ANALYSIS OF RESIDUAL STRESSES IN A BUTT

WELD USING ANSYS SOFTWARE

CONTENTS
SNo DESCRIPTION PAGE No

ABSTRACT

1. CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT

METHOD

1.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1.3 NEED FOR FINITE ELEMENT

METHOD

1.4 THE PROCESS OF FINITE ELEMENT

METHOD

1.5 FIELD AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

1.6 STEPS INVOLVED IN FINITE ELEMENT

MODELING

1.7 APPLICATIONS OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

2. CHAPTER 2

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO RESIDUAL STRESSES

SOURCES OF RESIDUAL STRESSES

OVERVIEW OF THE PROGRAM

REDUCING DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING COSTS WITH ANSYS FEA

PROCEDURE FOR ANSYS ANALYSIS

2.5.1

ABSTRACT

Low carbon steels are prone to distortion and cracks due to residual stresses induced during
welding. This project gives the information about the residual stresses induced in a butt weld
joint due to welding. Experimentation was carried out on a plate made of low carbon steel having
dimensions 0.115 x 0.048 x 0.006 meters. The type of welding chosen is Manual Metal Arc
Welding (MMAW). Single pass welding was carried out. Experimental values calculated were
taken as input for the analysis in ANSYS software.

A model was generated in ANSYS 9.0 (A general purpose FEA software) using SOLID
BRICK 8 NODE 70 (3D solid element with temperature dof) and PLANE 55 (A 2D Solid
Element with 4 nodes), as per the dimensions of the plate taken for the experimentation. A
refined mesh is made based on the convergency criteria and the analysis is performed to estimate
the temperature distribution. Firstly a transient thermal analysis was carried out by giving heat
flux as the time varying input to estimate the temperature variation. The non-linear material
properties are fed for the heat transfer solution. Then coupled field analysis is carried out to get
the residual stresses by coupling thermal analysis to static analysis. The variation of the
temperature with time, and residual stresses are obtained. The variation of these are reported and
discussed.

Chapter 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

The basic idea in the Finite Element Method is to find the solution of complicated problems with
relatively easy way. The Finite Element Method has been a powerful tool for the numerical
solution of a wide range of engineering problems. Applications range from deformation and
stress analysis of automotive, aircraft, building, defense, and missile and bridge structures to the
field of analysis of dynamics, stability, fracture mechanics, heat flux, fluid flow, magnetic flux,
seepage, and other flow problems. With the advances in computer technology and CAD systems,
complex problems can be modeled with relative ease. Several alternate configurations can be
tried out on a computer before the first prototype is built. The basics in engineering field are
must to idealize the given structure for the required behaviour. In the Finite Element Method, the
solution region is considered as many small, interconnected sub regions called Finite elements.

Most often it is not possible to ascertain the behaviour of complex continuous systems without
some form of approximations. For simple members like uniform beams, plates etc., classical
solutions can be sought by forming differential and/or integral equations through structures like
machine tool frames, pressure vessels, automobile bodies, ships, aircraft structures, domes etc.,
need some approximate treatment to arrive at their behaviour, be it static deformation, dynamic
properties or heat conducting property. Indeed these are continuous systems with their mass and
elasticity being continuously distributed. The classical differential equation solution approach
leads to intractability. To overcome this, engineers and mathematicians have from time to time
proposed complex structures, which are defined using a finite number of well-defined
components. Such systems are then regarded as discrete systems.
1.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The Finite Element Method has been presented in 1956 by Turner, Clough, Martin and Topp.
The name Finite Element Method was first coined by R.W.Clough. Important early contributions
were those of J.H.Argyris and O.C.Zienckiwicz and Y.K.Cheung. Since the early 1960’s, a large
amount of research has been devoted to the technique, and a very large number of publications
on the Finite Element Method are now available. The Finite Element Method was initially
developed for structural mechanics but later on it was applied to heat transfer, fracture
mechanics, flow and coupled field problems.

1.3 NEED FOR FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

To predict the behaviour of structure the designer adopts three tools such as analytical,
experimental and numerical methods. The analytical method is used for the regular sections of
known geometric entities or primitives where the component geometry is expressed
mathematically. The solution obtained through analytical method is exact and takes less time.
This method cannot be used for irregular sections and the shapes that require very complex
mathematical equations. On the other hand the experimental method is used for finding the
unknown parameters of interest. But the experimentation requires a testing equipment and a
specimen for each behaviour of requirement. This in turn, requires a high initial investment to
procure the equipment and to prepare the specimens. The solution obtained is exact by the time
consumed to find the results and during preparation of specimens also. There are many
numerical schemes such as finite difference methods Finite Element Method, boundary element
and volume method, finite strip and volume method and Boundary integral methods etc., are
used to estimate the approximate solutions of acceptably tolerance.
1.4 THE PROCESS OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

The Finite Element Method is used to solve physical problems in engineering analysis and
design. The physical problems typically involve an actual structure component subjected to
certain loads. The idealization of the physical problem to a mathematical model requires certain
assumptions that together lead to differential equations governing the mathematical model. The
Finite Element Analysis solves the mathematical model, which describes the physical problem.
The FEM (Finite Element Method) is a numerical procedure; it is necessary to assess the solution
accuracy. If the accuracy criteria are not met, the numerical solution has to be repeated with
refined solution parameters until a sufficient accuracy is reached.
It is clear that the Finite Element solution will solve selected mathematical model with all
the assumptions, which reflects on the predicted response. The approximate selection of
mathematical model will influence the accuracy of the solution. The mathematical model is
solved and checked for the accuracy then refinement is made if required. Depending upon the
level of accuracy, the optimization of section or shape is performed by linking the optimization
techniques with Finite Element Method.

