-ground processing. This includes reducing the latency and
paradigms. the inefficient use of resources, as well as enabling additional
1) Digital Transparent Processors (DTPs): These proces- flexibility among others [107]. Some examples of applica-
sors sample the waveform and operate on the result- tion involve on-board predistortion [113] and energy-detection
ing digital samples; neither demodulation nor decoding [114].
is implemented [109]. DTP based processing results The payload is often seen as part of the end-to-end channel
in payload designs agnostic to air-interface evolutions. and its behaviour should be regularly measured. The so-
They have been used in a number of missions including called In-Orbit-Test (IOT) operation of the satellite payload
INMARSAT-4, SES 12 [111] and typical applications consists in transmitting and receiving to and from the satellite
include digital beamforming, broadcasting/multicasting a specifically designed test signal, mainly a spread spectrum
based on single channel copies among others. signal, for the measurement and extraction of some key
2) Regenerative Processing: This methodology operates payload parameters such as, on-board filters responses, high
on the digital baseband data obtained after waveform power amplifier response, G/T, etc. The IOT operation is
digitization, demodulation and decoding. Missions like fundamental in several situations during the life-time of the
Iridium, Spaceway3, HISPASAT-AG1, incorporate re- satellite to verify and monitor the performance and functional
generative processing mainly for multiplexing different requirements of the satellite payload.
streams, switching and routing. While regeneration gen- Allowing customers to continuously monitor the status of
eralizes DTPs and decouples the user and feeder links, the satellite transponder payload while, at the same time,
the additional processing comes at a higher cost. Further, avoiding interference with the traffic (when the satellite is in
regenerative processing limits the flexibility to use newer the operation phase) and with adjacent/nearby satellites (when
transmission modes and can suffer from obsolescence of in re-location phase) represents an important open challenge.
technology unless reprogrammable payloads are consid- In addition, the possibility of performing non-interfering tests
ered [109]. in close or open loop modes, enables the utilization of the
An interesting hybrid processing paradigm involves digitizing equipment in a distributed scenario.
the entire waveform, but regenerating only a part for exploita- Techniques to effectively monitor the on-board amplifiers
tion. In this context, the header packet is regenerated to allow and to identify possible degradation effects are open research
for on-board routing in [109]. This capability would radically topics with no close solution at the moment, in particular when
change satellite networks and the services they can deliver. dealing with wideband applications. In the latter, reducing the
For the sake of exposition, in the following, we briefly testing time and improving the accuracy of existing narrow-
present the structure of a DTP. This develops on the detailed band-based techniques are of key importance.
work in [112] and extends to cover novel processing. Fig. While conventional IOT methods require the interruption of
13 presents a payload transponder employing DTP. Standard the main customer service [115], novel cognitive techniques
Fig. 13. On-board processing architecture [107]
based on spread spectrum signals are gaining momentum gateway, is shown in Fig. 14. Then, the satellite payload
[116]–[118]. performs a frequency shift and routes the resulting radio
2) Precoding/MU-MIMO: The state-of-the-art in high signal over an antenna array that transmits the precoded data
throughput SatCom relies on multi-beam architectures, which over a larger geographical area that is served by the multiple
exploit the spatial degrees of freedom offered by antenna beams in the user link. It shall be stressed that the signals
arrays to aggressively reuse the available spectrum, thus transmitted for different beams in the downlink (i.e., from
realizing a space-division multiple access (SDMA) scheme the satellite to the user terminals) use the same bandwidth
[119]. As a matter of fact, aggressive frequency reuse schemes in a full frequency reuse fashion. This is made possible
are possible only if advanced signal processing techniques by the described precoding operation which counteracts the
are developed, with the objective of handling the multi- interference across multiple beams.
user interference (MUI) arising in multi-beam systems and The computational complexity that is required to implement
deteriorating their performance. Such signal processing tech- multibeam satellite precoding techniques can be considerable
niques are commonly referred to as multi-user multiple-input when the dimensions of multibeam satellite systems are high.
multiple-output (MU-MIMO) and, in the satellite context, also This is often the case, as many current systems are char-
as multi-beam joint processing [56]. In this context, linear acterized by several hundreds of beams. This complicates
precoding (or beamforming) techniques have been a prolific the precoding implementation because of the extremely large
recent area in the recent years, showing to be an effective way size of the precoding matrix that must be calculated. In this
to manage the MUI while guaranteeing some specific service regard, low-complexity linear precoding techniques are of
requirements [120]–[124]. The benefits of using precoding great interest, and this is a problem that deserves further
techniques for managing the interference at the gateway in attention and research.
SatCom are also considered in the most recent extensions A different precoding strategy, known as symbol-level pre-
of broadband multi-beam SatCom standards [125]. The con- coding, has been considered more recently in the literature
ventional precoding approach exploits the knowledge of the [127]. In this approach, the transmitted signals are designed
channel state information (CSI) in order to design a precoder based on the knowledge of both the CSI and the data infor-
to be applied to the multiple data streams, thus mitigating mation (DI), constituted by the symbols to be delivered to the
the MUI. With the aid of precoding, a satellite user terminal users. Since the design exploits also the DI, the objective of
can obtain a sufficiently high signal-to-interference-plus-noise symbol-level precoding is not to eliminate the interference, but
ratio (SINR), even though the same bandwidth is reused by rather to control it so to have a constructive interference effect
adjacent beams. This is possible because the precoder uses at each user. This approach has been shown to outperform the
the channel knowledge to mitigate the interference toward conventional precoding schemes, in terms of reduced power
the user terminals, and therefore a certain SINR value can consumption at the gateway side for a given quality of service
be guaranteed for the users. Typically, the precoding matrix at the user terminals in terms of SINR.
is computed at the satellite gateway. After that, the beam A fundamental assumption of conventional precoding
signals are precoded (by multiplying the data streams by schemes is that independent data is addressed to each user, thus
the precoder matrix) and transmitted through the feeder link dealing with multiuser unicast systems. However, the physical
using a frequency-division multiplexing scheme. A schematic layer design of DVB-S2X SatCom standard [125] has been
representation of the precoding operation, taking place at the optimized to cope with the noise limited satellite channel,
Fig. 14. Schematic diagram for conventional linear precoding [126]. The CSI is used to compute the precoding matrix, denoted as W . The precoding matrix
is then used to filter the input data streams.
characterized by excessive propagation delays and intense multiple access (OMA) such that multiple terminals can ac-
fading phenomena. Therefore, long forward error correction cess the same time-frequency resource simultaneously, which
(FEC) codes and fade mitigation techniques that rely on improves the efficiency of spectrum utilization. The resulted
an adaptive link layer design (adaptive coding and modula- co-channel interference can be alleviated by performing multi-
tionACM) have been employed. This implies that each frame user detection and successive interference cancellation (SIC)
accommodates several users, and therefore the communication at the receiver side. In various 5G terrestrial scenarios, NOMA
system becomes a multicast one. Accordingly, the multicast has demonstrated performance improvement over conventional
framing structure hinders the calculation of a precoding matrix OMA schemes [135]–[138]. By observing its advantages in
on a user-by-user basis, and ad-hoc precoding schemes need to aggressive frequency reuse and suppressing interference, it
be employed to address multicast systems. Precoding schemes is natural to further extend the NOMA applications beyond
for physical layer multicasting have been proposed in [128]– the cellular systems. For instance, the advanced television
[131]. systems committee (ATSC) has proposed a new type of mul-
Another relevant challenge for the application of precoding tiplexing scheme, i.e., layered division multiplexing (LDM)
in practical satellite systems is related to non-linearities. In which adopts NOMA principle, in the physical layer protocol
fact, the on-board per-antenna traveling-wave-tube amplifiers standard ATSC 3.0 for terrestrial digital TV broadcasting
(TWTAs) usually introduce non-linear effects, which result in systems [139].
a distortion on the transmitted waveforms. A typical solution In NOMA-based multi-beam satellite systems, [140] an-
to this problem in single-user links relies on predistortion alyzed the applicability of integrating NOMA to satellite
techniques, but their extension to multi-beam systems relying systems from a system-level point of view, and provided
on precoding is not straightforward, because of the mutual general approaches for cooperating NOMA with precoding.
correlation between the data streams induced by the precoding In [141], two suboptimal user-scheduling algorithms were
schemes. In this context, different precoding schemes have proposed to maximize the capacity for over-loaded satellite
been proposed in the literature [127], [132]–[134], having the systems. The numerical results showed that an appropriate
aim of enhancing the dynamic properties of the transmitted user-grouping strategy is to pair the users with high-correlation
signals, such as the peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR), channels. In [142], a max-min fairness optimization problem
and therefore improving the signals robustness to non-linear was studied to apply NOMA to achieve a good match between
effects. In particular [127], [134] are based on symbol-level the offered and requested capacity among satellite beams. The
precoding. authors in [143] proposed an overlay coding strategy to utilize
Overall, the research on precoding has been developing the cooperative NOMA to mitigate interference in multi-beam
quite fast in the recent years, and a number of practical chal- satellite systems.
lenges [126] have been addressed, with the aim of exploiting In NOMA-enabled 5G terrestrial-satellite networks, [144]
full frequency reuse in current communication systems. In this investigated a joint resource optimization problem for user
direction, besides the pure research, it is particular important pairing, beamforming design, and power allocation. In [145],
the development of ad-hoc testbeds that allow in lab imple- joint beamforming and power allocation for NOMA based
mentation and validation of precoding schemes. Considerable satellite-terrestrial networks were studied. Optimal solutions
advances have been made in this regard, as further discussed of beamforming weight vectors and power coefficients were
in VIII. developed. In both works, the satellite component is viewed
3) Non Orthogonal Multiple Access: As one of the promis- as a supplement part to terrestrial networks. NOMA is ap-
ing 5G new radio techniques, non-orthogonal multiple access plied within the terrestrial component. In [146], a cooperative
(NOMA) has attracted considerable research attention from NOMA scheme was proposed for satellite-terrestrial relay
both industry and academia over the past few years [135]. networks, where the user with better channel gain is viewed
NOMA breaks the orthogonality in conventional orthogonal as a relay to help transmit data to the user with poorer
channel condition. Outage probability and ergodic capacity folded chirp-rate shift keying (FCrSK) modulation with strong
were analyzed mathematically and shown the performance immunity to Doppler effect is proposed. Other works in the
improvement of NOMA over OMA. literature focus on IoT over GEO orbits, where the main issue
In general, the solutions developed for terrestrial NOMA would be the increased round RTT of communication. In [157]
systems might not be simply applied to satellite systems, a new air interface for such a system is proposed while in
mainly due to the following reasons. Firstly, different channel [158] and [159] the authors present a novel waveform called
propagation models may lead to different user grouping strate- Unipolar Coded Chirp Spread Spectrum (UCSS) that enables
gies. Unlike the cellular system, the users located in a beam ultra-narrowband (uNB) communications of IoT nodes using
typically undergo similar path loss towards the satellite [107]. a GEO satellite.
The user paring in terrestrial NOMA is suggested grouping 2) Wideband Downlinks: Commercial applications of satel-
the users with large gaps of their channel gains [135]. How- lite communication, such as observation satellites and LEO
ever, this paring strategy could be challenging to implement sensors, rely on extremely high data rates available during
in satellite scenarios [141]. Secondly, simply applying the a short passage of the satellite. Hence, the recent trend
solutions developed from terrestrial NOMA may result in of developing novel terminal modems capable of efficiently
high complexity for the satellite systems due to the presence operating at very high symbol rates can be clearly observed.
of large amount of beams. Thirdly, compared to cellular One of the main challenges for the modem design results
systems, some distinctive characteristics in satellite systems from the assumed very large signal spectrum, which can
can introduce new constraints and challenges, e.g., on-board be e.g. up to 1.5 GHz, if the whole Ka-band is utilized.
power constraints, limited power supply, longer propagation Currently, the proposed terminal modems support up to 500
delay, signal distortion, and mobility issues. Fourthly, the MHz for commercial high data rates, cf. [160]–[162]. In order
capability of flexibly allocating on-board resources is typically to enhance the symbol rate even further, the following design
limited which introduces new dimensions in NOMA-satellite challenges need to be circumvented:
resource management [142]. • parallel processing with a very high factor of parallelism,
which can lead to access conflicts and performance
D. Data Collection degradation;
• frequent trade-offs between performance, latency and
1) Satellite IoT Air Interface: As mentioned in Section complexity for the selection of signal processing and syn-
III, the satellite can play an important role in the IoT ser- chronization algorithms. In this context, high complexity
vices, more specifically in the so-called long-range IoT or may also lead to processing delays, which negatively
low power wide are networks (LPWANs), by ensuring a affects the performance of the algorithms;
global connectivity and service continuity. The three main • high frequency selectivity of the wideband communi-
technologies in the LPWAN family are the NB-IoT, Long- cation, which may result from the limitations of the
Range (LoRa) and Sigfox [147]. Their PHY layer is quite hardware, in particular cables and transponders. The
different from each other and mostly driven by the need to magnitude of this effect typically increases with signal
satisfy important requirements, such as extended coverage, low bandwidth;
power consumption, high network capacity etc., taking into • additional impairments due to a large difference between
account the technical peculiarities of the terrestrial infrastruc- the minimum and the maximum employed frequencies.
ture. More specifically, the NB-IoT uses a multicarrier mod- In particular, clock frequency offset and drift due to the
ulation (OFDM in downlink and SC-FDM in uplink) for data Doppler effect become substantial in wideband scenarios.
transmission [148], SigFox utilizes an ultra-narrowband signal These challenges have been recently tackled in [163], where
(UNB) with a differential binary phase shift keying (DBPSK) a novel modem architecture for terminal modems with a
modulation [149] and LoRa employs a chirp spread spectrum substantially wider target signal bandwidth of up to 1.5 GHz
signal (CSS) [150]. Since the satellite channel impairments has been proposed. The potential peak symbol rate can reach
are quite different from the terrestrial one, using the same air up to 1.4 Gsps, such that peak data rates of 5 Gbps and higher
interface of the terrestrial IoT over a satellite link in order to seem to be possible in future.
collect the tremendous amount of data generated by the IoT
devices, is not a trivial task. The increased delay in the satellite
channel and the high amount of Doppler effects experienced, E. Others
especially in the LEO orbit, imposes new challenges to the 1) Optical Communications: A potential solution for solv-
PHY interfaces of these technologies. ing the high bandwidth requirement on the feeder link is to
In this context, the authors in [151] stress out the impact of move them to the Q/V-band (40/50 GHz) [164], [165], or even
the Doppler effects on a LEO satellite-based NB-IoT system, to the W-band (70/80 GHz) where bandwidths up to 5 GHz
while in [152] the LoRa CSS signal over a LEO satellite is an- are available. However, given the demand trends, it would be
alyzed. To overcome the Doppler effects in such systems, the a matter of short time before which these bandwidths also
authors in [153] come up with a new air interface for NB-IoT fall short of the requirement. A revolutionary solution is to
based on Turbo-FSK modulation, which was firstly introduced move the feeder link from Radio Frequency (RF) frequencies
in [154]. Regarding LoRA, in [155] a new acquisition method to optical frequencies [166]–[168]. The high frequency RF
under increased Doppler effects is analyzed, while in [156] a and optical approaches are challenging due to the attenuation
by atmospheric phenomena (e.g. rain, clouds) whose severity because of its ability to include a strong Forward Error
increases with the frequency. In either case, a network of mul- Correction (FEC) to enhance the optical link. However, the
tiple gateways with appropriate switching capabilities is thus complexity of such payloads is rather high and would be
envisaged [167], [169]. Although optical communications is considered in later generations of satellites. On the other hand,
highly impaired compared to the RF counterpart, it only needs transparent processing offers a simple, yet effective, solution
a few gateways to achieve very high throughput [169]. This to enable FSO. Two architectures have been considered in the
directly relates to a reduction in the cost of the ground-segment literature for transparent satellites [169]; these are,
motivating the use of optical communications for feeder links. • Analog Transparent: In this architecture, the RF signal is
In addition, Free Space Optics (FSO) communications benefit used (after appropriate biasing) to modulate the intensity
from the absence of frequency regulation constraints, small of the optical source. It offers a very simple modulation
systems with lower power requirements and enhanced security. onto the optical carrier and demodulation on-board the
Optical links are impaired by several atmospheric phenom- satellites. However, it offers no protection to the optical
ena like clouds, aerosols, turbulence etc. [170]. The two main link and can exhibit poor performance.
categories of propagation impairments are • Digital Transparent: Herein, the baseband radio signal
• Blockage Effects: Cloud coverage constitutes the pre- is sufficiently oversampled (both the I/ Q channels),
dominant fading mechanism, resulting in the blockage of quantized and the resulting sequence of bits modulates
the link [170]. This impairment is not localized but spread an optical source digitally, e.g., Pulse position modulation
over a geographical extent. A cloud-blockage typically or On-Off keying. This architecture offers the possibility
introduces significant attenuation on the link, potentially to include FEC to mitigate impairments on the optical
breaking the link. In order to maintain an optical link, channel; however, it suffers from bandwidth expansion,
ground system design involves choosing ground-based additional noise injection and higher complexity
optical stations at places with a high cloud free line of A comprehensive study of optical feeder links has been
sight (CFLOS) joint probability [171], [172]. P pursued in [182]. Herein, the nuances of the optical and RF
• Turbulence and other small-scale fading effects: Even links are modelled and included in an end-to-end simulator
under CFLOS conditions, the optical systems are severely with optical feeder links and RF user links. Both micro
affected by atmospheric turbulence. This phenomenon and macro diversities are considered and performance studied
leads to small-scale fading and impacts the link budget for modelled channels as well as measurements. The results
[173]. The estimation of this phenomenon taking also into provide directions on the development of future FSO systems.
account the beam wander, beam spread and amplitude 2) Satellite swarms and synchronization: Some implemen-
scintillation is of critical importance [174]. In addition tations of distributed space systems such as constellations and
to turbulence, aerosols, cirrus clouds impact the signal satellite trains are relatively well established, whereas satellite
amplitude [175]. swarms containing tens to even thousands of small spacecraft
are still in an active research and development phase [183].
Fade mitigation techniques are considered to mitigate the
The use of very small satellites has been gaining popularity
aforementioned impairments. These are categorized as:
thanks to recent advances in electronics miniaturization and
• Macro-Diversity: For cloud coverage, multiple Optical the decrease of cost promoted by the scale-economy and mass
Ground Stations (OGS) constituting a network are em- production [184], [185].
ployed [171]. These stations are separated by hundreds The revolutionary strength of satellite swarms is in their
of miles, so that a certain desired CFLOS probability enormous size and complete flexibility; they are envisioned to
of the whole network is achieved. Unfortunately, this contain from tens to even thousands of individual spacecraft
requires several ground stations increasing the cost of operating together to achieve their objectives resembling the
ground segment. behaviour of animal swarms. The set of spacecraft can be
• Micro-diversity The mitigation techniques for turbulence nano-satellites and even femto-satellites with a mass of a few
are termed as micro-scopic diversity techniques. For the grams, with restricted capabilities but the complete swarm
optical feeder uplink, multiple apertures are placed in a spacecraft can potentially produce a very capable system
distance higher than the coherence length of turbulence; addressing complex problems that could not be solved with
this configuration, termed as transmitter diversity [176], monolithic missions. As an example, the implementation of
is used to combat turbulence. While several works have Synthetic Aperture Radar missions from higher orbits (MEO
focused on exploiting the diversity gain achievable from or GEO) can only have a realistic power budget using swarm
MIMO optical setups e.g., [177]–[179], they are typi- multi-static configurations [186], [187]. Similarly, many other
cally considered for terrestrial optical networks and have applications can be enabled by satellite swarms missions, such
certain shortcomings for FSO. The Repetition Coding as the characterization planetary atmospheres, the estimate
(RC), considered for example in, [176], [180], [181], the composition of asteroids, the deep-space exploration, the
where identical information is transmitted over multiple investigation on Earths ionosphere [188]. All these applica-
transmitters from different wavelengths. tions, in the remote sensing area, have been evaluated for its
The design of the optical feeder link depends on the on-board implementation in swarms. In these applications the designers
processing capabilities. Fully regenerative payloads offer the can make use of sensor fusion and offline processing. How-
best performance due to their additional processing partly ever, the implementation of data link communications using
TABLE II sites are separated on the Earth surface by approximately

