AGRIC

OYO STATE LECTURE NOTE (AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE)
CLASS: SSS ONE.

FIRST TERM
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Meaning and importance of agriculture, branches of agriculture and their
contribution to individual, community and nation
2. Problems of agricultural development and thier possible solutions
3. Meaning and differences between subsistence and commercial agriculture
4. Roles of government in agricultural development
5. Roles of non-governmental organization in agricultural development
6. Agricultural laws and reforms
7. Agricultural laws and reforms continued
8. Meaning and importance of Agricultural ecology
9. Meaning of land, characteristics of land, uses of land etc.
10. Factors affecting land availability for agricultural purpose
WEEK 1: MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE

The term agriculture is derived from two Latin words ‘’ager’’ meaning field and
‘’cultural’’ meaning cultivation. By this statement agriculture means ‘’field cultivation’’.
Agriculture is defined as the deliberate effort made by man to till the soil, cultivate crops
and rearing of animals for food and other purposes.
IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE
Agriculture occupies a most important position in development of West African
countries. It’s the main stay and back bone of Nigeria’s economy and other developing
countries. The importance include:
1. Provision of food: agriculture provides man’s food requirements for growth, good
health and increased productivity. Large quantities of food items are obtained from
agriculture e.g. rice, maize, sorghum, cassava, yam, fish, milk etc.
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2. Provision of employments: agriculture provides employments for about 75% of

the working population in Nigeria who either worked directly in the farm or
indirectly in primary and secondary industries which utilize agricultural raw
materials as inputs.
3. Provision of industrial raw-materials: the raw materials needs of many local
agricultural industries, raw materials used by industry are palm oil, cocoa, rubber,
tobacco, groundnut, cotton, hide and skin etc.
4. Development of towns: Development occurs when commercial agriculture exist as
social amenities like electricity and pipe-borne water will be provided. Food and
motor able roads are also provided.
5. Sources of foreign exchange: Through the export of agricultural produce like
cocoa, cotton, groundnut etc. a nation can earn foreign exchange. Foreign
exchange so earned can be used in turn to purchase goods necessary for the
improvement of agriculture.
6. Source of income: agriculture is a source of income to farmers. The sale of
agricultural product like groundnuts, cottons, cocoa, yam, cassava, animal and
livestock products provide farmers with income for investment in agricultural
production.
7. Provision of market for industrial goods: Agriculture provides market for
industrial products such as farm machinery, chemicals, fertilizers etc.
8. Provision of materials for clothing: Agriculture provides fibres and cotton for
textile production. It also provide hides and skin for clothing, shoes, belt, caps and
bags.
9. Provision of material for shelter: agriculture provides materials essential for
buildings, such as poles, doors, windows, roofs, furniture etc.
BRANCHES OR AREA OF SPECIALIZATION IN AGRICULTURE AND

THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
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The branches or area of specialization in agriculture and their contributions are

summarized as follow:
1. Animal science/ animal production: its contributions are:
- It ensures efficient and effective management of farm animals
- It ensures better productivity of more milk
- It helps to ensure meat and egg production
- It also promotes the development of new breed
- It helps to ensure better feeds for growth and productivity
2. Veterinary medicine: its contributions are:
- It provides better health management
- It ensures the control of pest and parasites
- It helps to control diseases
- It ensures the production of vaccines for animal health care
- It ensure a better meat inspection before and after slaughtering
3. Soil science: its contributions are:
- Soil science ensures the maintain of soil fertility
- It aids better soil classification
- Soil science helps in erosion control method
- It aids moisture conservation
- It aids tillage operations of the soil
- It helps in appropriate fertilizer for different soil type
4. Crop production / Agronomy: its contributions are:
- Crop production ensures effective crop management practices
- It ensures better productivities of crops
- It promotes optimum harvesting times
- It ensures the optimum plant population
- Pathology ensures the control and management of plant diseases
- Entomology ensures the control and management of pest
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5. Agricultural economics and Farm management: its contributions are:

- It promotes agricultural marketing
- It exposes farmers to sources of farm finance
- It teaches co-operative farming
- It ensures the management of agricultural resources
- It promotes good farm accounting
- It provides for adequate farm planning and budgeting
6. Agricultural engineering: its contributions are:
- It ensures the development of processing and storage equipment
- It promotes the mechanization of farm operation
- It ensures the maintenance of farm tools and implements
- It enhances the operation of irrigation and drainage
- It also ensures the development of appropriate farm tools and implement
7. Agricultural extension and education: its contributions are:
- It promotes the training of farmers
- It ensures the dissemination of agricultural information to farmers
- It ensures the provision of support services to farmers
- It links farmers to researchers
8. Forestry and wildlife conservation: its contributions are:
- It promotes the conservation of forest product
- It ensures the utilization of forest product
- It ensures creation of micro climate
- It ensures the conservation of wildlife
- It is the source of medicinal products
- It ensures the maintenance of soil fertility
9. Fishery: its contributions are:
- It ensures better ways of fish management
- It promote better fishing practise
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- It promotes better fishing processing

- It ensures provision of fish meals
WEEK 2: PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN WEST

AFRICA AND THEIR POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
Many developing countries in West Africa are faced with numerous problems which
militate against the development of agriculture.
1) Inadequate land: land is inadequate for farming, also land also land tenure system
does not make land available for agriculture
Solutions
1. Farmers should use fertilizers
2. Crop rotation should be practised
3. Farmers should form co-operative societies for easy allocation of farm lands.
2) Poor storage facilities: lots of produce are wasted due to inadequate storage
facilities. It is expensive to purchase.
Solutions
1. Government should provide these facilities at subsidized rate
2. Government should buy excess produce and store for future use
3. More people should be trained on the technology of food storage.
3) Inadequate finance: most subsistence farmers are poor and do not have the finance
to make the purchase of necessary inputs. Also they do not have access to credit facilities
and high interest prevents borrowing from banks.
Solutions
1. Bank should reduce interest rate to encourage borrowing
2. Establishment of farmers bank
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3. Collateral security should be in form of guarantee rather than in material forms

like land and building.
4) Inadequate farm inputs: farm inputs are scarce and expensive and they are not
supplied at the right time. The available farm inputs are of inferior quality, outdated and
crude.
Solutions
1. There should be timely supply of inputs
2. Supply of farm input should be adequate and sufficient
3. Government should subsidized the cost of farm inputs.
5) Poor transportation facilities: most farmers in rural areas are not linked by road
and also motor vehicle are not enough and this eventually leads to wastage of food.
Solutions
1. Provision of good road by government
2. Cost of transportation should be reduced
3. Rehabilitation of existing damaged roads
6) Inadequate basic amenities: lack of basic amenities like electricity, pipe-borne

water and proper health care makes able-bodied men and youths migrate from rural to
urban areas in search of jobs.
Solutions
1. Government should make these social amenities available in rural areas
2. Establishment of dams to facilitate irrigation agriculture in rural areas
7) Illiteracy: majority of farmers cannot read and write, they do not know how to
practise modern agriculture.
Solutions
1. Mass literacy program should be embarked upon by the government
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2. Rural farmers should be trained on modern systems of farming
8) Poor marketing system: farmers dispose off their produce at cheap, also middle
men buy goods from farmers and sell at high price to consumers.
Solutions
1. Government should buy excess produce from farmers
2. Government should stabilise prices of farm produce in the country
9) Rural –Urban Migration: this is the movement of able bodied men from rural areas
to urban centre in search of jobs.
Solutions
1. Provision of employment in rural areas.
2. Training of people on modern farming practices
3. Provision of social amenities in rural area
10) Unpredictable climate: this discourages agricultural activities. It may leads to

low yield or crop failure.
Solutions
1. Irrigation should be practiced
2. Teaching peasant farmers new innovations in agriculture
3. Water conservation techniques, such as mulching should be practised
WEEK 3: MEANING OF SUBSISTENCE AND COMMERCIAL

AGRICULTURE
Subsistence Agriculture: this is defined as the type of agriculture which is concerned
with the production of food by a farmer to feed himself and his family.
Commercial Agriculture: this is concerned with the production of food, animals and
cash crop in large quantities for sale.
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SUBSISTENCE AND COMMERCIAL

AGRICULTURE
S/N Subsistence Agriculture Commercial Agriculture
1. A small area of land is cultivated A large area of land is cultivated.
2. Produce is mainly for family Produce is mainly for sale
consumption.
3. Crude tools and implements are used Complex and modern tools implements
are used
4. Yields or returns are low Yields or returns are high
5. Family/ unskilled labour is usually Paid/ skilled labour is usually
employed employed
6. It requires little capital investment It requires large capital investment
7. It does not require any special It require special marketing strategies
marketing strategies
8. Pest and disease are not controlled Pest and diseases are controlled
9. No need for storage and processing Storage and processing facilities are
facilities required
10. Mostly practised by peasant farmers Mostly practised by any rich farmers or
companies.
ADVANTAGES OF SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE

1. It is easy to operate since it requires little or no capital
2. Simple tools are used
3. Small area of land can be used
4. Family labour is used.
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DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE

1. Family labour supply is unreliable
2. Crude tools are used
3. Illiteracy of the farmers
4. Inadequate capital for investment
5. No surplus for sale
ADVANTAGES OF COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE
1. It increase yield
2. Specialization of labour
3. Encouragement of research works
4. Provision of cheap products
5. Provision of quality products
DISADVANTAGES OF COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE

1. Problem of acquisition of large farm land
2. It is very expensive
3. Problem of storage
4. Harvesting and marketing is tedious
5. It can lead to soil erosion and pollution
WEEK 4: ROLES OF GOVERNMENT IN AGRICULTURAL

DEVELOPMENT
Most west African farmers are faced with the problem of primitive tools, land tenure,
lack of education, poor pest and disease control etc. those problems together add up to
impede agricultural development since these farmers produce food for consumption as
well as export, they are therefore very important in the economy.
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There is therefore the need of Government to assist the farmers to reduce some of these
problems in order to increase agricultural production for domestic consumption or for
export.
Provision of financial assistance: the government makes agricultural loans available to
farmers through banks with reasonable and flexible terms of payment.
1. Establishment of agricultural programmes: the government decided to establish
agricultural programmes with the aim of boosting greater production of crops and
livestock e.g Green revolution, Operation Feed the Nation.
2. Provision of improved seeds and breeds of animals: government gives grants to
institution and scientist to enable them to investigate the problem of farmers and
also produce high quality varieties of crops and breeds of livestock for use by
farmers. e.g CRIN, FRIN.
3. Provision of extension workers: the government also train many extension officers
so that the scientific method of farming acquired is from research would
eventually reach the farmer. The extension workers regularly visit farmers to teach
them new technology and assist them to obtain input at low prices.
4. Intensifies agricultural education: government also assist in creating awareness of
the importance of education by introduction of agricultural study at all level in
schools and colleges e.g Nomadic education (for cattle Fulani) in order to enable
them to read and write.
5. Provision of basic amenities: in order to discourage the migration of able bodied
men and youth from rural areas. Government decide to provide basic amenities
such as: electricity, health care services, and pipe borne water in rural areas.
6. Provision of storage and processing facilities: in order to prevent food wastage and
provide food in period of scarcity government decided to provide storage and
processing facilities in all part of the country.
7. Provision of pest and disease control services: government make provision for
drug, chemical and vaccine which are used for pest and disease control.
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Quarantine department in airport, borders, sea port are also set up to ensure that no
plant or animal imported carries disease with it to the country.
8. Provision of research work: in order to improve the local varieties or breeds of
crops and animals respectively, government also setup numerous research
institutes to provide solution to the problem of local crops and animals with a view
to increase production. e.g NIFOR, NCRI, CRIN, FRIN, NHORT, NVRI etc.
9. Provision of effective transportation network: government has helped in the
construction of feeder roads in rural areas to ease the transportation of produce
from the farm to urban centres.
EXAMPLES OF GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN

IMPROVING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN WEST AFRICA
1. Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs)
2. River Basin Development Authorities (RBDA)
3. National Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALDA)
4. Agricultural Development Bank (ADB)
5. National Agricultural Insurance Company (NAIC)
6. Any of the national agricultural research institutes
WEEK5: ROLES OF NON-GOVENMENTAL ORGANIZATION (NGOs) IN

AGRICULTURE
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are established private agencies or corporate
bodies concerned with the development of agriculture all over the world. Examples of
such organization are:
1. International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
2. West African Rice Development Agency (WARDA)
3. International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA)
4. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)
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5. Farmers’ Cooperative
WAYS IN WHICH (NGOs) CONTRIBUTES TO AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTION IN WEST AFRICA
1. They assist in rural development by providing social amenities like road, water
supply, etc.
2. They carry out research to improve new crop varieties
3. They carry out research to develop breeds of animal
4. Provision of financial support for agricultural extension
5. Improvement of farmers’ awareness and agricultural knowledge though extension
services
WEEK 6: AGRICULTURAL LAWS AND REFORMS

Land Tenure System in West Africa
Definition: land tenure is defined as the system of land ownership or acquisition by
individual, family, community or government agency either for temporary or permanent
use. The land tenure system in West Africa varies with tribe, community and state. It can
be classified into the following groups:
1. Communal Land Tenure
2. Land Tenure by Inheritance
3. Land Tenure by Rent
4. Land Tenure by purchase or freehold
5. Leasehold system
6. Land tenure by free gift or pledge
7. Tenant at the will of government
1. Communal Land Tenure: in this type, the land belongs to the entire community.
The community may be a family, clan or village. Every member of the community
has the right to use the land for agriculture but cannot sell any part of it. The head
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of the community may be a chief, an Oba, Emir or a Baale, who decides how the
land is to be divided among the members for farming purpose, usually at the
beginning of each planting season.
Advantages of Communal Land Tenure
1. Each member of the community has access to the land
2. Cooperative farming is possible since the land is extensive
3. Large scale farming is possible due to its large size, if only community members
cooperate.
4. The land is cheap to acquire as no cost is involved.
Disadvantages of Communal Land Tenure
1. Non-members of the community cannot have access to the land for farming
2. Increase in population definitely tends to reduce the size of the farm land
3. It cannot be used as security to obtain loans from banks
4. Permanent crops like cocoa, rubber cannot be established because of possible re-
allocation of the land in another season.
5. It discourages permanent land development such as building of structure
2. Land Tenure by Inheritance: this is the type of land tenure in which land is
inherited from one’s parent or from one generation to another. The land so
inherited from a single parent is shared among all his children and this eventually
leads to fragmentation of the land.
Advantages of Land Tenure by Inheritance
1. The land can be used as collateral security to obtain loans from commercial banks
2. The land can be improved by way of fertilizer application in order to maintain its
fertility
3. Perennial crops like coca, orange etc. can be planted since the land belongs to the
rightful owner
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Disadvantages of Land Tenure by Inheritance

1. It leads to excessive land fragmentation which makes the land very difficult and
un economical to work
2. Sharing of land is a delicate issue which can generate bitter enmity among family
members
3. Some feel it is immoral to sell land, since its robs future generation of the
opportunity to inherit
4. Land is not readily available for every body
5. Large scale or commercial agriculture cannot be practised because the land is
highly fragmented.
3. Land Tenure by Rent: in this system, the farmer rent the land for use over a short
period of time during which certain amount of money is paid as rent for the use of
it. At the end of the period, the agreement may be reviewed, if the landlord so
desires.
Advantages of Land Tenure by Rent
1. It makes use if available land for agricultural purpose
2. The land is efficiently used and maintained for maximum production within the
short period.
Disadvantages of Land Tenure by Rent
1. The land cannot be used for securing loan
2. It affects long term planning
3. There is limitation in the development of such land
4. Land Tenure by Purchase or Free Hold: in this type of land tenure, if a farmer buy
a piece of land for agricultural purposes,he pays certain amount of money to the
landlord and the land becomes his personal property. It gives the owner complete
freedom on the land. He may sell the land, leave it fallow, farm the land or rent it
out.
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Advantages of Land Tenure by Purchase or Free hold

1. The farmer can use the land to secure loan from the bank.
2. Perennial crops can be grown
3. Proper planning in the development of such land can be done
Disadvantages of Land Tenure by Purchase or Free hold
1. The land may be too expensive to purchase
2. The actual ownership may be difficult to establish
3. The farmer may not have sufficient money to buy the exact size of the land.
5.Leasehold System: this type of land tenure requires the payment of certain amount of
money for the use of the land over a stated period of time. Leasehold tenure system is a
special contract existing between a person called the leasor (seller) and another called the
leasee (buyer) for the lease of a land for a specified period of years which may be 10, 20
or 50 years. The leasee will exercise his right on the use and maintenance of the land for
the period of lease.
Advantages of Leasehold System

1. It ensures the use of available land
2. It enables the farmer to maximize the use of land in terms of maintenance of the
soil fertility in order to improve the productivity of crops.
Disadvantages of Leasehold System
1. The land cannot be used as security to obtain loan from banks
2. The farmer cannot develop the land beyond the lease agreement terms
3. Perennial crops cannot be grown
6. Land Tenure By Free Gift Or Pledge: This is the type of land tenure system in which
land is donated or giving out of goodwill or free of charge in appreciation or as an
incentive. The new owner does not need to pay any money.
Advantages of Land tenure by free gift or pledge
1. It ensures the maximum use of the land for increased production
2. Plantation agriculture can be practised
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3. It can be used as security to obtain loan

Disadvantages of Land tenure by free gift or pledge
1. The ownership of the land can be challenged at any time
2. There may be disagreement over such gift among family members
7. Tenant at the will of Government: This is a system of land tenure in which a piece of
land is allocated to a farmer by the government. The land belongs to the government and
the farmer has to pay certain amount of money to the government for using such land,
usually for a stipulated period.
Advantages of Tenant at the will of government
1. Farmers can easily have access to land
2. The land is wisely used for productive purposes
3. The land is cheap to acquire
4. The land can easily be improved by way of fertilizer application
Disadvantages of Tenant at the will of government
1. Perennial crops cannot be cultivated
2. Farmers cannot use the land to secure loan from banks
3. Such land can easily be revoked, if the tenant fails to pay the rent at the right
time.
WEEK 7: AGRICULTURAL LAWS AND REFORMS CONTINUED

