A function is a mapping from a set of inputs (the domain) to a set of possible outputs (the codomain).

The definition of a function is
based on a set of ordered pairs, where the first element in each pair is from the domain and the second is from the
codomain. But, a metaphor that makes the idea of a function easier to understand is the  function machine, where an
input xx from the domain XX is fed into the machine and the machine spits out the element  y=f(x)y=f(x) from the
codomain YY. Below, the domain is visualized as a set of spheres and the codomain as a set of cubes, so that the
function machine transforms spheres into cubes
 Continuity
Over the last few sections we’ve been using the term “nice enough” to define those functions that we could evaluate limits by just evaluating the function at the point in
question.  It’s now time to formally define what we mean by “nice enough”.
 
Definition

A function   is said to be continuous at   if

                                                           
A function is said to be continuous on the interval [a, b] if it is continuous at each point in the interval.
 
This definition can be turned around into the following fact.
 
Fact 1

If   is continuous at   then,

          

 
This is exactly the same fact that we first put down back when we started looking at limits with the exception that we have replaced the phrase “nice enough” with continuous. 
 
It’s nice to finally know what we mean by “nice enough”, however, the definition doesn’t really tell us just what it means for a function to be continuous.  Let’s take a look at an
example to help us understand just what it means for a function to be continuous.
 

Example 1  Given the graph of f(x), shown below, determine if f(x) is continuous at  ,  , and 
.

Solution
To answer the question for each point we’ll need to get both the limit at that point and the function value at that point.  If they are equal the function is continuous at that point
and if they aren’t equal the function isn’t continuous at that point.
 
First  .

                                    

The function value and the limit aren’t the same and so the function is not continuous at this point.  This kind of discontinuity in a graph is called a jump discontinuity. 
Jump discontinuities occur where the graph has a break in it as this graph does.
 
Now  .
                                            

The function is continuous at this point since the function and limit have the same value.
 
Finally  .

                                            

The function is not continuous at this point.  This kind of discontinuity is called a removable discontinuity.  Removable discontinuities are those where there is a hole in the
graph as there is in this case.
 
From this example we can get a quick “working” definition of continuity.  A function is continuous on an interval if we can draw the graph from start to finish without ever once
picking up our pencil.  The graph in the last example has only two discontinuities since there are only two places where we would have to pick up our pencil in sketching it. 
In other words, a function is continuous if its graph has no holes or breaks in it.
 
For many functions it’s easy to determine where it won’t be continuous.  Functions won’t be continuous where we have things like division by zero or logarithms of zero.  Let’s
take a quick look at an example of determining where a function is not continuous.
 
Example 2  Determine where the function below is not continuous.

                                                          
Solution
Rational functions are continuous everywhere except where we have division by zero.  So all that we need to is determine where the denominator is zero.  That’s easy enough
to determine by setting the denominator equal to zero and solving.

                                                 

 
So, the function will not be continuous at t=-3 and t=5.
 
A nice consequence of continuity is the following fact.
 
Fact 2

If   is continuous at   and   then,

                                                  

 
To see a proof of this fact see the Proof of Various Limit Properties section in the Extras chapter.  With this fact we can now do limits like the following example.
 
Example 3   Evaluate the following limit.

                                                                  
Solution
Since we know that exponentials are continuous everywhere we can use the fact above.

                                                    
 
Another very nice consequence of continuity is the Intermediate Value Theorem.
 
Intermediate Value Theorem
Suppose that f(x) is continuous on [a, b] and let M be any number between f(a) and f(b).   Then there exists a number c such that,

 
All the Intermediate Value Theorem is really saying is that a continuous function will take on all values between f(a) and f(b).  Below is a graph of a continuous function that
illustrates the Intermediate Value Theorem.
As we can see from this image if we pick any value, M, that is between the value of f(a) and the value of f(b) and draw a line straight out from this point the line will hit the graph
in at least one point.  In other words somewhere between a and b the function will take on the value of M.  Also, as the figure shows the function may take on the value at more
than one place.
 