A DDITIONAL F REE S PACE L OSS AND TRANSMISSION DELAY FOR 120 degrees, in order to guarantee 24/7 coverage, despite
DIFFERENT LOCATION IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM WITH RESPECT TO A GEO
SATELLITE the relative position between the Earth and the spacecraft.
In addition, these locations have been selected in order to
Place FSPL (wrt GEO sat) Delay guarantee as limited as possible amount of interference and
Moon +20.9151dB 1.2 sec
Mars +78.4164dB 12.5 min rain fading.
Jupiter +86.9357dB 44 min Another telecommunication challenge related to the huge
Pluto +102.8534dB 4h 37min distance that we deal with in case of Deep Space Commu-
nication, is related to delay. As for the previous challenge,
we report some numbers for different locations in our solar
satellite swarms have not been so popular, due to the stringent system in Table II. Because of the huge transmission delay, it
technical requirements, and in particular the synchronization is evident that the spacecraft cannot be operated in real-time.
requirements. Synchronization in terms of absolute phase, On the contrary spacecraft are usually sequenced, meaning that
frequency and time for clock or local oscillator signals is a long list of commands is prepared in a program that is then
essential for distributed and collaborative beamforming[189]. transmitted to the spacecraft well in advance, in order to op-
3) Deep Space Comms: Because of their very specific erate the spacecraft for long periods without commands from
nature, Deep Space Comms pose specific telecommunication Earth. It is evident that the huge delay prevent the usage of any
challenges that required specific solutions. The first and most ARQ mechanism, so the transmission scheme must be very
important cause of challenges in Deep Space Communications reliable in order to guarantee that the transmitted message is
is the huge distance between the spacecraft and the Earth. correctly received. This high-reliability level is accomplished
According to the ITU definition, in fact, it is possible to talk through the use of very powerful error-correcting code and
about Deep Space Communications when the spacecraft is at low order modulations as specified in CCDSD standard for
least 2 Millions km away from the Earth. The first challenge both the downlink (aka Telemetry link) [195] and uplink (aka
poses by such a huge distance, is the very low available SNR. Telecommand link) [196].
Just to give some number let us consider only the free space A potentially dangerous effect on communications between
loss degradation. The increase of the FSPL with respect to the Earth and space probes is due to scintillation, due to propa-
case of a GEO satellite for different object of our solar system gation through the solar corona, when the signal encounters
is reported in Table II. solar conjunction. This event might, in fact, cause error rate
This limitation is particularly challenging for the downlink degradation and eventually residual carrier unlock. Accord-
(from the spacecraft to Earth). While, in fact, in the uplink the ingly, the amount of scintillation is due to charged particles
signal is generated on Earth with basically no limitation on the of the solar corona and depends on the solar elongation (i.e.
available transmitted power, the situation is totally different for minimum distance of the signal ray path from the sun), solar
the downlink where the transmitted power is strongly limited cycle and sub-solar latitude of the signal path.
by the power that the spacecraft is able to generate. Power Several statistical models describe the effects of a scattering
generation is very difficult for a spacecraft far from the sun. medium on radio communications. For solar scintillation, each
Using solar panel for power generation, we have to keep in coronal in-homogeneity can be modelled as a scattering center
mind that the solar flux goes down by a factor of four each time for the impinging electromagnetic wave. At the receiver the
the distance from the Sun doubles, so a solar panel at Jupiter electric fields of the scattered waves add up, producing a
can only generate a billionth the power as at Earth. A more time-varying interference pattern that may lead to fading.
efficient alternative is to generate the on-board power through Considering the receiver far away from the scattering medium,
a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG). An RTG uses it is reasonable to assume that the received electric field
the fact that radioactive materials (such as plutonium) generate is the sum of a large number of statistically independent
heat as they decay into non-radioactive materials. The heat waves scattered from different regions within the medium.
is converted into electricity by an array of thermocouples Application of the central limit theorem leads to a complex-
which then power the spacecraft. While this power generation valued received signal with independent Gaussian real and
method is very effective from a technical standpoint, nuclear- imaginary parts. Assuming the real and imaginary random
based generators are expensive (due to the limited amount components have the same variance we may thus model the
of nuclear material available) and politically sensitive and it scintillation channel as a multipath fading channel with a Rice
poses a security problem. If, in fact, an accident happens to distribution.
the rocket during the launch of the spacecraft the radioactive The Rician statistics depends on the carrier frequency as
material can be spread in the atmosphere. well as the geometry of the Sun, Earth and Probe i.e. the SEP
To overcome the limitation in terms of SNR, the space agen- angle shown in Fig. 16. Usually, the Rician fading distribution
cies have dedicated transmitting/receiving sites [190] [191]. is specified in terms of the scintillation index, noted by m,
These sites constitute what is generally known as Deep Space which is the ratio of the standard deviation of the received
Network. In the Deep Space network sites, huge antennas (e.g. signal power to its mean.
35 and 70 meters diameter dish) are combined with cryogenic This topic has been recently investigated in the context of
cooled antenna feeds: [192], [193] and [194]. As shown in a research project funded by the ESA. During this project
Fig. 15 for the ESA and NASA Deep Space Network, these the several solutions have been proposed for this scenario, the
Fig. 15. Locations’ of NASA Deep Space Network and ESA ESTRACK sites
Packet scheduling mechanisms particularly play a key role

to guarantee an efficient resource management, since they can
play with the time dimension to distribute satellite resources
among different beams and receivers based on the channel
conditions and QoS requirements. In this context, the adapta-
tion loop, which comprises the set of operations starting by
the channel estimation at the satellite terminal and ending with
reception of the information encoded/modulated according to
the reported channel status, plays a fundamental role. On the
other hand, the packet traffic in broadband services is bursty
(i.e., the data rate needed to support the different services is
Fig. 16. Solar conjunction geometry not constant). Therefore, the goal of the forward link satellite
scheduler is to optimize bandwidth (capacity) utilization and
QoS, in the presence of traffic flows generated by services
details can be found in the following scientific publications: with different requirements.
[197] [198] and [199]. In general, the satellite scheduler can consider the following
parameters for the design of the scheduling strategy:
VI. M EDIUM ACCESS C ONTROL : E NABLERS & T OPICS
• Channel status: The channel status information reported
The aim of this section is to address some fundamental by the satellite terminals is essential to combine packets
aspects related to the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer in a single frame according to the propagation conditions.
of a satellite communication system. This layer is responsible This includes changes in the link quality experienced by
for controlling channel access mechanisms to enable several each terminal due to the weather conditions, mobility,
terminals or network nodes to communicate in a network. jamming, and other factors.
• Packet priority: Lower priority packets can be delayed
A. MAC Protocols for UHTS (or even dropped) in favor of high priority packets.
1) Forward Link Scheduling: Forward packet scheduling For instance, emergency real-time packets, including
has been studied since the birth of DVB-S2 standard (de- emergency medical communications, rescue and natural
veloped in 2003) in order to fully exploit its new features. disaster management related services, should be served
The air interface suggested in DVB-S2 is able to adapt the with high priority.
Code and Modulation (ACM) to the propagation conditions • QoS requirements: Give priority to packets with high
so that the spectral efficiency maximized. This is done by QoS requirements.

providing to each user with the most suitable modulation and • Buffer occupation: Scheduling algorithms are strictly
code (ModCod) value according to the measured SINR. There- related to buffer management problem. Give priority to
fore, DVB-S2 standard permits the management of different packets allocated in highly congested buffers.
services guaranteeing a certain Quality of Service (QoS). We can distinguish two scheduling cases, which are detailed
in the following sections: achieving more efficient resource utilization via an adaptive
• Unicast Scheduling: One user (per beam) is scheduled service prioritization algorithm. In [208], a novel channel-
within each frame aware scheduler scheme compliant with DVB-S2 is proposed
• Multicast Scheduling: Multiple users (per beam) are which also considers the expedited delivery requirements for
scheduled within each frame delay-sensitive packets.
Previous works have focused in cross-layer scheduling
a) Unicast scheduling: There are two design aspects to
without considering aggressive frequency reuse. Introducing
be taken into account:
precoding techniques, the functionalities of PHY, MAC and
• Demand satisfaction: We do not need to schedule a
NET layers become even more intertwined. The main reason is
user which has an empty queue. We need to schedule that the achieved user rates at PHY are dependent on the packet
users which have large pending data volume first. But scheduling due to the non-orthogonal access of the medium
this depends on the Service-Level Agreement (SLA) each [130], [209]–[212].
user has signed with the satellite operator. SLA can be The works in [130], [209], [210], they all assume that
min rate over time, max rate over time, average rate over the number of users to be grouped into the same frame
time, latency, etc. is fixed and constant across the beams. In addition, [130],
• Interference avoidance: Whenever frequency is reused
[209], [210] follow a two-step approach where first a single
across beams, interference appears. Users scheduled in user is classified in each group, and next the rest of the
adjacent synchronous frames, should be far located one users are classified. In particular, [209], [210] they randomly
from the other to minimize interference. “far distance” chose a user as a reference and then define the remaining
can be translated as “different channels”, or sometime group members associated with that user, while [130] selects
called “channel vectors that are as orthogonal as pos- the first user per group according to the semi-orthogonality
sible”. This means that the users serves simultaneously criteria originally proposed in [200]. The works in [211],
over different beams should have orthogonal (ideally) [212] try to avoid the two-step approach and perform the
channel vectors. This is essentially the basis of the semi- user-per-group classification at once. The work in [211] makes
orthogonality criteria originally proposed in [200]. use of a geographical strategy, by sectorizing the beam. The
b) Multicast scheduling: Serving a single user within a work in [212] considers a graph-based partitioning approach
single frame is not a practical assumption as it rarely happens using conventional spectral clustering. While [212] assumes
in real systems. Before we observed that minimizing the inter- a fix number of users per frame, [211] does not impose
beam interference can be achieved by scheduling users within any constraint on that. On the other hand, [212] proposes a
adjacent synchronous frames according to orthogonal channel second step to orthognalize as much as possible the adjacent
conditions. When considering multiple users within a frame, synchronous beam transmissions.
another design constraint applies. Since all packets in a frame 2) Return Link Scheduling: In current satellite systems,
are served using the MODCOD imposed by the worst user the Network Control Center (NCC) is the entity that collects
contained in that frame, significant performance gains are the traffic demands of the Return Channel Satellite Terminals
expected from a scheduler that groups the terminals according (RCSTs) and distributes the available resources accordingly.
to similar propagation conditions. The return link access is based on the Multi-Frequency Time
Clearly, the combination of throughput requirements (PHY Division Multiple Access (MF-TDMA) scheme, which pro-
layer) and service requirements (NET layer) claim for a vides high bandwidth efficiency for multiple users. Fig. 17
cross-layer scheduling design, where the packets are queued shows the frequency-time distribution of a sample MF-TDMA
according to QoS-class and channel conditions. scheme. MF-TDMA is a system of access control to a set of
The satellite traffic scheduling has been widely addressed digitally modulated carriers whereby the RCSTs are capable of
in the literature [201]–[208]. In [201]–[203], a new scheduling frequency hopping among those carriers for the purposes of
approach suitable for DVB-S2 systems characterized by a transmitting short bursts of data within assigned time slots.
two level architecture is proposed. This structure is able It is noteworthy that the return link can optionally use a
to take into account QoS requirements (i.e. buffer conges- continuous carrier (CC) instead of MF-TDMA. The advantage
tion, buffer size, dropped packets, queue waiting time)and of this scheme is the more efficient adaptation to widely
MODCOD parameters. In [204], a scheduler for DVB-S2 varying transmission requirements, typical of multimedia, at
based on the Weighted Round Robin (WRR) mechanism is the expense of slightly more complex RCSTs. The NCC
proposed, whose weighting takes into account the traffic class periodically broadcasts a signaling frame, the TBTP (Terminal
as well as available capacity. In [205], [206], the capacity Burst Time Plan), which updates the timeslot allocation within
region a multi-beam satellite with N time-varying downlink a super-frame between every competing RCTS.
channels and N on-board output queues is established. In However, the MF-TDMA proposed in DVB standard has
[207], the Satellite Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (SDMB) been shown to not perform optimally for bradband satellite
is investigated. Given the unidirectional nature of the SDMB systems [213]. In situations where the traffic is bursty, fixed
system and the point-to-multipoint services it provides, the assignment mechanisms lead to inefficient use of the resources.
authors in [207] propose a novel adaptive multidimensional Random access protocols are an interesting alternative. In
QoS-based (AMQ) packet scheduling scheme for provisioning random access, data packets are instantly transmitted, indepen-
heterogeneous services to provide better QoS guarantee while dent of other nodes activities. There is no coordination which
plete full frequency reuse, where all beams share the total
spectrum resource. While (i) seems to not provide enough
capacity, (ii) and (iii) have been identified as most promising.
The semi-orthogonal scenario has been considered in [215]–
[219]. In [219], a very simple sub-optimal iterative bandwidth
assignment is considered to deal with the demand-matching
problem. More computationally expensive algorithms have
been proposed in [216]–[218] with similar objective. However,
scenario (ii) and (iii) together with precoding have been
overlooked as the introduction of makes the problem much
more challenging, but at the same time with very high potential
in terms of system performance. While in (iii) precoding is
mandatory, in (ii) one can design which carriers to be precoded
and which not, depending on the requested demand
4) Beamhopping: In conventional broadband multibeam
Fig. 17. MF-TDMA scheme used in satellite uplink HTS system, all satellite beams are constantly illuminated,
even if there is no demand to be satisfied. It is widely accepted
that the beam data demand is not homogenous, shifting from
translated into possible packet collisions. Unlike DVB-RCS, beam to beam over the course of a day or seasonally. Clearly,
DVB-RCS2 optionally supports RA to return link. For more such uneven beam traffic patterns claim for a more efficient
details on uplink scheduling and RA, the reader is referred to resource allocation mechanism. This has given rise to the
Section VI-B. beam hopping concept, a novel beam-illumination technique
3) Resource allocation: Satellite resources are expensive able to flexibly allocate on–board resources over the service
and thus it is necessary to optimize and time-share these coverage [220]. With beam hopping, all the available satellite
precious resources. In this section, we review the current state- resources are employed to provide service to a certain subset
of-the-art of resource management solutions in multi-beam of beams, which is active for some portion of time, dwelling
satellite systems. just long enough to fill the demand in each beam. The set of
a) Power Assignment: Power is a huge concern for the illuminated beams changes in each time–slot based on a time–
satellite, as the available power on-board is limited and should space transmission pattern that is periodically repeated. By
be used wisely. In [215], a power allocation and packet modulating the period and duration that each of the beams is
scheduling technique based on traffic demands and channel illuminated, different offered capacity values can be achieved
conditions is proposed. However, interbeam interference is in different beams.
neglected by assuming non-adjacent active beams. Interbeam The beam hopping procedure on one hand allows higher
interference is also overlooked in [216]. Interbeam interference frequency reuse schemes by placing inactive beams as barriers
is dependent on the power allocated to each beam and there- for the co–channel interference and on the other hand allows
fore, affects the total system performance. If not considered, the use of a reduced number of on–board power amplifiers at
it limits the flexibility of the system and can be a problem each time slot. Beam hopping uncovers entirely new problems
when a hot-spot requires coverage from multiple adjacent that were never considered before in satellite communications:
active beams. The benefits of power allocation are explored the challenge of designing an illumination pattern able to
in [217], where a sub-optimal solution is proposed providing perfectly match the demands [221], [222], acquisition and syn-
some insights about the relation between assigned power and chronization of bursty transmitted data [223], the exploitation
offered capacity. However, the complexity of the solution in of extra degrees of freedom provided by the fact that certain
[217] limits its applicability. regions of the coverage area are inactive.
With the advent of DTP payloads (see Section V-C1) In addition, in certain scenarios (like the high throughput
where each carrier can be independently power controlled full frequency reuses scenario) the performance of Beam Hop-
on board through the digital channelization, power can be ping is heavily degraded by the self–interference generated by
flexible moved from one beam to another. Power assignment the system, particularly when neighboring co–channel beams
is considered the first level of flexibility (and the easiest are activated at the same time [224].
to implement). Sometimes, however, power flexibility is not 5) Carrier Aggregation: Carrier Aggregation (CA) is an
enough and the channelization (e.g. bandwidth and frequency) integral part of current LTE terrestrial networks. Its ability
should also be adapted to provide another degree of flexibility. to enhance the peak data rate, to efficiently utilize the lim-
b) Channelization: Carrier and Bandwidth Assignment: ited available spectrum resources and to satisfy the demand
Dynamic bandwidth allocation techniques can be classified for data-hungry applications has drawn large attention from
into three groups depending on the amount of spectrum that the satellite communications community. In particular, the
is shared: (i) Orthogonal but asymmetric carrier assignment application of CA in satellite communications has received
across beams, with no inter-beam interference, (ii) Semi- interest within [214], where several potential scenarios have
orthogonal asymmetric carrier assignment, where certain over- been discussed and analyzed based on market, business and
lap between spectrum of beams is allowed, and (iii) Com- technical feasibility. The CA architecture is illustrated in Fig.
Fig. 18. CA Architecture as proposed in [214].
18. them into a single stream of received PDUs.