1.5 FIELD AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

The field variables such a displacements, strains and stresses must satisfy the governing
conditions, which can be mathematically expressed in the form of differential equations.
For structure mechanic problems the boundary conditions may be kinematic i.e., where the
displacements (and slopes i.e., derivative of displacement) maybe prescribed, or static i.e., where
forces (and moments) may be prescribed. Initial values maybe given in the problems where time
is involved. The specified temperature or heat flow/heat flux or convections maybe specified in
thermal analysis.

1.6 STEPS INVOLVED IN FINITE ELEMENT MODELING

The method is based on stiffness analysis. Stiffness is defined as the force required for unit
displacement and is the reciprocal of flexibility. In this method the structure is assumed to be
built up of numerous connected tiny elements. From this comes the name “Finite Element
Method”. Extremely complex structures also can be simulated by proper arrangement of these
elements. The most commonly used elements are beams, plates and solid prismatic shapes etc.
The points interconnecting the elements are called nodes. The broad steps in the finite element
method when it is applied to structural mechanics is as follows:

1. Divide the continuum into a finite number of sub regions (or elements) of simple
geometry such as line segments, triangles, quadrilaterals. (Square and rectangular
elements are subsets of quadrilateral), tetrahedrons and hexahedrons (cubes) etc.

2. Select key points on the elements to serve as nodes where conditions of equilibrium and
compatibility are to be enforced.

3. Assume displacement functions within each element so that the displacements at each
generic point depend on the nodal values.

4. Satisfy strain-displacement and stress-strain relationships within a typical element.

5. Determine stiffness and equivalent nodal loads for a typical element using work or
energy principles.

6. Develop equilibrium equations for the nodes of the discritized continuum in terms of the
element contributions.

7. Solve the equilibrium for the nodal displacements.

8. Calculate support reactions at restrained nodes if displaced.

9. Determine strains and stresses at selected points within the elements.

1.7 APPLICATIONS OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

Finite Element Method comes under this category of discretization methods. R.W.Clough
appears to be the first to use this term of finite element. Since early 1960’s there has been much
progress I n the method. The method requires a large number of computations requiring a
fast computer. In fact digital computer advances have been responsible for the expanding usage
of the Finite Element Method. The Finite Element Method was initially developed to solve
structural problems. Its use, of late, has been rapidly extended to various fields. The diversity of
applications of the method can be seen from the following Table 1, which still by no means can
be claimed as complete since fields of usage are being continuously diversified.

Table 1- Application Areas of Finite Element Method

S.No. Fields Typical Examples

1. Structural Mechanics
(Deflection & Stress
Analysis
of Structures)

A. Two
Dimensional In plane stresses, stretching of plates, gravity dams, Axi-
Analysis symmetric solid shells, rocket, motors, machine parts such
as shafts, beam bridges etc.
B. Three
Dimensional 3-D trusses, space frames such as cranes, thin walled
Analysis structure like machine tools, transmission towers, nuclear
towers, nuclear reactors, ship structures, radar domes,
building dams, shell roofs, arches, drilling platforms etc.

C. Bending of Floor slabs, thin walls of machine tool structure, ship

Plates decks, aircraft and spacecraft panels.

2. Soil and Rock Foundation layers, rock joints, pavements, stability of

Mechanics excavation such as river banks, embarkments, open pit
and underground mining problems etc.

3. Thermal analysis and Transient and steady state temperature distribution,

Fluid mechanics thermal strain and stresses in mechanical and civil
structures. Flow towards wells, seepage through
foundations. Fluid flows in pipes, canals etc.

4. Hydro-elasticity Hydrodynamic, Hydrostatic and Air bearings. Reservoir-

dam interactions, sloshing of liquids in flexible containers
etc.

5. Dynamics Natural frequencies and mode shapes of structures.

Response to arbitrary dynamic loading such as wind
explosions, water waves, earthquakes etc.
6. Noise Problems Determination of acoustic pressure fields in ducts and
enclosed spaces. Structural acoustic interaction problems
etc.

7. Coupled Field and Structural and thermal coupling residual stresses, contact
Contact Problems stresses and gap condition, air gap insulation.

8. Composites Analysis of layered shell and solids, FRP, ceramic and

metal matrix composites, interlaminar and boundary
layered stresses.

9. Fracture Mechanics Strain energy release rates, stress, intensity factor, J-

integrals.