Government Laws on Land Use in West Africa
As a result of the problems and inadequacies of the land tenure systems, the federal
government of Nigeria in 1978, during the regime of General Olusegun Obasanjo
promulgated decree on land use in Nigeria. This decree was known as land use decree of
1978 or land use act of 1978.
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Aims of the Land Use Decree

1. It encourages proper, productive and efficient use of the land
2. It allocates the land and creates opportunities for enterprising farmers to acquire
more land for large scale farming
3. It facilitates planning of programmes for a particular land use
4. It streamlines and simplifies the management and ownership of the land in the
country.
Features of Land Use Act (Decree)
1. The land use act was promulgated by the federal military government of Nigeria
on March 29th 1978
2. The decree states that all land in country is vested in the federal government to be
held in trust for the people i.e. acquisition of land and its uses for whatever
purpose are to be controlled by the federal government
3. The decree empower each states to act on behalf of the federal government in all
matters related to land use in the state
4. It also states that before anyone could be legally recognised as owning a piece of
land, he must have applied to the government paid for the land and thereafter be
issued with a certificate of occupancy (C of O) on the land acquired
5. All Nigerians are qualified to acquire land for use once they have attained the age
of 21 years
6. The decree stipulate that individual can only use a piece of land for 99 years after
which the land reverts to the government
7. It also provides that farmers should not be allocated more than five hundred (500)
hectares of land for crop production or 5000 hectares for grazing purposes
Advantages of Land Use Decree

1. It enables land to be used properly and efficiently
2. People can acquire land anywhere in Nigeria
3. It makes provision for acquisition of large hectares of land for large scale farming
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4. Certificate of occupancy which enables individuals to claim ownership of land

enable them to secure loan from the bank.
Disadvantages of Land Use Decree

1. It enables very few and wealthy individual to acquire more lands
2. The procedure involved in the acquisition of land is too strict for an average
Nigerian
3. It delays the execution of project as it takes a very long time to acquire
certificate of occupancy
4. It makes land held by inheritance insecure
WEEK 8: AGRICULTURAL ECOLOGY

Meaning of agricultural ecology and ecosystem
Agricultural Ecology can simply be defined as the study of crop plants and farm animals
in relation to their environment. In other words, it can be defined as a field of study
which deals with the relationship of living organisms with one another and with the
environment in which they live.
Agricultural ecology is divided into two main branches – (i). Autecology (ii).Synecology
i) Autecology: is concerned with the study of an individual organism, or a single specie
of organism and its environment, for example; the study of a single cattle and its
environment.
ii) Synecology: this is concerned with the study of the inter-relationship with groups of
organisms or species of organisms living together in an area, for example, the study of
different fishes in a fish pond in relation to their aquatic environment.
ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem refers to a community of crop plant and farm animals functioning together
with their non-living environment. In other words, ecosystem consist of living factors
(plants and animals) interacting with the non-living factors in a farm environment. It
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should be noted that a farm ecosystem is a natural unit in which there is an interaction
between all living organism and non-living organisms (biotic and abiotic factors) within a
farm environment or habitat.
COMPONENT OF FARM ECOSYSTEM
The farm ecosystem is made up of two main components. These are the biotic(living)
components and abiotic (non-living) components.
1. Biotic components: the biotic components include the living things (crop plants and
farm animals). It can be grouped into two classes. These are
a) Autotrophism. b) Heterotrophism
a) Autotrophism: This is a group of organisms which can use sunlight or chemicals to
manufacture their food from inorganic substance during the process of photosynthesis.
The organism are mainly crop plants and they are called producers.
b) Heterotrophism: It is a group of organisms mainly farm animals, which cannot
manufacture their own food but depend directly or indirectly on plant for their food,
hence they are called consumers.
2. Abiotic components: the abiotic components of an ecosystem include the non-living
things, e.g, climatic factors like temperature, wind, humidity, sunlight and
rainfall.Edaphic factors like soils, rocks, topography etc.
GENERAL INTERACTION AMONG THE COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

There is a unique interaction among the various components of an ecosystem. Green crop
plants use carbon-dioxide, water and chlorophyll in the presence of sunlight to produce
carbohydrate or starch. Farm animals feed on this carbohydrate or plants and release
carbon-dioxide for crop plant to take in.
Micro-organisms and other decomposers break down dead plants and animal dungs to
release nutrients to the soil. These nutrients are absorbed by plants for use in food
production. Crop plant gives out oxygen during photosynthesis which is used by animals
for their normal respiration.
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WEEK 9: LAND AND ITS USES

DEFINITION: Land may be defined as the uppermost layer of the earth’s crust on which
agricultural and non- agricultural activities are carried out. Or it may refers to where
productive activities such as growing of crops, rearing of animals and establishment of
farmstead etc. are carried out.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LAND
1. Land is a factor of agricultural production
2. Land is immobile and fixed factor
3. It is a free gift of nature
4. Reward for land is rent
5. It can be used as collateral for loan
6. Its value is determined by its location
7. Its suitability influences output
8. Land can appreciate or depreciate in value.
9. It is abundant in some areas and scarce in other areas.
10. Availability is subject to Land Use Act/Law
USES OF LAND
There are two major classification of land based on uses. These are
a). Agricultural land: agricultural land includes :
I. Land for crop production
II. Livestock production
III. Fisheries
IV. Forestry
V. Wildlife conservation
b). Non-Agricultural Land: the following are non-agricultural use of land
I. Industrial or factory use
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II. Construction of building ( residential purpose)

III. Mining
IV. Sport centres e.g, stadia, race courseand golf course.
V. Recreational purpose e.g, parks
VI. Market
VII. Worship places e.g church, mosque, shrine
VIII. Transportation e.g, railway, airports, roads etc.
IX. Cemeteries
X. Commercial purposes, e.g banks, warehouse etc.
HOW AGRICULTURAL LAND APPRECIATES IN VALUE

Farmland may appreciate in value through the following ways:
I. Fertilization, manuring and liming
II. Through reclamation and drainage
III. Through fallowing
IV. Proper cultivation methods, e.g, crop rotation
V. Proper erosion control
VI. Through rotational grazing
WEEK 10: FACTORS AFFECTING LAND AVAILABILITY FOR

AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES
Many factors affect land availability and uses in Nigeria. These factors directly or
indirectly determine whether land will be available for agricultural and non- agricultural
purposes. These factors include:
1. Ecological Factors: the nature of the land determine whether such land will be
available for agricultural purposes or not. A dry and not swampy land will be
suitable for livestock farming while a wet and swamp lands will be good for
swamp rice production.
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2. Population Density: the higher the population, the lower the availability of land
for agriculture and vice-versa.
3. Climatic Conditions: wet and raining conditions favours tree crops production
while dry climate with little rains favour livestock production like goat, sheep
and cattle.
4. Topography: flat or gentle slope of the land encourages farming while steep
slope of the land discourages farming because of the effect of gully erosion.
5. Socio-cultural Factors: some cultural factors may forbid the rearing of certain
animals’ e.g, the Islam religion forbid the rearing of pigs in the environment.
6. Economic Factors: availability of good capital or finance promote agricultural
activities while inadequate finance discourages intensive farming.
7. Land Tenure System: the type of land tenure system in area with determine
whether such land will be available or not for agricultural purposes.
8. Soil Type: fertile soils are generally known to support agricultural activities
whereas, poor and infertile soils do not support crop farming.
9. Degree of land Degradation: the level of land degradation will determine
whether such land will be available for agricultural purposes. Land that are
prone to erosion will not be suitable for farming.
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SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

CLASS: SS ONE TERM: SECOND
COURSE OUTLINE
1) Agro-allied Industries
2) Relationship between Agriculture and industry
3) Environmental factors affecting Agricultural Production
4) Rock types
5) Soil formation and profile development
6) Composition of soil
7) Types and properties of soil
8) Simple farm tools
9) Farm Machinery and Implements
10) Farm Machinery and Implements (contd)
WEEK 1: AGRO-ALLIED INDUSTRIES
Agro allied industries are industries which depend on agriculture for their raw
materials in order to operate successfully. These Industries help to provide market for
agricultural products, provide employment opportunities etc.
Agro Based Industries Raw Materials Used

i. Oil mill Oil seeds
ii. Soap Industries Oil seeds local
iii. Cigarette Tobacco leaf
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iv. Textile Cotton

v. Breweries Cereals
vi. Fruit Canning Fruit
vii. Flour mill Cereals
viii. Tyre Rubber, latex
ix. Beverage Cocoa, tea, coffee
WEEK 2: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRIES

1. Provision of market
Agriculture provides market for industrial products e.g chemicals, fertilizer etc.
2. Provision of agricultural tools and machinery
Industries produce machinery and equipment for agricultural uses e.g tractor, hoes
3. Provision of food
Agriculture provides food for industrial workers
4. Provision of storage facilities
Industries provide storage facilities for agricultural produce e.g fruit, milk, fish etc
5. Development of industrial sector
Rise in agricultural income due to effective and economic factor combination
leads to development of industrial sector of the economy
6. Provision of raw material
Agriculture provide raw materials such as timber,cocoa for industries
7. Shifting of factors of production
8. Provision of processing facilities
9. Provision of agro-chemicals
10. Competition for labour
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WEEK 3: ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTION
All agricultural activities like crop and livestock distribution are affected by
various environmental factors which influence the productivity of crops and animals. The
environmental factors can be grouped into two: abiotic and biotic factors.
Abiotic factors : They are grouped into three: climatic, edaphic and physiographic
factors.
1. Climatic factors : These are factors or elements of climate such as rainfall,

temperature etc. Climate is the average weather condition of a place measured over a long
period of time e.g 50years.
Importance of climate on agriculture
i. It affects the duration of a cropping season
ii. It affects vegetation distribution and soil formation
Climatic factors affecting agricultural production

i) Rainfall: This is the release of excess condensed water vapour in the atmosphere
into the earth or the amount and distribution of water precipitated within a given period of
time.
Ways in which high rainfall affects agricultural production
a. It encourages rapid growth of weed
b. High rainfall prolongs the cropping season
ii) Temperature: This is the measure of degree of hotness or coldness of a place.
Effects of temperature on Agricultural Productivity

1. Temperature affects the microbial activities in the soil
2. High temperature can lead to loss of soil nutrients through volatilization
3. High temperature reduces crop and animal performances
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4. Optimun temperature is required for seed germination
iii) Wind: It refers to air in motion

Effects of wind on Agricultural Productivity
1. Wind aids the spread of disease pathogen
2. High wind may cause wind erosion
3. Wind aid pollination in wind-pollinated flowers
iv) Sunlight/Sunshine: Is the amount of heat and the period the sun’s rays are received at
a place. Sunlight is necessary for manufacturing of plant food ie photosynthesis.
v) Relative Humidity: Is the amount of moisture or water vapour in the atmosphere.
2. Edaphic factors: These are soil factors that affect agricultural production such as:
i. Soil texture: It refers to the degree of fineness or coarseness of the various soils in
an area. It affects the population of soil organism and tillage practices.
ii. Soil structure: It is the way in which different particles of the soil are packed or
arranged. It determines the population of soil organisms.
iii. Soil types: These are the different classes of soil such as clay, loamy and sandy soils
iv. soil pH: This is the measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a soil. The pH
determines the types of crops that can be grown.
Biotic factors affecting agricultural production

1. Soil organisms
2. Human activities
3. Weeds
4. Parasite
5. Predator
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WEEK 4: ROCK
Rock is any mineral material of the earth. Rock is made up of earth’s crust
Rock can also be the combination of different mineral elements e.g silica.
Major types of rock

1. Igneous Rocks: It is formed as a result of cooling and solidification of molten rocks
called magma which is ejected from beneath the earth forms the magna which forces itself
to the surface through cracks, it comes in contact with lower temperature at the surface,
when it cools, it forms the igneous rock.
Characteristics of Igneous rock
a. They do not contain fossils
b. They are glassy in appearance
c. They do not form layers
d. They are resistant to erosion
Types of Igneous rock
a. Plutonic or intrusive Igneous rocks eg granite, gabbro etc.
b. Volcanic or extrusive Igneous rocks eg basalt etc
2. Sedimentary Rocks: It is formed from sediments accumulated in layers or strata

either by water, wind or ice, when they harden it forms sedimentary rock.
Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks
a. They occur in layers or strata
b. They contain fossils of plants and animals
c. They react with weak acid
d. They are prone to erosion
Types of Sedimentary Rocks (Based on process of formation)
a. Mechanically formed Sedimentary Rocks eg dolomite, limestone etc
b. Organically formed Sedimentary Rocks eg coal, graphite, peat etc
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c. Chemically formed Sedimentary Rocks eg gypsum, nitrate etc
3. Metamorphic Rocks: They are rocks formed from pre-existing Igneous or

Sedimentary rocks which have been changed has a result of great heat and pressure e.g
marble, formed from limestone, slate form clay etc.
Characteristics of metamorphic rocks
a. They may contain fossils
b. Some may occur in layer or strata
c. The rock may be soft or hard
d. They exist in different forms and texture
Economic Importance of Rocks In Agriculture

i. Formation of soil
ii. Erosion control
iii. Obstacles to farm implement
iv. Source of plant nutrients e.g calcium, potassium etc
v. Domestic use
WEEK 5: SOIL FORMATION AND PROFILE DEVELOPMENT

Soil is the loose weathered material that covers the earth surface which supports
growth of plants and sustain human and animal activities.
Factors of Soil Formation
Soil formation is greatly controlled by five major factors, they are:
i. Climate such as temperature, rainfall, wind etc
ii. Parent material
iii. Topography
iv. Biotic (Living organisms)
v. Time
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Process of Soil Formation

The process of soil formation is known as weathering.
Weathering is the disintegration or breakdown of rocks into tiny pieces to form soil.
It occurs through the agents of physical, chemical and biological processes.
i. Physical process: They include temperature, wind, ice and water
ii. Chemical process: They include solution, carbonation, hydration, hydrolysis and
oxidation
iii. Biological process: They involve the activities of plants and animals in the breaking
down of rocks to form soil e.g plant roots, termites etc.
WEEK 6: COMPOSITION (COMPONENTS) OF SOIL

There are five (5) major components the inorganic/mineral matter, organic matter,
soil air and soil water are known as physical components of the soil while the living
organisms is known as the biological components of the soil.
1. Mineral or Inorganic matter: It represents small rock fragments of the soil and
forms the bulk of about 45% of the soil and total volume of the soil. It consist of gravel,
stones, clay, sand and silt.
Importance/Effects of mineral matter on Agriculture
a. It forms the solid part of the soil and provides support for plants
b. It holds water and air for both plants and animals activities
2. Organic matter: It represents the remains of the decomposition of plants and
animals. It is about 5% of the total volume of the soil. Organic matter is also known as
human and it is formed when leaves, animal dung etc decay on the soil
Importance/Effects of organic matter on Agriculture
a. It is very rich in plant nutrient
b. When it is abundant and adequate in the soil it prevents leaching
3. Soil Water: Water found in the soil obtained either from rain or irrigation. It
represents 25% of the total volume of the soil. It is found in the within the pore spaces. Soil
can either be waterlogged or permanent witting point.
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Importance/Effects of Soil Water on Agriculture

a. It helps to dissolve plant nutrients into solution form
b. It is an essential raw material for photosynthesis
4. Soil Air: This refers to gases present in the soil pores. It represents 25% of the total
volume of soil. The ability of air to move or circulate freely in he soil is called aeration.
Importance/Effects of Soil Air on Agriculture
a. It is necessary for the growth and development of plants especially oxygen
b. Oxygen in the soil promotes easy germination of seeds
5. Living Organisms: This refers to plants and animals living in the soil. Some are
harmful while some are beneficial. E.g bacteria, insect (e.g termite), mammals (e.g rat),
snails etc.
Importance/Effects of Living Organisms on Agriculture
a. They increase the mineral or nutrient status in the soil
b. They help to decompose organic materials in the soil to form humus
WEEK 7: SOIL: TYPES OF SOIL AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Soil is the uppermost layer of the earth’s crust which provides support and nutrients
for plant growth. The 3 main types are; sandy soil, clay soil and loamy soil.
1. Sandy Soil: If the proportion of sand particles in a sample of soil is very high. The
particles are mainly 2quarts. It is 0.02mm-2.0mm in diameter.
Properties of Sandy Soil
i. It is coarse, grained and gritty
ii. It absorbs and loses water easily
iii It is not sticky when wet
iv It is low in plant nutrients
v It has large pore spaces
Methods of improving Sandy Soil
i. Planting of cover crops
ii. Application of compost manure
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iii. Avoidance of bush burning

iv. Mulching
2. Clay Soil: It has particle size of <0.002mm in diameter. It is a heavy soil and
difficult to work on.
Properties of Clay Soil
i. When dry, it has fine, powdery and smooth particles
ii. When wet, it has sticky and moulding particles
iii. It supports water logging
iv. It is rich in plant nutrients
3. Loamy Soil: It is a mixture of sand and clay particles with high proportion of
organic matter. It is the most fertile soil.
Properties of Loamy Soil
i. It is moist, loose with moderate-sized pore spaces
ii. It is dark-brown or black in colour
iii. It can withstand moderate period of drought
iv. It is the best soil for agriculture
SOIL PROFILE
Soil profile is the vertical section of the soil showing series of horizontal layers of
different types of soil.
Horizons of soil profile
i. A –Horizon
ii. B –Horizon
iii. C –Horizon
iv. D –Horizon
Importance of Soil Profile
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i. Level of soil fertility

ii. To know the type of crop to grow
iii. Level of drainage and aeration
SOIL TEXTURE
Soil texture is the relative proportion (size) of various particles of the degree of
fineness or coarseness of the various soil particles which are gravel, sand silt and clay.
Determination of soil texture
i. By feeling
ii. By sedimentation
iii. By moulding
Importance of Soil Texture
i. It is useful in the evaluation of soil ability to supply mineral nutrient
ii. It helps to determine the tillage practices to be adopted by the farmer
iii. It determines the types of crops to grow on any type of soil
SOIL STRUCTURE
It is the way in which the different particles of the soil are packed or arranged.
Ways/Methods of preserving the soil structure
a. Planting of cover crops
b. Application of manure
Importance of Soil Structure
i. It determines the level of fertility of the soil
ii. It prevents erosion and water logging
iii. It allows easy penetration of plant root and germination
iv. It promotes activities of soil micro-organism
Types of soil structure
- Block-like
- Plate-like
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- Prism-like
- Crumb structure
- Granular or spheroidal
SOIL pH
Soil pH is the measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil
Causes of Soil Acidity
i. Use of acid fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate
ii. Presence of acid parent materials
Removal of soil acidity
Soil acidity can be removed through the application of liming materials such as
i. Limestone (calcium carbonate) – CaCO3
ii. Basic slag
iii. Quick lime – CaO
iv. Wood ash
v. Slaked lime – Ca(OH)2
Effects of soil acidity
a. Low pH or high acidity reduces the population of some useful soil organisms
b. High pH can lead to humus leached out of the crops
c. Soil acidity causes reduces growth/yield of crops
WEEK 8: SIMPLE FARM TOOLS