CA represents an improved version of Channel Bonding In [226], most of the implementation effort is assigned to the
(CB). Accordng to the DVB-S2X standard CB combines gateway side, so that the user terminal is as simple as possible
multiple adjacent channels to constitute larger transmission with the minimum required changes to support CA. Following
bandwidths, while CA can aggregate both contiguous and non- this approach, the “Traffic merging block” will consist on
contiguous carriers in different spectrum bands [225]. Most a simple First-In First-Out (FIFO) system. Therefore, it is
important, CB is primarily designed for broadcast applications of extremely importance that the “Load balancing and PDU
and employs constant coding and modulation, while CA is scheduler” module at the gateway side makes sure to schedule
tailored to the emerging broadband traffic and is compatible the PDUs in a proper way such that they can be easily merged
with the ACM functionality [226]. in a single stream with a simple FIFO buffer.
CA represents a new level of flexibility by means of smart
carrier assignment which, in case of carrier aggregation, it B. MAC protocols for Satellite IoT
can be seen as flexible bandwidth assignment. Using CA
technology has the following advantages: Designing a MAC protocol for IoT communications is a
crucial and challenging aspect, mainly driven by the low-
• More efficient match of capacity demand distribution over complexity requirement and the need to support an enormous
satellite coverage, number of IoT devices generating a sporadic traffic to the
• More users can be accommodated on a satellite, network. These exist two main groups of MAC protocols in
• Commercial potential with higher revenues for broadband the literature for satellite-IoT applications as shown below.
satellite operators. 1) Fixed assignment based: Protocols in this category en-
Compared to conventional non-CA systems, CA is imple- sure that each device in the network has separate resources in
mented by means of 3 main blocks. From the GW side, there time, frequency or both for data transmission, hence avoiding
is a block called “Multiuser Aggregation and Access Control” data packet collision. A leading IoT technology which uses
(MAAC) which represents the main intelligence of the system fixed assignment based protocol is NB-IoT. More specifically,
and which is in charge of designing the carrier allocation in the downlink transmission OFDMA is used whereas the
strategy for all the user terminals of the system as well as uplink is based on SC-FDMA. In an OFDMA (SC-FDMA)
the multiplexing of each carrier. Then, a “Load balancing system, the time-frequency resources allocated to the users are
and PDU scheduler” module is in charge of implementing the different. Therefore, even in the case that many nodes transmit
decisions of the MAAC by distributing the incoming protocol at the same time, data packet collision does not happen. Of
data units (PDUs) across the available carriers. The “Load course, in order to achieve this time-frequency separation,
balancing and PDU scheduler” block needs to carefully design the users should be apriori informed on the resourced to
such that the PDUs are distributed across the selected carriers use for data transmission. It is also worth highlighting here
based on the link capacities so that, at the receiver side, the that a system based on OFDMA (SC-FDMA) requires a
PDU disordering is minimized. At the receiver side, the most strict synchronization in order to maintain the orthogonality
important block is the “Traffic merging block”, which takes as both in time and frequency in order to avoid inter-channel
input the PDU streams of the aggregated carriers and converts interference. The higher RTT delay in the satellite channel
and the increased Doppler effects, especially in the LEO orbit, of satellite and terrestrial networks [240] or the coexistence
impose a significant challenge from the MAC layer perspective of two satellite networks [241], [242] is challenging due to
of such systems. As a matter of fact, authors in [227] and several aspects such as the underlying interference links and
[151] study the impact of the Doppler effects in a satellite- no prior coordination between primary and secondary systems.
based NB-IoT system and come up with a new resource In spectral coexistence scenarios, there may be multiple sec-
allocation approach to handle this problem, without modifying ondary users trying to access the same portion of the radio
the existing fixed assignment based MAC protocol. spectrum. In this situation, the network access should be
2) Random access based: Random access (RA) based coordinated in a way that multiple cognitive users do not seek
protocols are a natural solution for IoT over satellite com- the same portion of the radio spectrum.
munications since they match well to the traffic demand The effective sharing of available radio spectrum among
characteristics coming from the IoT devices. It is shown by two or more wireless systems can be obtained by utilizing
authors in [228] and [229] that the traditionally used demand suitable Dynamic Spectrum Sharing (DSS) techniques, which
assignment multiple access (DAMA) protocol for the satellite can be divided into coordinated or uncoordinated based on
return link does not perform well under sporadic IoT traffic whether the primary and secondary systems exchange the
with low duty-cycles and very short packet length. In the case spectrum usage information, i.e., TV WhiteSpace database,
of RA protocols, the devices transmit the data using the same or they can operate without any coordination between them,
channel without prior coordination. Due to the fact that the i.e., spectrum sensing. Also, the DSS models can be broadly
allocation of resources is random, possibly many devices will classified into three types, namely, commons model, exclusive-
use the same resources for data transmission, hence causing use model and shared-use model [243]. In the first model, i.e.,
packet collisions. The most representative and well-known spectrum commons model, all the unlicensed or secondary
RA protocol is Aloha. Even though it is quite old, leading users can access the spectrum with equal rights while in
IoT technologies such as LoRa and SigFox use a variation the exclusive-user model, the secondary users acquire the
of this protocol [230]. An Aloha based protocol, named time exclusive rights of using the radio spectrum either by providing
frequency ALOHA (TFA) is also proposed for the NB-IoT a cooperation award from the primary system or by purchasing
by the authors in [231]. Basically, when the nodes have some a certain portion of the radio spectrum from spectrum licensees
data to transmit, they do it without prior coordination. In case or primary service providers, also known as spectrum trad-
an acknowledgment (ACK) is not received from the network, ing. On the other hand, the shared-use DSS model utilizes
the device goes to sleep and tries again to retransmit the the underutilized or vacant spectrum either in an underlay
same packet after a random time. Despite being a simple (interference-avoidance) or interweave (opportunistic) manner
protocol and performing well at very modest traffic, the [244]. Furthermore, several advanced mechanisms which can
increased propagation delay in the satellite channel creates be employed to enable the spectrum sharing of heterogeneous
potential network stability issues, making it an unattractive networks include Licensed Shared Access (LSA), Licensed
solution for modern IoT satellite applications [232]. In the Assisted Access (LAA), Carrier Aggregation (CA) and Chan-
last decade, there has been an effort in investigating more nel Bonding (CB) and Spectrum Access System (SAS) [245],
advanced RA schemes for satellite IoT and a survey can [246].
be found in [233]. A comparative study of RA techniques 1) Coordinated: Two multibeam satellites may coexist in
for satellite-IoT [234] shows that the most attractive ones in the same orbital position by utilizing different architectures,
terms of spectral and energy efficiency are Enhanced Spread- namely, conventional frequency splitting, cooperation, coor-
Spectrum ALOHA (E-SSA) [235], Contention Resolution dination and cognition [247]. In the first approach, the total
Diversity ALOHA (CRDSA) [236], and Asynchronous Con- available bandwidth in the forward link is divided into two
tention Resolution Diversity ALOHA (ACRDA) [237]. The equal portions, with each segment assigned to one satellite
above mentioned best-performing techniques adopt iterative system. In the second approach, two satellites having multi-
successive interference cancellation to increase the detection beam communications payloads with the aggressive frequency
probability of the received packets. The authors in [232] reuse are interconnected and synchronized with a high-speed
further investigate the performance of single-frequency and link between the gateways. With the help of advanced signal
multifrequency CRDSA and ACRDA [238] under realistic processing techniques such as precoding, two transmitters
parameters and for a number of system scenarios of practical located in two different satellites will behave like a large
interest. In [239] the phase noise impact on the performance satellite with the equivalent payloads of two satellites. Two
of CRDSA is analyzed. interconnected gateways have to exchange the channel state
information and data reliably to enable the implementation of
precoding techniques. The main challenge in this architecture
C. System Coexistence is to meet the stringent synchronization demand between two
One of the promising solutions to address the spectrum physically separated satellites. To reduce the overhead of data
scarcity problem caused due to spectrum segmentation and exchange and to lower the system complexity, instead of full
the dedicated assignment of available usable radio spectrum coordination, partial cooperation between the two coexisting
is to enable the spectral coexistence of two or more wireless transmitters can be employed. Such coordination will require
systems over the same set radio frequencies. The spectral coex- the exchange of smaller amount of information, i.e., CSI
istence of heterogeneous wireless networks, i.e., coexistence and does not need to perform symbol level synchronization,
thus leading to a reduced system complexity. Although intra- 6) Satellite selection strategies: Interference scenarios can
satellite multiuser interference in the coordinated dual satellite be avoided by selecting a satellite that has the highest
architecture can be completely mitigated by employing the angular discrimination with respect to other GSO and
precoding techniques, interference arising from the adjacent NGSO and GSO satellites.
satellite limits the system performance [247]. 7) Frequency channelization: The carrier-to-interference
2) Uncoordinated: Another approach for the system coex- levels can be enhanced by dividing the frequency band
istence is cognition via high-speed links between the satellite into smaller sub-bands and assigning these sub-bands to
gateways on the Earth. Two satellite systems operating in the a distinct beams.
same or different orbits may operate over the same set of
radio frequencies, with one satellite system being primary and
VII. N ETWORKING : E NABLERS & U PPER -L AYER
another as secondary by utilizing various techniques such as
I NTEGRATION
cognitive interference alignment and cognitive beamhopping.
In the cognitive interference alignment approach [241], the The aim of this section is to cover the main technical
secondary terminals can employ precoding in away that the advances related to networking and upper-layer integration of
received secondary signals at the primary receiver becomes SatComs with 5G network.
aligned across the alignment vector, which can then be filtered
by sacrificing some part of the desired received energy at the
primary receiver. Based on the level of coordination between A. Software Defined Networking and Network Function Vir-
primary and secondary systems, the IA techniques can be of tualization
static, uncoordinated and coordinated. During the last decade, the networking community has
In the cognitive beamhopping approach [248], the secondary witnessed a paradigm shift towards more open architectures
satellite having smaller beams can adapt its beamhopping pat- based on Software Defined Networking (SDN) in a quest
tern based on the prior knowledge of the beamhopping pattern for improved agility, flexibility and cost reduction, in the
of the primary satellite in way that the operation of primary deployment and operation of networks. The General refer-
(incumbent) satellite does not gets impacted. To enable this, ence of SDN architectures have been specified by the Open
beamhopping pattern of the primary satellite as well as the Networking Foundation (ONF) and Internet Engineering Task
timing information can be shared to the secondary satellite Force (IETF) in [250], [251] respectively, reflecting the key
via a high-speed signaling link between their gateways. principles of SDN: (1) separation of data plane resources
For the coexistence of NGSO and GSO satellites, inline in- (e.g. data forwarding functions) from control and manage-
terference, which arises when an Non-Geostationary (NGSO) ment functions; (2) centralization of the management-control
satellite passes through a line of sight path between an earth functions and; (3) programmabillity of network functionality
station and a Geostationary (GSO) satellite, may become prob- through device-neutral and vendor-neutral abstractions and
lematic [249]. To this end, ITU-R recommendations ITU-R Application Programming Interfaces (APIs).
S.1431 [65] and ITU-R S.1325 [64] provide recommendations The first efforts for implementing the SDN principles on
for various static and uncoordinated solutions to mitigate inline computer networks can go back to more than 2 decades
interference including the following. [252], for example, some works studied the introduction of
1) Satellite diversity: The traffic of the impacted satellite programmability of some network functions [253], [254], the
can be switched to an alternative satellite to avoid the separation of the control and user plane [255], [256], or the
main beam to the main beam interference whenever centralization of management-control functions [257], [258],
inline events occur. nevertheless, these efforts did not have a practical impact
2) Transmission Ceassation: The link budget design can be on the network community. However, in the mid-2000s the
designed to accept some outage without switching to emergence of a series of works such as the definition of
another satellite. the set of architectural, modeling, associated terminology
3) GSO arc avoidance based on the latitude: With this and protocol requirements to logically separate the control
approach, the coupling of the main beam of NGSO and data forwarding planes of an IP networking devices by
satellites and the main beam of GSO earth station can be IETF [259], [260], or the subsequent development of the first
avoided by providing sufficient angular separation with open interface between the control and data planes by the
respect to the equatorial plane. Forwarding and Control Element Separation (ForCES) IETF
4) GSO arc avoidance based on discrimination angle: By group [261], gradually unleashed a greater interest on the part
switching off the beams when the point of interest in of the academy. Subsequently, in the late of 2000s emerged
the Earth observes an angular separation (between an some network designs that included a practical deployment
NGSO satellites main beam and GSO arc) less than a and operation such as the developed by Ethane Project [262]
predefined angle. and the development of the standardized Openflow (OF) API
5) Sidelobe design of NGSO satellite and terminal anten- interface [263], that finally triggered a general interest and
nas: The amount of harmful interference from/to satel- its adoption. Thenceforth, we have witnessed the appearance
lites and GSO terminals can be minimized by designing of several controller platforms, applications as well as a
the low side-lobe antennas on the terminals and NGSO wide variety options of commercial OF switches, promoting a
satellite, respectively. virtuous circle in favor of its development and adoption.
Mobile networks also have been progressively embracing a promising enabler in the evolution of service delivery over
SDN concepts and technologies to decouple the control plane the integrated satellite-terrestrial networks [273], [277]-[278].
from the user plane. In this regard, a variety of proposals for Other works, more aimed at the development of platforms and
adopting SDN concepts in mobile network architectures have architectures have been presented in [272], [276], [279]-[280].
been presented [264], [265], likewise, some standardization For example, in [272], authors presented a generic functional
works as the so called Control and User Plane Separation architecture for satellite ground segment systems embracing
(CUPS) architecture has been developed as an enhancement SDN/NFV technologies, detailing the interaction of the SDN
of the 4G/LTE standards to fully split control and user plane controller with the satellite network control plane functions
functions within the Evolved Packet Core (EPC) [266], or of the satellite network (e.g., network control centre [NCC]
the new 5G Core Network (5CN) specifications that have functions), as well as the characteristics of both externally
consolidated this separation as a key design principle [267]. In exposed and internal interfaces, including a study of the pros
the other hand, while until recently the SDN scope has been and cons of several interfaces and data models that could
focused on the packet-oriented Layers 2 and 3 (e.g. Ethernet, be leveraged. Likewise, other works aimed at investigating
IP/MPLS), different extensions are underway for covering SDN and its integration into satellite networks through several
the abstractions necessary for the applicability of SDN in applications have been presented in [275], [281]-[282]. For
mobile networks [264], for example, for the management example, the applicability of the functional architecture in a
of optical transmission (Transport SDN [268]) or wireless combined satellite-terrestrial backhauling scenario presented
transport devices (Wireless Transport Networks [269]). in [272] was further developed in [281][283] with a focus
Regarding satellite networks, as they are expected to be on the use of SDN technologies for the realization of end-to-
an integral part of 5G service deployment [270]-[271], the end Traffic Engineering (TE) applications across the terrestrial
evolution of satellite technology must also follow the guideline and satellite segments. The benefits of such architecture were
towards more open architectures based on SDN technology assessed in [284] in terms of improved network resource
that are being consolidated within the 5G landscape, not only efficiency achieved through the centralized and more fine-
to bring to satellite technology the SDN benefits, but also to grained control of traffic routing enabled by the SDN-based TE
greatly facilitate the seamless integration for combined satellite applications. In this context, other research works has further
and terrestrial networks [272]-[273]. In this context, satellite progressing in this research area presenting some experimental
networks must also be outfitted with a set of control and proof of concepts (PoC) and testbeds for validations on the use
management functions and interfaces (API and/or network proof SDN technologies, as will be discussed in detail below (see
tocols) compatible with the mainstream SDN architectures and section VIII.B). Furtermore, other relevant research projects
technologies in order to realize a full End-to-End (E2E) net- coping with the applicability of SDN/NFV technologies are
working concept where the whole satellite-terrestrial network currently on-going in [70][282]. In this respect, an overview of
behavior can be programmed in a consistent and interoperable the current 5G initiatives and projects followed by a proposed
manner [274]. In this regard, although satellite technology architecture for 5G satellite networks, where the SDN/NFV
has not adopted the SDN concepts at the pace that terrestrial approach facilitates the integration with the 5G terrestrial
communications networks have done, important advances have system is provided in [271] which also analyses a novel
been carried out in the recent years regarding the analysis technique based on network coding for the joint exploitation
of the potential use cases, requirements, and definition of of multiple paths in integrated satellite-terrestrial systems.
functional frameworks for the exploitation of SDN technolo- SDN has managed to establish itself as a powerful tool for
gies in satellite networks. It should be noted that one of the the solution of several networking problems. In the field of
most notable use cases of SDN applied to satellite networks satellite communications the opinion is not different, seen as a
has been Network Function Virtualization (NFV). While the key facilitator to enhance the delivery of satellite communica-
concept of Network Virtualization, that is generaly regarded tions services and to achieve a better integration of the satellite
as an abstraction of the physical network in terms of a logical component within the 5G ecosystem. However, SDN is still
network [252] is independent of SDN, the key principles of an emerging technology and its development and maturity
SDN have positioned it as a technological enabler for network are still in process. In the field of satellite communications,
virtualization [252]. In this regard, some of the first works while important progress has been achieved so far on network
were presented in [275][276]. In [275], authors investigated architectural and functional aspects, as well as on the assess-
the advantages of introducing network programmability and ment of their benefits mainly via mathematical modelling and
virtualization using SDN and/or NFV by analyzing four use more or less sophisticated simulation environments, further
cases as well as their impacts on a typical satellite system research is still warranted towards the practical implementation
architecture while in [276], authors presented a satellite net- of integrated satellite-terrestrial solutions and their assessment
work architecture based on the idea of decoupling data plane under more realistic conditions.
and control plane to gain high efficiency, fine-grained control
and flexibility. Subsequently, a variety of works have been
presented, some aimed at the research of benefits and technical B. Caching over Satellite
challenges brought by introducing SDN/NFV into the satellite One of the challenges in the edge caching is how to effec-
networks, detailing a set of use cases, opportunities, scenarios tively prefetch the popular content to the caches considering
and research challenges, but especially, identifying the SDN as the high volume of data [285]. In order to overcome this
issue, satellite backhauling has attracted much attention as a to the wide coverage, satellite can be used for task off-loading
promising solution for cache placement phase to exploit the from mobile users which are out of range from terrestrial MEC
large coverage of the satellite beams. Satellite systems have servers. It is shown in [299], [300] that with a proper network
the ability to provide high throughput links and to operate in virtualization algorithm, satellite MEC can significantly reduce
multi/broad-cast modes for immense area coverage. latency and improve the energy efficiency compared to the
Due to their multi-hop unicast architecture, the cached stand-alone 5G terrestrial.
content via terrestrial networks has to go through multiple
links and has to be transmitted individually towards each base VIII. T ESTBEDS & P ROTOTYPING
station (BS). On the other hand, with wide area coverage, This section focuses on communication testbeds which have
the satellite backhaul can broadcast content to all BSs or been developed for different communication layers in order
multi-cast contents to multiple groups of BSs. Therefore, to practically demonstrate some of the advanced SatCom
bringing these two technologies together can further off-load concepts.
the network. The main idea is to integrate the satellite and
terrestrial telecommunication systems in order to create a
hybrid federated content delivery network, which can improve A. PHY & MAC: SDR Based
the user experience. The joint deployment of satellite and The phenomenal advances of the electronics industry create
terrestrial networks can be found in [286]–[289]. The appli- a trend toward ever smaller, smarter, cheaper, and more capa-
cation of satellite communications in feeding several network ble devices, from sensors to computers to radios suitable for
caches at the same time using broad/multi-cast is investigated use in spacecraft applications. Their availability has led to the
in [286], [290], [291]. The work of [291] proposes using the ongoing revolution in small and medium sized satellites and
broad/multi-cast ability of the satellite to send the requested also in ground based consumer equipment. The community is
contents to the caches located at the user side. Online satellite- pushing the effort toward re-configurable SDR SoC (System-
assisted caching is studied in [286]. In this work, satellite on-a-Chip) ground receivers and to the ultimate extreme of
broadcast is used to help placing the files in the caches located satellite-on-a-chip. [185]. The SDR technologies have become
in the proxy servers. Each server uses the local and global file popular in the last decade, with plenty of demonstrations for
popularity to update the cache. terrestrial wireless communications [301].
Recent works on caching over satellite are presented in Multi-standard and adaptive communication systems can
[292]–[298]. A two-layer caching algorithm is studied in be implemented in easily using software-defined radio (SDR)
[293] in which cache on the satellite is the first caching techniques. It consists in that must of signal processing is per-
layer and the cache in the ground station is the second one. formed in the digital domain by an appropriate digital signal
The joint cache optimal is carried out via generic algorithm processing (DSP) device [302]. An SDR platform consists
of the original mixed integer linear programming. In [294], of a hardware radio frequency (RF) front-end and a DSP
a service model is proposed for hybrid terrestrial/satellite unit implemented in signal processors, field programmable
networks in order to identify viable alternatives to deploy gate arrays (FPGA), or GPUs. These platforms are designed
converged satellite-terrestrial services. Two caching policies, to be highly flexible, where all the receiver and transmitter
namely pull-based and push-based, are studied. In [295], a functionalities can be updated by a simple modification of the
back-tracing partition directed on-path caching mechanism is software code of the DSP devices [303].
proposed for hybrid LEO constellation and terrestrial network. However, there are still not many testbeds in academic
By reducing intermittent connectivity as much as possible, it papers published on SATCOMs, where the tendency to use
is shown that the redundant transmissions of data access for SDR technologies has only been seen in recent years, partic-
different users can be largely reduced since the requested files ularly in the small satellites community, where a universal
are favorably fetched from intermediate caching nodes, instead programmable hardware is desirable. which intensifies the
of directly from the source. The authors in [296] propose a interest in software-defined radio (SDR) in recent years.
resource allocation strategy for cache filling in hybrid optimal- Few works have been published for SDR testbeds for GEO
satellite networks. It is shown that the placement time can orbits. Those research work focus on interference mitigation
be notably reduced in a hybrid terrestrial-satellite backhaul in multibeam satellite systems. The popularization of the de-
network, particularly in case of bad weather that impacts the facto Cubesat standard fostered the use of SDR platforms. In
data rate of the wireless optical links. The authors in [297] the beginning, those platforms were custom designed by the
propose a novel caching algorithm for optimizing content universities and research centers, and later around the begin-
placement in LEO satellite networks based on many-to-many ning to the decade of 2010 by some specialized companies like
matching game. In [298], the authors investigate the perfor- GomSpace [304], Nanoavionics [305], Alen Space [306], ISIS
mance of hybrid satellite-terrestrial relay network (HSTRN) Space [307], and Tyvak [308], among others. These companies
under different caching policies. Analytical closed-forms are provide SDR based payloads for Cubesat platforms. The
derived for the outage probability under the most popular SDR platforms are mainly based on SoCs (System-on-a-Chip)
uniform content based caching schemes. implementing signal acquisition and signal processing using
By equipped with some computation capabilities in addition programmable logic (PL) fabric (FPGAs, CPLDs, etc) and
to storage capacity, satellite communications have shown po- processing system (PS) units. Most of these SDR platforms use
tential applications in mobile edge computing (MEC). Thanks the popular Zynq 7000 hybrid ARM/FPGA SoCs. There are
some examples of communication system payloads using SDR CSI Ĥ

Return link emulator
techniques; one example is the GomSpace DVB-S2 compliant
Return link
transmitters. emulator
USER TERMINAL
1
Research and academic institutions have been very active in H
DATA SATELLITE
the development of nano-satellites to micro-satellites [309] for IN TRANSPONDER & USER TERMINAL
GATEWAY 2
communication and earth observation applications. However, Set of IF
waveforms
MIMO CHANNEL Set of IF
EMULATOR waveforms
there a few works using experimental communication testbeds
Forward up-link Forward down-link
using middle sized or bigger platforms. Some of the published USER TERMINAL
N
work provide some specific techniques applicable to satellite
communications and verified using SDR prototyping.
Many of the specific SDR implementations are focused on Fig. 19. General diagram of end-to-end satellite forward link hardware testbed
channel coding aspects such as in [310]–[312]. Low-Density
Parity-Check (LDPC) codes, which are the core of the FEC
functionalities in the DBV-S2 and DVB-S2X standards, gained
must of the interest in the community because its outstanding
BER performance, close to Shannon limit, at relatively low
complexity and latency. The implementation of such type of
coding, was a technological challenge that was solved with
the help of the flexibility of SDR approaches.
There are also several works regarding the waveform design
and synchronization aspects for satellite communications. One
example of SDR prototyping for pulse shaping optimization
and multi-component signaling (MSC) is found in [313].
References [314], [315] show implementations of DVB-S2
transmitter and receivers.
Fig. 20. SDR infrastructure of end-to-end satellite forward link hardware
There are other aspects that had grab some attention from testbed
the research community on top of the waveform design and
channel coding. These aspects are the interference mitigation
and MU-MIMO schemes in multi-beam satellite systems. The work in [324]–[326] describes an end-to-end multi-
For the prototyping of such complex systems, in emulation beam satellite communication system emulator, called SER-
environments, the SDR techniques were the only alternative. ENADE, which is used for the evaluation of precoding and
The reference [316] describes an emulation system of interference mitigation techniques [327]. The full testbed is
geostationary satellite channels by means of software-defined based in National instrument infrastructure, which uses the
radio techniques. The emulator is based on the National In- NI USRP. The end-to-end testbed is hosted in the University
struments Universal Software Radio Peripheral (USRP) [317], of Luxembourg, and emulates the complete forward link
and use LabVIEW programming environment. The emulator for different of transponder orbits from LEO to GEO. The
is able to process a 1.6 MBaud signal stream in real-time, forward link includes a multi-beam satellite ground-based
while adding thermal noise, phase noise, and propagation gateway transmitter using the DVB-S2X standard, a multi-
delay according to the system which is modelled. beam channel and transponder emulator, and a set of User
LASSENA group [318], at University of Quebec, has been Terminals (UT) receivers. Fig. 19 shows a functional block
developing an SDR infrastructure for interference mitigation in diagram of the SERENADE forward satellite link hardware
satellite communications. The objective of these developments testbed emulator. Fig. 20 shows a generic description of the
aims to create a technical framework for the detection, mea- SERENADE SDR infrastructure, which is flexible and scalable
surement and mitigation of RFI to resolve satellite link inter- for different number of channels. The infrastructure consists
ference issues and increase the global robustness. The infras- of the NI PXI (PCI EXtension for Instruments) 1085 chassis,
tructure uses several devices in a hybrid approach. The GEO which allow centralized connection of the set of USRPs,
channel emulation is based on the commercially available and FPGA processing units. The FPGA (Field-Programmable
single-link satellite channel emulator RT Logic T400CS [319]. Gate Array) processing units, model NI FlexRIO 7976R,
The payload emulation is based on the BEECube BEE4 SDR are inserted in the PXI chassis slots to increase to real-
platform, which uses multiple FPGA for high-bandwidth real- time processing capabilities, and consist of the Xilinx FPGA
time signal processing. Finally, the transmitters and receivers Kintex-7 410T. The complete testbed can be configured to
are implemented by means of the SDR platforms provided by have MIMO sizes of up to 16x16 using a modular satellite
the company Nutaq Inc., in particular, the Nutaq PicoSDR, payload and channel emulator as the one shown in Fig. 19. A
and, the Nutaq ZeptoSDR [320]. This SDR infrastructure detailed functional diagram of the payload and MIMO channel
has been used to test radio frequency interference excision emulator is shown in Fig. 21. The channel emulator receives
schemes [321], [322], and also the evaluation of scenarios for the transmitted signals, applies the payload impairments, and
airplane connectivity [323]. applies the MIMO linear interference pattern to generate the
parameters (e.g. bit error rate, availability, channel capacity,