Chapter 2

2.1 FEA SOFTWARE – ANSYS

INTRODUCTION

Dr. John Swanson founded ANSYS Inc. in 1970 with a vision to commercialize the concept of
computer-simulated engineering, establishing himself as one of the pioneers of Finite Element
Analysis (FEA). ANSYS Inc. supports the ongoing development of innovative technology and
delivers flexible, enterprise-wide engineering systems that enable companies to solve the full
range of analysis problem, maximizing their existing investments in software and hardware.
ANSYS Inc. continues its role as a technological innovator. It also supports a process-centric
approach to design and manufacturing, allowing users to avoid expensive and time-consuming
“build and break” cycles. ANSYS analysis and simulation tools give customers ease-of-use, data
compatibility, multi-platform support, and coupled-field multi-physics capabilities.

2.2 EVOLUTION OF ANSYS PROGRAM:

ANSYS has evolved into multipurpose design analysis software program, recognized around
the world for its many capabilities. Today the program is extremely powerful and easy to use.
Each release hosts new and enhanced capabilities that make the program more flexible, more
usable, and faster. In this way, ANSYS helps engineers meet the pressures and demands of the
modern product development environment.
2.3 OVERVIEW OF THE PROGRAM:
The ANSYS is a flexible, robust design analysis and optimization package. The software
operates on major computers and operating systems, from PC’s to workstations to
supercomputers. ANSYS features file computability throughout the family of products and
across all platforms. ANSYS design data access enables user to import computer-aided design
models into ANSYS, eliminating repeated work. This ensures enterprise-wide, flexible
engineering solution for all ANSYS users.

2.4 REDUCING DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING COSTS WITH

ANSYS FEA:
The ANSYS program allows engineers to construct computer models or transfer CAD
models of structures, products, components, or systems; apply operating loads or other design
performance conditions; and study physical responses, such as stress levels, temperature
distributions, or the impact of electromagnetic fields.
In some environments, prototype testing is undesirable or impossible. ANSYS design
optimization enables the engineers to reduce the number of costly prototypes, rigidity and
flexibility to meet objectives, and find the proper balance in geometric modifications.
Competitive companies look for ways to produce the highest quality product at the lowest
cost. ANSYS FEA can help significantly by reducing the design and manufacturing costs, and by
giving engineers added confidence in the products they design. FEA is the most effective when
used at the conceptual design stage. It is also useful when used later in manufacturing process to
verify the final design before prototyping.

2.5 PROCEDURE FOR ANSYS ANALYSIS:

A static analysis can be either linear or non-linear. In this work we have considered non-
linear transient analysis.
The procedure for ANSYS analysis consists of three main steps:
1. Build the model.
2. Obtain the solution.
3. Review the results.
2.5.1 Build the model:
In this step, we specify job name and analysis title and then define the element types, element
real constants, material properties and the model geometry element types- both linear and non-
linear structural elements are allowed. The ANSYS element library contains over 80 different
element types. A unique number and prefix identify each element type.
E.g.: PLANE-71, SOLID-96, BEAM-94 and PIPE-16.
Material properties:
Young’s modulus [Ex] must be defined for static analysis. If we have to apply inertia loads [such
as gravity], we define mass properties such as density [DENS]. Similarly if we apply thermal
loads [temperatures], we define coefficients of thermal expansion [ALPX].
2.5.2 Obtain the solution:
In this step we define the analysis type and options, apply loads and initiate the finite element
solution. This involves three phases:
a. Pre-Processor phase
b. Solution phase
c. Post-Processor phase
The following Table 2 shows the brief description of the steps followed in each phase.
Pre-Processing phase Solution phase Post-Processing phase
1. Geometry definitions 1. Element matrix formation 1. Post solution operation
2. Mesh generation 2. Overall matrix 2. Post data printout (for
triangularization reports)
3. Constraint and load 3. Calculation of 3. Post data scanning
definitions displacement, stress, etc.
4. Model displays 4. Post data display
5. Material definitions

2.5.2(a) PRE-PROCESSOR:
Pre-Processor has been developed so that the same program is available on micro, mini,
super-mini and mainframe computer system. This allows easy transfer of models from one
system to the other.
Pre-Processor is an interactive model builder to prepare the finite element model and input
data. The solution phase utilizes the input data developed by the pre-processor, and does the
solution according to the problem definition. It creates input files to the visualization of results
on the graphics screen. It displays the displacements, stresses, temperatures, etc. on the screen in
the form of contours.

Model Generation (Solid Modeling):

It is generally more appropriate for large or complex models, especially 3-D models over
solid volumes.
 Allows us to work with relatively small number of data items.
 Supports the use of ‘primitives of areas and volumes’ (such as polygonal and cylindrical
volumes) and Boolean operations (integration, subtractions, etc.) for the ‘top down’
construction of the model.
 Facilitates the use of ANSYS program’s design optimization features.
 It is required for adaptive meshing.
 Readily allows modifications to geometry.
 Facilitates changes to be made to the element distribution and it is not bound to one
analysis model.
 Requires large amount of CPU sometimes.
 For small and simple models, it is sometimes cumbersome requiring more data entries
than direct generation.
  Can ‘fail’ (the program will not be able to generate the finite element mesh) under certain
circumstances.