These are simple, handy tools used mainly by peasant farmers such as cutlass, spade,
hand trowel, axe, headpan, wheel barrow, secateurs, watering can etc
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1. Cutlass: It has a wooden handle with a sharp metal blade at one side and a blunt
edge at the other side. We have two main types
- Slightly curved blade
- Straight blade
Functions/Uses
a. For transplanting seedling
b. For planting seeds and harvesting crops
2. Hoe: It is made up of wooden handle and metal blade we have two main types, West
African hoe and West Indian hoe.
Functions/Uses
a. It is used for making ridges or heaps
b. It is used for harvesting some crops
3. Shovel/Spade: They both have long wooden handle. The spade has a sharp metal
blade while the shovel has a hollow and broad blade which can be rectangular or round.
Functions/Uses
a. Spade is use for mixing cement (concrete for farm structures)
b. Spade is used for digging holes during transplanting
3. Garden fork/hand fork: Garden fork has long handle while hand fork has short
handle.
Functions/Uses
a. Garden fork is used for loosening the soil before transplanting
b. It is used for loading hay
5. Hand Trowel: It has a small handle with a curve metal blade
Functions/Uses
a. It is used for transplanting seedling
b. It is used for digging holes for planting
General maintenance of simple farm tools
i. Tools should be washed or cleaned after use
ii. Store in a cool dry place
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iii. Sharpen blunt edges or blade where necessary

iv. Paint, oil grease metallic parts to prevent rusting
WEEK 9: FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS

Farm machinery includes various types of machines and implements used in the
farm e.g tractor, harvester, incubator, planter, sheller etc. The most important of all the
machines used in the farm is the tractor.
i. Tractor
a. It is a powerful, multi-purpose motor vehicle use for lifting and pulling of farm
implements
b. Common model are David Brown, Ford, Fiat, Massey Ferguson
Functions/Uses of Tractor
a. It is used for drawing farm implements e.g plough etc
b. It can be a stationary power source for equipment like grinders, shellers etc.
Maintenance of Tractor
- It can be on daily and periodic basis
Daily Maintenance of Tractor
i. Remove all trashes or mud at the start or end
ii. Do not overload tractor and operate at appropriate
iii. Check tyre pressures daily before operations
Periodic Maintenance of Tractor
i. Service at regular intervals
ii. Employ a competent and experienced tractor operator
iii. Wash or clean carburetor regularly
2. Bulldozers
Description
a. They are powerful tractors with broad steel blade or sheet at the front
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b. It uses petrol or diesel

Functions/Uses of Bulldozer
a. It is used for leveling the ground
b. It is used for felling trees and stumps
Disadvantages of Using Bulldozer On the Farm
a. It causes soil compaction
b. It packs away the top soil which is rich in top soil
3. Tree Pullers
It has the ability to move on the soil surface with minimal disturbance on the topsoil.
Advantages of tree puller over bulldozer
i. Tree puller does not compress the soil
ii. The removal of soil cover is avoided
4. Shellers
This is a processing machine used to separate dry grains at 10% moisture content
from the cob of maize. It can be operated manually, electrically and mechanically. It is
made up of hopper, bucket, winder and a drum.
Functions
- It is used to separate seeds from husk of cob
5. Dryers
It is a machine used to reduce the moisture content of commodities e.g grains, cocoa
etc. It operates electrically.
Functions
a. It is use to reduce moisture content of stored produce
b. For drying animal products e.g meat
c. For drying plant materials e.g groundnut etc.
WEEK 10: FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS (contd)
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6 Incubator
They are machines used for hatching fertilized eggs artificially after 21days.
Types of Incubators
- Natural draught or table types
- Forced draught or cabinet types
Conditions for incubator to function
The incubator should run for 12-24hrs before placing fertilized eggs.
a. Temperature range of 370c-390c
b. Relative humidity of 50-70%
c. Adequate ventilation
Components of an incubator
Incubator is made up of
- Setter felt tray where fertilized eggs are placed for 18days at an inclined angle of
45%
- Hatcher where the eggs stay for the 3 remaining days before hatching.
The component are:
i. Insulator
ii. Heat source e.g heater, lantern etc
iii. Control unit, thermostat
iv. Egg turning device
v. Thermometer
Steps to ensure uniformity of hatching
i. Set eggs uniformly in tray
ii. Regular and timely turning of eggs
Operations/Activities carried out after hatching
i. Sexing of chicks
ii. Drying of chicks
iii. Packing normal chicks
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7. Milking Machine
It is used for milking or extracting fresh milk mechanically from the udder of cattle
i.e cow and other milk-producing animals like sheep i.e ewe and goat i.e doe.
Economic importance of milk
i. It is use to prepare dairy products like butter
ii. It is a source of protein in food
iii. It supplies minerals to livestock
Equipments used in dairy cattle farm
The major equipment is the milking machine others include
Feed trough, water trough, forage driers, milking pails, tattooing/numbering tools,
health and medical tools, washing scale, silage fork etc.
CLASS: SS ONE TERM: THIRD
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COURSE OUTLINE
1) Farm mechanisation
2) Problems of Agricultural Mechanisation
3) Problems of farm mechanisation
4) Source of farm power
5) Classification of crops
6) Husbandry of selected crops
7) Rice (Oryza sativa)
8) Cotton (Gossypium spp)
9) Pasture and Forage crops
WEEK 1: FARM MECHANISATION

PLOUGH
It is a primary tillage or work cultivation implement and the first to be used in land
preparation it can be attach to a work animal or tractor.
Types of Plough
A. Disc Plough
Parts and functions of disc plough
1. Beans or frame
- It holds the disc in position
- It bears additional weight for greater depth
2. Coupling point
- It provides point of attachment to the tractor or work animal
3. Scrapper
- It helps to remove soil or mud that cling t the disc
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4. Disc or concave disc

- It rotates and makes vertical and horizontal cuts as the tractor moves forward
5. Standard
- It holds the disc firmly to the beans
Advantages of disc plough in the tropics West African
i. It is capable of working heavy soil, tilling and moulding heavy soil.
ii. Roots of trees that grow extensively deep in the soil are easily removed by disc
plough
Disadvantages of disc plough
i. Due to its heavy weight it can cause compaction of the soil
ii. It may results in soil erosion
B. Mould board Plough
It is adapted to temperate or light soil with no rock hard pans. This type of plough
is not as strong as the disc plough.
i. Beam or frame
- It carries the plough and other components
- It provides additional weight for greater depth
ii. Vertical disc or coultier
- It makes vertical cuts/furrows
iii. Mould board
- It carries the soil
- It inverts weeds or exposes roots of weeds
iv. Standard
- It bears the mould board and the share
Advantages
i. It can only be used in temperate or light soil
ii. It can be used in soil free from stones etc
Disadvantages
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i. It does not perform well in tropical environment

ii. It predisposes soil to erosion
General functions of plough
i. They help to mix the soil together
ii. They can be used to control weeds
iii. They help to improve the aeration of the soil
WEEK 2: PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION

Farm mechanization is the application of engineering principles and technology in
agricultural production, storage and processing on the farm.
Advantages of farm mechanization
i. Increase in farm revenue
ii. It encourages large scale farming
iii. It promotes specialization of labour
iv. It saves labour
Disadvantages of farm mechanization
i. High cost of operation
ii. Compaction of soil
iii. Land tenure system
iv. Inadequate technical know-how
Limitations of farm mechanization
a. Economic limitation
b. Technical limitation
c. Lack of maintenance
d. Small farm holdings
WEEK 3: PROBLEMS OF FARM MECHANISATION

i. Land tenure system
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ii. Bad topography

iii. Inadequate spare parts
iv. Poverty of farmer
v. Inadequate technical manpower
Possible ways of improving agriculture through mechnaisation
i. Farmers should form co-operative societies to enable them pool resources together
to buy farm machines
ii. Government should provide loans to farmers to enable them purchase farm machine
iii. Land tenure system should be reviewed to enable farmers acquire large hectares of
land
iv. Farmers should be educated to accept modern system of farming
v. Government should establish training schools on agriculture and how to fabricate
simple machines
vi. Simple and less expensive machines should be developed.
WEEK 4: SOURCES OF FARM POWER

Farm power derived from the provided by human beings and the most common
source of power in farm operations especially when using traditional tools.
1. Human Power
This source of power is supplied by the farmer
Advantages of human power
i. It is easy to control and readily available
ii. It is the most intelligent source of power used for precision jobs
iii. It is easily available in all farm operations
Disadvantages of human power
i. Fatigue can easily set in
ii. Poor state of health may affect performance
iii. It consumes time and is less efficient
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2. Mechanical Power
This involves the use of machines and engines like tractor, plough etc. It is required
in farm operations such as tractor, ploughing, grinding, harvesting etc.
Advantages
i. It works faster and more efficiently
ii. It can handle more area of land
iii. They make farm operations timely
Disadvantages
i. It requires high capital
ii. It can cause air pollution through gases from exhaust pipe
iii. It can destroy soil structure
3. Solar Power
This is the energy derived from radiation, light and heat reaching the earth’s surface
from the sun. Some operations requiring solar
- For processing of farm produce e.g drying
- It is use by crops for photosynthesis
Advantages
i. It is free
ii. It is a neat source of energy
iii. It is a cheap source of energy
Disadvantages
i. It fluctuates in supply
ii. It is only available during the day
iii. It is supply cannot be controlled
4. Animal Power
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This is the power derived from some animals e.g bull, Camel, oxen etc
Qualities of a good draught animal
i. It must possess strong hooves, good stride and stance (gait)
ii. It should be preferably male or castrated
iii. It must be docile
iv. I must have good body size
Precautions for using draught animals
- Do not overwork the animal
- Treat animals fairly to prevent them from being hostile
-. Apply muzzle
Some operations that require animal power
- For carrying people
- For transporting load
- For pulling tillage implement like plough/ ploughing
5. Wind Power
This is generated by wind movement. Wind power is used in windmill to pump
water out of a borehole to a generating set for the production of electricity.
Farm operations requiring wind power
- Operation of windmills where the force of the wind is converted to electricity
- It is use in the separation of chaff from grains i.e winnowing
- It is use for drying produce
Advantages of wind power
i. It can serve as alternative to electrical power
ii. It is cheap
Disadvantages of wind power
i. Its supply is sporadic and uncertain
ii. It cannot be stored and is difficult to control
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6. Water power
This is the power derived from water flowing in rivers, streams and dams. Water is
used in hydro-electric stations to drive the turbines
Advantages of Water Power
i. It is easy to harness
ii. It is very cheap
Disadvantages of Water Power
i. Low level of water can cause low electricity
ii. It is not available in all areas
WEEK 5: CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS

Crop Husbandry is the acts of taken care of crop produce better yield. Crops are
classified into two groups.
i. Classification based on their lifecycle
ii. Classification based on their uses
Classification based on life cycle
i. Annual crops are crops which grow and mature within one year e.g maize, rice,
cowpea.
ii. Biennial crops are crops that grow and matured within two years or seasons. The
first season is for vegetative growth while the second season is for flowering and fruiting
e.g bananas/plantain, pineapple, ginger, cassava, etc.
iii Perennial crops are those ones that mature after 3-5 years. The first 3-5 years are
for vegetative growth while subsequent years are for flowering and fruiting eg cocoa,
oilpalm, colanut, cashew, coffee etc.
Classification based on uses
i. Fruit crop: They also provide minerals and vitamin. Eg guava, citrus, banana,
pineapple, etc
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ii. Spice: They add flavor to the soup e.g onion, pepper, garlic
iii. Oil crop provide vegetable oil when processed eg soabean, groundnut, oilpalm,
coconut, etc
iv. Cereals: They belong to grass family they provide carbohydrate e.g millet, rice,
maize
v. Root crops: They produce tuber, they are source of carbohydrate e.g yam, potatoes,
cocoyam, etc
vi. Vegetable: They produce minerals and vitamins e.g water leaf, Amaranthus
vii. Beverages provide food drink when processed eg cocoa, coffee, tea
WEEK 6: HUSBANDRY OF SELECTION CROPS

MAIZE, Zea mays
It belongs to grass family. Maize is a fruit, its epicarp is fused with mesocarp (caryopsis).
Land preparation: This is done by clearing of land, making of ridges through the
use of hole and cutlass or mechanically planting date is around April for early maize and
July or August for late maize this is depend on location and rainfall.
Method of propagation: It is propagated by seed manually by the use of sticks or
cutlass or mechanically by planting.
Seed rate: 2-3 seeds are planted per hole
Spacing: 90cm by 30cm at 1 seed per hole, 75-25cm for two seeds
Cultural Practices
- Supplying: Replace seeds that are not germinate with another @WAP
- Thining: Removal of weak plant 3- 4 WAP
- Fertilizer application: NPK 15:15:15 can be used or Inorganic fertilizer e.g farm
manure 5-6 WAP
- Control of disease and pest is through the use of pesticides
- Maturity period is between 2-3 months after planting
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- Harvesting can be done by hand or the use of sickle or combined harvester

- Processing: it can be processed into different kinds of food like corn flakes etc
- Storage: It can be stored in the fireplace or silo
WEEK 7 RICE (Oryza sativa)

Rice is a cereal, it belongs to grass family.
Land preparation: It can be done manually or mechanically
Varieties & Cultivars: Swampy rice and upland rice
Climate & soil requirement: Rice requires a temperature of 200C, 75cm-120cm
rainfall or more. It requires slightly fertile soil.
Method of propagation is by seed
Planting date: April-May in south, August and September in the north
Cultural Practices
a. Supplying and thinning
b. Fertilizer application NPK
c. Weeding should be done regularly
Maturity period is between 4-7months
Harvesting: Cut off with knife or sickle or combined harvester
Processing
i. Sundrying is done immediately after harvest
ii. Threshing (separate grain from stalk)
iii. Winnowing: remove unwanted dust and remains
iv. Parboiling- This is soaking of rice paddy in warm water over night
Advantages of parboiling
1 It diffuses vitamins in the husk into the grains
2 It makes milling easier
3 It improves storability of the rice grains.
v. Hulling (remove husk from grain)
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vi. Polishing (remove husk and other layers covering the grains
WEEK 8: COTTON (Gossypium Spp)

It belongs to family Malvacae
Land preparation: Clearing, ploughing, harrowing
Varieties & Cultivars: G hiritum, G vititolium, lshan type samara etc
Climate & soil requirement: Temperature of 250c-350c, rainfall 65mm-125mm,
loamy soil
Cultural Practices are; Weeding, fertilizer application (super phosphate), mulching
Maturity period: 5-6month
Harvesting: Handpicking & sundrying
Storage: Store in sack material kept in dry place
Pest
i. Cotton stainer [Dysdercus Spp] handpicking and killing
ii. Boll worms
Diseases
i. Bacterial bight
ii. Leaf curl (virus)
iii. Damping of (fungi)
WEEK 9: PASTURE AND FORAGE CROPS

Pasture: This is the area of land covered with forage crops grazed or fed on by
livestock.
Forage Crops: They are plants cultivated for their vegetative portions and used in
fresh or preserved forms for feeding livestock.
Uses of Forage Crops
i. Livestock feed e.g hay
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ii. Green manure: especially when young

iii. As bedding materials
iv. Cover crops: mostly leguminous plants
Types of Pasture
1. Natural Pasture: It is also known as natural grassland or rangeland. The pasture
grow naturally on their own e.g savanna areas of Nigeria.
Characteristics of Natural Pasture
i. Forage crops in natural pasture can with stand trampling by animals
ii. Natural pasture may contain some grasses which cannot be easily eradicated
iii. It has good regenerative ability
2. Artificial Pasture: It is referred to as established or sown pasture because pasture
are deliberately planted and managed by man to be fed to livestock
Factors affecting productivity of pasture

i. Resistance to trampling
ii. Pests and disease
iii. Seed viability
iv. Persistence
v. Aggressiveness
Factors affecting establishment pf pasture
i. Palatability
ii. Compatibility
iii. Time of maturing
Common and botanical names of forage
Forage crops i.e grasses and legume
Grasses
Common name Botanical name
i. Elephant grass Pennisetum purpureum
ii. Northern gamba Andropogon gayanus
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iii. Southern gamba Andropogon tectorum

iv. Spear grass Imperiata cylindrica
Legumes
Common name Botanical name
i. Stylo Stylosanthes gracilis
ii. Puero or kudzu Pueraria phaseoloides
iii. Mucuna Mucuna utilis
iv. Centro Centrosema pubescens
Factors affecting distribution of pasture

i. Climatic factors
ii. Soil or Edaphic factors
iii. Biotic factors
Common management practices in pasture
1. Burning
2. Fencing
3. Application of fertilizer
4. Pest and disease control
5. Adequate stocking
6. Weed control
7. Irrigation
SUBJECT: AGRICLTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS: SSS 2
TERM: 1ST TERM
WEEK 1:
PLANT NUTRIENTS AND NUTRIENT CYCLES
Plants require nutrients or elements obtained from the soil for growth and
healthy development. These elements or nutrients are classified into two main
groups which are
51
i. Macro –nutrients
ii. Micro nutrients or trace elements
Macro –nutrients are mineral element nutrient required by crops in large
quantities
Examples of macro –nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
magnesium, etc,
Micro nutrients or trace elements are mineral elements\ nutrients required
by crops in small quantities
Examples of micro –nutrients are zinc, copper, boron, iron, chlorine.
FACTORS INFLUENCING NUITRIENTS AVALABILITY IN THE SOIL
1. Soil pH
2. Concentration of other nutrients
3. Leaching
4. Crop removal
5. Soil texture
6. Erosion
METHODS OF REPLENISHING LOST NUTRIENTS