PAYLOAD MIMO USER etc.), and; (3) Delay: the transmission and propagation delay
DOWNLINK for different satellite orbits (GEO, MEO, HEO/LEO) and ISLs.
In case of DVB-S2/RCS systems, emulators/simulators must
+ also reproduce at least important features of these systems
IMUX TWTA OMUX
as some Network access and Radio Resource Management
(RRM) functions (e.g. the adaptability of channel conditions
H FADING
by modulation and coding schemes, etc). Furthermore, satellite
Phase noise Air link AWGN Phase noise
simulators/emulators must have other types of features that are
very important for a successful implementation and analysis,
such as the performace, interfaces, system interconnections ca-
Fig. 21. Satellite payload and MIMO downlink channel emulator
pabilities with real equipments and applications, performance
analysis tools, ease of operation/configuration, etc. There is a
signal provided towards the users. The payload impairments variety of satellite system simulators/emulators on the market
include: as iTrinegys Network Emulators [334] or DataSoft Satellite
• IMUX and OMUX frequency response. Network Simulator [335], among others. Likewise, there are
• Phase noise emulation. This includes the phase and some OpenSource options among which we can highlight
frequency drifts over time, and can be controlled inde- OpenSAND [336] initially developed by Thales Alenia Space,
pendently at each of the transponder channels [328]. the Satellite Network Simulator 3 (SNS3) [337] initially devel-
• Amplifier non-linearities, with re-configurable parame- oped by Magister Solutions Ltd in the frame of ESA ARTES
ters. projects, etc., and others that are still under development as the
Real-Time Satellite Network Emulator [338] by the European
The MIMO downlink applies the channel matrix, a fading pat-
Space Agency (ESA).
tern and a re-configurable delay, and finally the user emulators
As mentioned before, the applicability of PoCs/testbeds de-
apply Gaussian noise and the phase noise of a typical UT
velopments can cover a broad spectrum of scientific research.
hardware.
One of these examples can be represented by developments
The UT emulators receive the output signal of the channel
focused on the current crucial issue of satellite integration in
emulator, and perform synchronization, channel state estima-
5G networks, some of them presented in [70], [274], [329],
tion, and decode the information stream. The channel state
[339]. For example, in [274], following with the outcomes
information (CSI) is feedback to the Gateway using a return
delivered by the VITAL project [272], the authors presented
link emulator over an Ethernet link. The transmitter uses this
an experimental proof of concept (PoC) and validation based
CSI s to compute the precoding signals. This infrastructure
on the use of SDN technologies for the realization of E2E TE
has been used to experiment with novel optimized precoding
applications in integrated hybrid terrestrial-satellite backhaul
techniques, know and Symbol Level Precoding (SLP), that
mobile scenarios (Fig. 22a). Other three remarkable examples
optimizes the precoding vectors per every modulated set of
can be found in the still in progress projects SATis5, 5G-
input symbols [330]–[333].
ALLSTAR and SAT5G, presented in [329], [339], [340],
respectively. The SATis5 project [329] aims to build a large-
B. Network Testbeds scale real-time live end-to-end 5G integrated satellite terrestrial
Due to the difficult access to satellite systems and its network proof-of-concept testbed (Fig. 22b) in order to imple-
high costs, tools such as satellite system simulators/emulators, ment, deploy and evaluate an integrated satellite-terrestrial 5G
which in turn have a vital role in the development of network, showcasing the benefits of the satellite integration
PoCs/testbeds are becoming increasingly relevant in satellite with the terrestrial infrastructures as part of a comprehensive
technology research. In this regard, PoCs/testbeds can play communication system. The 5G-ALLSTAR project [339], is
an important role in conducting demonstrations and rigorous aimed to develop selected technologies targeting a set of PoCs
evaluation of feasibility, performance, manageability, etc. for to validate and demonstrate in the following heterogeneous
new architectures, strategies, protocols, algorithms, etc., under real setup: new radio based feasibility of satellite access
low cost schemes and realistic and reproducible network for providing broadband and reliable 5G services; multi-
scenarios. One of the main attributes of a simulator/emulator is connectivity support based on cellular and satellite access;
the precision among the reproduced models and the systems to spectrum sharing between cellular and satellite access; etc.
be evaluated. In satellite domain there are three most represen- Finally, the SAT5g project [340], is focused in the validation of
tative elements to be reproduced; (1) Network Topology: e.g. technical challenges for cost effective satcom solutions for 5G
modelling star-mesh structures, satellite types (transparent and as: virtualisation of satcom network functions to ensure com-
regenerative), multispot and multigateway configurations, as patibility with the 5G Software Defined Networking (SDN)
well as the representation of network elements as the Gateway and Network Functions Virtualisation (NFV) architecture;
(GW), Satellite Terminal (ST), Satellite (SAT), etc.; (2) Phys- cellular network management system to control satcoms radio
ical Layer: e.g. the RF propagation characteristics as channel resources and service; Link aggregation scheme for small cell
attenuation models (separated forward/return, uplink/downlink connectivity mitigating Quality of Service (QoS) and latency
channels) which in turn will determine essential performance imbalance between satellite and cellular access; Leveraging
a) b)
Fig. 22. High level view of the experimental test bed components a) SDN-based traffic engineering solution PoC [274]; b) SATis5 [329].
5G features/technologies in satcoms; Optimising/harmonising which demand for lighter mass with the capability of handling
key management and authentication methods between cellular higher loads and the requirements of operating with extreme
and satellite access technologies; etc. service conditions over longer duration [342]. To address these
As an important tool in the development and innovation drawbacks, digital twin is expected to play a crucial role
of satellite technology by academia and industry, the de- in integrating historical and fleet data, maintenance history
velopment of satellite systems simulators/emulators as well and sensor data from the satellite on-board integrated health
as the development of PoCs/testbeds have taken on great management system to enhance the safety and reliability of
relevance in the recent years. However, as justified in [338], satellites/space vehicles. By analyzing all the available infor-
the development of such tools must include new and better mation, digital twin helps to forecast different attributes such
capabilities such as a highly configurable real-time network as response to critical events, the health of a satellite/vehicle
(e.g. time-varying topology and link characteristics in satellite system, probability of mission success and remaining useful
constellation networks) and highly accurate models at low- life, and to activate self-healing mechanisms whenever needed.
cost equipment, allowing fast developments and simplicity in
design. Furthermore, as SDN is also seen as a key facilitator to
enhance the delivery of satellite communications services and Another promising future application of digital twin is to
achieve a better integration of the satellite component within enable space-based monitoring and communication services.
the 5G ecosystem (see section VII.A), the new developments The cost and time needed to provide space-based services can
require the introduction of the additional SDN components as be drastically reduced by utilizing software defined compo-
key enabling technologies. nents in the satellites, which can be remotely configured from
the Earth [343]. Also, digital twin can enable the creation
IX. F UTURE & O PEN T OPICS of autonomous swarms in the satellites by incorporating the
intelligent sensing and communication capabilities to the satel-
A. Digital twins for satellite systems lite systems. Furthermore, digital twin at the satellites seems
Digital twin represents the digital replica of physical objects, promising to enable the global sharing of services and skills
places, system, people and devices, which can be utilized for by dynamically creating new services, i.e., supply chain in the
various objectives with the help of sensor/IoT and data analytic space, and generating a sharing-based economy in the space.
technologies. It reflects the involved elements and dynamics
of the process by which IoT devices/sensors gather data from
the environment, operate and live throughout the life cycles of One crucial aspect to be addressed with regard to the
final products [341]. Various technologies including machine- commonly accessible digital twin is to protect the privacy
to-machine interactions, natural language processing, machine of individual entities and to prevent the information misuse
learning, video processing and data analytics can be used without acquiring the permission of concerned entities. In
to extract and understand the dynamics of the environment, this direction, one promising enabler could be block-chain
and the extracted knowledge can be subsequently utilized technology, which can opt out the records that should not
to dynamically recalibrate the environment, leading to the be shared among others. Another issue in digital twin en-
significant impact on the design, build and operational phases abled nanosatellite systems is to properly track, control and
of a particular device/product. decommission nano-satellites in order prevent any threats to
In the domain of satellite systems, the existing methods the ground or other satellites [343]. Other future issues include
utilized for fleet management, system design and certifica- how to manage the space debris and pollution by removing the
tion, which are mainly based on heuristic design principles, failed or inoperative satellites and how to regulate the digital
physical testing and statistical distributions of physical device twin-enabled infrastructure in terms of preventing data misuse
properties, are not suitable for future generation of satellites by the governments, criminals or terrorist bodies.
B. Cooperative satellite swarms and clusters enabled by inter- Tandem-X mission from the German Aerospace Center. This
satellite links mission consists of two SAR satellites following an orbit in
close formation, with a variable distance between them of
In contrast to monolithic conventional satellite missions, few hundreds of meters [348]. The spacecraft in here are
the NewSpace methodology proposes novel distributed archi- not precisely nanosatellites, however this mission pioneered
tectures promising a paradigm shift in the space industry. the formation flying concept. Another good example is the
Distributed Space Systems (DSS), and in spacial, satellite OLFAR project. The objective of this mission in to perform
swarms and clusters will provide improved re-configurability, as a distributed radio telescope with satellites spreading in a
flexibility, upgrade-ability, responsiveness, and adaptability cloud with a diameter of 100 km. The satellites will share their
to structural and functional changes. Large satellite swarms, captured astronomical data of at least 6 Mbit/s/satellite [349]–
based on small spacecraft, can also enlarge the autonomy of [352]. Another example is the ongoing QB50 mission project,
the mission by upgrading or replacing defective units while QB50 is an international network of CubeSats for multi-point,
the mission remain under operation. Clusters and swarms are in-situ measurements in the lower thermosphere and re-entry
implementation of DSS consisting of an array of autonomous research [353], [354].
satellites which share the same mission goals, and require
Going in this direction, for swarms in general, the enabling
communication and cooperation to achieve those goals. In
factor is the capability of performing data exchange and
clusters the satellites fly in close formation, and require an ac-
distributed processing. In order to exchange information be-
curate observability and controllability of the satellite positions
tween satellites, RF and optical and ISLs have been proposed.
and attitudes for coordinate their operations. This accuracy can
Additionally, some LEO and MEO systems use RF links to
be in orders of micrometers, and even, picometers, and is only
improve availability and ensure a good quality of service [355].
achievable with powerful propulsion and actuator systems.
Usually clusters arrays contain a few to tens of satellites. In As an example, the satellites in the Iridium constellation use
contrast, swarms, which may consist of tens to even thousands radio systems around 22 GHz to route traffic via the intra-
of satellites aiming for the same mission goals, but without plane and inter-plane neighboring satellites [356]. However,
keeping a tight relative position in the array formation. This this type of solution, is not feasible, for the nanosatellites
configuration allows the use of cheaper and smaller spacecraft used in swarm missions, for the reasons mentioned before.
and to enlarge the number of array elements. Recently, the The implementation of such ISLs is still an open research
concept of cohesive swarms was coined [189] to describe the topic since his implementation represent an increase in system
swarm implementations that do not require to have an accurate complexity and power consumption to the total system.
controllability of the array relative positions and attitudes but
has an accurate monitoring of these parameters. The cohesive
swarm use the parameters observations to compensate them C. Hierarchical Aerial Networks
in the signals transmitted or received by the whole array.
In general, the implementation of satellite swarms is in an Hierarchical area networks with multiple types of flying lay-
active research and development phase, and is envisioned to ers are promising to provide extended coverage and improve
be applied in different space mission that would be impractical, secured communications to some specific areas and events in
and even impossible, with current monolithic or multi-satellite the new space era. In this architect, multiple types of flying
missions. layers will cooperate to improve the space-to-ground link
The synchronization of the swarm nodes is a very challeng- reliability and capacity [357]. The unmanned aerial vehicle
ing task due to the dynamic characteristic of the transmission (UAV) will serve the ground users at low and medium layer,
channel between the nodes, and the limited accuracy of the while high-altitude-pseudo satellites (HAPS) will serve both
time and frequency references available at the small satellites UAVs and ground users from high altitude and act as relaying
[183], [344]. In order to achieve a proper synchronization, the nodes from the satellites when necessary. However, due to
nodes must implement ISLs [184], [345] (ISL) to obtain an the difference in the height and velocity, link connections
accurate reference from an external source. between the HAPS and UAVs are disconnected frequently.
With the current state of the technology, establishing a direct Therefore, how to harmonize the flight of the UAVs and
data transfer between the flying units in a swarm is regarded HAPS to maintain reliable connections is of great importance
as economically unfeasible due to the high payload costs. as the current routing protocol is not applicable to vertical
The implementation of the ISL requires additional transceivers space networks. One should note that the desired routing
which add to the weight and power consumption in each of protocol for vertical area networks should take into account
the satellites [346], [347]. For this reason, the development of the heterogeneous connects between the links, e.g., free space
space missions from swarms have not been contemplated in optical among the HAPS, hybrid radio frequency/free space
the past for data communications applications, but for science optical between the HAPS and UAVs. Another open problem
missions where the nature of the distributed space system is is how to efficiently deploy the hierarchical area network [20].
crucial or strictly required to fulfil the mission objectives. A joint design of communications and HAPS/UAV flights is
Some examples, from proposed concept to actual missions, can expected to achieve the global performance. This will include
be found in the remote sensing literature [189]. One example not only UAVs and HAPs placement design but also trajectory
of synchronization and formation flying is performed in the optimizations.
infrastructure to provide necessary services; in this context,