Geometric definitions:
There are four different geometric entities in pre-processor namely key points, lines, areas
and volumes. These entities can be used to obtain the geometric representation of the structure.
All the entities are independent of each other and have unique identification labels.

 Key points: Key points are points in 3-D space. Key point is a basic entity and usually the
first entity to create. The key points can be generated by various ways; by individual
definition, by transferring existing key points and from the other entities; e.g. intersection
of two lines, key point at the corners etc.
 Lines: A line is generally a 3-D curve defined by using a parametric cubic equation.
Lines can be generated from a number of grids. Sweeping a specified grid about a given
axis through a desired included angle can generate a circular arc.

 Area: An area is a 3-D surface defined using a parametric cubic equation. Areas can be
generated using four key points or four-line method, depending on the geometry. Some
inbuilt areas like circle, rectangle, and polygon can be generated directly to the required
size.

 Volumes: Volume, in general, is a 3-D solid region defined by using a parametric cubic
equation. Similar to areas, volumes also have parametric directions. Using two or four
areas, they can be generated. Spinning an area about an axis with another area can also
generate volumes. Volumes of cylinder, prism and sphere can be directly created to
required sizes.

Mesh generation
In Finite element analysis, the basic concept is to analyze the structure, which is an
assemblage of discrete pieces called elements that are connected together at a finite number of
points called nodes. Loading boundary conditions are then applied to these elements and nodes.
The network of elements is called mesh.

Finite element generation

The maximum amount of time, in finite element analysis, is spent on generating elements and
nodal data. Pre-processor allows the user to generate nodes and elements automatically at the
same time allowing control over size and number of elements. There are various types of
elements that can be mapped or generated on various geometric entities.

Elements
The elements developed by various automatic element generation capabilities of pre-
processor can be checked by element characteristics that may need to be verified before finite
element analysis are connectivity, distortion index etc.

Nodes
Generally user would not be defining nodes individually but rather use automatic mesh
generating capabilities of pre-processor. User can plot, erase, delete and search nodes. Nodes can
be defined easily by defining locations or by translating existing nodes.

Node merging
Pre-processor automatically generates nodes on each meshed geometric entity. This leads to
coincident nodes (i.e. two or more nodes at within the certain tolerance) at the common edge or
faces of geometric entities. Node merge option will keep anyone of the coincident nodes and
delete all other coincident nodes.

Node manipulation
In pre-processor node numbers can be re-sequenced with user defined starting number. User
can also delete unreferenced nodes (nodes not attached to any element) by issuing only one
command.
Boundary conditions and loading
After completion of finite elements model it has to be constrained and load has to be applied
to the model. User can define constraints and load in various ways. All constraints and loads are
assigned set 1-D, this helps the user to keep track of load cases.

Model display
During the construction and verification stages of the model, it may be necessary to view it
from different angles. It is useful to rotate the model with respect to the global system and view
it from different angles. Pre-processor offers this capability. By windowing feature, pre-
processor also allows the user to enlarge a specific area of the model for clarity and details. The
hidden line removal, shrink option and boundary line plotting feature enhances visualization of
geometry and checking the continuity of the model. Pre-processor also provides features like
smoothness, scaling, regions, regions, active set etc, for efficient model viewing and editing.

Setting parameters
There are several parameters that the user can change during any stage of modeling. The
parameters include colors, labeling of various entities, radius of key points, nodes, number of
segments used to represent lines, and so on, During the construction of complex models, it is
more convenient to input certain part of model in a coordinate system other than the global
coordinate system.

Material definitions:
All elements are defined by nodes, which have only their location defined. In the case of
plate and shell elements there is no indication of thickness. The thickness can be given as an
element property. Property tables for a particular set –ID have to be input. Different types of
elements have different properties, for e.g.
Beams : Cross sectional area, moment of inertia, etc.
Springs : Stiffness
Shells : Thickness
The user also needs to define material properties of the elements. For linear static analysis,
modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio need to be provided. For heat transfer, coefficient of
thermal expansion, densities etc. are required. They can be given to the elements by the material
property set ID.

2.5.2(b) SOLUTION:
The solution phase deals with the solution of the problem according to the problem definitions.
All the tedious work of formulating and assembling of matrices are done by the computer and
finally displacements and stresses are given as output.
Some of the capabilities of ANSYS are given below.
1. Structural static analysis.
2. Structural dynamic analysis.
3. Structural buckling analysis.
i. Linear buckling.
ii. Non-linear buckling.
4. Structural non-linear ties.
5. Static and dynamic kinematics analysis.
6. Thermal analysis.
7. Electromagnetic field analysis.
8. Electric field analysis.
9. Fluid flow analysis.
i. Computational fluid dynamics.
ii. Pipe flow.
10. Coupled-field analysis.
11. Piezoelectric analysis.

STRUCTURAL STATIC ANALYSIS:

The structural static analysis capabilities in the ANSYS program are used to determine the
displacements, stresses, strains and forces that occur in a structure or component as a result of
applied loads. Static analysis is appropriate for solving problems in which the time-dependent
effects of inertia and damping do not significantly affect the structures response. This analysis
type can be used for many applications, such as determining the stress intensities in fillets of
mechanical components or predicting the stress in a structure resulting from a temperature
distribution.