1. Crop rotation
2. Organic manuring
3. Bush fallowing
4. Cover cropping
5. Liming
6. Fertilizer application
IMPORTANCE AND USES OF EACH OF THE PLANT NUTRIENTS
1. NITROGEN
Uses- a} Manufacturing of chlorophyll
b] Synthesis of protein
c] Constituent of cells
d] For growth and reproduction in plants
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2.PHOSPHORUS
Uses- a] Assists in root development
b] important in the carbohydrate synthesis
c] Aids maturity/ripening of fruits
d] Increases crops resistance to diseases
3. POTASSIUM
Uses- a] Assists in the maintenance of acid/base in the crops
b] Assists in the synthesis of carbohydrates
c] Increases crops’ resistance to diseases
4. CALCIUM
Uses- a] Constituent of the cell wall
b] Assists in maintenance of Ph in plants
c] Assists in the storage of carbohydrates in tubers
d] Helps in nitrogen fixation
5. MAGNESIUM
Uses- a] Constituent of chlorophyll
b] Essential for oil synthesis
c] Helps in the translocation of phosphates
6. SULPHUR
Uses – a] Helps in protein and carbohydrates metabolism
b] Helps in nitrogen fixation in legumes
7. IRON
53
Uses – a] Helps in chlorophyll formation
7. MANGANESE, COPPER, ZINC, BORON, AND MOLYBDENUM
Uses- a] They aid enzymic actions
b] They assist in protein synthesis
c] They assist in nitrogen fixation
GENERAL DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS
1. Stunted growth
2. Poor root and leaf formation
3. Leaf chlorosis
4. Purplish coloration of leaf margin
5. Poor yield
6. Leaf dieback
NUTRIENT CYCLES
This is the transformation process undergone by each nutrient element in

soil, plant, animal and atmospheric systems. It is complex in nature.
NITROGEN CYCLE
Processes in nitrogen cycle include
a] Addition of nitrogen into the soil- ionization of atmospheric nitrogen by
thunderstorm, addition of manure, symbiotic and non symbiotic nitrogen
fixation.
b]Soil processes- These are the oxidation of soil nitrogen from ammonium
compounds to nitrites and lastly into nitrates by nitrifying bacteria,
Azotobacter, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter respectively.
c] Removal of nitrogen from the soil- Crop removal, denitrification by
denitrifying bacteria Pseudomonas, erosion, leaching and soil colloidal
fixation
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{form nitrogen cycle}

CARBON CYCLE- Processes include photosynthesis, burning of organic
materials and respiration
WATER CYCLE- Processes involved are vapourization of water from the
earth, condensation and precipitation in form of rainfall, ice and dew.
The sun supplies the required energy
ORGANIC AGRICULTURE
This is agriculture system that sustain the soil, ecosystems and the people, It
de-emphasizes the use fertilizers, herbicides, insecticide sand other
agrochemicals. Organic meat, eggs and dairy products are obtained from
animals that are not given antibiotics and growth hormones.
Importance of Organic Agriculture
1. It prevents environmental pollution
2. It is cheap to practice
3. It prevents food poisoning
4. It is less technical to practice
Practices like crop rotation, organic manuring, use of disease resistant crop
varieties and breeds of animals are adopted.
WEEK 2: IRRIGATION
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil to supplement insufficient
rainfall.
IMPORTANCE OF IRRIGATION
1. Irrigation softens the soil for easy tillage operations
2. It provides moisture in the soil for root absorption
3. It encourages multiple copping in a year
4. It reduces soil salinity
5. It makes early planting possible
6. It cools the soil and environment
7. It extends the cropping season.
8. It increases quality of crop products
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9. It increases crop yields

10. It provides pasture for livestock during the dry season
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN CHOOSING IRRIGATION

SYSTEM
1. Soil type 4. Cropping system to be adopted
2. Land topography 5. Type of crop to grow
3. Source of water 6. Available technology
7. Cost of the system
IRRIGATION SYSTEM
1. Surface irrigation- This system involves supplying of water to farmland
through channels or furrows. Methods adopted include flooding,
furrow\channel and basin / border method. This system is cheap but is highly
prone to erosion
2. Sub-surface\ underground irrigation- Water is supplied to the farm through
perforated pipes laid underground to drop water within the root zone of crops. It
minimizes moisture evaporation, prevents splashing of water on crops, reduces
soil erosion and used to apply fertilizers. However it is highly technical and
expensive
3. Over head irrigation – This is otherwise called sprinkler system. Water is
pumped through pipes laid and raised to be supplied in form of rainfall. It may
be portable or fixed. It is suitable for all land forms, affords control of the flow of
water and can be used to apply agrochemicals.
The system is expensive, highly technical, affected by wind, highly
tedious, quick spread of diseases and loss of water to evaporation.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH IRRIGATION
1. Salt accumulation 7. High cost of irrigation materials
2. Erosion problems 8. High cost of maintenance
3. Build up of pathogens 9.Non availability of land for irrigation
4. Build up of pests 10. Displacement of people in area of
irrigation.
5. Poor technical knowledge
6. Insufficient water for irrigation
56
HOW TO REDUCE DISEASE BUILD UP

i. Crop rotation
ii. Weed control
METHODS OF IRRIGATING A SMALL NURSERY

1. Drip irrigation
2. Use of watering can
WEEK 3: DRAINAGE
Drainage is a process whereby excess water in the soil is removed artificially to
promote good farming activities.
IMPORTANCE OF DRAINAGE
1. It improves soil aeration for good root respiration
2. It helps to increase the soil temperature for the benefit of crop plant
3. It increases land availability for agriculture
4. It improves soil microbial activities
5. It makes nutrients available for crop uses
6. It removes toxic materials from the soil.
7. Drainage encourages early planting
8. It ensures early harvesting especially in paddy rice
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
1. Surface system
2. Sub-surface system
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
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IRRIGATION DRAINAGE
1.Supplies water into the 1 Removal of water from the
soil soil.
2.Done mostly in dry \arid 2.Done in marshy or swampy
regions regions.
3.Soil pores are filled with 3.Soil pores are filled with
water water.
4.Water is taken from 4Water is directed from soil to
rivers, streams, lakes, the water bodies
ponds, etc
WEEK 4 AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION

Pollution can be defined as the release of harmful substances into the environment
i.e air, water and land to the extent that it causes biological damage to man, animal
and plant.
TYPES OF POLLUTION
1. Air pollution
2. Land pollution
3. Water pollution
WAYS BY WHICH AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION OCCURS

1. Bush burning 3.. Organic manuring
2. Improper disposal of animal wastes 4. Excess application of fertilizer
Non Agricultural Sources Of Environmental Pollution
a. Nuclear wastes d. Oil spillage
58
b. Industrial wastes e. City refuse

c. Motor vehicles exhaust f. Mining residue\activities
Effects of Land\ Pond Pollution On Farmers And Agricultural
Productivity
a. Soil micro and macro flora and fauna are killed by pollutants there depleting soil
fertililty
b. Depletion of oxygen in water
c. High levels of nitrates and phosphates caused by inorganic fertilizers cause
overgrowth of plant and algae, eutrophication.
d. There is loss of top soil.
e. It causes health hazard to plants and animals.
f. The lack of oxygen caused by the increase in decomposers can kill aquatic
organisms.
g. The health hazard caused by agricultural pollution may hinder farmers from
production due to weakness and sickness.
h. Pollution of water bodies affects health condition of those consuming aquatic
products as such the demand of such goods are reduced.
i. Pollution reduces availability of agricultural land
j. Pollution eventually reduces the farmers’ income.
WEEK 5
SURVEYING AND PLANNING A FARMSTEAD FARM
SURVEYING
Farm surveying is defined as the process by which measurement of land is made
on the farm
IMPORTANCE OF FARM SURVEYING AND PLANNING
IN AGRICULTURE
1. It helps to determine the hectarage of land
2. Farm survey helps in planning of the farmstead
3. It can be used for feasibility studies
4. It helps farmers to determine the location of structures on the farm.
5. It prevents wastage of farm inputs
6. Farm survey plan can be used as collateral for loans.
7. The yields from the farm can be predicted.
8. It prevents litigation over land
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9. It reveals the soil type of the farm
SOME COMMON SURVEYING EQUIPMENT
1. Ranging pole 4. Prismatic compass

2. Measuring tape 5. Gunter’s chain
3. Arrow or pin 6. Theodolite
WEEK 6
MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF FARM
PLANNING
Farm planning is a drawing or outline of a farmstead. It also involves the proper
land use planning.
IMPORTANCE OF FARM PLANNING

1. It enables the farmer to make proper use of the land.
2. It promotes the neatness and prevents pollution within the farmstead.
3. It ensures quick overview of the farm
4. It eases management activities
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SITING OF FARM OR

FARMSTEAD
1. Topography
2. Soil type
3. Accessibility
4. Water supply
5. Nearness to market
6. Drainage
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WEEK 7
PRINCIPLES OF FARMSTEAD LAYOUT

1. Plant the crops on the best soil with in the farm
2. Livestock buildings should be located on the poorest soil with in the farm
3. Farm building should not be located on slopes to avoid erosion.
4. Building should be located in easily accessible area
5. Residential and office building should be located far away from livestock
buildings to avoid the noise and unpleasant odour from farm animals wastes
and dung
6. Service buildings like offices should be located far away from the farms
WEEK 8 FOREST MANAGEMENT

Meaning of forest and forestry
Forest can be defined as a large area of land covered with trees and bushes either
growing wild or planted for some purposes
Forestry is the art of planting, tending and managing forest including the utilization
of their products
COMMON FOREST TREES
Iroko, obeche, mahogany, sapele, ebony etc
IMPORTANCE OF FOREST
1. Provision of food
2. Provision of fuel
3. Provision of medicinal herbs
4. Provision of timber
5. It serves as home for wild animals
6. Forest improves soil fertility
7. Serves as wind brake
8. Prevents soil erosion
9. Provides employment opportunities
10.Serves as source of foreign exchange
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11.Forest purifies the atmosphere

12.Serves as tourist center
MANAGEMENT OF THE FOREST

1. Forest regulation
2. Selective exploration
3. Deforestation
4. Regeneration
5. Afforestation
FOREST REGULATION
These are laws promulgated by government in the form of decrees and bye –laws
to prevent people from exploiting or indiscriminate tapping of forest resources.
Violation of any these laws attracts sanctions. Some of these laws are:
1. Law specifying the girth of different tree species to be felled
2. Law prohibiting bush burning
3. People are to obtain license before exploiting forest resources
4. Ban on collection of leaves and firewood from the forest
5. Ban on farming in the forest reserve
6. Ban on killing \hunting of some species of wild animals
7. Encouragement of people to plant trees etc
SELECTIVE EXPLORATION- This is cutting of only the matured or those
trees that have attained the specified girth for its specie while young trees are left
to grow to maturity. It prevents deforestation.
REGENERATION- This is the process of allowing an exploited forest to re-
grow into forest. It is of two methods namely i] Natural regeneration
ii] Artificial regeneration
Natural regeneration involves leaving the stump of a felled tree to sprout and the
best chupon is chosen and allowed to a new tree[ coppicing]
Artificial regeneration is the transplanting of a new tree seedling in place of a
felled one
AFFORESTATION- This is the process of establishing forest in an area
where there is non before. It is a tree planting campaign in Nigeria.
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DEFORESTATION- This is indiscriminate felling of trees without any

replacement
Causes of Deforestation
1. Bush burning
2. Farming activities
3. Construction activities
Effects of Deforestation
1. It encourages soil erosion
2. It leads to an increase in the environmental temperature
3. It increases evaporation of soil moisture
4. It destroys habitat of wild animals
5. It leads to loss of soil nutrients
6. Soil humus content is reduced
WEEK 9
AGRO –FORESTRY PRACTICES IN NIGERIA
TAUNGYA SYSTEM
This is the system of combining crop husbandry with forest management on
the same piece of land i.e integrating agriculture with forestry. Only annual
/food crops are grown during the seedling stage of trees. The farmers move
to another side once the trees are forming canopy. This continues as a cycle.
Reasons For Adopting Agroforestry In Nigeria
1. Scarcity Of Land
2. Over population
3. Unemployment
4. Government policies
Advantages Of Taungya System
1. It makes land available for landless farmers
2. It boosts food production
3. Farmer make use of available soil fertility
4. It generates employment
5. It ensure survival of tree seedlings
6. It is a cheap afforestation or regeneration method
Other agroforestry practices in Nigeria are:
63
- Alley cropping
- Forest reserve
- Wildlife conservation
Problems associated with taungya farming
1. Competition may exist between crops and trees for soil nutrients
2. It does not give room for perennial crop production
3. The same duties are performed seasonally thereby making the process
monotonous
4. Termites may be present in the forest area
5. There may be clash between the forest authorities and the farmers.
WEEK 10 FLORICULTURE
Floriculture is the growing of ornamental plants to beautify the

environment and imitate natural scenery. It is a branch of horticulture. Other
branches of horticulture are olericulture and pomology. Olericulture is the
cultivation of vegetables while pomology is the cultivation of fruits. .
IMPORTANCE \USES OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
(1) For decoration
(2) Sources of local herbs
(3) Provision of employment
(4) Purification of atmospheric air
(5) For landscaping e.g. writing of words
(6) For scientific research
(7) Preparation of perfumes
(8) For ceremonial use e.g. during wedding ,burial.
(9) As a symbol of love
(10) Provision of shade
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CLASS: SSS 2 TERM: 2ND TERM
WEEK 1:
MAINTENANCE OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS:
a) Provision of shade: this is done to protect seedlings from excessive heat and
rainfall
b) Regular watering: water attest twist a day early in the morning and late in the
evening
c) Regular weeding: remove unwanted plants ie that may complete with
ornamental plants for space nutrient etc.
c) Fertilizer application and manure: they are added to improve the fertility of
the soil
d) Fencing: ornamental plants should be protected from being eaten by animals
e) Regular pruning: old leaves, stems and side branches should be pruned with
shear or secateurs
Types of Ornamental Plants
1. Lawn- These are grown to demarcate area of no passage They are mostly
grasses e.g Carpet grasess, Zoysia and Axonopus
2. Potted plants – These are grown inside pots for internal decoration e.g
Dumbcane, Elephant ear, Balsam etc
3. Spot plants – These are grown at a noticeable spot because of its special
feature e.g Royal palm, cycads etc
4. Shade trees – These are to provide shade for refreshment e.g Almond tree,
Umbrella tree, Flame of the forest etc
5. Hedge Plants – These demarcate the foot path e g croton, yellow and green
bush, hibiscus, allamanda. etc
6. Life fencing – They are used to partition land areas They are mostly thorny e
g rose, green bush, pride of barbados etc
WEEK 2:
COMMON SPECIES OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
A. Ornamental flowers
65
1. Sunflower
2. Clitoria
3. Marigold
4. Crotalaria
5. Morning glory
6. Dumbcane
7. Rangoon creeper
B. Ornamental shrubs
1. Allamanda
2. Hibiscus
3. Croton
4. Yellow bush
5. Wildrose
6. Cauliflower
7. Bougainvillea
C. Ornamental trees
1. Balsam
2. Indian almond
3. Royal palm
4. Neem
5. Cassia
6. Fan palm
7. Flame of the forest
8. Cauliflower
CULTIVATION OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS

I. Choice of cite: use of well drained site, easily accessible with source of water.
II. Planting Materials: seed, stem etc
III. Method of cultivation : this can be achieved through any of the following means
 Use of prepared beds ie nursery beds
 Direct sowing to soil
 Use of nylon bags
 Use of pots
 Provision of shade
 Use of loamy soil or organic manure
 Regular watering
66
 Regular weeding
WEEK 3: DISEASE
Plant disease: This is the departure or deviation of plant from the normal state
of health, showing marked symptoms or outward visible signs. Disease can be
caused by the following agents, viruses, bacteria, fungi, nematode and nutrient
deficiency
.
General effects of diseases on crop production
1. Disease increase the cost of production through the expenses incurred in
controlling them
2. They sender fruits and vegetables unattractive and unmarketable
3. They reduce quality of crop
4. They reduce yield or productively of crop
5. They can kill or cause the death of whole plant
Ways by which disease spread on crop farm

1. Through visitors to the farm
2. Through irrigation water
3. Through the use of contaminated tools and equipment
4. Through infected planting materials
General control of crop plant diseases