the Flying base-stations have been considered [359]. Flying
base stations are mounted on general-purpose unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) and these UAVs are further integrated into
wireless network. It has been shown in [359], that integration
of such systems into mobile networks can be an efficient
alternative to ultra-dense small cell deployment, especially in
scenarios with users moving in crowds.
With the envisaged deployment of low latency LEO satel-
lites supporting terrestrial communication waveforms, an ad-
ditional design flexibility can be incorporated in the system
by developing base-station capabilities into the satellites. The
extensive use of on-board processing in the emerging satellite
systems paves way for the realization of a flying base-station
on-board a satellite. On-board regeneration is essential for im-
plementing this capability; the processing is not only restricted
Fig. 23. Interplanetary Internet Network Concept. Credits: NASA to PHY, but MAC and NET layer functionalities need to be
added as well. Key aspects include serving a terminal using
multiple satellites (CoMP scenario) and appropriate routing of
D. Internet of Space Things/ Planetary Communications the packets over ISLs.
Space communication technology has steadily evolved from
expensive, one-of-a-kind point-to-point architectures, to the re- F. Aggressive frequency reuse and dynamic spectrum manage-
use of technology on successive missions, to the development ment for both GSO and NGSO
of standard protocols agreed upon by space agencies of many The term aggressive frequency reuse in multibeam satellite
countries. This last phase has gone on since 1982 through the systems refers to the use of very low reuse factors in assigning
efforts of the Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems user link bandwidth across multiple beams of a satellite. The
(CCSDS). With the current rate of astronomy and space explo- reuse factor of one implies the maximum possible frequency
ration, it is clear that a Space Wide Web network will spread reuse with all available bandwidth being allocated to all the
to all over the solar system in the near future. As depicted beams. However, this results in a very high level of co-
in Fig. 23 the vision of NASA [358] for the future of space channel interference, leading to the need of suitable co-channel
communication is a huge network of communications nodes so interference mitigation strategies. One promising approach in
that messages can hope between different intermediate nodes this regard is to utilize advanced signal processing techniques
to reach their final destination. This architecture completely such as precoding by exploiting the spatial degrees of freedom
matches the architecture used on Earth for the World Wide provided obtained from the multibeam antenna.
Web and this is the reason why this new path for space As compared to the Geostationary (GSO) satellites, NGSO
communication is commonly referred to as Space Wide Web. satellites enjoy the benefits of less free space attenuation, small
While IP-like network layer protocols are feasible for short propagation delay and the reduced in-orbit injection cost per
hops, such as ground station to orbiter, rover to lander, lander satellite [360]. Due to these advantages, the trend of deploying
to orbiter, and so on, delay-tolerant networking is needed NGSO satellites is increasing over the recent years but the
to get information from one region of the Solar System to available usable radio spectrum is limited and is costly for
another. Delay-tolerant networking (DTN) has the target to the satellite operators. This has led to the need of spectrum
enable standardized communications over long distances and coexistence of LEO/MEO satellites with the already existing
through time delays. At its core is something called the Bundle GSO satellites and/or the spectral coexistence between differ-
Protocol (BP), which is similar to the Internet Protocol, or IP, ent NGSO satellites [249], [361]. The interference analysis
that serves as the heart of the Internet here on Earth. Several between GSO and NGSO systems operating over the same
research groups are currently working on the development of set of radio frequencies becomes challenging as the relative
such a new network layer protocol for the Space Internet. position of the co-channel spots changes over time in NGSO
systems [360], [362].
Regarding the frequency allocation in the Ka-band (uplink:
E. Onboard regeneration / Flying Base Stations 27.5 30 GHz, downlink: 17.7 20.2 GHz), the frequency bands
Several developments have been considered towards cater- 29.5 30 GHz and 19.7 20.2 GHz have been exclusively
ing to the emerging challenge of handling different types of assigned to the Fixed Satellite Services (FSS) satellites. On
mobile traffic originating from multitude of devices supporting the other hand, 17.7-19.7 GHz and 27.5-29.5 GHz bands are
various use cases. To realize the flexibility and scalability in allocated to the terrestrial Fixed Service (FS) links on the
this context, micro-cell and small-cells with certain operational primary basis [249]. These bands can also be utilized by the
autonomy and ease of deployment have been considered. FSS satellites by providing sufficient protection to the existing
These deployments involve static base-stations. A next step FS links. Furthermore, in the following sub-bands of the Ka-
in achieving flexibility in this direction is the use of mobile band, GSO and NGSO satellites have equal right: (i) 28.6 29.1
GHz (uplink), 18.8 19.3 GHz (downlink), and (ii) 29.1 29.5 reception mode. Moreover, terminal-side beamforming [363]
GHz (uplink), 19.3 19.7 GHz (downlink). In these bands, ITU can be employed at the secondary NGSO terminal to mitigate
RR No. 9.11 A specifies that GSO and NGSO satellites must harmful interference towards/from the primary GSO or NGSO
coordinate with the previously filed GSO and NGSO networks, satellite.
and also with the existing other primary services in these
bands. According to ITU-R footnote 5.523A, in the bands
G. Satellite Network Automation
17.819.3/28.629.1 GHz, such coordination should be based
on the date of filing. In the rest of the frequency bands, the The upcoming integrated 5G-satellite networks will largely
limits on the Effective Power Flux Density (EPFD) mentioned increase in size and complexity due to the wide adoption
in the RR Article 22 must be respected while coordinating of heterogeneous mobile devices and wireless access, which
with the already existing satellite systems. The EPFD specifies poses increased degrees of freedom in the network man-
the maximum permissible interference that the NGSO FSS agement process. In many use cases, optimal solutions for
systems can cause to the GSO FSS systems and there arises terrestrial-satellite network management can be difficult to
no need of coordination with the GSO networks if these limits model due to the complex environment and the presence
are respected but the coordination with other NGSO needs to of too many uncertainties. Developing fast and high-quality
be considered. heuristics or closed-form analytical models are not always
As highlighted earlier, in-line interference, may be challeng- a viable option for such use cases. As a result, network
ing for the coexistence of GSO and NGSO satellites, mainly performance could be degraded, and the capital expenditure
in the equatorial region. In such a scenario, an earth station (CAPEX) and operational expenditure (OPEX) overheads can
that is in-line with GEO and NGEO satellites may create increase. With the growing complexity and reliability re-
and receive interference through its main beam. Furthermore, quirements, the conventional test-and-verification methods for
in the uplink, besides the inline interference from the main network management will be challenging. This is because
lobe of the NGSO terminal, the aggregate interference caused network operators are not comfortable deploying live traffic
by the side-lobe gains of the beampatterns of many NGSO on untested/unoptimized configurations. The concepts of self-
terminals in the ground may cause harmful interference to the optimization and self-organization network (synonymous with
GSO satellite. Also, if there exist multiple NGSO satellites in network automation) are highly suited for such complex prob-
different equatorial orbits over the same spectrum, the GSO lems.
terminals located at the equatorial region in the earth may A promising architecture and implementation comes from
receive aggregate interference from the side-lobes of multiple SDN where networks can be dynamically programmed
NGSO satellite beampatterns [249]. through centralized control points and from NFV enabling the
Although the inline interference event can be predetermined cost-efficient deployment and runtime of network functions
and avoided by using proper planning considering the con- as software only. Based on NFV and SDN, network slicing
stellation geometries and utilizing the aforementioned static (NS) is a service-oriented construct providing “Network as
methods suggested by ITU-R recommendation S.1431 [65] a Service” to concurrent applications. The slices will de-
and ITU-R S.1325 [64], the performance of the primary system liver different SLAs based on a unified pool of resources.
(GSO or NGSO depending on the coexistence scenario) may The envisioned satellite-terrestrial network will be capable to
be impacted due to limited dynamicity of these methods. support end-to-end services (and their management) across
Also, the QoS of the secondary NGSO system may not be heterogeneous environments by means of a single (converged)
guaranteed while utilizing these static approaches. In this re- common network. Through this paradigm, the specific services
gard, there arises the need to investigate more dynamic/flexible can be highly customized, enabling the seamless integration
approaches for the real-time mitigation of inline interference of heterogeneous networks in a 5G-satellite ecosystem. Unlike
events, which may occur while operating GSO-NGSO or the conventional one-type-fits-all network, the network slicing
NGSO-NGSO satellites over the same frequency band. presents not just a cutting-edge technique, but opens new
One of the promising flexible approaches for interference horizons for efficient and intelligent resource configuration for
mitigation could be to employ beamhopping principle at integrated terrestrial-satellite systems.
the secondary satellite so that the interference to the pri- In this context, the combination of terrestrial and non-
mary GSO or NGSO satellite can be avoided by adapting terrestrial links, e.g., satellite, in transport networks has intro-
the beamhopping patterns in the real-time by utilizing the duced new dimensions of network heterogeneity and dynam-
principle of cognitive beamhopping framework proposed in icity. Several open issues have to be addressed. Firstly, one of
[248]. Another promising solution could be to employ adaptive the main challenges is to devise network-slicing algorithms,
power control mechanisms [361] at the NGSO terminal to e.g., slicing configuration, virtual resource isolation, that can
mitigate harmful interference towards the GSO satellite in efficiently and autonomously configure the large number of
the uplink coexistence scenario, and at the NGSO satellite parameters present in a virtualized dynamic graph representing
to mitigate harmful interference towards the GSO terminal an integrated satellite-terrestrial transport network. Secondly,
in the downlink coexistence scenario. Furthermore, another most of the works on virtual network embedding (VNE) are
dynamic approach is to incorporate sensing mechanisms with based on a static design, i.e., based on a snapshot of a deter-
the help of intelligent sensors at the NGSO terminals in a ministic network graph. However, a realistic integrated NGSO
way that the inline interference can be detected during the satellite-terrestrial network is highly dynamic, resulting in fast
variations of the virtual network topology over time. Dealing this context, Quantum key distribution (QKD), first proposed
with the graph dynamics in the context of online network- in [364], involves establishing a private encryption key be-
slice management is an essential challenge. Thirdly, the de tween two parties. QKD is inherently an optical technology,
facto standard protocol between the data and control planes, and has the ability to deliver encryption keys between any two
i.e., OpenFlow, in SDN/NFV networks has to be extended points that share an optical link automatically. However, use of
and compatible to satellite-terrestrial networks by considering QKD over the mature optical fibre networks for long-range,
satellite characteristics, e.g., LEO and MEO satellites’ motion, long-scale applications is limited by the transmission losses
available on-board energy, storage capacity, and computational that increase exponentially with distance. In this context, QKD
power. over satellite is being increasingly considered with a project
to develop such a space-based waveform already underway
H. Advanced Satellite Resource Orchestration [365].
Key to the success of QKD over satellite is the ability to set-
As already mentioned, one of the concepts that is revolu-
up stable optical links by overcoming the various impediments
tioning the infrastructure of current communication systems
in transmission. The links should ensure certain minimum
is the so-called SDR technology. In short, SDR refers to a
quantum bit error rate (QBER), which is the QKD counterpart
radio communication system where the major part of its func-
of signal-to-noise ratio, is met. This requires appropriate
tionality is implemented by means of software. The advances
selection of optical frequencies, components and mechanisms
in this software disruptive paradigm is currently reinventing
for pointing, acquisition and tracking. Also of significant
future network architectures, accelerating service deployment,
interest is the transmit and receive processing to ensure high
and facilitating infrastructure management. Satellite commu-
fidelity link while satisfying constraints on size (e.g., on-board
nications are not an exception.
receiving lens cannot be large), power (e.g., constraints im-
The main advantage of SDR is the capacity of adaptation
posed not to harm existing links/ equipment etc) and possibly
which has been identified as a crucial characteristic of the
computational power. Thus, in addition to its consideration for
future broadband satellite systems. By replacing as much hard-
solving spectrum crunch, optical satellite communications will
ware with software, the satellite payload becomes much more
enable the QKD in the coming years; this motivates further
flexible and allows to deliver cost-competitive connectivity in
investigations into optical satellite communications focussing
response to evolving consumer demand and price expectations.
on QKD scenarios in future.
Software defined payloads are less dependent on hardware
and becomes more flexible and automatically reactive, able
to face the dynamicity envisaged in the forthcoming wireless J. Machine Learning Applications
traffic. The ability to reprogram beam pattern, frequency and
Machine Learning (ML) techniques in the literature can
power allocation dynamically in at anytime during the satellite
be broadly categorized into supervised, unsupervised and
mission, makes SDR technology very attractive in the forth-
Reinforcement Learning (RL) [366]. Out of these, supervised
coming day where the data markets are more uncertain. The
learning requires the labelled training data-set while the un-
aforementioned capabilities open a door to advance resource
supervised learning does not require the labelled data-sets. In
management strategies for satellite communications, but at the
contrast to these approaches which require training data-sets,
same time bring new research challenges. In particular, the new
the RL does not need a training data-set and enables a learning
on-board processing capabilities combined with the emerging
agent to learn from the prior experience.
role of active antenna systems, requires advanced resource
In the context of satellite systems, the application of ML
management techniques capable of maximizing the satellite
has been already being explored in several scenarios including
resource utilization while maintaining QoS guarantees, and
opportunistic weather monitoring, earth observation applica-
dynamically matching the distribution of the satellite capacity
tions, satellite operations and sensor fusion for navigation.
on ground to the geographic distribution of the traffic demand
Furthermore, with the growing trend of investigating the
and following its variations in time.
applicability of ML in wireless communications, investigating
SDR-based satellite systems bring important improvements
its applications in the satellite communications has recently
from a network management point of view, by allowing a
received increasing attention from the academia as well as
better orchestration of the satellite resources. Unavoidably,
SatCom industries/agencies. The ML/AI techniques can find
softwarization will expand to the whole satellite ecosystem,
potential applications in addressing various issues in satellite
replacing the custom hardware solutions, resulting in a more
communications including interference mitigation to enable
flexible and dynamic system with overall better performance
the coexistence of satellite systems with terrestrial systems, op-
and efficiency.
timization of radio resources (spectrum, power),optimization
of SatCom network operation, and management of large
I. Quantum Key Distribution through Optical Satcom satellite constellations.
The RSA protocol has been the cornerstone of cryptographic In the above context, some promising use-cases to investi-
systems due to computational power needed to break it. gate the applications of ML techniques include: (i) adaptive
However, with the advent of significantly large increase in allocation of carrier/power for the hybrid satellite-terrestrial
computing power, alternative options whose performance is scenarios, (ii) adaptive beamforming to enhance the perfor-
not vulnerable to computing power have been considered. In mance of multibeam satellites with non-uniform demand, (iii)
scheduling and precoding to mitigate interference in multi- [13] K. Liolis, A. Geurtz, R. Sperber, D. Schulz, S. Watts, G. Poziopoulou,
beam satellites, (iv) beamhopping and resource scheduling B. Evans, N. Wang, O. Vidal, B. Tiomela Jou, M. Fitch,
S. Diaz Sendra, P. Sayyad Khodashenas, and N. Chuberre,
in multi-beam satellite systems with heterogeneous traffic “Use cases and scenarios of 5G integrated satellite-terrestrial
demand per beam, and (v) detection of spectrum events in networks for enhanced mobile broadband: The SaT5G approach,”
spectrum monitoring applications [367]. International Journal of Satellite Communications and Networking,
vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 91–112, 2019. [Online]. Available: https:
//onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/sat.1245
[14] J. V. Llop, P. K. Roberts, Z. Hao, L. Tomas, and V. Beauplet, “Very
X. C ONCLUSION low earth orbit mission concepts for earth observation: Benefits and
challenges.” in Reinventing Space Conference, 2014.
Satellite communications have recently entered in a crucial [15] L. Reynaud and T. Rasheed, “Deployable aerial communication
networks: Challenges for futuristic applications,” in Proceedings of
phase of their evolution, mainly motivated by the explosive the 9th ACM Symposium on Performance Evaluation of Wireless
growth of various Interned-based applications and services, Ad Hoc, Sensor, and Ubiquitous Networks, ser. PE-WASUN ’12.
which have triggered an ever increasing demand for broad- New York, NY, USA: ACM, 2012, pp. 9–16. [Online]. Available:
http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/2387027.2387030
band high-speed, heterogeneous, ultra-reliable and low latency [16] Y. Li, H. Wei, L. Li, Y. Han, J. Zhou, and W. Zhou, “An extensible
communications. Due to their unique features and technical multi-layer architecture model based on leo-mss and performance anal-
advances in the field, satellites can be a cornerstone in satis- ysis,” in 2019 IEEE 90th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2019-
Fall), Sep. 2019, pp. 1–6.
fying this demand, either as a stand-alone solution, or as an [17] J. Virgili-Llop, H. C. Polat, and M. Romano, “Attitude stabilization
integrated satellite-terrestrial network. of spacecraft in very low earth orbit by center-of-mass shifting,”
To ths end, this paper has captured the latest technical Frontiers in Robotics and AI, vol. 6, p. 7, 2019. [Online]. Available:
https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/frobt.2019.00007
advances in scientific, industrial and standardisation analyses [18] S. M. Dakka, “Vleo satellites a new earth observation space systems
in the domain of satellite communications. In particular, the commercial and business model,” in 36th International Communica-
most important applications and use cases under the current tions Satellite Systems Conference (ICSSC 2018), Oct 2018, pp. 1–11.
[19] “Happiest: High altitude pseudo-satellites: Proposal of
focus of SatCom research have been highlighted. Moreover, initiatives to enhance satellite telecommunications,” Tech.
an in-depth literature review has been provided covering the Rep., June 2018. [Online]. Available: http://uleia.unileon.
latest SatCom contributions in terms of system aspects, air es/index.php/en/research-projects/aerospace-system-engineering1/
unconventional-unmanned-aircrafts/16-research-projects/
interface, medium access control techniques and networking. aerospace-engineering/high-altitude-pseudo-satellites-haps/
The communication testbeds which have been developed in 52-stratospheric-platforms-happiest
order to practically demonstrate some of the advanced SatCom [20] “Haps-teleo: High-altitude pseudo-satellites for telecommunication
and complementary space applications,” Tech. Rep., July 2018.
concepts are shown. Finally, some important future challenges [Online]. Available: https://nebula.esa.int/sites/default/files/neb study/
and their respective open research topics have been described. 2470/C4000118800ExS.pdf
[21] M. Koziol, “Loons balloons deliver emergency internet service
to peru following 8.0 earthquake,” IEEE Spectrum. [Online].
Available: https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/telecom/wireless/
R EFERENCES loons-balloons-deliver-emergency-service-to-peru-following-80-earthquake
[22] Iskandar, M. A. Wibisono, S. Priatna, T. Juhana, Hendrawan, and
[1] M. Sturza. (1995) The teledesic satellite system: Overview and design N. Rachmana, “On the design and development of flying bts system us-
trades. ing balloon for remote area communication,” in 2017 11th International
[2] [Online]. Available: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX Starlink Conference on Telecommunication Systems Services and Applications
[3] SES and Thales Reach Record Speed and Enhanced Coverage (TSSA), Oct 2017, pp. 1–5.
via Integrated GEO/MEO Network. [Online]. Available: https: [23] A. Qiantori, A. B. Sutiono, H. Hariyanto, H. Suwa, and T. Ohta, “An
//www.ses.com/press-release/ emergency medical communications system by low altitude platform at
[4] European Data Relay Satellite. [Online]. Available: https://artes.esa. the early stages of a natural disaster in indonesia,” Journal of Medical
int/edrs-global Systems, vol. 36, pp. 41–52, 2010.
[5] [Online]. Available: https://audacy.space/ [24] B. Li, Z. Fei, and Y. Zhang, “Uav communications for 5g and beyond:
[6] 5GPPP. (2016) 5G empowering vertical industries. [Online]. Available: Recent advances and future trends,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal,
https://5g-ppp.eu/roadmaps/ vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 2241–2263, April 2019.
[7] ——. (2017) 5G innovations for new business opportunities. [Online]. [25] M. Marchese, A. Moheddine, and F. Patrone, “Iot and uav integration in
Available: https://5g-ppp.eu/roadmaps/ 5g hybrid terrestrial-satellite networks,” Sensors, vol. 19, no. 17, 2019.
[8] ITU-R. IMT visionframework and overall objectives of the [Online]. Available: https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/19/17/3704
future deployment of IMT for 2020 and beyond. [On- [26] “5g-sky: Interconnecting the sky in 5g and beyond - a joint
line]. Available: https://www.itu.int/dms pubrec/itu-r/rec/m/R-REC-M. communication and control approach,” Tech. Rep., 2019. [Online].
2083-0-201509-I!!PDF-E.pdf. Available: https://wwwfr.uni.lu/snt/research/sigcom/projects/5g sky
[9] 3GPP, “Technical Specification Group Radio Access Network; Study interconnecting the sky in 5g and beyond a joint communication
on New Radio (NR) to support non terrestrial networks; (Release 15),” and control approach
3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), Technical Report (TR) [27] X. Cao, P. Yang, M. Alzenad, X. Xi, D. Wu, and H. Yanikomeroglu,
38.811, 09-2019, version 15.2.0. “Airborne communication networks: A survey,” IEEE Journal on
[10] ——, “Technical Specification Group Radio Access Network; Solu- Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 36, no. 9, pp. 1907–1926, Sep.
tions for NR to support non-terrestrial networks; (Release 16),” 3rd 2018.
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), Technical Report (TR) 38.821, [28] S. Karapantazis and F. Pavlidou, “Broadband communications via high-
09-2019, version 0.9.0. altitude platforms: A survey,” IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials,
[11] ——. 5G in Release 17 strong radio evolution. [Online]. Avail- vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 2–31, First 2005.
able: https://www.3gpp.org/news-events/2098-5g-in-release-17-%E2% [29] International Air Transport Association, “IATA Forecast Predicts
80%93-strong-radio-evolution 8.2 billion Air Travelers in 2037,” 2018. [Online]. Available:
[12] ——, “Technical Specification Group Services and System Aspects; https://www.iata.org/pressroom/pr/Pages/2018-10-24-02.aspx
Study on using Satellite Access in 5G; (Release 16),” 3rd Generation [30] M. Strohmeier, M. Schäfer, V. Lenders, and I. Martinovic, “Realities
Partnership Project (3GPP), Technical Report (TR) 38.822, 06-2018, and challenges of nextgen air traffic management: The case of ADS-B,”
version 16.0.0. IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 52, no. 5, pp. 111–118, 2014.
[31] R. Francis, R. Vincent, J. M. Noël, P. Tremblay, D. Desjardins, A. Cush- [56] A. I. Perez-Neira, M. A. Vazquez, M. R. B. Shankar, S. Maleki, and
ley, and M. Wallace, “The flying laboratory for the observation of ADS- S. Chatzinotas, “Signal processing for high-throughput satellites: Chal-
B signals,” International Journal of Navigation and Observation, no. lenges in new interference-limited scenarios,” IEEE Signal Processing
August, 2011. Magazine, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 112–131, July 2019.
[32] B. G. Knudsen, M. Jensen, A. Birklykke, P. Koch, J. Christiansen, [57] A. Gupta and R. K. Jha, “A survey of 5g network: Architecture and
K. Laursen, L. Alminde, and Y. Le Moullec, “ADS-B in space: emerging technologies,” IEEE Access, vol. 3, pp. 1206–1232, 2015.
Decoder implementation and first results from the GATOSS mission,” [58] 5G Infrastructure Association (5G-PPP), “The need for 5G spectrum,”
Proceedings of the Biennial Baltic Electronics Conference, BEC, vol. https://5g-ppp.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/2 EC Stantchev
2015-Novem, pp. 57–60, 2014. 5G-WS 5GPPP June7.pdf.
[33] RTCA Special Committee 209, “Minimum Operational Characteristics [59] C-Band Alliance, “5G For Everyone,” https://c-bandalliance.com/.
for Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) Airborne [60] A. Kyrgiazos, B. Evans, and P. Thompson, “High Throughput Satellite
Equipment,” 2008. [Online]. Available: https://standards.globalspec. Gateway Feeder Link (Q/V/W bands),” Ka and Broadband Commu-
com/std/1390603/RTCADO-181 nications, Navigation and Earth Observation Conference (KaConf),
[34] “Spire website,” https://www.spire.com/en, accessed: 2019-11-22. 2015.
[35] “Aireon Space Based ADS-B.” [Online]. Available: https://aireon.com/ [61] A. Kyrgiazos, B. G. Evans, and P. Thompson, “On the gateway diversity
[36] IMO, “About IMO,” 2018. [Online]. Available: http://www.imo.org for high throughput broadband satellite systems,” IEEE Transactions on
[37] D. Yang, L. Wu, S. Wang, H. Jia, and K. X. Li, “How big Wireless Communications, vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 5411–5426, Oct 2014.
data enriches maritime researcha critical review of Automatic [62] A. Gharanjik, B. S. M. R. Rao, P. Arapoglou, and B. Ottersten, “Large
Identification System (AIS) data applications,” Transport Reviews, scale transmit diversity in q/v band feeder link with multiple gateways,”
vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 755–773, nov 2019. [Online]. Available: in 2013 IEEE 24th Annual International Symposium on Personal,
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01441647.2019.1649315 Indoor, and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC), Sep. 2013, pp.
[38] M. Winther, J. H. Christensen, M. S. Plejdrup, E. S. Ravn, Ó. F. 766–770.
Eriksson, and H. O. Kristensen, “Emission inventories for ships in the [63] C. Braun, A. Voicu, L. Simic, and P. Mahonen, IEEE International
arctic based on satellite sampled AIS data,” Atmospheric Environment, Symposium on Dynamic Spectrum Access Networks (DySPAN).
vol. 91, pp. 1–14, 2014. [64] ITU-R, “Simulation methodologies for determining statistics of
[39] V. Fernandez Arguedas, G. Pallotta, and M. Vespe, “Maritime Traffic short-term interference between co-frequency, codirectional non-
Networks: From Historical Positioning Data to Unsupervised Maritime geostationary-satellite orbit fixed-satellite service systems in circular
Traffic Monitoring,” IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation orbits and other non-geostationary fixed-satellite service systems in
Systems, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 722–732, mar 2018. circular orbits or geostationary-satellite orbit fixed-satellite service
[40] P. Kaluza, A. Kölzsch, M. T. Gastner, and B. Blasius, “The complex networks,” Tech. Rep. Rec. ITU-R S.1325-3, 2003.
network of global cargo ship movements,” pp. 1093–1103, jul 2010. [65] ——, “Methods to enhance sharing between non-GSO FSS systems in
[41] G. Sahay, P. Meghana, V. V. Sravani, T. P. Venkatesh, and V. Karna, frequency bands between 10-30 GHz,” Tech. Rep. Rec. ITU-R S.1431,
“Sdr based single channel s-ais receiver for satellites using system gen- 2000.
erator,” in 2016 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Networks [66] E. Lagunas, S. K. Sharma, S. Maleki, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ot-
and Telecommunications Systems (ANTS), Nov 2016, pp. 1–6. tersten, “Resource allocation for cognitive satellite communications
[42] G. Sahay, P. Meghana, V. V. Sravani, T. P. Venkatesh, and V. Karna, with incumbent terrestrial networks,” IEEE Transactions on Cognitive
“SDR based single channel S-AIS receiver for satellites using sys- Communications and Networking, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 305–317, Sep.
tem generator,” in 2016 IEEE International Conference on Advanced 2015.
Networks and Telecommunications Systems, ANTS 2016. Institute of [67] S. Chatzinotas, B. Evans, A. Guidotti, V. Icolari, E. Lagunas,
Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., jun 2017. S. Maleki, S. K. Sharma, D. Tarchi, P. Thompson, and A. Vanelli-
[43] “Planet website,” https://www.planet.com/, accessed: 2019-11-22. Coralli, “Cognitive approaches to enhance spectrum availability for
[44] “Esa moon village project webpage,” https://www.esa.int/About Us/ satellite systems,” International Journal of Satellite Communications
Ministerial Council 2016/Moon Village, accessed: 2019-11-22. and Networking, vol. 35, no. 5, pp. 407–442, 2017. [Online].
[45] “Consensys webpage,” https://consensys.space/, accessed: 2019-11-22. Available: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/sat.1197
[46] M. Baldi, G. Cerri, F. Chiaraluce, L. Eusebi, and P. Russo, “Non- [68] H2020 SANSA project, “Shared Access Terrestrial-Satellite Backhaul
invasive uwb sensing of astronauts’ breathing activity,” Sensors (Basel, Network enabled by Smart Antennas,” http://sansa-h2020.eu/.
Switzerland), vol. 15, pp. 565–91, 12 2014. [69] ViaSatellite magazine, “Cellular Backhaul: The Ever Growing Opportu-
[47] B. R. Elbert, “The satellite communication applications handbook.” nity for Satellite,” http://www.satellitetoday.com/publications/2015/02/
Artech House, Inc., 2003. 12/cellular-backhaul-the-ever-growing-opportunity-for-satellite/.
[48] B. Elbert, The Satellite Communication Ground Segment and Earth [70] 5G-PPP project Sat5G, “Satellite and Terrestrial Network for 5G,”
Station Handbook. Artech House Space Technology and Applications https://5g-ppp.eu/sat5g/.
Library, 2000. [71] E. Lagunas, L. Lei, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten, “Satellite links