Most mechanical and structural engineers are familiar with this type of analysis and have
probably solved numerous static problems using classical analysis methods or equations from
engineering handbooks. The governing equations for static analysis in the ANSYS program is:
[K] {u} = {F}
where [K] is the structural stiffness matrix and {u} is the displacement vector and {F} is the
force vector.
The force vector, {F}, can include concentrated forces, thermal loads, pressures and inertia
loads.
Static analysis in the ANSYS program can also include non-linearity such as plasticity,
creep, large deflection, large strain and contact surfaces. Applying the load gradually so that an
accurate solution can be obtained usually performs a non-linear static analysis.

2.5.2(c) POST PROCESSOR:

The post-processing phase of the ANSYS program follows the preprocessing and solution
phases. With this portion of the program, the user may easily obtain and operate on the results
calculated in the solution phase through a very complete set of user-friendly post-processing
features. These results may include displacements, temperatures, strains and stresses, velocities
and heat flows. The output from the post-processing phase of the program is in display and/or
tabular report form. Because the post-processing phase is fully integrated with the ANSYS
preprocessing and solution phases, the user can examine results immediately.
It is a powerful user-friendly post-processing program. Using interactive color graphics, it
has extensive plotting features for displaying results obtained from FEM. One picture of analysis
results can often reveal in seconds what would take engineer hours to assess from numerical
printout. The engineer may also see important aspect of the results that could be easily missed in
stock of printout.
 Employing state of the art image enhancement techniques, it facilities viewing of contours
of stresses, displacements, temperatures etc.

Chapter 3
3.1 RESIDUAL STRESSES
Residual stresses are the stresses that are inside or locked into a component or assembly of parts.
The internal state of stress is caused by mechanical or thermal processing of the parts or both.
Common examples of these are bending, rolling or forging a part. Also the thermal stresses are
induced during Welding.
These residual stresses can be sufficient to cause a metal part to suddenly split into two or
more pieces after it has been resting on a floor or table without any external load being applied.
This is not a common occurrence but experienced people in the metal working industry have
witnessed this phenomenon.
Residual stresses can play a significant role in explaining or preventing failure of a component at
times.

Thermal residual stresses are primarily due to differential expansion when a metal is heated or
cooled. The two factors that control this are Thermal treatment (heating or cooling) and Thermal
restraint. Both the thermal treatment and restraint of the component must be present to generate
residual stresses.

3.2 SOURCES OF RESIDUAL STRESSES:

Due to the non-uniform temperature distribution during the thermal cycle, incompatible strains
lead to thermal stresses. These incompatible strains due to dimensional changes associated with
solidification of the weld metal, metallurgical transformations and plastic deformation are the
sources of residual stresses and distortion.
Welding induced residual stresses and distortion can play a very important role in the reliable
design of welded joints and welded structures.
3.3 EFFECTS OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON RESIDUAL
STRESSES:

Residual stresses mainly depend on the following factors:

i. Effect of heat input value.

ii. Effect of temperature dependency on material properties.

iii. Effect of radiation and phase changes.

3.4 DEVELOPMENT OF WELDING RESIDUAL STRESSES:

Residual stresses are formed by the plastic deformations during the thermal cycle of welding.
During welding, the high temperature at the weld region causes compressive stress due to
thermal expansion. This compressive stress exceeds the yield stress at the corresponding
temperature. Away from the weld, the stress is tensile equilibrating the compressive stress over
the analysis plane.

The stress reverses sign from compressive to tensile at locations that have plastified
during welding, and a band of residual stresses at the material yield level (at room temperature)
is developed at the weld region. Away from the weld the residual stress is compressive.
 Chapter 4
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

4.1 WELDING TECHNOLOGY INTRODUCTION:

Welding is a science of joining the metals by the application of heat; welding was known to
mankind 3000 years before itself, but though not in the same way as we do now; earlier days
metals were joined in blacksmith shop by heating sufficiently and hammering them together.
Welding has been an important fabrication process in modern industry outdating the other
means of joining the metals like bolting, riveting etc.
Basically welding is the process of joining upon its source of heat, welding can be classified as
electric arc welding, gas welding, forge welding, thermit welding, resistance welding etc.

4.2 ARC WELDING:

Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW) is a manual arc welding process that uses a
consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld. An electric current, in the form of either
alternating current or direct current from a welding power supply, is used to form an electric arc
between the electrode and the metals to be joined. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the
electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of
slag, both of which protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination.
Because of the versatility of the process and the simplicity of its equipment and operation,
shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's most popular welding processes. The process is
used primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel) but aluminum, nickel and copper
alloys can also be welded with this method.