Cultural control
 Regular weeding on the farm
 By practicing crop rotation
 Removing and burning of infected plants
 Planting disease resistant varieties of crops
 Control of disease vector
 Timely harvesting etc
2. Biological control
It involves the use of natural enemies of the disease to reduce or totally
eliminate the disease
3. Chemical control
67
 Spraying plant protection chemicals on the farm e.g fungicides and on the plant
materials.
 Spraying of insecticides to control insect vectors
WEEK 4: PLANT DISEASES
S/N Disease Causal Mode of Symptoms Prevention and

organism transmission control
1 Maize smut Fungus, Airborne Dwarfness of plants Seed treatment
Ustilago fungal ,maize cobs turn before planting,
maydis spores powdery, low yield Early planting
death of maize plants Uproot and burn
infected plant ,
Apply fungicide
2 Maize Virus Insect vector Stunted growth, Early planting,
Streak Chlorotic streak along uproot and burn
the leaf vein infected plant, apply,
insecticide, plant
resistant varieties
3 Rice blast Fungus, Airborne Death of rice seedlings, Apply fungicide,
Piricularia necrotic spots on leaves planting of resistant
oryzae varieties
4 Maize rust Fungus Airborne Leaves turn deep brown Early planting, seed
Puccinia and death of plants dressing and apply
polysora fungicide
5 Cassava Virus Insect Mosaic distortion of Planting of resistant
mosaic vector, leaves, stunted growth , varieties, Early /late
whitefly chlorosis, planting, Apply
Bemissia insecticide, destroy
tabacci infected plants
6 Cassava leaf Fungus Airborne Brown necrotic spots on Apply fungicide,
spot leaves, stunted growth plant resistant variety
7 Cocoa black Fungus Airborne Brown spot on the pod Removal and burning
pod disease Phytophthora later through which later spread and of infected pods,
palmivora infected turns the pod black apply fungicide
pods by rain
splash
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8 Black arm Bacterium Infected Angular spots on leaves, Destroy infected

or bacterial plants, farm boll rot, blight in veins, plants, burning of
blight tools black arm in stems crop residue, plant
,irrigation resistant varieties
water, rain
splash
9 Cocoa Virus Insect vector Leaf chlorosis, swollens Destroy infected
swollen Mealy bug, on young stems and plants, apply
shoot Phenacoccus roots inseticide
manihoti
10 Groundnut Virus Insect vector Mixture of small white Plant resistant
rosette and yellow leaves, varieties, destroy
stunted growth infected plants
WEEK 5: CROP PESTS

Pest is any organism capable of causing damage to crop plant.
TYPES OR IMPORTANT CLASSES OF CROP PEST
Insects, birds, rodents, monkey, man, nematode
Insect pests
Classification is based on mode of feeding
1. Biting and chewing insects: they have strong mouth part ie mandible and maxillae
eg grasshopper, termite etc.
2. Piercing and sucking insects: they have strong mouth parts called proboscis, they
suck liquid materials from plants tissues e.g cotton strainers, aphids etc
.
3. Burrowing insects: they destroy tissues of plant or fruits or seeds e.g bean beetles,
maize, rice weevils etc.
EFFECTS OR ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF INSECT PESTS IN CROP

PRODUCTION
1. May cause reduction in viability of stored produce
2. They destroy crops in the field
3. Some are carriers or vectors of disease
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4. They reduce quality of produce

5. They make crop produce unattractive to consumers
6. Spots of feeding by pests provides entrance for crop pathogens
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF PEST
Physical control methods
 Handpicking and killing

 Shooting rodents with gun
 Setting of traps
 Destruction of the habitat of pest e g termitarium
Cultural control methods
 Practise crop rotation

 Appropriate tillage operations
 Early planting
 Late planting
 Bush fallowing
 Timely harvesting
 Weeding
 Practice of close season
Biological control methods
The use of the natural enemies of crop pest to reduce the pest population.
Conditions For Successful Biological Control Practice
1. The control agent must not attack the preserved crop

2. The control agent must be able to sustain itself in the ecosystem
3. The agent must not be a pest to another crop in the environment
4. The agent must be able to locate and attack the pest by itself
5. The pest must not develop resistant to the control agent
6. The biological agent must not constitute any danger to the farmer and his farm
workers.
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Side effects of biological control method

1. Disbalance of the ecosystem- This occurs when the biological control
agent is a suitable prey to other organisms in the ecosystem thereby
constituting extra food item for such agent and reproduces profusely
2. The biological control agent may on the long term constitute another pest
in the environment
3. The biological control agent may not survive in its new environment
4. It is expensive to practice
Chemical control method
This is the use of chemical formulations to kill a damaging pest

I
Insecticide is any chemical preparation used to control insect pest
forms/group of insect pest mode of action

1. Power contact
2. Liquid systemic
Examples of chemicals used to control pest
Pest chemical
1. Pest Pesticide{ general term}
2. Insect e.g grasshoppers Insecticide
3. Rodents e.g rat Rodenticide
4. Birds e.g weaver birds Avicides
5. Nematode e.g eelworm Nematicide
Side Effects Of Chemical Control method

1. Broad spectrum- Most of the chemicals are non selective and will kill both
beneficial and non beneficial organisms
2. Environmental Pollution- The chemicals are toxic and if washed into water
bodies will cause death of aquatic organisms
3. Poisoning – The chemicals can cause death or serious ailment if mistakenly
taken by man
WEEK 6:
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CROPS PESTS
s/n Insect pests Crops attacked Nature of damage and Prevention and control measures
economic importance
1 Stem borer, Cereals e.g rice, Larvae bore holes into Uproot and burn infected plant
Busseola maize, millet stems, death of plants Apply insecticide, early
fusca planting, burn crop residue,
practice crop rotation
2 Army worm Cereal e.g Maize, Larvae eat stem and Hand picking, spray with
rice, millet leaves insecticides
3 Aphids Legume e.g Gall on leaves, Spray insecticide, uproot and
cowpea, transmission of disease burn infected plants
soyabean etc
4 Cassava Cassava Sucking of cell sap, Early planting, treating of stem
mealy bug reduced leaf nodes, cuttings before planting, spray
swelling of stem insecticide
5 Yam beetle Yams Bore holes into yam Dust yam setts before planting,
tubers, Destruction of crop rotation
planted yam setts,
reduction in quality and
market value of tubers
6 Cotton Cotton Sucking of cell sap, Handpicking and killing, apply
stainer transmission of disease, insecticide, crop rotation
destruction of bolls, leaf
distortion
7 Grasshopper All crops Defoliation of crops, Handpicking and killing, apply
feeding on stems insecticide
8 Maize Stored grains Larvae bore holes into Early harvesting, proper drying
weevil, Bean grains, turn grains into of grains, fumigation of store,
beetle powder, destroy seeds apply insecticides
viability
9 Birds e g Cereals and Feed on grains Use of scarecrow, Trapping or
Village legumes use of cages Bait some seeds
weaver with avicides
10 Rodents All crops Destruction of plants on Use of rodenticide, use of traps,
the farm, Destruction of Biological control eg use of dog
stored and processed and cat, fencing of farm
produce
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11 Termites All crops Destruction of stem and Destruction of the termitarium

root systems of tree and removal of the queen,
crops, destruction of biological control, and use of
planted seeds, insecticide
destruction of stored
produce and processed
products
WEEK 7:
WEEDS
Weed is any plant that grows in a place where it is not expected to grow.
Weed is also any plant that grows where it is not desired in such a way that it
constitutes nuisance to either man, livestock or crops.
Effect/ economic importance of weeds
1. It leads to loss in income of farmers
2. It compete with crops for space
3. It compete with crops for nutrients
4. Some weeds are toxic to farm animals
5. Some weeds serve as alternate hosts to crop pests and pathogens
6. Weed control activities consume the farmers’ time
7. Weed control activities are expensive
Weeds otherwise provide the following benefits:
1. Some weeds are edible eg water leaf
2. They are used as mulching materials
3. Leguminous weeds fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil
4. They prevent soil erosion
5. They can be ploughed as green manure
Common weeds found in farms
Common names Botanical names

1. Guinea grass Panicum maximum
2. Bahana grass Cynodon dactylon
3. Carpet grass Axonopus compressus
4. Centro Centrosema pubescens
5. Goat weed Ageratum conizoides
6. Elephant grass Penisetum purpureum
7. Mucuna Mucuna utilis
8. Water leaf Talinum triangulae
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9. Puero Pueraria phaseoloides

10.Spear grass Imperata cylindrica
FEATURES OF WEEDS
1. Early maturity
2. Long term of dormancy in the soil
3. Production of large quantity of seeds
4. Multiple methods of propagation
5. Resistance to drought
6. Weeds have luxuriant growth
7. Most weeds are wind pollinated
8. They have persistent root system
Methods of weed control
1. Mechanical/ physical control: They include hand pulling or hand picking or

uprooting
hoeing, rotary cultivation like ploughing and slashing
2. Biological control: It involves the introduction of some insects and herbivorous

animals to eat the leaves. This is used mostly in tree crop plantation.
3. Cultural control: The methods use include cover cropping crop rotation,
mulching and burning
4. Chemical control: It involves the use of chemical solutions called herbicides to

control growth of weed. Exampleare gramoxone, 2,4 dichloro acetic acid (2,4-
d), paraquat etc.
WEEK 8: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF FARM ANIMALS

ANATOMY : It refers to the form and structure of the body.
PHYSIOLOGY: It refers to the functions of the forms and parts of the body.
They enable us to understand and know more about the nutrition, reproduction
and management of farm animals.
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HEART
This is the most powerful organ in the circulatory system. It helps to pump
blood round the body. Each pumping action of the heart is known as heartbeat.
The heart consist of muscles called cardiac muscles, it contract and
relax continuously making the heart to beat ceaselessly. The heart is covered
and protected by a thick membrane called pericardium. The heart consist of
four chambers; the upper arches ( right auricle and left auricle ) and lower
ventricle ( right ventricle and left ventricle ) with a central wall called septum
dividing the heart into right and left halves.
The heartbeat occurs in two stages
a. Diastole: the two auricle contract, creating high pressure in the blood. Blood
flows from the auricles into the ventricles. Deoxygenated auricle while
oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle from the left auricle.
b. Systole: the two ventricles contract creating high pressure in the blood that
causes the two valves to close. Deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle
passes into the pulmonary artery while oxygenated blood from the left
ventricle passed into the aorta.
LIVER
The liver is the most powerful organ in the body, it controls the major activities in
the body. It is found on the right side of the upper abdomen and partly overlaps the
stomach and divided into lobes.
Function of liver
 Digestion
 Storage of iron
 Detoxification
 Storage of vitamins
 Regulation of blood sugar
 De-amination of excess amino acids
KIDNEY
Function of kidney
1. Excretion: kidney helps to remove nitrogenous unwanted wastes from the body
e.g salt urea etc
2. Osmo- regulation of the body: it helps to keep the concentration of the blood
plasma and additive of the body cells fairly constant
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WEEK 9
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system are all the organs and tissues associated with the
breaking down or digestion of food in the body such as teeth or beak, alimentary
canal etc
Classes of farm animals based on digestive tract
STOMACH COMPARTMENTS OF RUMINANT ANIMALS

a. Rumen (pouch):the 1st and largest
b. Reticulum (honeycomb): 2nd stomach
c. Omasum (many pile):3rd and smallest compartment
d. Abomasum : it is the 4th compartment representing the simple stomach of non
–ruminants.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF NON RUMINANT
AND RUMINANT ANIMAL
S/N NON – RUMINANT RUMINANT
1. It has no rumen It has rumen
2. Digestion is not aided bacteria Digestion is aided by bacteria
3. It has one stomach It has four stomach chambers
4. It cannot digest cellulose and It can digest cellulose and fibre properly
fibre properly
5 They do not chew the cud They chew the cud ie rumination
IMPORTANCE OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. It aids the ingestion of feed
2. It promotes the digestion of feed
3. It ensures the absorption of digested food
4. It makes feed nutrients available to farm animals
5. It ensures growth of farm animals
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
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It involves all the organs and tissues concerned with the movement of
materials from one part of the body to another where they are either used or removed
e.g heart, blood and blood vessel
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN FARM ANIMALS
Farm animals possess a close circulatory system i.e oxygenated blood and
deoxygenated blood does not mix in the blood. Farm animals undergo double
circulation i.e the blood has to pass through the heart twice, each time going through
separate path ways known as pulmonary circulation
Pulmonary circulation is the movement of blood between the hart and the
lungs while systemic
COMPOSITIONS OF BLOOD
Blood is a fluid tissue made up of fluid plasma and blood cell or corpuscle
1. Plasma
2. The blood cells or corpuscles
a. Red blood cells or erythrocytes
b. White blood cells or leucocytes
c. Blood platelets or thrombocytes
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
1. Leucocytes help to defend the body against germs
2. It helps in blood clothing with the aid of platelets
3. It transports hormones from ductless glands to areas of activities
4. Blood transport food nutrients across the body
5. It carries oxygen round the body
WEEK 10 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The reproductive system are all organs and tissues concerned with reproduction
animals
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
It includes the testes which produce the spermatozoa and the testosterone i.e sex
hormone which aids the development of male sexual secondary characteristic
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
It includes the ovaries that produce the ovum or ova (eggs) which are enclosed by
the graffian follicles and some hormones e.g oestrogen
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a. Ovulation
b. Fertilization
c. Implantation
MAIN REPRODUCTIVE HORMONES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Hormones are chemical substances which co-ordinate the activities of the body
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE HORMONES
1. Oestrogen
2. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
3. Progesterone (pregnancy hormone)
4. Luteinizing hormone
5. Oxytocin
6. Relaxin
EGG FORMATION IN POUTRY
The process of egg formation is controlled by hormones. The egg is formed
partly in the ovary and partly in the oviduct. The process involve; Ovary,
Infundibulum, Magnum, isthmus, Uterus and Vagina/Cloaca.
STRUCTURE OF THE EGG
The egg is made up of the shell, double membranes, airspace, albumen, yolk, embryo
and chalaza.
Reproductive Behaviours in Farm Animals
- Heat period/ oestrus cycle
- Mating which can be flock mating, pen mating, stud mating and
artificial insemination
- Fertilization
- Gestation
- Parturition
- Lactation
- Weaning

CLASS: SSS 2 TERM: 3RD TERM
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WEEK 1
ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY
This is the effect of the environment on growth and performance of farm animals.
Environmental factors of importance in animal husbandry include temperature,
wind, rainfall, sunlight and relative humidity. Their effects can be seen on growth,
reproduction, milk production and egg production.
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON ANIMAL PRODUCTION

1. High temperature results in heat stress which reduces the egg and milk
production
2. Abortion may result due to heat stress in farm animals
3. High temperature reduces libido in farm animals
4. Too much will reduce the shelf life of eggs and milk
5. High temperature and humidity favour the growth of pathogens
6. Too high or low temperature reduce hatchability in poultry
7. High temperature results into low fertilization and conception in farm
animals
8. Too high/low temperature affects the survival of young animals
Control Of Temperature
1. Materials for constructing animal pens should be poor conductors of heat

2. Adequate ventilation should be provided in the pens
3. Polythene materials should be used to cover pens in cold weather
4. Open part of pens should not be exposed to direct rays of sunlight
5. Room heater or high wattage bulb or kerosene lantern can be used to provide
heat in a cold weather
6. Giant or industrial fan can be used to reduce heat on a hot weather
WEEK 2 LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT

These include the care given to farm animals during breeding and rearing of farm
animals.
Non-ruminant livestock management
Poultry, pig etc
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System of management include; Intensive, semi-intensive and extensive

management systems.
The intensive system for poultry can either be the battery cage or deep litter system.
Other management practices include; housing, feeding, sanitation etc.
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN FARM ANIMALS
Housing
Regular feeding
Disease control and prevention and hygiene like deworming, dipping and
routine vaccination.
Dehorning mostly in cattle
Collection of animal products like eggs, milk etc
Reproductive/ breeding activities
BREEDS OF FARM ANIMALS
Cattle Sheep Goats Poultry Rabbit Pig

White Fulani, Wesr Sokoto Red, White Leghorn, Chinchilla, Local breeds,
Sokoto Gudali, African Bornu Red, Kano Red leghorn, Flemish Cross breeds,
Red Bororo, Dwarf, Brown, West Rhodes Island Giant, Duroc- Jersey,
N’dama, Biu, Yankassa, African Dwarf Red, Sussex, California Landrace,
Keteku, Ouda, goat, Sahel, Cornish, Local White, Chester white,
Muturu, Merino, Saanen, Maradi, breeds, Harco Angora, Hampshire,
Wadara, Balami, Bauchi ,Bantu, Hubbard ,Isa New Poland-China,
Guernsey, Nellore, Alpine Brown, Zealand West African
Dexter, Jersey, Plymouth Rock White, Dwarf Pig,
Kerry Crossbreeds Large White
, Local
breeds
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WEEK 3
ANIMAL NUTRITION
This refers to the science of providing mixed feed ingredients to supply farm
animals with desired nutrients for them to be able to offer the desired products and
by products. Food given to livestock known as feed needed for growth, reproduction
etc
Feed ingredients are various materials which are fed to farm animals.
Characteristics of feed ingredients
 They must be acceptable to the animals

 They must be edible or palatable
 They must be digestible
 They must be available
Classes of feed ingredients
1) Carbohydrate concentrates
2) Protein concentrates
3) Mineral/vitamin supplements
4) Roughages which can be hay, straw, silage and soilage
5) Succulents
Characeristics of carbohydrate concentrates

a. Low in fibre content b. Low in protein, mineral, fats and oil
c Highly digestible d. Rich in carbohydrates
e Mainly of plant origin eg cereal grains root and tubers
Characteristics of protein concentrates
a Low in carbohydrates, fibre, fats and oil
b Rich in crude protein
c Highly digestible
d May be of plant or animal origin
e Plant sources include soyabean seed and cake, groundnut cake, etc
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Characteristics of roughages
Contain crude fibre/ cellulose more than 18 o/o