[49] A. Guidotti, A. Vanelli-Coralli, M. Conti, S. Andrenacci, S. Chatzino- integrated in 5g sdn-enabled backhaul networks: An iterative joint
tas, N. Maturo, B. Evans, A. Awoseyila, A. Ugolini, T. Foggi, power and flow assignment,” in 2019 27th European Signal Processing
L. Gaudio, N. Alagha, and S. Cioni, “Architectures and key technical Conference (EUSIPCO), Sep. 2019, pp. 1–5.
challenges for 5g systems incorporating satellites,” IEEE Transactions [72] X. Artiga, A. Perez-Neira, J. Baranda, E. Lagunas, S. Chatzinotas,
on Vehicular Technology, vol. 68, no. 3, pp. 2624–2639, March 2019. R. Zetik, P. Gorski, K. Ntougias, D. Perez, and G. Ziaragkas, “Shared
[50] O. Kodheli, A. Guidotti, and A. Vanelli-Coralli, “Integration of satel- access satellite-terrestrial reconfigurable backhaul network enabled by
lites in 5g through leo constellations,” in GLOBECOM 2017 - 2017 smart antennas at mmwave band,” IEEE Network, vol. 32, no. 5, pp.
IEEE Global Communications Conference, Dec 2017, pp. 1–6. 46–53, Sep. 2018.
[51] M. Hyhty, M. Corici, S. Covaci, and M. Guta, “5g and beyond for new [73] M. Shaat, E. Lagunas, A. I. Perez-Neira, and S. Chatzinotas, “Integrated
space: Vision and research challenges,” 10 2019. terrestrial-satellite wireless backhauling: Resource management and
[52] AWS Ground Station: Easily control satellites and ingest data with benefits for 5g,” IEEE Vehicular Technology Magazine, vol. 13, no. 3,
fully managed Ground Station as a Service. [Online]. Available: pp. 39–47, Sep. 2018.
https://aws.amazon.com/ground-station/ [74] “DVB website,” https://www.dvb.org/.
[53] ESOA - EMEA Satellite Operator Association, “Satellite Spectrum,” [75] “CCSDS website,” http://www.ccsds.org/.
https://www.esoa.net/spectrum/satellite-spectrum.asp. [76] Pantelis-Daniel Arapoglou, K. Liolis, M. Bertinelli, A. Panagopoulos,
[54] Y. Li, Z. Wang, and W. Tan, “The frequency spectrum management for P. Cottis, and R. D. Gaudenzi, “MIMO over satellite: A review,” IEEE
aerospace tt c system,” in 2013 5th IEEE International Symposium on Communications Surveys and Tutorials, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 722–732,
Microwave, Antenna, Propagation and EMC Technologies for Wireless 2011.
Communications, Oct 2013, pp. 595–600. [77] A. C. Hofmann, K.-U. Storek, R. T. Schwarz, and A. Knopp, “Spatial
[55] Y. Guan, F. Geng, and J. H. Saleh, “Review of high throughput mimo over satellite. : A proof of concept.” in Proc. 2016 IEEE
satellites: Market disruptions, affordability-throughput map, and the International Conference on Communications (ICC), 2016.
cost per bit/second decision tree,” IEEE Aerospace and Electronic [78] I.-R. P.681-6. (2003) Propagation Data Required for the Design of Earth
Systems Magazine, vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 64–80, May 2019. Space Land Mobile Telecommunication Systems.
[79] R. P. Cerdeira, F. P. Fontn, P. Burzigotti, A. B. Alamaac, and I. Sanchez- ka-band broadband leo mission,” in 4th ESA Workshop on Advanced
Lago, “Versatile two-state land mobile satellite channel model with Flexible Telecom Payloads, March 2019.
first application to dvb-sh analysis,” International Journal of Satellite [100] S. Tubau, F. Vidal, H. Legay, B. Palacin, and G. Goussetis, “Novel
Communications and Networking, June 2010. multiple beam antenna farms for megaconstellations,” in 40th ESA
[80] I.-R. M.1225. Guidelines for Evaluation of Radio Transmission Tech- Antenna Workshop, ESA-ESTEC, Nordwijk, The Netherlands, October
nologies for IMT-2000. 2019.
[81] S. K. Rao, “Advanced antenna technologies for satellite communi- [101] “O3b corporate presentation itu,” https://www.itu.int/dms pub/
cations payloads,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, itu-r/md/12/iturka.band/c/R12-ITURKA.BAND-C-0010!!PDF-E.pdf,
vol. 63, no. 4, pp. 1205–1217, April 2015. accessed: 2019-12.
[82] B. Palacin, N. J. G. Fonseca, M. Romier, R. Contreres, J. Angevain, [102] S. Gao, Y. Rahmat-Samii, R. E. Hodges, and X. Yang, “Advanced
G. Toso, and C. Mangenot, “Multibeam antennas for very high antennas for small satellites,” Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 106, no. 3,
throughput satellites in europe: Technologies and trends,” in 2017 11th pp. 391–403, March 2018.
European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EUCAP), March [103] Flat Panel Satellite Antennas, 4th Edition. NSR, 2019.
2017, pp. 2413–2417. [104] A. Rao, A. Chatterjee, J. Payne, and J. Trujillo, “Multi-beam/multi-
[83] H. Fenech, S. Amos, and T. Waterfield, “The role of array antennas band aeronautical antenna: Opportunities and challenges,” in 29th ESA
in commercial telecommunication satellites,” in 2016 10th European Antenna Workshop, October 2018.
Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP), April 2016, pp. [105] https://www.thinkom.com/, accessed: 2019-12.
1–4. [106] E. Doumanis, G. Goussetis, R. Dickie, R. Cahill, P. Baine, M. Bain,
[84] J. Hill, Y. Demers, A. Liang, E. Amyotte, K. Glatre, and S. Richard, V. Fusco, J. A. Encinar, and G. Toso, “Electronically reconfigurable
“Multibeam antenna architectures for flexible capacity allocation,” in liquid crystal based mm-wave polarization converter,” IEEE Transac-
39th ESA Antenna Workshop on Innovative Antenna Systems and tions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 62, no. 4, pp. 2302–2307,
Technologies for Future Space Missions, October 2018. April 2014.
[85] S. Egami and M. Kawai, “An adaptive multiple beam system concept,” [107] A. I. Prez-Neira, M. . Vzquez, M. R. Bhavani Shankar, S. Maleki, and
IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. S. Chatzinotas, “Signal processing for high throughput satellites: Chal-
630–636, May 1987. lenges in new interference-limited scenarios,” IEEE Signal Processing
[86] “Eutelsat 172b satellite: On the road to kourou, Magazine, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 112–131, 2019.
march 2017,” https://news.eutelsat.com/pressreleases/ [108] T. M. Braun, in Satellite Communications : Payload and System.
eutelsat-172b-satellite-on-the-road-to-kourou-1857558, accessed: Wiley-IEEE Press, 2012.
2019-12. [109] P. Angeletti, R. de Gaudenzi, and M. Lisi, “From bent pipes to software
[87] T. K. Henriksen and C. Mangenot, “Large deployable antennas,” defined payloads: evolution and trends of satellite communications
CEAS Space Journal, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 87–88, Dec 2013. [Online]. systems,” in Proc. 26th AIAA Int. Commun. Satellite Systems Conf.,
Available: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12567-013-0055-4 2008.
[88] S. Amos, G. Thomas, S. McLaren, and A. Warburton, “Answering [110] P. Angeletti, A. B. Alamanac, F. Coromina, and et. al, “Satcoms 2020
the market pull with active antennas and the technology challenges,” r&d challenges: Part ii: Mobile communications,” in Proc. 27th AIAA
in 39th ESA Antenna Workshop on Innovative Antenna Systems and Int. Commun. Satellite Systems Conf., 2009.
Technologies for Future Space Missions, October 2018. [111] SES. (2019) SES-12. [Online]. Avail-
[89] M. Cooley, “Phased array fed reflector (pafr) antenna architectures able: https://www.ses.com/press-release/
for space-based sensors,” in 2015 IEEE Aerospace Conference, March ses-12-goes-operational-serve-asia-pacific-and-middle-east
2015, pp. 1–11. [112] V. Sulli, D. Giancristofaro, F. Santucci, and M. Faccio, “Performance of
[90] W. Tang, D. Bresciani, H. Legay, G. Goussetis, and N. J. G. Fonseca, satellite digital transparent processors through equivalent noise,” IEEE
“Circularly polarised multiple beam antenna for satellite applications,” Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol. 54, no. 6, pp.
in 2017 11th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation 2643 – 2661, 2018.
(EUCAP), March 2017, pp. 2628–2630. [113] N. Mazzali, M. R. B. Shankar, and B. Ottersten, “On-board signal
[91] E. Doumanis, G. Goussetis, W. Steffe, D. Maiarelli, and S. A. Kos- predistortion for digital transparent satellites,” in Proc. 16th IEEE
mopoulos, “Helical resonator filters with improved power handling International Workshop on Signal Processing Advances in Wireless
capabilities for space applications,” IEEE Microwave and Wireless Communications (SPAWC), 2015.
Components Letters, vol. 20, no. 11, pp. 598–600, Nov 2010. [114] C. Politis, S. Maleki, C. Tsinos, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten,
[92] J. Moron, R. Leblanc, P. Frijlink, F. Lecourt, M. Sigler, G. Goussetis, “Weak interference detection with signal cancellation in satellite com-
G. Amendola, G. Codispoti, G. Valente, and G. Parca, “A novel high- munications,” in Proc. 42 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics,
performance v-band gan mmic hpa for the qv-lift project,” in Ka and Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP), 2017.
Broadband Communications Conference 2018, ser. Ka and Broadband [115] S. P. Lee, J. H. Jo, Moon Hee You, and J. S. Choi, “Integration, testing
Communications Conference. Ka and Broadband Communications, and in orbit validation of ka-band communication payload of coms,”
2018. in 2010 International Conference on Information and Communication
[93] C. A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design, 4th Edition. Technology Convergence (ICTC), Nov 2010, pp. 309–313.
Wiley, 2016. [116] N. Mazzali, S. Andrenacci, and S. Chatzinotas, “Non-intrusive flexible
[94] G. Toso, C. Mangenot, and P. Angeletti, “Recent advances on space measurement for the amplitude response of wideband transponders,” in
multibeam antennas based on a single aperture,” in 2013 7th European ICC 2019 - 2019 IEEE International Conference on Communications
Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP), April 2013, pp. (ICC), May 2019, pp. 1–6.
454–458. [117] M. Mazalli, S. Andrenacci, and S. Chatzinotas, “Method and Device
[95] G. Toso, P. Angeletti, and C. Mangenot, “Multibeam antennas based on for Adaptive In-orbit Testing of a Satellite,” Luxembourg Patent Office,
phased arrays: An overview on recent esa developments,” in The 8th LU101119, Feb. 2019.
European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP 2014), [118] G. Mishra, A. Mishra, and S. Singh, “Simulation and Validation
April 2014, pp. 178–181. of Spread Spectrum Technique in In-Orbit Testing of the Satellite
[96] W. Rotman and R. Turner, “Wide-angle microwave lens for line Transponder,” International Journal of Emerging Technology and Ad-
source applications,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vanced Engineering, vol. 5, no. 4, Apr. 2015.
vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 623–632, November 1963. [119] R. Roy and B. Ottersten, “Spatial division multiple access wireless
[97] P. Jankovic, P. Tapia, J. Galdeano, G. Toso, and P. Angeletti, “The communication systems,” May 1996, US Patent 5,515,378. [Online].
multi-functional payload based on rotman-lens beamforming network,” Available: https://www.google.com/patents/US5515378
03 2019. [120] Y.-F. Liu, Y.-H. Dai, and Z.-Q. Luo, “Coordinated beamforming for
[98] F. Doucet, N. J. G. Fonseca, E. Girard, H. Legay, and R. Sauleau, MISO interference channel: Complexity analysis and efficient algo-
“Analytical model and study of continuous parallel plate waveguide rithms,” IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing, vol. 59, no. 3, pp.
lens-like multiple-beam antennas,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas and 1142–1157, 2011.
Propagation, vol. 66, no. 9, pp. 4426–4436, Sep. 2018. [121] E. Björnson, M. Bengtsson, and B. Ottersten, “Optimal multiuser
[99] F. Vidal, H. Legay, G. Goussetis, M. Garcia Vigueras, S. Tubau, and transmit beamforming: A difficult problem with a simple solution
J. D. Gayrard, “Development of a modular simulation tool for flexible structure [lecture notes],” IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, vol. 31,
payload design and benchmark of antenna architectures applied to a no. 4, pp. 142–148, July 2014.
[122] A. B. Gershman, N. D. Sidiropoulos, S. Shahbazpanahi, M. Bengtsson, International Conference on Communications (ICC), May 2018, pp.
and B. Ottersten, “Convex optimization-based beamforming,” IEEE 1–6.
Signal Processing Magazine, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 62–75, May 2010. [144] X. Zhu, C. Jiang, L. Kuang, N. Ge, and J. Lu, “Non-orthogonal multiple
[123] M. Bengtsson and B. Ottersten, “Optimal and suboptimal transmit access based integrated terrestrial-satellite networks,” IEEE Journal on
beamforming,” in Handbook of Antennas in Wireless Communications. Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 35, no. 10, pp. 2253–2267,
CRC Press, 2001. Oct 2017.
[124] M. Schubert and H. Boche, “Solution of the multiuser downlink beam- [145] Z. Lin, M. Lin, J. Wang, T. de Cola, and J. Wang, “Joint beamforming
forming problem with individual SINR constraints,” IEEE Transactions and power allocation for satellite-terrestrial integrated networks with
on Vehicular Technology, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 18–28, Jan 2004. non-orthogonal multiple access,” IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in
[125] ETSI EN 302 307-2, “Digital video broadcasting (DVB); second gen- Signal Processing, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 657–670, June 2019.
eration framing structure, channel coding and modulation systems for [146] X. Yan, H. Xiao, K. An, G. Zheng, and W. Tao, “Hybrid satellite
broadcasting, interactive services, news gathering and other broadband terrestrial relay networks with cooperative non-orthogonal multiple
satellite applications; part 2: DVB-S2 extensions (DVB-S2X).” access,” IEEE Communications Letters, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 978–981,
[126] M. Alodeh, D. Spano, A. Kalantari, C. G. Tsinos, D. Christopoulos, May 2018.
S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten, “Symbol-level and multicast precod- [147] U. Raza, P. Kulkarni, and M. Sooriyabandara, “Low power wide area
ing for multiuser multiantenna downlink: A state-of-the-art, classifica- networks: An overview,” IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials,
tion, and challenges,” IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials, vol. 20, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 855–873, Secondquarter 2017.
no. 3, pp. 1733–1757, thirdquarter 2018. [148] Y. . E. Wang, X. Lin, A. Adhikary, A. Grovlen, Y. Sui, Y. Blankenship,
[127] D. Spano, S. Chatzinotas, S. Andrenacci, J. Krause, and B. Ottersten, J. Bergman, and H. S. Razaghi, “A primer on 3gpp narrowband internet
“Per-antenna power minimization in symbol-level precoding for the of things,” IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 117–
multi-beam satellite downlink,” International Journal of Satellite Com- 123, March 2017.
munications and Networking, May 2018. [149] SigFox, “Technical Overview,” SigFox, White Paper, 05-2017.
[128] N. Sidiropoulos, T. Davidson, and Z.-Q. Luo, “Transmit beamforming [150] L. Vangelista, A. Zanella, and M. Zorzi, “Long-range iot technologies:
for physical-layer multicasting,” IEEE Trans. Signal Process., vol. 54, The dawn of loraTM ,” in Future Access Enablers for Ubiquitous and
no. 6, pp. 2239–2251, 2006. Intelligent Infrastructures, V. Atanasovski and A. Leon-Garcia, Eds.
[129] Y. C. B. Silva and A. Klein, “Linear transmit beamforming techniques Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2015, pp. 51–58.
for the multigroup multicast scenario,” IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., [151] O. Kodheli, S. Andrenacci, N. Maturo, S. Chatzinotas, and F. Zimmer,
vol. 58, no. 8, pp. 4353–4367, 2009. “Resource allocation approach for differential doppler reduction in
[130] D. Christopoulos, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten, “Multicast multi- nb-iot over leo satellite,” in 2018 9th Advanced Satellite Multimedia
group precoding and user scheduling for frame-based satellite commu- Systems Conference and the 15th Signal Processing for Space Com-
nications,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 14, munications Workshop (ASMS/SPSC), Sep. 2018, pp. 1–8.
no. 9, pp. 4695–4707, Sep. 2015. [152] Y. Qian, L. Ma, and X. Liang, “Symmetry chirp spread spectrum mod-
[131] D. Christopoulos, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten, “Weighted fair mul- ulation used in leo satellite internet of things,” IEEE Communications
ticast multigroup beamforming under per-antenna power constraints,” Letters, vol. 22, no. 11, pp. 2230–2233, Nov 2018.
IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing, vol. 62, no. 19, pp. 5132–
[153] J. Dor and V. Berg, “Turbo-fsk: A 5g nb-iot evolution for leo satellite
5142, Oct 2014.
networks,” in 2018 IEEE Global Conference on Signal and Information
[132] S. K. Mohammed and E. G. Larsson, “Per-antenna constant envelope
Processing (GlobalSIP), Nov 2018, pp. 1040–1044.
precoding for large multi-user MIMO systems,” IEEE Transactions on
[154] Y. Roth, J. Dor, L. Ros, and V. Berg, “Turbo-fsk: A new uplink scheme
Communications, vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 1059–1071, March 2013.
for low power wide area networks,” in 2015 IEEE 16th International
[133] C. Studer and E. G. Larsson, “PAR-aware large-scale multi-user
Workshop on Signal Processing Advances in Wireless Communications
MIMO-OFDM downlink,” IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Com-
(SPAWC), June 2015, pp. 81–85.
munications, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 303–313, February 2013.
[155] Y. Qian, L. Ma, and X. Liang, “The acquisition method of symmetry
[134] D. Spano, M. Alodeh, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten, “Symbol-level
chirp signal used in leo satellite internet of things,” IEEE Communi-
precoding for the nonlinear multiuser MISO downlink channel,” IEEE
cations Letters, vol. 23, no. 9, pp. 1572–1575, Sep. 2019.
Transactions on Signal Processing, vol. 66, no. 5, pp. 1331–1345,
March 2018. [156] C. Yang, M. Wang, L. Zheng, and G. Zhou, “Folded chirp-rate shift
[135] S. M. R. Islam, N. Avazov, O. A. Dobre, and K. Kwak, “Power-domain keying modulation for leo satellite iot,” IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp.
non-orthogonal multiple access (noma) in 5g systems: Potentials and 99 451–99 461, 2019.
challenges,” IEEE Communications Surveys Tutorials, vol. 19, no. 2, [157] S. Scalise, C. P. Niebla, R. De Gaudenzi, O. Del Rio Herrero,
pp. 721–742, Secondquarter 2017. D. Finocchiaro, and A. Arcidiacono, “S-mim: a novel radio interface
[136] L. Lei, D. Yuan, C. K. Ho, and S. Sun, “Power and channel allocation for efficient messaging services over satellite,” IEEE Communications
for non-orthogonal multiple access in 5g systems: Tractability and Magazine, vol. 51, no. 3, pp. 119–125, March 2013.
computation,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 15, [158] C. A. Hofmann and A. Knopp, “Direct access to satellites: An internet
no. 12, pp. 8580–8594, Dec 2016. of remote things technology,” in 2019 IEEE 2nd 5G World Forum
[137] L. Lei, L. You, Y. Yang, D. Yuan, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten, (5GWF), Sep. 2019, pp. 578–583.
“Load coupling and energy optimization in multi-cell and multi-carrier [159] ——, “Ultra-narrowband waveform for iot direct random multiple
noma networks,” IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 68, access to satellites,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal, pp. 1–1, 2019.
no. 11, pp. 11 323–11 337, Nov 2019. [160] “Product leaflet. newtec mdm5000 satellite modem,” Tech. Rep. 3.2,
[138] L. Lei, D. Yuan, and P. Vrbrand, “On power minimization for non- June 2017. [Online]. Available: http://www.newtec.eu/frontend/files/
orthogonal multiple access (noma),” IEEE Communications Letters, leaflet/newtec-mdm5000-satellite-modem-r3.2.pdf
vol. 20, no. 12, pp. 2458–2461, Dec 2016. [161] “Rt logic hdrm high data rate modem,” Tech. Rep. [On-
[139] L. Fay, L. Michael, D. Gmez-Barquero, N. Ammar, and M. W. line]. Available: http://www.rtlogic.com/products/modemsreceivers/
Caldwell, “An overview of the atsc 3.0 physical layer specification,” hdrm-high-data-rate-modem
IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 159–171, March [162] “Satixfy introducing wideband 500 mhz dvb-s2x sdr
2016. modem with record 2.4 gbps throughput,” Tech. Rep.,
[140] A. I. Perez-Neira, M. Caus, M. A. Vazquez, and N. Alagha, “Noma March 2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.satixfy.com/news/
schemes for multibeam satellite communications,” 2018. \satixfy-introducing-wideband-500-mhz-dvb-s2x-sdr-modem-with\
[141] M. Caus, M. . Vzquez, and A. Prez-Neira, “Noma and interference -record-2-4-gbps-throughput/
limited satellite scenarios,” in 2016 50th Asilomar Conference on [163] S. Kisseleff, N. Maturo, S. Chatzinotas, H. Fanebust, B. Rislow,
Signals, Systems and Computers, Nov 2016, pp. 497–501. K. Kansanen, M. Arzel, and H. Haugli, “user terminal wideband
[142] A. Wang, L. Lei, E. Lagunas, A. I. Prez Neira, S. Chatzinotas, and modem for very high throughput satellites.”
B. Ottersten, “On fairness optimization for noma-enabled multi-beam [164] A. Gharanjik, B. Rao, P.-D. Arapoglou, and B. Ottersten, “Large scale
satellite systems,” in 2019 IEEE 30th Annual International Symposium transmit diversity in Q/V band feeder link with multiple gateways,”
on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC), in 2013 IEEE 24th International Symposium on Personal Indoor and
Sept. 2019, pp. 1–6. Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC), Sep. 2013, pp. 766–770.
[143] N. A. K. Beigi and M. R. Soleymani, “Interference management using [165] A. Kyrgiazos, B. Evans, and P. Thompson, “On the Gateway Diversity
cooperative noma in multi-beam satellite systems,” in 2018 IEEE for High Throughput Broadband Satellite Systems,” IEEE Transactions
on Wireless Communications, vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 5411–5426, Oct. [185] Z. R. Manchester, “CENTIMETER-SCALE SPACECRAFT: DESIGN,
2014. FABRICATION, AND DEPLOYMENT,” Ph.D. dissertation, 2015.
[166] W. Cowley, D. Giggenbach, and R. Calvo, “Optical transmission [186] A. Monti Guarnieri, A. Broquetas, A. Recchia, F. Rocca, and
schemes for feeder links,” in 2014 IEEE International Conference J. Ruiz-Rodon, “Advanced Radar Geosynchronous Observation
on Communications (ICC), Jun. 2014, pp. 4154–4159. System: ARGOS,” IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters,
[167] A. Gharanjik, K. Liolis, M. Shankar, and B. Ottersten, “Spatial vol. 12, no. 7, pp. 1406–1410, jul 2015. [Online]. Available:
multiplexing in optical feeder links for high throughput satellites,” in http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7055288/
2014 IEEE Global Conference on Signal and Information Processing [187] Z. Yu, J. Chen, C. Li, Z. Li, and Y. Zhang, “Concepts,
(GlobalSIP), Dec. 2014, pp. 1112–1116. properties, and imaging technologies for GEO SAR,” in MIPPR
[168] S. Dimitrov, B. Matuz, G. Liva, R. Barrios, R. Mata-Calvo, and 2009: Multispectral Image Acquisition and Processing, J. K. Udupa,
D. Giggenbach, “Digital modulation and coding for satellite optical N. Sang, L. G. Nyul, and H. Tong, Eds., vol. 7494, oct 2009, p.
feeder links,” in Advanced Satellite Multimedia Systems Conference 749407. [Online]. Available: http://proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/
and the 13th Signal Processing for Space Communications Workshop proceeding.aspx?doi=10.1117/12.832809
(ASMS/SPSC), 2014 7th, Sep. 2014, pp. 150–157. [188] Z. R. Manchester and M. A. Peck, “Stochastic space exploration with
[169] R. Barrios, R. Mata-Calvo, and D. Giggenbach, “RivOLi-TN1: Review microscale spacecraft,” in AIAA Guidance, Navigation, and Control
of RoFSO techniques for Optical GEO Feeder Links,” Jan. 2015. Conference 2011, 2011. [Online]. Available: http://arc.aiaa.org
[170] H. Kaushal and G. Kaddoum, “Optical Communication in Space: [189] J. C. Merlano-Duncan, J. Querol, A. Camps, S. Chatzinotas, and
Challenges and Mitigation Techniques,” IEEE Communications B. Ottersten, “Architectures and Synchronization Techniques for
Surveys & Tutorials, pp. 1–1, 2016. [Online]. Available: http: Coherent Distributed Remote Sensing Systems,” IGARSS 2019 - 2019
//ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7553489/ IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, pp.
[171] N. K. Lyras, C. I. Kourogiorgas, and A. D. Panagopoulos, “Cloud 8875–8878, jul 2019. [Online]. Available: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/
Attenuation Statistics Prediction From Ka-Band to Optical Frequencies: document/8898444/
Integrated Liquid Water Content Field Synthesizer,” IEEE Transactions
[190] “NASA deep space network website,” https://eyes.nasa.gov/dsn/dsn.
on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 65, no. 1, pp. 319–328, Jan. 2017.
html.
[Online]. Available: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7747494/
[172] N. Perlot and J. Perdigues-Armengol, “Model-oriented availability [191] “ESA estrack website,” http://estracknow.esa.int.
analysis of optical GEO-ground links,” Feb. 2012, p. [192] “Macgregor s. reid: ”low-noise systems in the deep space network”
82460P. [Online]. Available: http://proceedings.spiedigitallibrary.org/ nasa-jpl descanso book series, february 2008,” https://descanso.jpl.nasa.
proceeding.aspx?doi=10.1117/12.908706 gov/monograph/series10/Reid DESCANSO sml-110804.pdf.
[173] N. Perlot, T. Dreischer, C. Weinert, and J. Perdigues, “Optical GEO [193] F. Manshadi, “Nasa ultra low noise x-band microwave feeds
feeder link design,” in Future Network Mobile Summit (FutureNetw), for deep space communication,” in 15th International Conference
2012, Jul. 2012, pp. 1–8. on Microwaves, Radar and Wireless Communications (IEEE Cat.
[174] S. Dimitrov, R. Barrios, B. Matuz, G. Liva, R. Mata-Calvo, and No.04EX824), vol. 2, May 2004, pp. 733–736 Vol.2.
D. Giggenbach, “Digital modulation and coding for satellite optical [194] J. Yang, M. Pantaleev, P. Kildal, B. Klein, Y. Karandikar, L. Helldner,
feeder links with pre-distortion adaptive optics,” Int. J. Satellite Com- N. Wadefalk, and C. Beaudoin, “Cryogenic 213 ghz eleven feed
mun. and Networking, pp. 1–22, 2015. for reflector antennas in future wideband radio telescopes,” IEEE
[175] J. J. Degnan, “Millimeter accuracy satellite laser ranging: A Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 1918–
review,” in Geodynamics Series, D. E. Smith and D. L. Turcotte, 1934, June 2011.
Eds. Washington, D. C.: American Geophysical Union, 1993, [195] “CCSDS recommended standard 131.0-b-3: ”tm synchronization and
vol. 25, pp. 133–162, dOI: 10.1029/GD025p0133. [Online]. Available: channel coding”,” https://public.ccsds.org/Pubs/131x0b3e1.pdf.
http://www.agu.org/books/gd/v025/GD025p0133/GD025p0133.shtml [196] “CCSDS recommended standard 231.0-b-3 : ”tc synchronization and
[176] D. Giggenbach, E. Lutz, J. Poliak, R. Mata-Calvo, and C. Fuchs, channel coding”,” https://public.ccsds.org/Pubs/231x0b3.pdf.
“A High-Throughput Satellite System for Serving whole Europe with [197] M. Baldi, F. Chiaraluce, N. Maturo, G. Ricciutelli, R. Abello, J. De
Fast Internet Service, Employing Optical Feeder Links,” in Broadband Vicente, M. Mercolino, A. Ardito, F. Barbaglio, and S. Finocchiaro,
Coverage in Germany. 9th ITG Symposium. Proceedings, Apr. 2015, “Coding for space telemetry and telecommand transmissions in pres-
pp. 1–7. ence of solar scintillation,” in 2016 International Workshop on Track-
[177] R. Mesleh, H. Elgala, and H. Haas, “Optical Spatial Modulation,” ing, Telemetry and Command Systems for Space Applications (TTC),
IEEE/OSA Journal of Optical Communications and Networking, vol. 3, Sep. 2016, pp. 1–8.
no. 3, pp. 234–244, Mar. 2011. [198] S. Finocchiaro, A. Ardito, F. Barbaglio, M. Baldi, F. Chiaraluce,
[178] T. Ozbilgin and M. Koca, “Optical Spatial Modulation Over At- N. Maturo, G. Ricciutelli, L. Simone, R. Abello, J. de Vicente, and
mospheric Turbulence Channels,” Journal of Lightwave Technology, M. Mercolino, “Improving deep space telecommunications during solar
vol. 33, no. 11, pp. 2313–2323, Jun. 2015. superior conjunctions,” in 2017 IEEE Aerospace Conference, March
[179] M. K. Simon and V. Vilnrotter, “Alamouti-type space-time coding 2017, pp. 1–13.
for free-space optical communication with direct detection,” IEEE
[199] M. Baldi, F. Chiaraluce, N. Maturo, G. Ricciutelli, A. Ardito,
Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 35–39,
F. Barbaglio, S. Finocchiaro, L. Simone, R. Abello, J. De Vicente,
Jan. 2005.
and M. Mercolino, “Coded transmissions for space links affected by
[180] M. Safari and M. Uysal, “Do We Really Need OSTBCs for Free-Space
solar scintillation: Baseband analysis,” vol. 37, no. 6, February 2019,
Optical Communication with Direct Detection?” IEEE Transactions on
pp. 571–587.
Wireless Communications, vol. 7, no. 11, pp. 4445–4448, Nov. 2008.
[181] B. Roy, S. Poulenard, S. Dimitrov, R. Barrios, D. Giggenbach, [200] Taesang Yoo and A. Goldsmith, “On the optimality of multiantenna
A. L. Kernec, and M. Sotom, “Optical feeder links for high broadcast scheduling using zero-forcing beamforming,” IEEE Journal
throughput satellites.” IEEE, Oct. 2015, pp. 1–6. [Online]. Available: on Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 528–541,
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7425074/ March 2006.
[182] Luximpulse onset project: Optical feeder links study for [201] C. Parraga-Niebla and C. Kissling, “Design and performance evalu-
satellite networks. [Online]. Available: https://wwwfr.uni.lu/snt/ ation of efficient scheduling techniques for second generation dvb-s
research/sigcom/projects systems,” AIAA Int. Commun. Satellite Systems Conf. (ICSSC), Rome
[183] R. Radhakrishnan, W. W. Edmonson, F. Afghah, R. M. Rodriguez- , Italy, Sep. 2005.
Osorio, F. Pinto, and S. C. Burleigh, “Survey of Inter-Satellite Com- [202] M. Tropea, F. Veltri, F. De Rango, A. Santamaria, and L. Belcastro,
munication for Small Satellite Systems: Physical Layer to Network “Two step based qos scheduler for dvb-s2 satellite system,” Jun. 2011.
Layer View,” IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials, vol. 18, [203] M. A. Vazquez Castro and G. S. Granados, “Cross-layer packet
no. 4, pp. 2442–2473, 2016. scheduler design of a multibeam broadband satellite system with
[184] W. Edmonson, S. Gebreyohannes, A. Dillion, R. Radhakrishnan, adaptive coding and modulation,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless
J. Chenou, A. Esterline, and F. Afghah, “Systems engineering of inter- Communications, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 248–258, Jan 2007.
satellite communications for distributed systems of small satellites,” [204] E. Rendon-Morales, J. Mata-Dı́az, J. Alins, J. Muñoz, and O. Esparza,
in 9th Annual IEEE International Systems Conference, SysCon 2015 “Adaptive Packet Scheduling for the Support of QoS over DVB-S2
- Proceedings. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., Satellite Systems,” Int. Conf. Wired/Wireless Internet Communications
jun 2015, pp. 705–710. (WWIC), Vilanova i la Geltrú, Spain, pp. 15–26, Jun. 2011.
[205] M. Neely, E. Modiano, and C. Rohrs, “Power allocation and routing [226] M. Kibria, E. Lagunas, N. Maturo, D. Spano, H. Al-Hraishawi, and
in multibeam satellites with time-varying channels,” IEEE Wireless S. Chatzinotas, “Carrier Aggregation in Multi-Beam Satellite Commu-
Communications, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 138–152, Feb. 2003. nications,” IEEE GlobeCom, Hawaii, USA, Dec. 2019.
[206] M. Neely, “Dynamic Power Allocation and Routing for Satellite and [227] O. Kodheli, S. Andrenacci, N. Maturo, S. Chatzinotas, and F. Zimmer,
Wireless Networks with Time Varying Channels,” PhD, Massachusetts “An uplink ue group-based scheduling technique for 5g mmtc systems
Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA, Nov. 2003. over leo satellite,” IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp. 67 413–67 427, 2019.
[207] H. Du, L. Fan, and B. Evans, “Efficient Packet Scheduling for Het- [228] R. De Gaudenzi and O. del Rio Herrero, “Advances in random access
erogeneous Multimedia Provisioning over Broadband Satellite Net- protocols for satellite networks,” in 2009 International Workshop on
works: An Adaptive Multidimensional QoS-Based Design,” Interna- Satellite and Space Communications, Sep. 2009, pp. 331–336.
tional Journal of Satellite Communications and Networking, vol. 27, [229] C. Kissling and A. M. Dlr, “On the integration of random access and
no. 1, pp. 53–85, 2009. dama channels for the return link of satellite networks,” in 2013 IEEE
[208] G. Fairhurst, G. Giambene, G. Giannetti, C. Parraga, and A. Sali, International Conference on Communications (ICC), June 2013, pp.
“Multimedia traffic scheduling in DVB-S2 networks with mobile 4282–4287.
users,” IEEE Int. Workshop on Satellite and Space Communications, [230] T. Ferrer, S. Cspedes, and A. Becerra, “Review and evaluation of
Toulouse, France, pp. 211–215, Oct. 2008. mac protocols for satellite iot systems using nanosatellites,” Sensors,
[209] V. Joroughi, M. . Vzquez, and A. I. Prez-Neira, “Generalized multicast vol. 19, no. 8, 2019. [Online]. Available: https://www.mdpi.com/
multibeam precoding for satellite communications,” IEEE Transactions 1424-8220/19/8/1947