Operation of Manual Metal Arc Welding:

 To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the workpiece in a short
sweeping motion and then pulled away slightly. This initiates the arc and thus the melting of the
workpiece and the consumable electrode, and causes droplets of the electrode to be passed from
the electrode to the weld pool. As the electrode melts, the flux covering disintegrates, giving off
vapors that protect the weld area from oxygen and other atmospheric gases. In addition, the flux
provides molten slag, which covers the filler metal as it travels from the electrode to the weld
pool. Once part of the weld pool, the slag floats to the surface and protects the weld from
contamination as it solidifies. Once hardened, it must be chipped away to reveal the finished
weld.

Fig 1 Manual Metal Arc Welding Process

4.3 MAKING BUTT JOINT BY ARC WELDING:

Equipment: Welding transformer or welding generator or rectifier set
Fig 2 Welding transformer or welding generator or rectifier set
Accessories:
1. Flexible welding cables
2. Electrode holder.
3. Earth clamp.
4. Cable plugs.

Safety devices and tools:

Welding screen (hand or helmet type), Apron, hand gloves, rubber shoes, tongs, chipping
hammer and wire brush.

Procedure:
1. Mark and cut the plates as per the required size to make the joint.
2. Clean the edges to be welded thoroughly removing all the dust paint, grease etc.
3. Select the electrode (diameter 4.5cm) and adjust the current (75 Amps) to make the joint.
4. Align the plates and tack the edges to temporarily hold the joint.
5. Clean the tacks by removing the slag with the wire brush.
6. Complete the weld in a single pass without breaking the arc in between, using the correct
angle of the electrode (75) with uniform arc length and constant travel speed.
7. Chip off the slag, clean the joint (weld) and keep it for visual inspection.
Safety precautions:

1. Check the welding machine to make sure that it is properly grounded and that all leads
are properly insulated.
 2. Never look at the arc with the naked eye. The arc can burn your eye severely always use
face shield while welding.
3. Prevent welding cable from coming in contact with hot metal, water, oil or grease. Avoid
dragging the cables around sharp corners.
4. Ensure proper insulation of the cables and check for openings.
5. Always near the safety hand gloves, apron and leather shoes.
6. Always turn off the machine when leaving the work.
7. Apply eye drops after welding is over for the day, to relieve the strain on the eyes.
8. While welding, stand on dry footing and keep the body insulated from the electrode and
any bare parts of the electrode holder and the work.

Table 3. The heat flux and weld parameters of butt weld of plates
S.No. Voltage, V Current, I Area, A (m²) Heat, Heat flux,
(volts) (amperes) x10-6 Q=VIη q=Q/A
(joules) (J/m²) x10-6

1. 80 131 4.5x115 9641.6 18.6

2. 80 102 4.5x115 7507.2 14.5
3. 100 125 4.5x115 11500 22.2
4. 100 156 4.5x115 14352 27.7
5. 66 125 4.5x115 7590 14.6
6. 66 75 4.5x115 4554 8.8

The value of current supplied in this experiment is 75 Amperes and the value of voltage
supplied is 66 Volts.

Calculation of Heat Flux (q):

q = Q/A
where Q = V * I * η
= 66 x 75 x 0.92
= 4554 J
A = 4.5 x 115 x 10-6 m²
Therefore, q = (4554)/(4.5 x 115 x 10-6)
= 8.8 x 10-6 J/m²

Chapter 5

5.1 MODELING OF BUTT WELD USING FEA

The process of forming a butt weld that joins two steel plates was simulated.
The overall dimensions adopted are 0.115 x 0.048 x 0.006 meters. The welding procedure is
modeled as a single pass in this analysis. The weldment was assumed to be symmetric so that
only one half of the model was analyzed. No penetration and overfill of the weldment were
considered.
The FE analysis was carried out in two steps. A non-linear transient thermal analysis was
conducted first to obtain the global temperature history generated during the welding process. A
stress analysis was then developed with the temperatures obtained from the thermal analysis used
as loading to the stress model. The general purpose FE package ANSYS was used for both
thermal and stress analysis performed sequentially. The mesh used in the stress analysis was
identical to that in the thermal analysis.

BASIC SYMMETRICAL MODEL OF A WELD PLATE

Fig 3. symmetric model showing the areas

2D MESH MODEL
 Fig 4.
2D Mesh model of the weld plate.

3D MESH MODEL
 Fig 5.
3D Mesh model

5.2 PROBLEM DEFINITION:

A Finite Element (FE) simulation of the welding process yielding the welding-induced residual
stresses in a butt-welded plate is presented.
In fusion welding, a weldment is locally heated by the welding heat source.
Due to the non-uniform temperature distribution during the thermal cycle, incompatible strains
lead to thermal stresses. These incompatible strains due to dimensional changes associated with
solidification of the weld metal (WM), metallurgical transformations, and plastic deformation,
are the sources of residual stresses and distortion. Welding-induced residual stresses and
distortion can play a very important role in the reliable design of welded joints and welded
structures.
Here, a finite element simulation of the welding process yielding the welding-induced residual
stresses in a butt-welded plate is presented.