Low in protein carbohydrates, minerals fat and oil
It is of poor digestibility
Regulates movement of chyme in the intestine of farm animals
Examples are silage, hay straw, peels etc
Characteristics of suppliments
Rich in minerals, low in protein, carbohydrates, fats and fibre

Examples are oyster shell, limestone, salt etc
Additives- These are vitamin, growth stimulants, hormones and drugs added to feed
in small quantity eg yeast, Lysine etc
Succulents – Contains high moisture fed to farm animals as source of vitamins eg
water leaf, carrots, fruits etc
FEED NUTRIENTS OF LIVESTOCK
A. CARBOHYDRATES
Supply of energy
Maintenance of body temperature
B. PROTEINS
For growth,
Production of hormones, enzymes, antibodies ,milk and egg
For the development of foetus
For repairing of worn out tissues
May be used as source of energy
Production of protective covers like hair, hooves, horn and feathers
C. FATS AND OIL
As source of energy
As solvent for fat soluble vitamins
Protect delicate internal organs like kidney
Improve palatability of feed
Make the animal body to be water proof
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Sources, Functions And Deficiency Symptoms of Minerals In Animals

Minerals Sources Functions Deficiency
Symptoms
Calcium bone meal, Bone ,teeth and Rickets ,
oyster-shell meal, egg shell osteomalacia, soft
milk, Limestone formation, blood eggs or shell-less
meal, clotting. eggs, retarded
growth
Phosphorus Bone meal, Fish Acid-base balance, Ricket, loss of
meal bone, teeth and egg appetite,
shell formation osteomalacia
magnesium Salt lick, forage Aids functioning Nervous disorder
and grasses of the nervous
system, activation
of enzymes
Sodium and chlorine Common salt, salt Regulates acid base Loss of appetite, Poor
lick, fish meal balance ,maintains growth ,feather
osmotic pressure pecking, cannibalism
constitutes HCl in the
stomach and
improves feed
palatability
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Sulphur Salt lick and fish Constituents of Poor growth,
meal amino acids and
proteins
Iron Yeast iron injection, Constituent of Anaemia
salt lick, haemoglobin and
myoglobin
Iodine Fish meal, iodized Constituent of Goitre
salt hormone
Fluorine Fluorinated water, Prevents tooth decay tooth decay
salt lick
Cobalt Salt lick Activation of enymes General malnutrition
Copper Salt licks formation of Anaemia
haemoglobin and iron
absorption
Sources, Functions And Deficiency Symptoms of Vitamins In animals

Vitamins Sources Functions Deficiency Symptoms
Vitamin A Fish meal, grasses, Good vision, aids Night blindness, low fertility,
Retinol and yellow maize reproduction rough coat and scaly skin
Vitamin B 1 Yeast, cereals green Acts as co-enzymes in Poor appetite and beriberi,
Thiamin plants metabolism of energy
Vitamin B 2 Yeast green fodder, Acts as co-enzyme in Poor growth, curled toe
Riboflavin milk protein metabolism paralysis, Diarrhoea, dermatitis
Vitamin B12 Fish meal, milk Acts as co-enzyme in Anaemia and poor growth rate
Cobalamine products biochemical reaction and
aids red blood cells
formation
Vitamin C Yeast, cereals, Aids oxidation of Pellagra, reddish/black tongue,
Niacin grasses and liver carbohydrates, co- poor growth, dermatitis
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Nicotinic acid enzyme in food

metabolism
Vitamin D Bone meal, Fish Aids bone and teeth Ricket, osteomalacia, soft egg
Calciferol meal, sunlight formation, eggshell shell-less eggs
formation,
Vitamin E Vegetables, Salt Essential in Sterility in farm animals,
Ergosterol or reproduction. Has Abortion, Poor quality semen
Tocopherol antioxidant property
Vitamin K Fish meal and Aids blood clotting and Heamorrhage or inability of
Phylloquinone vegetables formation of blood to clot
prothrombin
Functions of Water
 It serves as medium for all metabolism reactions
 It helps in maintaining cell and muscular turgidity
 It helps in maintaining body temperature of farm animals
 Water assists in the removal of waste product
 Water is an important component of milk and eggs
 Assists in enzymes and hormone formation
 Water is used in cleaning and washing of farm tools
 Water is used in preparing animal drugs and vaccines
Types of ration and diet

Diet: This a type of formulated for a class of farm animal to keep the animal on a
level of maintenance and or production.
Ration: This is the quantity of feed required by a farm animal or group of farm
animal per unit time.
The two terms are relatively similar and used interchangeably. There are two types
viz:
Maintenance ration and production ration.
Maintenance ration – This type of feed/ration is given to farm animals to
prevent a loss or gain in weight. Maintenance ration is made of fibre and of poor
digestibility. It is given when-
- the animal has attain the market size/weight
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- the animal is in a resting period

- the weather is unfavourable or scarcity of feed ingredients
- the animals are on transit
Production ration – This diet supplies nutrient above maintenance and enables
farm animals to offer the required product of high quality. It is fortified with peculiar
nutrient for such product e.g layers’ mash in poultry usually contains higher calcium
content for the birds to lay strong shelled eggs. Animals that require production
ration include-
 lactating animal for milk production
 weaned animals for quick growth
 layer birds for egg production
 pregnant animals for the maintenance of the foetus
 broilers and fattening animals for build up of flesh
 animals for steaming up or flushing for improved oogenesis before mating
Balanced Diet – This is a feed formulation which contains all the essential feed
ntrients required by farm animals in the appropriate proportion
MALNUTRITION
This is a condition in which farm animals show evidence of nutritional disorders
when their feed is lacking in one or more essential feed nutrients or inadequate
quantity of feed is given over a period of time leading to starvation and loss of
condition. { refer to the nutrient table}
WEEK 4
RANGELAND AND PASTURE MANAGEMENT
Rangeland is an extensive area of land which contains grasses, legumes and other
herbage crops where animals can graze.
A pasture is a piece of land cultivated to grasses and other herbage plants purposely
for feeding ruminant animals.
Importance of Rangeland
1 Serves as source of food for ruminant animals

2 Rangeland allows farm animals to exercise their body
3 It gives opportunity for mating among farm animals
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4 Animal dung helps in maintaining soil fertility

5 It supplies grasses and legumes for preparing hay and silage
6 It is a cheap source of feed for ruminant animals
Characteristics of A Rangeland
1Highquality grasses, legumes and herbage are present in a good range land
2 It contains some shade trees
3 It should be free of weeds and other poisonous plants
4 It can withstand trampling
5 It can also withstand drought
6 The grasses, legumes and other herbage plants have high regenerative ability.
Methods of Rangeland and Pasture Improvement/

Maintenance Practices in Pasture or Rangeland
1) Controlled stocking
2) Reseeding
3) Paddocking- This is the partitioning of a vast rangeland or pasture into units
to be able to practice rotational grazing.
4} Fertilizer application
5} Weed control
6} Maintenance of grass/ legume mixture
Advantages of grass/legume mixture
a It supplies balance diet to farm animals

b Legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil
c Legumes helps in suppressing weed growth
d It prevents soil erosion
e It improves palatability of the pasture
7} Irrigation especially in the dry season for continuous growth of the pasture
8} The practice of rotational grazing
9} Pest and disease control
10 Control burning [advantages]
It breaks the cycle of animal pests, parasites and pathogens
It gives room for the rejuvenation of pasture
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 Carrying Capacity- This is the optimum number of animals that can

conveniently graze on a pasture without causing overgrazing
.
Factors That Determine The Productivity Of A Pasture/ Rangeland
 Climatic factor especially rainfall and temperature

 Soil fertility
 Topography of the rangeland
 Grazing pattern adopted
 Resistance to trampling
Pasture Utilization
A Grazing B Soilage C Browsing
Pasture Preservation
Pasture can be harvested and preserved for future uses especially in the dry season
or winter period when the animals will not found grasses or unable to go out for
grazing. These are :
A. Hay i.e sundried grasses and leaves of other edible plants. The plants are
harvested when they are about to flower. They are left overnight to wilt before sun-
drying
Qualities of a good hay
 High leaf/stem proportion
 Fair retention of the green colour
 Soft and palatable
 Free from weeds, non-edible and poisonous plants
 Possess pleasant and sweet aroma
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B. Silage – This is the fermented product of green fodder. The grasses are
preserved by the organic acid of the anaerobic fermentation of the sugar in the
leaves.
Qualities of a good silage
 Has an acidic taste
 Light green in colour
 Pleasant and sweet aroma
 High leaf stem proportion

Some PastureGrasses and Legumes
Pasture grases Pasture legumes

Northern Gamba grass Andrpogon gayanus Centro- Centrosema pubescens
Southern Gamba Andropogon tectorum Calopo- Calopogonium mucunoides
Guinea grass Panicum maximum Mucuna – Mucuna utilis
Elephant grass Pennisetum purpureum Puero - Pueraria phaseoloides
Giant star grass Cynodon clectstachyum Stylo - Stylosanthes gracilis
Carpet grass Axonopus compressus Sun hemp- Crotalaria juncea
WEEK 5:
BASIC ECONOMICS PRINCIPLES
The basic economics principles we have are; scarcity, choice, scale of

preference and law of diminishing returns.
Scarcity:- This refers to the limited available resources used in satisfying the
unlimited human wants. These resources are scarce relative to their demand. It is a
result of scarcity of resources that made it essential to study economics in order to
find alternative uses of these scarce resources because available resources cannot
satisfy human wants.
Choice:- This arise as a result of numerous human wants and the scarcity of the
resources used in satisfying these wants hence decision making which is choice.
Hence, the process of selecting some needs for satisfaction out of many others based
on the resources available is known as choice.
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Scale of reference:- This refers to list of individual wants in order of their relative
importance which make it easier for choice to be made.
Law of Diminishing Returns:- It states that as more and more units of a variable
factor of production are added to fixed factor, after a certain paint, the marginal
product diminishes or decline.
PRODUCTION
Production: This is refers to all economic activities which results in the
creation of goods and service that can satisfy human want. For goods and services
to be created during the process of production, certain factors are combined together
known as factors of production namely land, labour, capital and entrepreneur or
management.
FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
(1) Land
(2) Labour
(3) Capital
(4) Entrepreneurship or management
LAND – It is a natural gift of nature. Its supply is limited. It is immobile.
However its size can be increased by reclamation practices like drainage. Its
quality can be improved or degraded depending on the management practices.
Land includes all natural resources like soil, mineral, climatic and atmosphere.
The reward for land is rent
.
LABOUR – This refers to all human efforts exerted in the course of
production. It may be mental or physical. Labour is mobile. Its quality is
affected by health, feeding and training. It is measured in man-hour or man-
day. Labour can be skilled or semi skilled or unskilled. The reward for labour
is salaries and wages
.
CAPITAL – This is the assets acquired by the farmer from his past efforts.
Capital is man- made. Capital in agriculture refers to machinery, stock of
animals, crops , buildings etc. Capital depreciates over time. Capital can be
increased by saving or borrowing. The reward for capital is interest.
ENTRPRENEURSHIP or MANAGEMENT – This is the coordinating

activity of the farm business. It controls, decides and administers all other
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factors of production. Management may be distinct or combine with labour

depending on the size of the farm. The reward for management is profit or
loss.
FUNCTIONS OF A FARM MANAGER

A farm manager is the person saddled with the responsibility of coordinating
ther factors of production towards a target product, agricultural produce. The
manager may be hired or done by the farmer him/herself. The following are
the functions of a farm manager:
1 The manager sets the objectives of the farm
2 He plans the use of farm resources
3 He takes decision on the farm enterprise
4He allocates resources to each sector of the farm enterprise
5 He supervises the daily activities of the farm
6 He sources for fund to finance the farm
7 He keeps the farm records and accounts
8 He markets the farm produce
9 The farm manager bears responsibility for all the decisions taken
MANAGEMENT GOALS
1. Minimization of cost
2. Maximization of profit
3. Survival of the business
4. Capturing of the existing market
5. Acquisition of economic power
6. Minimization of risks and uncertainties
WEEK 6:-
BASIC ECONOMIC PRINCIPLE OF DEMAND
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DEMAND: This is the amount or quantity of agricultural produce which a

consumer is willing and able to buy at a given price and at a particular period of
time.
LAW OF DEMAND: It states that, the higher the price, the lower the
quantity of agricultural produce demanded for or the lower the price, the higher the
quantity of goods demanded for.
ASSUMPTIONS FOR THE LAW OF DEMAND
(1) That there will be no change in taste and preference of the consumer.
(2) That the consumer’s income remains constant
FACTORS AFFECTING DEMAND
(1) Price of the produce
(2) Price of other commodities
(3) Income of consumer
(4)Changes in taste of consumer
(5) Population
(6) Periods of festival
(7)Expectation of future change in prices
(8) Taxation
{9} Availability of close substitute
Demand schedule:- This is a table showing the relationship between the

quantity demanded for an agricultural produce and its price. This illustrated
below
Price of rice #/ bag Quantity demanded { bags}

10 2000
20 1850
25 1700
35 1530
50 1367
75 1245
100 1100
Draw the graph
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Change in Demand:- This is brought about by changes in the price only. An increase
in price from #20:00 to #25:00 brings about a corresponding decrease in quantity of
rice demanded from 1850 to1700 and vice versa
Shift in Demand:- This is caused by any factor that can affect the purchasing power
of the consumers or reduce the cost of production or improve the yield. Such factors
include increase or decrease in consumers’ income, improved technology and season
WEEK 7: BASIC ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES OF SUPPLY

SUPPLY:- This is the quantity of commodity a producer is willing and able to offer
for sale at a given price over a particular period of time.
LAW OF SUPPLY:- It states that the higher the price, the higher the quantity of
produce that will be supplied or the lower the price, the lower the quantity of
produce that will be offered for sale
SUPPLY SCHEDULE:-
It is a table that shows the relationship between price and quantity of commodity
supplied
Price of maize Quantity offered for

{#/ bag} sale{ bags}
250 1100
300 1250
400 1400
400 1560
450 1780
500 1950
650 2056
Draw the graph
Change in quantity offered for sale:- This is brought about by changes in price of the
produce only. An increase in price from #250:00 to #300:00 shows an increase in
quantity supplied by farmers from 1100 bags to 1250 bags. This will be so because
the farmers want to make more profit and vice versa
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Shift in Supply:- This is caused by any factor that can positively or negatively affect
agricultural production. The farmer offered more or little for sale at the same price.
Such factors include {un}favourable weather, improved technology, government
subsidy, etc
Factors that affect supply of agricultural produce

(1) Price of commodity
(2)Price of other goods
(3)Changes in cost of production
(4) Technological advancement
(5) Changes in climate and weather
(6) Aims and objectives of the farmer
(7) Prices of factors of production
(8) Changes in the number of producers/ farmers
WEEK 8
DETERMINATION OF PRICE BY DEMAND AND SUPPLY
Market equilibrium is determined by the interaction of the forces of demand and

supply which is influenced by price.
The price at which the quantity demanded equates the quantity of goods supplied is
known as Equilibrium/ market price while the point where the demand curve meets
the supply curve is called Equilibrium quantity .
Table Illustrating Interaction Between Demand

And Supply Of Agricultural Produce
Price of yam tubers Quantity supplied Quantity

[#/ ton] [ tons] demanded[tons]
2150 200 630
2250 250 580
2400 340 515
2500 450 450
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2650 510 411

2750 570 380
2800 625 290
NB :- Draw the graph
Explanation- From the table above, equilibrium price Ep= #2500:00 and quantity
supplied Qs= quantity demanded Qd= 450 tons of yam tubers. At any price lower
than the Ep, Qd is always higher than the Qs i.e much money chasing few goods, the
price shoots up and thus attracts more suppliers. Also at any price above the Ep, Qs
is always larger than the Qd which means few money is chasing plenty goods. There
will be glut and the price is reduced to avoid spoilage. These forceful interactions
continue until the equilibrium price is attained.
Factors That Help In Maintaining The Equilibrium Price
1. Processing of excess produce into more durable forms

2. Distribution into non producing areas
3. Storage of excess farm produce
4. Subsidy by the government
IMPLICATIONS OF DEMAND AND SUPPLY ON AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTION
(1) Increase in number of farmers will lead to higher supply and reduction in price
of food
(2) High cost of production may lead to low supply and high prices of products
(3) When demand for an agricultural product is lower than the supply, the price for
such product will fall discouraging farmers from further production
(4)Higher supply of agricultural products by producers may lead to reduction in
price and demand
(5) Supply of farm produce will be high when climate or weather for production of
crops is favorable
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(6) High cost of a particular product e.g. yam may lead to low demand for that
product and high demand for a close substitute e.g. sweet potato.
WEEK 9:
COMBINATION OF FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
LAW OF DIMINISHING RETURNS
The law of diminishing returns states that as successive amount of a variable factor
are added to a set of fixed factors, output might increase a lot but there comes
appoint at which additional unit of the variable input will add less and later
diminish the yield of the farm. The law shows the relationship between factors of
production and output when various combinations of inputs are used. The law is
illustrated thus:
Fixed Factors e.g Variable Factor e. g Total output Marginal returns

Land, Capital plus Labour kg [product per unit of
other factors labour] kg
2 1 I25 -
2 2 184 59
2 3 279 95
2 4 358 79
2 5 399 41
2 6 430 31
2 7 438 8
2 8 425 -13
Draw the curve
From the table above, an increase in the number of labour from 1 to 3 brings
about an tremendous increase in the total output than the preceding year i.e 59
and 95 respectively. This referred to as increasing marginal returns.
From 4 to 7 units of labour, total output keeps on increasing but at a reducing
rate. This is referred to as decreasing marginal return
At 8 unit of labour, total output reduces i.e diminishing returns
Importance of The Law of Diminishing Returns
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1. It shows the optimum level of input combinations.