on Wireless Communications, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 952–966, Feb 2017. [231] S. Cluzel, M. Dervin, J. Radzik, S. Cazalens, C. Baudoin, and
[210] G. Taricco, “Linear Precoding Methods for Multibeam Broadband D. Dragomirescu, “Physical layer abstraction for performance evalua-
Satellite Systems,” European Wireless Conf., May 2014. tion of leo satellite systems for iot using time-frequency aloha scheme,”
[211] A. Guidotti and A. Vanelli-Coralli, “Geographical scheduling for in 2018 IEEE Global Conference on Signal and Information Processing
multicast precoding in multi-beam satellite systems,” in 2018 9th (GlobalSIP), Nov 2018, pp. 1076–1080.
Advanced Satellite Multimedia Systems Conference and the 15th Signal [232] M. Krondorf, M. Goblirsch, R. de Gaudenzi, G. Cocco, N. Toptsidis,
Processing for Space Communications Workshop (ASMS/SPSC), Sep. and G. Acar, “Towards the implementation of advanced random
2018, pp. 1–8. access schemes for satellite iot,” International Journal of Satellite
[212] E. Lagunas, S. Andrenacci, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten, “Cross- Communications and Networking, vol. n/a, no. n/a. [Online]. Available:
layer forward packet scheduling for emerging precoded broadband https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/sat.1331
multibeam satellite system,” in 2018 9th Advanced Satellite Multimedia [233] R. De Gaudenzi, O. Del Rio Herrero, G. Gallinaro, S. Cioni, and P.-D.
Systems Conference and the 15th Signal Processing for Space Com- Arapoglou, “Random access schemes for satellite networks, from vsat
munications Workshop (ASMS/SPSC), Sep. 2018, pp. 1–8. to m2m: a survey,” International Journal of Satellite Communications
[213] R. De Gaudenzi and O. del Rio Herrero, “Advances in random access and Networking, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 66–107, 2018. [Online]. Available:
protocols for satellite networks,” in 2009 International Workshop on https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/sat.1204
Satellite and Space Communications, Sep. 2009, pp. 331–336. [234] A. Mengali, R. De Gaudenzi, and . Stefanovi, “On the modeling and
[214] ESA funded project, “Carrier Aggregation in Satellite Communication performance assessment of random access with sic,” IEEE Journal on
Networks,” https://artes.esa.int/projects/cadsat. Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 292–303, Feb
[215] J. P. Choi and V. W. S. Chan, “Optimum power and beam allocation 2018.
based on traffic demands and channel conditions over satellite down- [235] O. Del Rio Herrero and R. De Gaudenzi, “High efficiency satellite
links,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications, vol. 4, no. 6, multiple access scheme for machine-to-machine communications,”
pp. 2983–2993, Nov 2005. IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol. 48, no. 4,
[216] J. Lei and M. . Vzquez-Castro, “Multibeam satellite frequency/time pp. 2961–2989, October 2012.
duality study and capacity optimization,” Journal of Communications [236] E. Casini, R. De Gaudenzi, and O. Del Rio Herrero, “Contention
and Networks, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 472–480, Oct 2011. resolution diversity slotted aloha (crdsa): An enhanced random access
[217] A. I. Aravanis, B. Shankar M. R., P. Arapoglou, G. Danoy, P. G. Cottis, schemefor satellite access packet networks,” IEEE Transactions on
and B. Ottersten, “Power allocation in multibeam satellite systems: A Wireless Communications, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 1408–1419, April 2007.
two-stage multi-objective optimization,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless [237] R. De Gaudenzi, O. del Ro Herrero, G. Acar, and E. Garrido Barrabs,
Communications, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 3171–3182, June 2015. “Asynchronous contention resolution diversity aloha: Making crdsa
[218] G. Cocco, T. de Cola, M. Angelone, Z. Katona, and S. Erl, “Radio truly asynchronous,” IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications,
resource management optimization of flexible satellite payloads for vol. 13, no. 11, pp. 6193–6206, Nov 2014.
dvb-s2 systems,” IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, vol. 64, no. 2, [238] A. Mengali, R. De Gaudenzi, and P. Arapoglou, “Enhancing the
pp. 266–280, June 2018. physical layer of contention resolution diversity slotted aloha,” IEEE
[219] X. Alberti, J. M. Cebrian, A. Del Bianco, Z. Katona, J. Lei, M. A. Transactions on Communications, vol. 65, no. 10, pp. 4295–4308, Oct
Vazquez-Castro, A. Zanus, L. Gilbert, and N. Alagha, “System ca- 2017.
pacity optimization in time and frequency for multibeam multi-media [239] K. Zidane, R. De Gaudenzi, N. Alagha, and S. Cioni, “Phase noise
satellite systems,” in 2010 5th Advanced Satellite Multimedia Systems impact on the performance of contention resolution slotted random
Conference and the 11th Signal Processing for Space Communications access schemes,” International Journal of Satellite Communications
Workshop, Sep. 2010, pp. 226–233. and Networking, vol. n/a, no. n/a. [Online]. Available: https:
[220] A. Freedman, D. Rainish, and Y. Gat, “Beam Hopping How To Make //onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/sat.1325
it Possible,” Ka and Broadband Communication Conference, Bologna, [240] S. K. Sharma, S. Maleki, S. Chatzinotas, J. Grotz, and B. Ottersten,
Italy, Oct. 2015. “Implementation issues of cognitive radio techniques for ka-band
[221] E. Lagunas, S. Chatzinotas, V. Joroughi, and S. Andrenacci, “Method (17.719.7 ghz) satcoms,” in 2014 7th Advanced Satellite Multimedia
for controlling the transmission of signals of a multibeam broadband Systems Conference and the 13th Signal Processing for Space Com-
satellite,” Filed in Luxembourg Patent Office ref. LU 100757, Apr. 2018. munications Workshop (ASMS/SPSC), Sep. 2014, pp. 241–248.
[222] A. Ginesi, P. Arapoglou, and E. Re, “Interference-resilient flexible [241] S. K. Sharma, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten, “Interference alignment
techniques for payload resource allocation in broadband satellites,” for spectral coexistence of heterogeneous networks,” EURASIP Journal
PCT/EP2016/063358, Dec. 2017. on Wireless Communications and Networking, vol. 2013, no. 1, p. 46,
[223] X. Giraud, G. Lesthievent, and H. Mric, “Receiver synchronisation Feb 2013.
based on a single dummy frame for dvb-s2/s2x beam hopping systems,” [242] S. Chatzinotas, S. K. Sharma, and B. Ottersten, “Frequency packing for
in 2018 25th International Conference on Telecommunications (ICT), interference alignment-based cognitive dual satellite systems,” in 2013
June 2018, pp. 634–638. IEEE 78th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Fall), Sep. 2013,
[224] M. Kibria, E. Lagunas, N. Maturo, D. Spano, and S. Chatzinotas, pp. 1–7.
“Cluster Hopping in Precoded Multi-Beam High Throughput Satellite [243] M. R. Hassan, G. C. Karmakar, J. Kamruzzaman, and B. Srinivasan,
System,” IEEE GlobeCom, Hawaii, USA, Dec. 2019. “Exclusive use spectrum access trading models in cognitive radio
[225] Z. Khan, H. Ahmadi, E. Hossain, M. Coupechoux, L. A. Dasilva, and networks: A survey,” IEEE Commun. Surveys Tuts., vol. 19, no. 4,
J. J. Lehtomki, “Carrier aggregation/channel bonding in next generation pp. 2192–2231, Fourthquarter 2017.
cellular networks: methods and challenges,” IEEE Network, vol. 28, [244] S. K. Sharma, T. E. Bogale, S. Chatzinotas, B. Ottersten, L. B. Le, and
no. 6, pp. 34–40, Nov 2014. X. Wang, “Cognitive radio techniques under practical imperfections: A
survey,” IEEE Commun. Surveys Tuts., vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 1858–1884, [270] Networld2020 satcom working group. the role of satellites in
Fourthquarter 2015. 5g. Version 5. [Online]. Available: https://www.networld2020.eu/
[245] S. K. Sharma, T. E. Bogale, L. B. Le, S. Chatzinotas, X. Wang, and wp-content/uploads/2014/02/SatCom-in-5G v5.pdf
B. Ottersten, “Dynamic spectrum sharing in 5G wireless networks [271] G. Giambene, S. Kota, and P. Pillai, “Satellite-5g integration: a network
with full-duplex technology: Recent advances and research challenges,” perspective,” IEEE Netw, vol. 32, pp. 25–31, 2018.
IEEE Commun. Surveys Tuts., vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 674–707, Feb. 2018. [272] H. V. R. Project. (2015) Satellite communication services: An integral
[246] C. Yang, J. Li, M. Guizani, A. Anpalagan, and M. Elkashlan, “Ad- part of the 5g ecosystem. [Online]. Available: http://www.ict-vital.eu/
vanced spectrum sharing in 5g cognitive heterogeneous networks,” [273] T. Rossi, M. De Sanctis, E. Cianca, C. Fragale, M. Ruggieri, and
IEEE Wireless Commun., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 94–101, April 2016. H. Fenech, “Future space-based communications infrastructures based
[247] D. Christopoulos, S. K. Sharma, S. Chatzinotas, J. Krause, and B. Ot- on high throughput satellites and software defined networking,” IEEE
tersten, “Coordinated multibeam satellite co-location: The dual satellite International Symposium on Systems Engineering (ISSE), pp. 332–337,
paradigm,” arXiv preprint arXiv: 1503.06981v1, 2015. Sep. 2015.
[248] S. K. Sharma, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten, “Cognitive beamhop- [274] F. Mendoza, R. Ferrs, and O. Sallent, “Experimental proof of concept of
ping for spectral coexistence of multibeam satellites,” Int. J. Satellite an sdn-based traffic engineering solution for hybrid satellite-terrestrial
Commun. and Networking, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 69–91, Mar. 2014. mobile backhauling,” Int J Satell Commun Network, pp. 1–16, 2019.
[249] ——, “Inline interference mitigation techniques for spectral coexis- [275] L. Bertaux, S. Medjiah, P. Berthou, and et al., “Software defined
tence of GEO and NGEO satellites,” Int. J. Satellite Commun. and networking and virtualization for broadband satellite networks,” IEEE
Networking, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 11–39, Sept. 2014. Communications Magazine, vol. 53, pp. 54–60, 2015.
[250] ONFTR-521, “Sdn architecture,” Issue 1.1, Feb. 2016. [276] J. Bao, B. Zhao, W. Yu, Z. Feng, C. Wu, and Z. Gong, “Opensan:
[251] E. Haleplidis and K. P. (Editors), “Software-defined networking (sdn): A software-defined satellite network architecture,” ACM SIGCOMM
Layers and architecture terminology,” IRTF RFC 7426, Jan. 2015. Computer Communication Review, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 347–348, Aug.
[252] N. Feamster, J. Rexford, and E. Zegura, “The road to sdn: An intellec- 2014.
tual history of programmable networks,” ACM SIGCOMM Computer [277] A. Kapovits, S. Covaci, C. Ververidis, V. Siris, and M. Guta, “Advanced
Communication Review, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 87–98, Apr. 2014. topics in service delivery over integrated satellite terrestrial networks,”
[253] D. Tennenhouse and D. Wetherall, “Towards an active network archi- 7th Advanced Satellite Multimedia Systems Conference and the 13th
tecture,” ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review, vol. 26, Signal Processing for Space Communications Workshop (ASMS/SPSC),
no. 2, pp. 5–18, Apr. 2016. pp. 92–98, Sep. 2014.
[254] K. Calvert, S. Bhattacharjee, E. Zegura, and J. Sterbenz, “Directions in [278] S. Xu, X. Wang, and M. Huang, “Software-defined next-generation
active networks,” in IEEE Communications Magazine, Oct. 1998, pp. satellite networks: architecture, challenges, and solutions,” IEEE Ac-
72–78. cess, vol. 6, pp. 4027–4041, 2018.
[255] J. van der Merwe, S. Rooney, L. Leslie, and S. Crosby, “The tempest [279] I. Akyildiz, P. Wang, and S.-C. Lin, “Softair: A software defined
: A practical framework for network programmability,” IEEE Network, networking architecture for 5g wireless systems,” Comput. Netw.,
vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 20–28, 1998. vol. 85, pp. 1–18, Jul. 2015.
[256] J. Smith, K. Calvert, S. Murphy, H. Orman, and L. Peterson, “Activating [280] T. Ahmed, E. Dubois, J.-B. Dup, R. Ferrs, P. Glard, and N. Kuhn,
networks: a progress report,” Computer, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 32–41, Apr. “Software-defined satellite cloud ran,” International Journal of Satellite
1999. Communications and Networking, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 108–133, Jan.
[257] N. Feamster, H. Balakrishman, J. Rexford, A. Shaikh, and K. van 2018.
der Merwe, “The case for separating routing from routers,” ACM [281] R. Ferrs, O. Sallent, T. Ahmed, and R. Fedrizzi, “Towards sdn/nfv-
SIGCOMM Workshop on Future Directions in Network Architecture, enabled satellite ground segment systems: end-to-end traffic engineer-
Sep. 2004. ing use case,” IEEE International Conference on Communications
[258] M. Caesar, N. Feamster, J. Rexford, A. Shaikh, and J. van der Merwe, Workshops (ICC Workshops), 2017.
“Design and implementation of a routing control platform,” Proc. 2nd [282] Artes telecommunications & integrated applications. satellite
USENIX NSDI, May. 2005. for 5g. [Online]. Available: http://www.esa.int/Our Activities/
[259] J. Salim, H. Khosravi, A. Klen, and A. Kuznetsov, “Linux netlink as Telecommunications Integrated Applications/Satellite for 5G
an ip services protocol,” Internet Engineering Task Force, RFC 3549., [283] F. Mendoza, R. Ferrs, and O. Sallent, “Sdn-enabled satcom networks
Jul. 2003. for satellite-terrestrial integration,” Satellite Communications in the 5G
[260] H. Khosravi and T. Anderson, “Requirements for separation of ip Era, Chapter 3, IET Digital Library; 2018:61-99. ISBN: 978-1-78561-
control and forwarding,” Internet Engineering Task Force, RFC 3654., 427-9.
Nov. 2003. [284] ——, “Sdn-based traffic engineering for improved resilience in inte-
[261] L. Yang, R. Dantu, T. Anderson, and R. Gopal, “Forwarding and grated satellite-terrestrial backhaul networks,” 4th International Con-
control element separation (forces) framework,” Internet Engineering ference on Information and Communication Technologies for Disaster
Task Force, RFC 3746., Apr. 2004. Management (ICT-DM), Dec. 2017.
[262] M. Casado, M. Freedman, J. Pettit, J. Luo, N. McKeown, and [285] S. Ramesh, I. Rhee, and K. Guo, “Multicast with cache (mcache): an
S. Shenker, “Ethane: Taking control of the enterprise,” ACM SIG- adaptive zero-delay video-on-demand service,” IEEE Transactions on
COMM Computer Communication Review, vol. 37, no. 4, pp. 1–12, Circuits and Systems for Video Technology, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 440–456,
Oct. 2007. March 2001.
[263] N. McKeown, T. Anderson, H. Alakrishnan, G. Parulkar, L. Peterson, [286] C. G. Brinton, E. Aryafar, S. Corda, S. Russo, R. Reinoso, and
J. Rexford, S. Shenker, and T. Turner, “Openflow: Enabling innovation M. Chiang, “An intelligent satellite multicast and caching overlay for
in campus networks,” ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication cdns to improve performance in video applications,” in Proc. 31st AIAA
Review, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 69–74, Apr. 2008. Int. Commun. Satellite Systems Conf., October 2013, pp. 2013–5664.
[264] M. Sama, L. Contreras, J. Kaippallimalil, I. Akiyoshi, H. Qian, and [287] A. Kalantari, M. Fittipaldi, S. Chatzinotas, T. X. Vu, and B. Ottersten,
H. Ni, “Software-defined control of the virtualized mobile packet core,” “Cache-assisted hybrid satellite-terrestrial backhauling for 5g cellular
IEEE Communications, pp. 107–115, Feb. 2015. networks,” in Proc. IEEE Global Commun. Conf., 2017, pp. 1–6.
[265] D. Bojic, E. Sasaki, and N. C. et al., “Advanced wireless and optical [288] T. X. Vu et al, “Efficient 5g edge caching over satellite,” in Proc. Int.
technologies for small-cell mobile backhaul with dynamic software- Commun.Satellite Syst. Conf., 2018, pp. 1–5.
defined management,” IEEE Communications Magazine, pp. 86–93, [289] T. X. Vu, Y. Poirier, S. Chatzinotas, N. Maturo, J. Grotz, and F. Roelens,
Sep. 2013. “Modeling and implementation of 5g edge caching over satellite,”
[266] “Architecture enhancements for control and user plane separation of International Journal of Satellite Communications and Networking,
epc nodes,” 3GPP TS 23.214, Release 14, Jun. 2016. Jan. 2020.
[267] “System architecture for the 5g system,” 3GPP TS 23.501, Release 15, [290] B. Evans, M. Werner, E. Lutz, M. Bousquet, G. E. Corazza, G. Maral,
Dec. 2016. and R. Rumeau, “Integration of satellite and terrestrial systems in future
[268] “Openflow-enabled transport sdn,” Open Networking Foundation multimedia communications,” IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. 12,
(ONF), ONF Solution Brief, May. 2014. no. 5, pp. 72–80, Oct 2005.
[269] Open networking foundation (onf). wireless & mobile working [291] H. Linder, H. D. Clausen, and B. Collini-Nocker, “Satellite internet
group. [Online]. Available: www.opennetworking.org/images/stories/ services using dvb/mpeg-2 and multicast web caching,” IEEE Commu-
downloads/working-groups/charter-wireless-mobile.pdf nications Magazine, vol. 38, no. 6, pp. 156–161, June 2000.
[292] E. Wang, H. Li, and S. Zhang, “Load balancing based on cache resource [314] R. Palisetty, V. K. Sinha, S. Mallick, and K. C. Ray, “Fpga prototyping
allocation in satellite networks,” IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp. 56 864– of energy dispersal and improved error efficiency techniques for dvb-
56 879, 2019. satellite standard,” in 2015 International Conference on VLSI Systems,
[293] H. L. H. Wu, J. Li and P. Hong, “A two-layer caching model for Architecture, Technology and Applications (VLSI-SATA), Jan 2015, pp.
content delivery services in satellite-terrestrial networks,” in IEEE 1–5.
Global Communications Conference, Dec. 2016, pp. 1–6. [315] E. R. de Lima, A. F. R. Queiroz, D. C. Alves, G. S. da Silva,
[294] C. R. M. Luglio, S. P. Romano and F. Zampognaro, “Service delivery C. G. Chaves, J. G. Mertes, and T. M. Marson, “A detailed dvb-
models for converged satellite-terrestrial 5g network deployment: A s2 receiver implementation: Fpga prototyping and preliminary asic
satellite-assisted cdn use-case,” IEEE Network, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 142– resource estimation,” in 2014 IEEE Latin-America Conference on
150, January 2019. Communications (LATINCOM), Nov 2014, pp. 1–6.
[295] P. Y. Y. Li, Q. Zhang and Z. Yang, “A back-tracing partition based [316] H. C. Bui and L. Franck, “Cost effective emulation of geostationary
on-path caching distribution strategy over integrated leo satellite and satellite channels by means of software-defined radio,” in 2014 IEEE
terrestrial networks,” in 2018 10th International Conference on Wire- Metrology for Aerospace (MetroAeroSpace), May 2014, pp. 538–542.
less Communications and Signal Processing (WCSP), Oct. 2018, pp. [317] N. Instruments, “USRP Software Defined Radio Device.” [Online].
1–6. Available: http://ni.com/usrp
[296] M. S. A. A. Dowhuszko and A. I. Prez-Neira, “Integration of optical [318] “ÉTS : Laboratoire Spécialisé en Systèmes Embarqués, Navigation et
and satellite communication technologies to improve the cache filling Avionique.” [Online]. Available: https://lassena.etsmtl.ca/
time in future 5g edge networks,” in 2019 21st International Conference [319] “RF Channel Simulator — Kratos.” [Online].
on Transparent Optical Networks (ICTON), July 2019, pp. 1–5. Available: https://www.kratosdefense.com/products/space/signals/
[297] Y. W. G. C. S. Liu, X. Hu and W. Wang, “Distributed caching test-and-simulation/rf-channel-simulator?r=krtl
based on matching game in leo satellite constellation networks,” IEEE [320] “PicoSDR Series for Wireless Multi-Standard Prototyping.” [Online].
Communications Letters, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 300–303, Feb. 2018. Available: https://www.nutaq.com/products/picosdr/
[298] X. Y. K. An, Y. Li and T. Liang, “On the performance of cache-enabled [321] T. M. Getu, W. Ajib, and O. A. Yeste-Ojeda, “Tensor-Based Efficient
hybrid satellite-terrestrial relay networks,” IEEE Wireless Communica- Multi-Interferer RFI Excision Algorithms for SIMO Systems,” IEEE
tions Letters, p. 11, 2019. Transactions on Communications, vol. 65, no. 7, pp. 3037–3052, 2017.
[299] Z. Zhang, W. Zhang, and F. Tseng, “Satellite mobile edge computing: [322] T. M. Getu, W. Ajib, O. A. Yeste-Ojeda, and R. Landry, “Tensor-
Improving qos of high-speed satellite-terrestrial networks using edge Based Efficient Multi-Interferer RFI Excision: Results Using Real-
computing techniques,” IEEE Network, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 70–76, World Data,” in 2018 International Conference on Computing, Net-
January 2019. working and Communications, ICNC 2018. Institute of Electrical and
[300] L. Yan, S. Cao, Y. Gong, H. Han, J. Wei, Y. Zhao, and S. Yang, “Satec: Electronics Engineers Inc., jun 2018, pp. 917–921.
A 5g satellite edge computing framework based on microservice [323] E. Zhang, J. Zambrano, A. Amrhar, R. Landry, and W. Ajib, “Design
architecture,” Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), vol. 19, no. 4 831, Feb. and implementation of a Wideband Radio using SDR for avionic
2019. applications,” ICNS 2017 - ICNS: CNS/ATM Challenges for UAS
[301] M. R. Maheshwarappa, M. D. Bowyer, and C. P. Bridges, “Improve- Integration, pp. 1–9, 2017.
ments in CPU & FPGA Performance for Small Satellite SDR Ap- [324] J. Duncan, J. Querol, N. Maturo, J. Krivochiza, D. Spano, N. Saba,
plications,” IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, L. Marrero, and S. Chatzinotas, “Hardware Precoding Demonstration
vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 310–322, 2017. in Multi-Beam UHTS Communications under Realistic Payload Char-
[302] S. Kozlowski, K. Kurek, J. Skarzynski, K. Szczygielska, and acteristics,” in 37th International Communications Satellite Systems
M. Darmetko, “Investigation on adaptive satellite communication sys- Conference (ICSSC 2019), nov 2019.
tem performance using SDR technique,” MIKON 2018 - 22nd Interna- [325] J. Duncan, J. Krivochiza, S. Andrenacci, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Otter-
tional Microwave and Radar Conference, pp. 363–366, 2018. sten, “Hardware demonstration of precoded communications in multi-
[303] M. R. Maheshwarappa, M. D. J. Bowyer, and C. P. Bridges, “A beam uhts systems,” in 36th International Communications Satellite
reconfigurable sdr architecture for parallel satellite reception,” IEEE Systems Conference (ICSSC 2018), Oct 2018, pp. 1–5.
Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine, vol. 33, no. 11, pp. 40– [326] N. Maturo, J. C. M. Duncan, J. Krivochiza, J. Querol, D. Spano,
53, November 2018. S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten, “Demonstrator of precoding technique
[304] GOMspace, “GOMspace — Home.” [Online]. Available: https: for a multi-beams satellite system,” in 2019 8th International Workshop
//gomspace.com/home.aspx on Tracking, Telemetry and Command Systems for Space Applications
[305] NanoAvionics, “Nanosatellites & CubeSats — NanoAvionics.” (TTC), Sep. 2019, pp. 1–8.
[Online]. Available: https://nanoavionics.com/ [327] C. Politis, S. Maleki, J. M. Duncan, J. Krivochiza, S. Chatzinotas, and
[306] “Alén Space — Nanosatellites - CubeSats - Small Satellites.” [Online]. B. Ottesten, “Sdr implementation of a testbed for real-time interference
Available: https://alen.space/ detection with signal cancellation,” IEEE Access, vol. 6, pp. 20 807–
[307] “Turn-key CubeSat and nanosat solutions — Innovative Solutions In 20 821, 2018.
Space.” [Online]. Available: https://www.isispace.nl/satellite-solutions/ [328] L. Martinez Marrero, J. C. Merlano Duncan, J. Querol, S. Chatzinotas,
[308] I. Tyvak Nano-Satellite Systems, “Tyvak Nano-Satellite Systems, Inc A. J. Camps Carmona, and B. Ottersten, “Effects of multiple oscillator
— Home.” [Online]. Available: https://www.tyvak.com/ phase noise in precoding performance,” in ICSSC2019, 2019. [Online].
[309] M. R. Maheshwarappa, M. D. J. Bowyer, and C. P. Bridges, “Improve- Available: http://orbilu.uni.lu/handle/10993/40625
ments in cpu fpga performance for small satellite sdr applications,” [329] SATis5. [Online]. Available: https://satis5.eurescom.eu/
IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol. 53, no. 1, [330] J. Krivochiza, J. C. Merlano-Duncan, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten,
pp. 310–322, Feb 2017. “M-qam modulation symbol-level precoding for power minimization:
[310] D. Digdarsini, D. Mishra, S. Mehta, and T. V. S. Ram, “Fpga imple- Closed-form solution,” in 2019 16th International Symposium on
mentation of fec encoder with bch ldpc codes for dvb s2 system,” in Wireless Communication Systems (ISWCS), Aug 2019, pp. 395–399.
2019 6th International Conference on Signal Processing and Integrated [331] J. Krivochiza, J. Merlano Duncan, S. Andrenacci, S. Chatzinotas, and
Networks (SPIN), March 2019, pp. 78–81. B. Ottersten, “Fpga acceleration for computationally efficient symbol-
[311] R. Purnamasari, H. Wijanto, and I. Hidayat, “Design and implemen- level precoding in multi-user multi-antenna communication systems,”
tation of ldpc(low density parity check) coding technique on fpga IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp. 15 509–15 520, 2019.
(field programmable gate array) for dvb-s2 (digital video broadcasting- [332] J. C. Merlano-Duncan, J. Krivochiza, S. Andrenacci, S. Chatzinotas,
satellite),” in 2014 IEEE International Conference on Aerospace Elec- and B. Ottersten, “Computationally efficient symbol-level precoding
tronics and Remote Sensing Technology, Nov 2014, pp. 83–88. communications demonstrator,” in 2017 IEEE 28th Annual Interna-
[312] Y. Zhu and C. Chakrabarti, “Memory efficient ldpc code design for tional Symposium on Personal, Indoor, and Mobile Radio Communi-
high throughput software defined radio (sdr) systems,” in 2007 IEEE cations (PIMRC), Oct 2017, pp. 1–5.
International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing [333] J. Krivochiza, J. C. Merlano-Duncan, S. Andrenacci, S. Chatzinotas,
- ICASSP ’07, vol. 2, April 2007, pp. II–9–II–12. and B. Ottersten, “Closed-form solution for computationally efficient
[313] P. N. T. H. and A. Gelgor, “Means to enhance the bandwidth gain symbol-level precoding,” in 2018 IEEE Global Communications Con-
from applying multicomponent signals in dvb-s2,” in 2019 IEEE ference (GLOBECOM), Dec 2018, pp. 1–6.
International Conference on Electrical Engineering and Photonics [334] Itrinegy. Satellite for 5g. [Online]. Available: https://itrinegy.com/
(EExPolytech), Oct 2019, pp. 173–176. networkemulators/
[335] Datasoft. [Online]. Available: https://www.datasoft.com/products/ [359] Z. Becvar, M. Vondra, P. Mach, J. Plachy, and D. Gesbert, “Per-
embedded software/satellitesim/index.html formance of mobile networks with UAVs: Can flying base stations
[336] OpenSAND. [Online]. Available: https://opensand.org/content/home. substitute ultra-dense small cells?” in Proc. 23th European Wireless
php Conference, 2017.
[337] SNS3. [Online]. Available: https://www.sns3.org/content/home.php [360] F. Vatalaro, G. E. Corazza, C. Caini, and C. Ferrarelli, “Analysis
[338] Artes real-time satellite network emulator. of LEO, MEO, and GEO global mobile satellite systems in the
[Online]. Available: https://artes.esa.int/funding/ presence of interference and fading,” IEEE Journal on Selected Areas
real-time-satellite-network-emulator-artes-3a082-0 in Communications, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 291–300, Feb 1995.
[339] 5g-allstar project. [Online]. Available: https://5g-allstar.eu/project/ [361] A. Pourmoghadas, S. K. Sharma, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten,
[340] Sat-5g project. [Online]. Available: https://www.sat5g-project.eu/ “On the spectral coexistence of GSO and NGSO FSS systems: Power
control mechanisms and a methodology for inter-site distance determi-
[341] IBM, “Introduction to Digital Twin: Simple, but detailed,” On-
nation,” Int. J. Satellite Commun. and Networking, vol. 35, no. 5, pp.
line:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RaOejcczPas, online; accessed
443–459, Sept. 2017.
10th Jan 2020.
[362] C. Park, C. Kang, Y. Choi, and C. Oh, “Interference analysis of geosta-
[342] E. H. Glaessgen and D. Stargel, “The digital twin paradigm for tionary satellite networks in the presence of moving non-geostationary
future nasa and u.s. air force vehicles,” in 53rd Structures, Structural satellites,” in 2010 2nd International Conference on Information Tech-
Dynamics, and Materials Conference: Special Session on the Digital nology Convergence and Services, Aug 2010, pp. 1–5.
Twin, June 2012, pp. 1–14. [363] S. K. Sharma, S. Chatzinotas, and B. Ottersten, “Terminal-side inter-
[343] S. Carsten, “Space-based “digital twin” of earth brings affordable ference mitigation for spectral coexistence of satellite and terrestrial
insights, and web connectivity, to the other seven billion of systems in non-exclusive ka-band,” in Proc. 22nd Ka and 34th ICSSC
us,” https://medium.com/@cstoecker/space-based-digital-twin-of- conference, Oct. 2016, pp. 1–5.
earth-brings-affordable-insights-and-web-connectivity-to-the-other- [364] C. H. Bennett, “Quantum cryptography: public key distribution and
83428572b92a, online; accessed 10th Jan 2020. coin tossing,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Comput. Syst. Signal Process,
[344] E. A. &. A. D. E Glennon, E. P. Glennon, A. G. 1984.
Dempster, and E. Aboutanios, “Distributed Beamforming [365] Quartz :quantum cryptography telecommunication system. [Online].
Architectures for Space & Airborne Applications,” 2018. Available: https://www.esa.int/Applications/Telecommunications
[Online]. Available: http://www.ignss2018.unsw.edu.au/sites/ Integrated Applications/Space photons bring a new dimension to
ignss2018/files/u80/Papers/IGNSS2018{ }paper{ }29.pdfhttp: cryptography
//www.ignss2018.unsw.edu.au/sites/ignss2018/files/u80/Slides/ [366] S. K. Sharma and X. Wang, “Towards massive machine type com-
D1-S2-ThB-Glennon{ }DistributedBeamforming.pdf munications in ultra-dense cellular IoT networks: Current issues and
[345] X. Cai, M. Zhou, T. Xia, W. H. Fong, W. Lee, and X. Huang, “Low- machine learning-assisted solutions,” IEEE Communications Surveys
power sdr design on an fpga for intersatellite communications,” IEEE Tutorials, pp. 1–1, 2019.
Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems, vol. 26, [367] S. Rajendran, W. Meert, V. Lenders, and S. Pollin, “Unsupervised
no. 11, pp. 2419–2430, Nov 2018. wireless spectrum anomaly detection with interpretable features,” IEEE
[346] S. Engelen, E. Gill, and C. Verhoeven, “On the reliability, availability, Transactions on Cognitive Communications and Networking, vol. 5,
and throughput of satellite swarms,” IEEE Transactions on Aerospace no. 3, pp. 637–647, 2019.
and Electronic Systems, vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 1027–1037, 2014.
[347] A. Budianu, T. J. W. Castro, A. Meijerink, and M. J. Bentum, “Inter-
satellite links for cubesats,” in 2013 IEEE Aerospace Conference,
March 2013, pp. 1–10.
[348] H. Fiedler, G. Krieger, M. Zink, M. Younis, M. Bachmann, S. Huber,
I. Hajnsek, and A. Moreira, “The TanDEM-X mission: an overview,” in
2008 International Conference on Radar. IEEE, sep 2008, pp. 60–64.
[Online]. Available: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4653892/
[349] M. J. Bentum, C. J. Verhoeven, A. J. Boonstra, A. J. Van Der Veen,
and E. K. Gill, “A novel astronomical application for formation flying
small satellites,” in 60th International Astronautical Congress 2009,
IAC 2009, vol. 2. Press IAC, oct 2009, pp. 1254–1261.
[350] R. T. Rajan, S. Engelen, M. Bentum, and C. Verhoeven, “Orbiting low
frequency array for radio astronomy,” in IEEE Aerospace Conference
Proceedings. IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society, apr
2011, pp. 1–11.
[351] T. Willink-Castro, A. Budianu, A. Meijerink, and M. J. Bentum,
“Antenna system design for olfar’s inter-satellite link,” p. B2.3.5, oct
2012.
[352] A. Budianu, T. Willink-Castro, A. Meijerink, and M. Bentum, “Com-
munication schemes for olfar’s inter-satellite links,” in 63rd Interna-
tional Astronautical Congress (IAC 2012). International Astronautical
Federation (IAF), 10 2012, p. B2.5.2.
[353] “QB50 Project,” 2016. [Online]. Available: https://www.qb50.eu/
[354] E. Gill, P. Sundaramoorthy, J. Bouwmeester, and B. Sanders, “Forma-
tion flying to enhance the qb50 space network,” in Proceedings of the
4S symposium, s.n., Ed. CNES/ESA, 2010, pp. 1–15.
[355] M. Werner, A. Jahn, E. Lutz, and A. Bottcher, “Analysis of system
parameters for leo/ico-satellite communication networks,” IEEE Jour-
nal on Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 371–381,
Feb 1995.
[356] S. R. Pratt, R. A. Raines, C. E. Fossa, and M. A. Temple, “An
operational and performance overview of the iridium low earth orbit
satellite system,” IEEE Communications Surveys, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 2–
10, Second 1999.
[357] H. Ahmadi, K. Katzis, and M. Z. Shakir, “A novel airborne self-
organising architecture for 5g+ networks,” in 2017 IEEE 86th Vehicular
Technology Conference (VTC-Fall), Sep. 2017, pp. 1–5.
[358] J. Jackson, “The interplanetary internet [networked space communica-
tions],” IEEE Spectrum, vol. 42, no. 8, pp. 30–35, Aug 2005.