Fig 6. Schematic diagram of welding test plate

5.3 MATERIAL USED:
Carbon steel, also called plain carbon steel, is a metal alloy, a combination of two elements, iron
and carbon, where other elements are present in quantities too small to affect the properties. The
only other alloying elements allowed in plain-carbon steel are: manganese (1.65% max), silicon
(0.60% max), and copper (0.60% max). Steel with low carbon content has the same properties as
iron, soft but easily formed. As carbon content rises the metal becomes harder and stronger but
less ductile and more difficult to weld. Higher carbon content lowers steel's melting point and its
temperature resistance in general.

LOW CARBON STEEL:

Low carbon steel approximately contains 0.05% - 0.29% carbon content (e.g. AISI 1018 steel).
Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and malleable; surface hardness
can be increased through carburizing.

It is a hypo eutectoid steel containing 0.2 percent carbon. In the austenitic range this alloy
consists of a uniform interstitial solid solution. Each grain contains 0.2 percent carbon dissolved
in spaces of the f.c.c iron lattice structure. It contains 75% proeutectoid ferrite and 25% pearlite.
The pearlite present her is a fine fingerprint mixture, which can be seen clearly at higher
magnification
5.4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Several different material have been used in structures where welding is involved, with low
carbon steel being the most common. The weldment material properties employed in this work
were mild steel, which were taken from Brown and Song (1992).

Two sets of temperature dependent material properties (Table 1) were needed in the analyses.
The modulus of elasticity is a measure of the stiffness of a material. A higher modulus material is
more likely to resist distortion. The amount of expansion or contraction of a metal will undergo
during a heating or a cooling cycle depends on the coefficient of thermal expansion. Thermal
conductivity gives a measure of the ease of heat flow through a material.

Table 4: Temperature- Dependent Material Properties for both Steel Plate and Weld.
T (Celsius) E (MPa) Ν  0 (10-6/0C) K (W/m 0K) C (J/Kg 0K)
0 314 0.2786 10 51.9 450
100 349 0.3095 11 51.1 499.2
300 440 0.331 12 46.1 565.5
450 460 0.338 13 41.05 630.5
550 410 0.3575 14 37.5 705.5
600 330 0.3738 14 35.6 773.3
720 58.8 0.3738 14 30.64 1080.4
800 58.8 0.4238 14 26 931
1450 1.29 0.4738 15 29.45 437.93
1510 1.0 0.499 15 29.7 400
1580 0.01 0.499 15 29.7 735.25
5000 0.01 0.499 15.5 42.2 400

5.5 ELEMENT DESCRIPTION

PLANE 55:
PLANE55 can be used as a plane element or as an axisymmetric ring element with a 2-D thermal
conduction capability. The element has four nodes with a single degree of freedom, temperature,
at each node.
The element is applicable to a 2-D, steady state or transient thermal analysis. If the model
containing the temperature element is also to be analyzed structurally, the element should be
replaced by an equivalent structural element (such as PLANE42).

Fig 7. Plane 55 Geometry

PLANE55 Input Data

The geometry, node locations, and the coordinate system for this element are shown in Figure
55.1: "PLANE55 Geometry". The element is defined by four nodes and the orthotropic material
properties. Heat generation rates may be input as element body loads at the nodes. . If the node I
heat generation rate HG(I) is input, and all others are unspecified, they default to HG(I). With
this option the velocities VX and VY must be input as real constants (in the element coordinate
system). Also, temperatures should be specified along the entire inlet boundary to assure a stable
solution. With mass transport, you should use specific heat (C) and density (DENS) material
properties instead of enthalpy (ENTH).

PLANE55 Input Summary

Nodes: I, J, K, L
Degrees of Freedom: TEMP
Material Properties: KXX, KYY, DENS, C
Surface Loads: Convection or Heat Flux and Radiation

PLANE55 Output Data

The solution output associated with the element is in two forms:

 Nodal temperatures included in the overall nodal solution

 Additional element output.

For an axisymmetric analysis the face area and the heat flow rate are on a full 360° basis.
Convection heat flux is positive out of the element; applied heat flux is positive into the element.
The element output directions are parallel to the element coordinate system. A general
description of solution output is given in Solution Output and of post processing data in Triangle,
Prism and Tetrahedral Elements.

PLANE55 Assumptions and Restrictions

 The element must not have a negative or a zero area.

 The element must lie in an X-Y plane as shown in Figure: "PLANE55 Geometry" and the
Y-axis must be the axis of symmetry for axisymmetric analyses. An axisymmetric
structure should be modeled in the +X quadrants.

 A triangular element may be formed by defining duplicate K and L node numbers as

described in Triangle, Prism and Tetrahedral Elements.

 The specific heat and enthalpy are evaluated at each integration point to allow for abrupt
changes (such as melting) within a coarse grid of elements.
  If the thermal element is to be replaced by a PLANE42 structural element with surface
stresses requested, the thermal element should be oriented with face IJ or face KL as a
free surface. A free surface of the element (that is, not adjacent to another element and
not subjected to a boundary constraint) is assumed to be adiabatic.
 Thermal transients having a fine integration time step and a severe thermal gradient at the
surface will also require a fine mesh at the surface.

 If KEYOPT(8) > 0, unsymmetric matrices are produced.