2. It prevents wastage of inputs
3. It helps to determine level of salaries and wages
4. It helps in maximizing the input utilization
PROBLEMS OF A FARM MANAGER
1. In-adequate farm input

2. Problem of marketing
3. Administrative problem
4. Government policies
5. In-adequate information
6. In-adequate personnel
7. Transport problem
8 . Financial problem
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AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS: SSS THREE TERM: 1ST TERM
WEEK 1: CROP IMPROVEMENT
Crop improvement refers to the ways of developing and breeding varieties of

crops that would perform better than the existing varieties in a number of characters.
Aims of crop Improvement
i To increase crop yield
ii. To breed crops with early maturity
iii. To meet the needs of growers eg uniformity in height for easy mechanization.
iv. To produce crops which can adapt to harsh weather and climatic conditions
v. To develop crop varieties that are resistant to pests and diseases
vi To develop crops that will meet the processors needs e.g seedlessness in citrus
vii To meet the needs of the consumers eg reduction in the time of cooking in cowpea
viii To improve the nutritional value of crop produce eg vitamin in cassava
Definition of Genetic Terms
i. Traits or Characters ii. Chromosomes iii. Genes iv. Gamete v. Zygote
vi. Allomorphs vii. Phenotype viii. Genotype ix. Dominant gene
x. Recessive gene
1. Traits or Characters: These are inherited attributes which plant breeders select e.g
seed colour, disease resistance etc.
2. Chromosomes: These are rod or thread like shaped bodies found in the nucleus of
a cell
3. Genes: They are hereditary units located in the chromosomes and are responsible
for the transmission of traits from parents to offsprings.
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4. Genotype: This is the trait or sum total of the genes inherited from both parents i.e
the genetic make-up of an individual which can either be dominant or recessive e.g.
TT for tallness or tt for shortness
5. Phenotype: This is the physical expression of the genes in an individual or the
physical appearance of the individual.
6. Dominant genes: These are the genes whose effects are expressed in every
individual e.g TT or Tt for tallness where T is a dominant gene
7. Recessive genes: These are the genes whose presence are suppressed example as in
Tt (shortness) where t is a recessive gene.
8. Gamete: This is a mature sex cell which is involved in sexual reproduction.
Mendelian Laws of Inheritance
a. Mendel’s 1st Law of Segregation of Genes: This law states that the characteristics
of an organism are controlled by genes of which only one of the pair is passed to the
offspring. It implies that genes are responsible for the expression an individual’s
traits and are independently transmitted from one generation to another without
undergoing any alteration.
This law can be illustrated thus:
Genes: TT tt
Phenotype Tall Short
Gamete T t
Offspring (F1) Tt (Tall)

When the offsprings from this combination are crossed, the following result would
be obtained.
Parents: Tt x Tt
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Gametes T or t T or t
Gametes TT Tt Tt tt
Genotypic expression of the offsprings are in the ratio of 1:2:1 while the phenotypic
expression of the offsprings are in the ratio of 3 tall and 1 short. The segregation of
these genes actually took place in the F2 generation.
b. Mendel’s 2nd Law of Independent Assortment of Genes: It states that each character
behaves as a separate unit and is inherited independently of any other character.
In an attempt to illustrate this law, two traits/characters are considered. For instance,
crossing a parent plant with smooth and yellow seeds with another with wrinkled
and white seeds.
Illustration:
Parents: Smooth and Yellow x Wrinkled and White
Genes SSYY ssyy
Gametes SY sy
F1 offspring SsYy (Smooth and Yellow)

In order to get the F2 generation where the F1 is crossed with another F1 generation,
16 offsprings would be obtained in the ratio of 9:3:3:1. This ratio could be better
understood when a checker board is used for illustration.
SsYy x SsYy
The gametes would segregate as SY, sY, Sy and sy
SY sY Sy Sy
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SY SSYY SsYY SSYy SsYy

sY SsYY ssYY SsYy ssYy
Sy SSYy SsYy SSyy Ssyy
sy SsYy ssYy Ssyy Ssyy
The result of this crossing in the F2 generation is:

Smooth and yellow seeds = 9
Smooth and white seeds = 3
Wrinkled and yellow seeds = 3
Wrinkled and white seeds = 1
Processes of Crop Improvement

The processes of crop improvement include introduction, selection, breeding or
hybridization.
1. Introduction: This is the importation of some varieties of crop with desirable
characteristics to areas where they have not existed before. Imported crops are first
quarantine before planting. Introduction is done to upgrade the qualities of local
varieties of crops.
Advantages
a. It may enhance greater productivity
b. It helps to upgrade quality of local varieties of crops
c. Crops with better characteristics are introduced
d. Absence of pests and diseases
Disadvantages
a. There is possibility of introducing new crop diseases and pests
b. The introduced crop may not be able to adapt to soil and climatic conditions in the
new area
c. It may be costly when crops are imported from other countries.
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2. Selection: This is the artificial picking of crops with desirable characteristics which
are mostly favoured by the environment.
Methods of Selection
a. Mass selection: this involves the selection of many plants that show desirable traits
for breeding
b. Pureline/individual selection: this occurs when only one plant with desirable
qualities is selected
c. Pedigree selection; here, selection is based on the performance of the
parents/ancestors
d. Progeny selection: this is the selection of plants based on the performance of the
offsprings.
Advantages
i. It ensures that only the best naturally available crop is grown
ii. Crops with desired qualities are selected
iii. Crops with undesirable character are rejected
iv. It reduces the spread of diseases and pests
Disadvantages
i. Selection is tedious and time consuming
ii. It requires expertise which may not be available
iii. It brings about the elimination of some desirable traits of parent stock
3. Breeding or Hybridization: This is the method of crossing two different plant
varieties of the same species to produce an offspring.
Types of Breeding
a. In-breeding: This is the pollination and fertilization of closely related crop plants,
this can lead to pure line or pure breed.
b. Cross breeding: This is the pollination and fertilization of unrelated crop plants
belonging to different breeds. Offsprings produced are superior to the performance
of the parents; this is known as heterosis or hybrid vigour.
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Advantages
i. It can produce superior offsprings known as heterosis
ii. Offsprings can withstand variations of environment
iii. Progeny grows more rapidly
Disadvantages
i. It may lead to poor or low resistance to disease attack
ii. It can lead to depression or loss in vigour and performance of offspring known as
inbreeding depression.
iii. There is drop in production or yield of crops in terms of quality and quantity.
Methods of improving crop productivity
Productivity of crops can be achieved through a combination of methods such as
1. Proper timing of planting
2. Crop improvement method
3. Adoption of better cultivation method
4. Use of manure and fertilizer
5. Control of pests and diseases
6. Use of resistant varieties of crops
7. Use of good crop varieties
WEEK 2: ANIMAL IMPROVEMENT
This refers to ways of developing and breeding only animals that show the greatest
merit such as disease resistance, high growth rate, egg size, etc. It also involves the
upgrading of existing local breeds as a result of some desirable characteristics they posses.
Aims of animal improvement
i. To produce animals that can give high yield of products such as milk, meat, etc
ii. To produce animals with high feed conversion efficiency
iii. To produce animals that can adapt to climatic or environmental conditions
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iv. To produce animal varieties that can mature early

v. To produce animal varieties with increased resistance to pest and disease attacks
Processes of Animal Improvement

There are four processes or methods of animal improvement i.e Introduction,
Selection, Breeding and Artificial Insemination.
1. Introduction: This involves bringing into the farm or country high quality breeds
of livestock with high productive capacity and other good desirable traits.
Introduction may involve the actual importation of an animal possessing the desired
traits or its semen from its country of origin into a new area.
Types of breeds of animals
a. Local breeds
b. Exotic or imported breeds
c. Crossbreeds/Hybrids
Advantages of Introduction
i. Breeds may perform better in terms of quality and quantity, if it is able to adapt to
local environment
ii. It takes less time to get animals with desirable qualities than through breeding
Disadvantages of Introduction
i. It may introduce new pests and diseases in the area
ii. It may have the problem of adaptation to the new area
iii It may not perform maximally
2. Selection: This is the process of picking or selecting from a mixed population,

animals with desirable breeding values as parents.
Types of Selection
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a. Natural selection: Animals that could not withstand variation in weather conditions
may not survive especially in a new environment, hence they may die. When this
occurred, it is assumed that nature has done the selection by way of “survival of the
fittest”.
b. Artificial selection: This type of selection is the one done by man and it include the
following types
- Individual selection: Animals are picked on the basis of the performance of the
individual animal
- Mass selection: A group of animals are selected based on the average performance
of the group.
- Progeny selection: Selection is based on the performance of the offsprings.
- Family selection: Here, selection is done on the basis of the performance of the
family members.
- Pedigree selection: Selection under this class is done on the basis of the performance
of the parents.
Advantages of selection
i. Animals with undesirable characteristics are detected and rejected
ii. Animals from best breeds are bred for distribution
iii. Selection helps to reduce the spread of diseases/pests
Disadvantages of selection
i. It is tedious and time consuming
ii. It requires expertise which may not be readily available
3. Breeding: This involves breeding or development of animals by transferring

inherited qualities from parents to offsprings mainly through mating.
Types of Breeding
i. In breeding: This involves the mating of two animals that are closely related to
produce n offspring.
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ii. Cross breeding: This involves the mating of two animals that are of same species
but of different breeds.
Advantages of breeding
i. It brings about hybrid vigour or heterosis i.e the crossing or mating of superior
animals
ii. Offsprings grow rapidly and the animals are more economical to rear
Disadvantages of breeding
i. It may result in poor resistance to disease and pest attacks
ii. It may result in reduction in vigour and performance
4. Artificial Insemination: This is the introduction of semen into the reproductive

tract of the female by a method other than through natural mating. This method is done for
female animals on heat. Methods of collecting semen from desired male animals for
artificial insemination include:
i. use of artificial vagina to stimulate the male animal
ii. use of a dummy
iii. massaging the male organ (penis)
iv. recovery of semen from the vagina after ejaculation
v. use of electro-ejaculator
Collected semen is diluted and stored in a freezer under a very low temperature until
when it is required for use. The diluted semen is deposited into the reproductive tract of a
female animal on heat using a rubber syringe.
Advantages
i. It brings about reduction in the transmission of venereal and infectious diseases
ii. The semen of a good bull can still be used long after the death of the bull.
iii. The method is easier than natural mating
iv. It is cheaper to import the semen of exotic breeds than importing the animal.
v. Semen from a single proven male could be used to service many female animals.
vi. It improves the profit margins of the farmer
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Disadvantages
i. It requires expertise which may not be readily available
ii. It may be difficult to detect heat in female animals
iii Semen, when not properly handled and stored may die before being used for
insemination
iv. The method is easy for only female animals whose heat/oestrus cycles are easily
detected.
WEEK 3: ANIMAL HEALTH MANAGEMENT
Disease: This is any abnormality in the functions of the tissues, organs or system of an
animal’s body.
Causes of livestock diseases
Diseases in livestock are classified based on their causes. Examples are those caused by
Viruses (Viral diseases) e g. foot nd mouth disease, rinderpest, Newcastle diseases, etc ,
ii. Bacteria (Bacterial diseases) e. g. brucellosis, anthrax, tuberculosis, fowl typhoid, etc.,
iii. Fungi (Fungal diseases) e. g. ring worm, aspergillosis, etc,
iv. Protozoa (Protozoan diseases) e. g. coccidiosis, trypanosomiasis, etc
v. Malnutrition (Malnutritional diseases) e.g. rickets, kwashiorkor, marasmus, aenamia,
osteoporosis/osteomalacia, etc
Resistance and Susceptibility

Resistance: This is when an animal is not affected by an invading pathogenic disease
causing organism or pathogen. Resistance of an animal to disease attack depends on age
and specie of animal, level of feeding, development of immunity, etc. Susceptibility on the
other hand is when an animal is not able to ward off the effect of an invading pathogenic
organism.
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Factors that can predispose animals to diseases

i Poor housing
ii. Sanitation
iii. Health status of animal/nutrition
iv. Management system
Economic importance of animal disease
a. It leads to poor feed utilization by animals
b. It brings about low yield of production
Methods of preventing diseases
i. Isolation
ii. Vaccination.
iii. Quarantine
iv. Hygiene
v. Good feeding
vi. Rotational grazing
WEEK 4: ANIMAL HEALTH MANAGEMENT
Livestock Parasite
Parasite is an organism living in or on another organism called the host. Parasite
derives benefits such as food, shelter, etc from the host while in most cases the host is
harmed or injured. A parasite living inside the host is called an endoparasite e.g tapeworm,
round worm, liver fluke, etc while the one living on the body of the host is called an
ectoparasite e.g tick, fleas, lice, etc.
A. Endoparasites
1. Roundworm: - Ascaris lumbricoides
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The roundworm is an elongated cylindrical white worm with pointed ends and
smooth body covered by thick, tough cuticle of few centimeters long.
Life cycle of Roundworm
Eggs are fertilized in the female worm and the larvae develop within the egg shells.
The eggs are deposited in the intestine of pig where they are passed out with the faeces into
the soil and remain there for years.
Economic Importance of Roundworm
i. High infestation can affect respiration of host
ii. They reduce growth of host animals
iii. They cause slow growth in affected animal
iv. Infestation results in poor appetite
Control
i. Deworm pigs with piperazine drugs regularly
ii. Practice and maintain good sanitation
iii. Animals should be given good and clean water and feeds
2. Tapeworm: - Taenia solium
Tapeworm is a long endoparasite flatworm that has a very small head, neck and long
segmented body. It belongs to the group platyhelminthes. It can be found in pigs and cattle
which are the secondary hosts while man is the primary host.
Economic Importance of Tapeworm
Infestation of Tape worm causes the following problems in affected animals
i. Indigestion
ii. Anaemia
iii. Abdominal pain or discomfort
iv. Weakness
v. Poor growth rate
Control
i. Practice good sanitation for livestock
ii. Cook meat properly before eating
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3. Liver fluke: Fasciola hepatica

The liver fluke is a flattened leaf-like organism brown in colour and about 2cm long.
Farm animals like cattle, sheep and goat are the primary hosts while snail (Limnaca
truncatula) is the secondary host.
How to break the life cycle of liverfluke

1. Control weeds along river sides
2. Periodic burning of pasture to kill eggs in faeces
Economic Importance of Liver fluke
i. It causes anaemia i.e inability to produce blood/shortage of blood
ii. It causes liver rot and may lead to death
iii. It may obstruct digestive process
iv. Severe infestation may cause death of infested animals
Control
i. Introduce duck and geese to eat up snails
ii. Drain pasture properly
iii. Practice rotational grazing and control movement of livestock
B. Ectoparasites
i. Tick: This is an ectoparasite of cattle, sheep and goat. The body is divided into head
and abdomen. It has four pairs of tough leathery integument and a toothed hypostome used
for sucking blood of host.
Life cycle of tick
It occurs in four stages; egg, larvae, nymphs and adult stages
Economic Importance of Tick
i. They suck blood leading to anaemia
ii. They cause irritation which results in restlessness
iii. Injuries caused may become source of secondary infection
Control
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i. Animals beddings should be changed regularly

ii. New stock should be isolated
iii. Rotational grazing should be adopted
iv. Ticks on the body of the animal could be hand picked while cattle egrets could also
be allowed to peck the parasite
2. Life Cycle of Lice

Lice spend their whole life on the surface of the host. They lay their eggs called nits
on the hair or feather of the host. The young one called the nymph emerges from the
hatched egg and becomes the adult louse after series of mounting of skin. Life cycle takes
about 3- 4 weeks. Transmission from host is by body contact.
Economic Importance of Lice
i. They suck blood which leads to anaemia
ii. They act as vectors of diseases
iii. Attack causes low productivity
iv. Infected young animals show signs of retarded growth
v. Sores from scratching expose animals to further infections
Control
i. Maintain clean surroundings
ii. Ensure regular dipping of animals
iii. Spray infected animals’ body with insecticides
WEEK 5: AQUACULTURE OR FISH FARMING
Fish farming is the act of rearing selected species of fish such as crabs, prawns,
shellfish, etc under scientifically controlled condition in enclosed bodies of water such as
pond, lakes, tanks, etc.
Terminologies
Fisheries – The study of fish and fishes
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Pond – Artificial body of water where fish(es) are reared

Fingerlings – Baby fish(es)/young fish(es) (weeks old)
Fry - Newly hatched fishes (days old)
Juvenile – A young fish
Hatchery - An artificial unit where eggs are incubated and hatched artificially
Aquarium – Artificial fish pond kept for experiment /aesthetic or entertainment purposes
at home
Importance of fish farming

i. Fish is a source of food and protein
ii. Source of employment and income to people
iii. Source of recreation
iv. Source of income
v. It can serve as a source of foreign exchange when exported outside the country.
vi. Scales of fish can be used as ornaments.
Conditions or factors for siting a fish pond

a. Soil in the area (Clayey soil is necessary for an earthen fish pond)
b. Adequate water supply
c. Vegetation of area
d. Topography
e. Basic infrastructure
f. Security
g. Accessibility
Classification of fishes
Fishes are classified into 2 main groups
1. Classification based on habitat

a. Fresh water fishes
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b. Salt water fishes

2. Classification based on body structure
a. Bony fishes
b. Cartilaginous fishes
Features of a standard fish pond

i. Dam ii. Core trench iii. Distribution channel iv. Spill way
v. Monk/Outlet vi. Inlet
Operations to be carried out when constructing fish pond
i. Site selection ii. General survey iii. Clearing and stumping of site iv. Pond
fertilization
Maintanace of fish pond
1. Desilting 2. Constant supply of water 3. Aeration 4. Regular water and
erosion control 6. Pest control
Fish processing and preservation
- Fish Processing
- Fish Preservation
i. Salting
ii. Canning
iii. Smoking
iv. Freezing
Fishing tools or gears
They are tools used for harvesting or cropping of fishes. These include Fishing
nets such as Scoop net, Gill net and Seine net
ii. Fishing trawlers
iii. Fishing basket
iv. Hook and Line
Fishery Laws and Regulations
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Fishery regulations are sets of rules and laws governing the exploitation and other
practices of fishery resources especially in open access water. They are also laws made by
government in order to control and protect fish harvesting so that they don’t go into
extinction.
These regulations include:
i. Allocation of fishing area
ii. Close season: prohibits fishing activity within a given period of time
iii. Population control: requires the use of other fish species to control population
explosion in the pond
iv. Regular stocking: involves the addition of desired species into the pond in
order to increase the number of fishes in the pond
v. Prevention of vessels: this is the prevention of use of vessels within the first
two nautical miles of the Nigerian territorial waters.
vi. Prohibition of use of explosives and poisonous substances to kill fishes
Ways of making fishery regulations effective in Nigeria
- Revocation of license
- Simple presentation to farmers
- Use of local or native language
- Use of law enforcement agents
WEEK 6: APICULTURE / BEEKEEPING