Satellite Communications in The New Space Era: A Survey and Future Challenges

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Satellite Communications in The New Space Era: A Survey and Future Challenges

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Satellite Communications in The New Space Era: A Survey and Future Challenges

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

IEEE COMMUNICATIONS SURVEYS & TUTORIALS (DRAFT) 1

Satellite Communications in the New Space Era:

of innovative broadband and earth observation missions all of

4. Resource Allocation C. UHTS 2. Active Antenna Arrays

Fig. 1. Structure of the paper and topic classification

Acronyms Definitions Acronyms Definitions

Fig. 2. The role of satellites in the 5G ecosystem

the operation of the 5G network infrastructure; GEO / MEO

of uses cases can be categorized into two smaller subgroups

and more reliability [37]. Since 2008, satellites equipped

performance parameter is the coverage, as the first requirement

is important to achieve the desired performance keeping this sat

User Equipments Data Network User Equipments Data Network

payload, the base station functionalities can be performed by

to provide the new spectrum bands and operational guidelines E. Standardization

will be performed. configurations using different frequencies. Hence, satellite sys-

contiguous coverage [81], [82], leaving little or no space

Fig. 13. On-board processing architecture [107]

TABLE II sites are separated on the Earth surface by approximately

Packet scheduling mechanisms particularly play a key role

so that the spectral efficiency maximized. This is done by QoS requirements.

Fig. 18. CA Architecture as proposed in [214].

18. them into a single stream of received PDUs.

some examples of communication system payloads using SDR CSI Ĥ

parameters (e.g. bit error rate, availability, channel capacity,

infrastructure to provide necessary services; in this context,

You might also like