SOLID 70:

SOLID70 has a 3-D thermal conduction capability. The element has eight nodes with a single
degree of freedom, temperature, at each node. The element is applicable to a 3-D, steady-state or
transient thermal analysis. The element also can compensate for mass transport heat flow from a
constant velocity field. If the model containing the conducting solid element is also to be
analyzed structurally, the element should be replaced by an equivalent structural element (such
as SOLID45).

Fig 8. SOLID70 Geometry

The geometry, node locations, and the coordinate system for this element are shown in Figure
"SOLID70 Geometry". The element is defined by eight nodes and the orthotropic material
properties. A prism-shaped element, a tetrahedral-shaped element, and a pyramid-shaped
element may also be formed as shown in Figure "SOLID70 Geometry". Orthotropic material
directions correspond to the element coordinate directions.

Element loads are described in Node and Element Loads. Convection or heat flux (but not both)
and radiation may be input as surface loads at the element faces as shown by the circled numbers
on Figure "SOLID70 Geometry".

Degrees of Freedom: TEMP

Material Properties: KXX, KYY, KZZ, DENS, C

SOLID70 Output Data

The solution output associated with the element is in two forms:

 Nodal temperatures included in the overall nodal solution

 Additional element output.

Convection heat flux is positive out of the element; applied heat flux is positive into the element.

SOLID70 Assumptions and Restrictions

 The element must not have a zero volume. This occurs most frequently when the element
is not numbered properly.
 Elements may be numbered either as shown in Figure "SOLID70 Geometry" or may have
the planes IJKL and MNOP interchanged.

 A prism or tetrahedron shaped element may be formed by defining duplicate node

numbers as described in Triangle, Prism and Tetrahedral Elements.

 The specific heat and enthalpy are evaluated at each integration point to allow for abrupt
changes (such as for melting) within a coarse grid.
  If the thermal element is to be replaced by a SOLID45 structural element with surface
stresses requested, the thermal element should be oriented such that face I-J-N-M and/or
face K-L-P-O is a free surface.

 A free surface of the element (that is, not adjacent to another element and not subjected to
a boundary constraint) is assumed to be adiabatic.

 Thermal transients having a fine integration time step and a severe thermal gradient at the
surface will also require a fine mesh at the surface.

 If KEYOPT(8) > 0, unsymmetric matrices are produced

5.6 THERMAL LOADING:

The input value i.e. the thermal loading during thermal analysis is given according to the graph
shown in the figure below.

Fig 9. Ramp heat function

Time is plotted on the X-axis and the heat flux is plotted in the Y-axis. The graph begins from 0
seconds and is considered up to 200 seconds. Ramp input is given for the first 10 seconds. Step
input is given up to 12 seconds. Ramp input is again given up to 200 seconds. This is because the
value of heat input first increases gradually, when welding is started, until it reaches a certain
value. It then remains stable for a very less amount of time and then the heat decreases gradually
till the temperature of the plate reaches the value of room temperature.
The amount of heat input was found as the product of arc efficiency, voltage, and current,
which were taken equal to 0.92, 66 V and 75 A, respectively in this analysis.
The maximum value of heat flux calculated is 8.8 x 10^6 J/m2.
In the thermal analysis, the heat input was in three load steps corresponding to t1- t3 as
shown in the figure. The nodal temperature solutions obtained from the thermal analysis were
read as loading into the stress analysis. In order to capture used, the greater the computational
time and the larger the store space required. The residual stresses induced due to the heating and
cooling cycle, the temperature history had to be read at a sufficiently large number of time
points. However, the greater the number of thermal solution steps.

5.7 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:

For thermal analysis:
In a symmetrical model, convection is given on the areas as shown in figure.
The area of one plate, which is in contact with the other plate in a butt joint, is assumed to be
insulated i.e., the heat flow across this area is zero.
The insulation is applied by selecting the corresponding nodes.
The value of the convective film coefficient is 0.008 W/m2-ºC
 Fig
10. THERMAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS APPLIED TO THE PLATE
For static analysis:
After switching from thermal analysis to static analysis, the boundary conditions assumed
should be applied. In this model it is assumed that the area, as shown in figure, is constrained in
all directions. That is, all degree of freedom is zero.
 Fig
11. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS APPLIED TO THE PLATE IN STATIC
ANALYSIS
Heat Transfer Analysis

The first part of the finite element simulation of arc welding is heat transfer analysis. In the finite
element formulation, this equation can be written for each element as follows
[C (T)] {Ť}+ [K (T)]{T} = {Q (T)} (1)

This analysis requires an integration of the heat conduction equation with respect to time. The
Crank – Nicholson/Euler theta integration method is applied to solve these system equations.
This element type has a three-dimensional thermal conduction capability. The heat input from
the welding electrode was modeled by using heat flux as the input for the heat transfer from the
rod to the work piece. This heat flux is based on the welder setting and the efficiency of the arc.
Q = η VI

Mechanical Analysis

To evaluate the distortion and residual stress distribution the heat transfer analysis was
performed first in order to find nodal temperatures as a function of time. Then in the second part
of the analyses, a non-linear structural analysis was carried using the temperature distributions,
which were obtained from the heat transfer analysis.