It’s also important to note that the Intermediate Value Theorem only says that the function will take on the value of M somewhere between a and b.  It doesn’t say just what that
value will be.  It only says that it exists. 
 
So, the Intermediate Value Theorem tells us that a function will take the value of M somewhere between a and b but it doesn’t tell us where it will take the value nor does it tell
us how many times it will take the value.  There are important idea to remember about the Intermediate Value Theorem.
 
A nice use of the Intermediate Value Theorem is to prove the existence of roots of equations as the following example shows.
 

Example 4  Show that   has a root

somewhere in the interval
[-1,2].
 
Solution
What we’re really asking here is whether or not the function will take on the value

                                                                 

somewhere between -1 and 2.  In other words, we want to show that there is a number c such that   and 

.  However if we define   and acknowledge that   and   we

can see that these two condition on c are exactly the conclusions of the Intermediate Value Theorem.
 
So, this problem is set up to use the Intermediate Value Theorem and in fact, all we need to do is to show that the function is continuous and that 

 is between   and   (i.e. 

 or   and we’ll be done.

 
To do this all we need to do is compute,

                                       

 
So we have,

                                                  
 

Therefore   is between   and   and since   is a polynomial

it’s continuous everywhere and so in particular it’s continuous on the interval [-1,2].  So by the Intermediate Value Theorem there must be a number 

 so that,

                                                                 
 
Therefore the polynomial does have a root between -1 and 2. 
 
For the sake of completeness here is a graph showing the root that we just proved existed.  Note that we used a computer program to actually find the root and that the
Intermediate Value Theorem did not tell us what this value was.

 
Let’s take a look at another example of the Intermediate Value Theorem.
 

Example 5  If possible, determine if 

 takes the following values in the interval [0,5].

(a) Does  ?   [Solution]

(b) Does  ?   [Solution]
 
Solution
Okay, so much as the previous example we’re being asked to determine, if possible, if the function takes on either of the two values above in the interval [0,5].  First, let’s
notice that this is a continuous function and so we know that we can use the Intermediate Value Theorem to do this problem.
 

Now, for each part we will let M be the given value for that part and then we’ll need to show that M lives between   and  . 
If it does then we can use the Intermediate Value Theorem to prove that the function will take the given value.
 
So, since we’ll need the two function evaluations for each part let’s give them here,
 

                                    

Now, let’s take a look at each part.

 

(a) Okay, in this case we’ll define   and we can see that,

                                          

 
So, by the Intermediate Value Theorem there must be a number   such that

                                                                
[Return to Problems]
 

(b) In this part we’ll define  .  We now have a problem.  In this part M does not live between   

and  .  So, what does this mean for us?  Does this mean that   in [0,5]?
 

Unfortunately for us, this doesn’t mean anything.  It is possible that   in [0,5], but is it also possible
that   in [0,5].  The Intermediate Value Theorem will only tell us that c’s will exist.  The theorem will NOT tell us
that c’s don’t exist.
 

In this case it is not possible to determine if   in [0,5] using the Intermediate Value Theorem.
[Return to Problems]
 
Okay, as the previous example has shown, the Intermediate Value Theorem will not always be able to tell us what we want to know.  Sometimes we can use it to verify that a
function will take some value in a given interval and in other cases we won’t be able to use it. 
 

For completeness sake here is the graph of 

 in the interval [0,5].

From this graph we can see that not only does   in [0,5] it does so a total of 4 times!  Also note that as we verified in

the first part of the previous example   in [0,5] and in fact it does so a total of 3 times.
 
So, remember that the Intermediate Value Theorem will only verify that a function will take on a given value.  It will never exclude a value from being taken by the function. 
Also, if we can use the Intermediate Value Theorem to verify that a function will take on a value it never tells us how many times the function will take on the value, it only tells
us that it does take the value.