Apiculture is a branch of agriculture that deals with the rearing of bees in an
enclosed environment for the production of honey and other by products.
Importance of beekeeping
i. Little space is required for rearing
ii. Honey produced is a source of income
iii. Beekeeping serves as source of employment
Types of Bee
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i. Queen ii. Workers iii. Drones

Bee Products
i. Honey ii. Royal jelly iii. Wax iv. Honey poison
Bee Keeping Equipment
i. Hand gloves
ii. Hooded suit or hat
iii. Face mask
iv. Overall clothing
v. Hive and hive tool
vi. Jungle boots and brushes
vii. Smokers
Methods of Bee Keeping
a. Traditional Bee Keeping: this is the keeping of bees in artificial hives made from
wooden boxes, pottery vessels or woven straw baskets. At time of harvest, the entire
colony would be destroyed using smoke.
b. Modern Bee Keeping: this involves the keeping of bees in movable hives which
allow for better inspection of bee colonies in their hives.
Precautionary Measures in Bee Keeping
i. Always wear protective clothings
ii. Locate apiary far away from human dwellings
iii. Use bee smokers
iv. Put warning signs/symbols near the apiary
WEEK 7: AGRICULTURAL FINANCING

i. Agricultural Finance
ii. Agricultural Credits
Agricultural Finance is the acquisition and utilization of money required for agricultural
production. Agricultural credit refers to the financial assistance/loans received by the
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farmer to start and run/or expand his farm business. Agricultural credits are repayable
with interest over a specified period of time.
Importance of Agricultural Finance
i. It helps to determine the area of land that a farmer can cultivate effectively;
ii. It is required for increased output;
iii. Agricultural marketing is enhanced with availability of adequate finance
iv. It helps to guard against some uncertainties
v. It increases the efficiency of farm operations
Types of farm credits
i. Short term credit: This is a type of loan that is obtained, utilized and paid back
within a short period of time usually within a year or two.
ii. Medium term credit: This type is paid back within a period of two and five years.
iii. Long term credit: Long term credits are paid back after five years of acquisition.
iv. Interest: Interest is the amount of money that is payable on the credit facility
obtained by an individual either from banks, individuals or other lending agencies.
Differences between subsidy and credit

S/N Credit Subsidy
1. It is repayable It is non-repayable
2. It is always in cash It may be in cash or kind
3. It has a time period for refunding It is given and never to be returned
WEEK 8: AGRICULTURE FINANCING

Sources of Farm Finance
i. Individuals
ii. Cooperative Societies
iii. Agricultural Banks
iv. Supervised Agricultural Credit Scheme
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v. Self financing
vi. Thrift and Savings
vii. Commercial Banks
viii. Money Lenders
ix. Government Agencies
WEEK 9: PROBLEMS FARMERS ENCOUNTER FROM SOME CREDIT

SOURCES
1. Family sources
- Loan is usually small and inadequate
- It can only be used for short term purpose
2. Community Banks
- A would-be lender must first open account with them before obtaining loans
3. Money lender
- Interest rates are too high for farmers to pay back
4. Commercial Banks
- They are biased because they usually favour large scale farmer
Implications of Farm Credits
Famers find it difficult to obtain loans from banks due to the following reasons:
i. Bureaucracy
ii. Lack of collateral security
iii. Small farm holding
iv. Lack of farm records
v. Lack of insurance policy
vi. High interest rates
vii. Lack of moratorium
viii. Long gestation period of some crops
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ix. Unpredictable climate that can lead to crop failure

x. Lack of awareness
TERM: 2ND TERM
WEEK 1: FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

Farm Accounts: These are statements of money paid out (for purchase of farm produce,
settlement of debts, etc) or received (due to sales of farm produce or loans) used in farming
business.
Farm Records: These are written documents that show major activities going on in the
farming business.
Importance of Farm Records and Accounts
i. Farm records help to tell the history of the farm business
ii. To determine the actual worth of a farm
iii. They help to determine whether profit or loss is made
iv. They help in farm auditing
v. They assist in providing the farmer with figures for planning and budgeting
purposes
vi. They help the farmer to obtain loan from banks
vii. They assist in eliminating fraudulent practices on the farm.
Types of Farm Records
i. Farm Diary: This record shows the day-to-day activities on the farm. All important
activities on the farm are recorded accordingly. Below is an illustration
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Date Work done No. of Duration Wage Total wage Remarks

worker rate
ii. Farm Inventory: this is used to document all assets that are available to the farmer
on the farm. Aside from recording the property of the farm, the monetary value of
each item/asset is also recorded in the book. Inventory is usually done at the
beginning and middle of the year.
S/N Farm Asset Quantity Date of Amount (N)

purchase
iii. Farm input record: is used to note all items/inputs used in the running of the farm.
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Date Input used Quantity used Purpose/Remarks
iv. Production record: is a record which shows all that is produced on the farm at the
end of each farming season. This record could be crop production record or
livestock production record.
Crop Production Record
Crop Type Date of Harvesting Quantity Remarks

Harvested
Livestock Production/Breeding Record
Type of No Bought No No. that No. sold Remarks

Animal Delivered died
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v. Sales record: shows all the sales made by the farmer either on a daily, weekly or
monthly basis.
Date Item sold Quantity Rate Amount Remarks
vi. Consumption record: shows all items produced on the farm and consumed by the
farmer and his family
Date Details of items consumed Amount Remarks
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vii. Expenditure and income record: the monetary value of inputs utilized in the farm
and output from the farm are recorded in this record.
Expenditure Details Income Details Remarks
WEEK 2: FARM ACCOUNTS
Farm Accounts: are the financial statements of all transactions on the farm stating all
monies received or paid out by the farmer within an accounting year. The farm accounts
enable the farmer to know whether the farmer is actually making a profit or incurring
losses at any given period of time.
Types of Farm Accounts
i. Expenditure account: gives the details of all items purchased and utilized on the
farm. Hence, it is also known as the Purchase account.
ii Income and sales account: gives a detail of farm items/produce sold, type of
item, quantity sold, date of sale and amount sold.
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iii. Profit and Loss account: contains a record of the income from the sales of farm
items and expenses incurred. It shows a picture of the profit or loss incurred
during the accounting period, which is usually a year.
iv. Balance sheet: this gives a detail of the financial standing of the farm as it relates
to the farm assets and liabilities as at the close of the accounting year usually a
year.
Definitions of some accounting terms

1. Liabilities: are all the external debts of the farm business i.e. the amount that the
business owes to persons other than its owners
2. Farm Assets: are those items either owned by the farmer or owed the farmer.
They could be physical items or cash (fixed or current assets)
3. Useful life of an asset: is the period in which an asset can conveniently be used on
a farm with little or no maintenance after which it is termed a scrap .
4. Appreciation: is the increase in value of an asset over a given period of time.
5. Depreciation: is the reduction in the value of an asset over a given period of time.
Depreciation could be calculated using the straight line method or the sum of the
year digit.
6. Salvage value: is the value of an asset after its useful life span or the amount
realized from the sale of an asset after its life span.
WEEK 3: MARKETING OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE

Agricultural marketing involves all the activities required in the movement of farm
produce from the producer (farmer) to the final consumers.
Importance of Marketing
1. It enables producer to know the taste of consumers
2. It locates areas of surplus and brings them to areas of shortage
3. It provides employment opportunities for people engaged in farming directly or
indirectly
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4. It ensures the availability of of seasonal crops throughout the year

5. It makes provision the of credit facilities to farmers
6. Government generates revenue through levies
Marketing Channels
These are pathways or channels through which farm produce pass through to get the
final consumers. They are:
i. Local market
ii. Cooperative societies
iii. Middlemen
iv. Commissioned agents
Functions or stages of agricultural marketing
i. Processing
ii. Advertisement
iii. Trading
iv. Packaging
v. Assemblage
vi. Transportation
vii. Bank financing
viii. Branding
WEEK 4: MARKETING AGENTS
Marketing agents are people or bodies who are involved in the marketing of farm
produce. They include
1. Producer/farmer
Advantages:
i. Consumers get product fresh
ii. Consumers get goods at reduced prices
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Disadvantages:
i. Lack of storage facilities,
ii. It diverts farmer’s attention at reduced prices.
2. Cooperative society
Advantages:
i. They sell at reduced rate,
ii. They provide storage facilities
iii. They counter the exploitative tendencies of middlemen
iv. They enjoy the advantages of large scale production
Disadvantages:
i. It is prone to financial misappropriation;
ii. It does not encourage individual enterprise
iii. It may take some time before a decision is reached
3. Wholesaler
Advantages:
i. They purchase produce in bulk,
ii. They have good transportation facilities
iii. They grant credits to retailers thereby boosting trading
Disadvantage:
i. They inflate prices of produce,
ii. They exploit producers and retailers
4. Retailers
Advantages:
i. They give credit to consumers,
ii. They make produce readily available to consumers
iii. They sell in smaller quantities to consumers
iv. They inform wholesalers about changes in the taste/choice of consumers.
Disadvantages:
i. They can suffer loss due to pilfering and decay of perishable goods,
125
ii. They hoard produce

iii. They sometimes arbitrarily inflate prices of farm produce.
WEEK 5: WAYS OF IMPROVING OR ENCOURAGING MARKETING OF

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE
1. Provision of good roads

2. Provision of sufficient capital or finance
3. Provision of adequate market infrastructure
4. Provision of storage facilities
5. Market research
6. Good government policies
Characteristics or Features of Agricultural Produce
1. Perishability i e farm produce gets spoilt shortly after harvesting cannot be held
for a long period
2 Bulkiness ie farm produce are heavy and needs to be carried with special device
need for transportation
3 Processing most agricultural produce have to be transformed to a new form before
they can be consumed. This is so because they possess poisonous materials eg
cassava
4 Seasonality Each crop has its own time of the year when it is usually in abundance.
This calls for a storage device to make it available throughout the year
Problems of Agricultural Marketing
1. Perishability of farm produce
2. Problems of middlemen
3. Inadequate processing facilities
4. Frequent changes in price
5. Poor financing
6. Subsistence agriculture
126
7. Problem of assemblage
8. Contamination of products
WEEK 6: AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
Agricultural extension is an informal, out-of–school voluntary agricultural

education that involves the dissemination of information in agriculture from researchers to
farmers through extension agents. The new ideas are aimed at improving the farming
techniques and output/outlook of the farmers
Roles/Functions/Objectives of Agricultural Extension

1. An intermediary between farmers and research institutes
2. Supervision of Agricultural Development Programmes
3. Teaches improved farming practice
4. Identification of proper marketing channel
5. It helps to source and procure farm inputs
6. It assesses agricultural extension programmes and projects
7. It helps farmers to help themselves
8. It assists the farmers to improve their social and cultural well-being.
9. To teach rural people how to recognize and take interest in their problems so as to
overcome them
10. To evaluate successes or shortfalls of extension programme
Problems of Agricultural Extension in West Africa

1. Inadequate extension workers
2. Undefined roles for agent
3. Delay in information dissemination
4. Non-involvement of extension officer
5. High level of illiteracy among farmers
127
6. Conservative attitude of farmers

7. Inaccessibility of rural communities
8. Poor remuneration of extension agents
9. Bureaucratic bottlenecks in the implementation of government policies
Target Groups of Extension Agents
 Farmers Cooperative Societies
 Nomads, Youth Organizations e.g Young Farmers’ Clubs
 Commercial and subsistence farmers
 Fishermen / fish farmers
 Non-Governmental Organization (NGO)
 Beekeepers
 Community Development Associations (CDAs)
Methods of dissemination new ideas and techniques to farmers

These are media or channels through which new ideas and techniques are
disseminated to rural farmers. We have three methods viz: individual, group and mass
media
1. Individual Method: The individual farmers are contacted either in their homes or
directly on their farms where the new innovations are passed across to them.
2. Group Method: Under this method, a group of farmers are involved. Here, mode
of information dissemination could be through lectures, symposia, group discussion,
workshops and demonstrations.
3. Mass Media: Involves passing information across to a large number of farmers at
the same time through the media such as radio, television, posters, handouts, etc.
a. Electronic Media e.g. Television set, radio, film shows
b. Print Media e.g. Newspapers, News Bulletin, pamphlets, circulars, etc
128
Agricultural Extension Programmes in West Africa

Examples of Agricultural Programmes
* Farm Settlement Scheme
* Agricultural Development Project (ADP)
* Directorate of Food, Road and Rural Infrastructure (DFFRI)
* Agricultural Loan schemes
* Green Revolution
* Operation Feed the Nation
* National Fadama program.
WEEK 7: ADOPTION OF INNOVATION

The rate at which new innovations are imbibed or accepted by farmers depend on several
reasons:
Factors affecting the rate of adoption of innovation

1. Financial status of farmer
2. Level of education
3. Attitude of farmer
4. Result of demonstration
5. Size of farm
6. Culture
7. Belief of the farmer
8. Presence of extension workers/agent
Categories of farmers based on adoption of innovation
1. Innovators
2. Early adopters
129
3. Late adopters
4. Never adopters
5. Laggards
Qualities, Functions and Problems of Extension Agents

An Extension Worker/Agent is an individual who had been trained technically and
professionally to disseminate new farming techniques to farmers/rural dwellers. He acts as
an intermediary, responsible for disseminating new ideas and techniques from research
institutes to farmers.
Qualities of a good Extension Worker

1. Good leadership traits
2. Respect for culture and tradition
3. Problems solving ability
4. Originality
5. Organizational ability
6. Technical knowledge
Functions/Roles of Extension Worker
1. He organizes and supervises farmers
2. He teaches the farmers new farming practices/techniques
3. He acts as intermediary between researchers and farmers
4. He assists farmers to source for and utilization of loans, input, e.t.c
5. He conducts and organizes training for farmers
Problems Facing Agricultural Extension Officers

1. Language barrier
2. Inadequate resources
3. Non-involvement of farmers in planning programme
4. Inadequate trained extension agents
130
5. High level of illiteracy on the part of the farmers
131

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OYO STATE LECTURE NOTE (AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE)

CLASS: SSS ONE.

WEEK 1: MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE

2. Provision of employments: agriculture provides employments for about 75% of

BRANCHES OR AREA OF SPECIALIZATION IN AGRICULTURE AND

The branches or area of specialization in agriculture and their contributions are

5. Agricultural economics and Farm management: its contributions are:

- It promotes better fishing processing

WEEK 2: PROBLEMS OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN WEST

3. Collateral security should be in form of guarantee rather than in material forms

6) Inadequate basic amenities: lack of basic amenities like electricity, pipe-borne

2. Rural farmers should be trained on modern systems of farming

10) Unpredictable climate: this discourages agricultural activities. It may leads to

WEEK 3: MEANING OF SUBSISTENCE AND COMMERCIAL

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SUBSISTENCE AND COMMERCIAL

ADVANTAGES OF SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE

DISADVANTAGES OF SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE

DISADVANTAGES OF COMMERCIAL AGRICULTURE

WEEK 4: ROLES OF GOVERNMENT IN AGRICULTURAL

EXAMPLES OF GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN

WEEK5: ROLES OF NON-GOVENMENTAL ORGANIZATION (NGOs) IN

WEEK 6: AGRICULTURAL LAWS AND REFORMS

Disadvantages of Land Tenure by Inheritance

Advantages of Land Tenure by Purchase or Free hold

Advantages of Leasehold System

3. It can be used as security to obtain loan

WEEK 7: AGRICULTURAL LAWS AND REFORMS CONTINUED

Aims of the Land Use Decree

Advantages of Land Use Decree

4. Certificate of occupancy which enables individuals to claim ownership of land

Disadvantages of Land Use Decree

WEEK 8: AGRICULTURAL ECOLOGY

GENERAL INTERACTION AMONG THE COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

WEEK 9: LAND AND ITS USES

II. Construction of building ( residential purpose)

HOW AGRICULTURAL LAND APPRECIATES IN VALUE

WEEK 10: FACTORS AFFECTING LAND AVAILABILITY FOR

SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

WEEK 1: AGRO-ALLIED INDUSTRIES

Agro Based Industries Raw Materials Used

iv. Textile Cotton

WEEK 2: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRIES

WEEK 3: ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL

1. Climatic factors : These are factors or elements of climate such as rainfall,

Climatic factors affecting agricultural production

ii) Temperature: This is the measure of degree of hotness or coldness of a place.

Effects of temperature on Agricultural Productivity

4. Optimun temperature is required for seed germination

iii) Wind: It refers to air in motion

v) Relative Humidity: Is the amount of moisture or water vapour in the atmosphere.

Biotic factors affecting agricultural production

Major types of rock

2. Sedimentary Rocks: It is formed from sediments accumulated in layers or strata

c. Chemically formed Sedimentary Rocks eg gypsum, nitrate etc

3. Metamorphic Rocks: They are rocks formed from pre-existing Igneous or

Economic Importance of Rocks In Agriculture

WEEK 5: SOIL FORMATION AND PROFILE DEVELOPMENT

Process of Soil Formation

WEEK 6: COMPOSITION (COMPONENTS) OF SOIL