The Performance

of Tribal Sarpanches
in Andhra Pradesh
The Performance
of Tribal Sarpanches
in Andhra Pradesh:

A Study

By

Komraiah Palamakula
The Performance of Tribal Sarpanches in Andhra Pradesh: A Study

By Komraiah Palamakula

This book first published 2018

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2018 by Komraiah Palamakula

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-0799-8

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-0799-9
 CONTENTS

List of Tables ............................................................................................. vii

Abbreviations ............................................................................................. ix

Acknowledgements .................................................................................... xi

Chapter I ...................................................................................................... 1
Introduction

Chapter II ................................................................................................... 11
Literature Review

Chapter III ................................................................................................. 23

The Panchayati Raj and Tribal Panchayats: An Overview

Chapter IV ................................................................................................. 51
Profile of Warangal District

Chapter V .................................................................................................. 67
Socio-economic Background of Tribal Sarpanches in Warangal District

Chapter VI ................................................................................................. 77
Performance of the Tribal Sarpanches

Chapter VII .............................................................................................. 111

Case Studies

Chapter VIII ............................................................................................ 129

Conclusion and Suggestions

Index ........................................................................................................ 135

 LIST OF TABLES

3.1 Population and Number of Ward Members in Andhra Pradesh

3.2 Frequency of Gram Sabha Meetings in Various States in India
4.1 Literacy Rate of Warangal’s ST population
4.2 ST Population in Warangal
4.3 Elected Sarpanches in Agency Areas of Andhra Pradesh
4.4 Elected Sarpanches in Agency Areas of Warangal
4.5 Demographics of Warangal District
4.6 Reservation for Gram Panchayat Sarpanches for Tribal People in
Warangal District, 2006-2011
4.7 Tribal Population of Andhra Pradesh
4.8 Population of Tribal Communities in Warangal District
5.1 Age of the Tribal Sarpanches
5.2 Sub-Caste of the Tribal Sarpanches
5.3 Education of the Tribal Sarpanches
5.4 Family Size of Respondents
5.5 Occupation of the Tribal Sarpanches
5.6 Housing of the Tribal Sarpanches
5.7 Landholdings of the Tribal Sarpanches
6.1 Political Experience (Background) of the Sarpanches
6.2 Social Service Activities Before Election as Sarpanch
6.3 Party Background of the Tribal Sarpanches
6.4 Support for Candidates for Sarpanch
6.5 Awareness of a Sarpanch’s Rights and Functions
6.6 Awareness of the Special Panchayati Raj Act
6.7 Sources of Awareness about the Special Panchayati Raj Act
6.8 Awareness of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act (CAA)
6.9 Source of Knowledge about the 73rd CAA
6.10 Awareness of the 1/70 Act
6.11 Source of Awareness about the 1/70 Act
6.12 Awareness of Special Programmes for Tribal People Funded by
Central and State Governments
6.13 Family Support for Sarpanches
6.14 Awareness About Village Development Institutions
6.15 Opinions of the Sarpanches on Govt. Officials and Non-Officials
6.16 Opinions of the Sarpanches About Village Problems
viii List of Tables

6.17 Opinions of the Sarpanches on their Duties and Responsibilities

6.18 Opinion on Taking Decisions Independently of the Grama Sabha
6.19 Opinion of the Sarpanches on Whether they Faced Problems in
Making Decisions on Village Development
6.20 Opinion on Successfully Raising Funds
6.21 Building of CC Roads in Villages and Surroundings
6.22 Internal Roads and Bridges in the Village
6.23 Construction of New School Buildings
6.24 Opinion on Purchasing and Distribution of Tribal Lands
6.25 Construction of Village Drainage Facilities
6.26 Successful Construction of Anganwadi Buildings
6.27 Small Village Irrigation Schemes
6.28 Provision of Milk-Producing Animals/Goats/Sheep Sanctioned
Through ITDA
6.29 Irrigation of Land Under Land Development Schemes
6.30 Opinion on Receiving Financial Support Under ITDA Schemes
6.31 Responsibility of a Sarpanch to Protect Village Assets
6.32 Active in Ending Bonded Labour and Rehabilitating School-Age
Children
6.33 Opinion on the Purchase of Tribal Lands by Non-Tribal People
6.34 Future Plans of the Tribal Sarpanches
6.35 Opinions of the Tribal Sarpanches on Improving their Performance
 ABBREVIATIONS

ADC: Autonomous District Council

AEE: Assistant Electrical Engineer.
BA: Bachelor of Arts
BC: Backward Caste
B.Ed: Bachelor of Education
BJP: Bharatiya Janata Party
BRGF: Backward Region Grant Fund
B.Tech: Bachelor of Technology
CC: Concrete-Cement (Road)
CPI(M): Communist party of India (Marxist)
CRPF: Central Reserve Protection Force
DPO: District Panchayat Officer
DRDA: District Rural Development Agency
DWACRA: Development of Women and Children in Rural
Areas (Association)
GS: Gram Sabha
GP: Gram Panchayat
HP: Himachal Pradesh
ICDS: Integrated Child Development Society
IEC: Information & Education Communication
ITDA: Integrated Tribal Development Agency
MCPI: Marxist Communist Party of India
MP: Madhya Pradesh
MPDO: Mandal Parishad Development Officer
MPTC: Mandal Parishad Territorial Constituency Officer
MRO: Mandal Revenue Officer
MLA: Member of the Legislative Assembly
MP: Madhya Pradesh
MP: Member of Parliament
NGO: Non-Governmental Organization
OHR: Over-Head Reserve
OBC: Other Backward Class
PESA: Panchayat Extension to Scheduled Areas
PRS: Panchayati Raj System
SC: Scheduled Caste
x Abbreviations

SFC: State Financial Corporation

SHG: Self-Help Group
SRSP: Sri Ram Sagar Project
SSC: Secondary School Certificate
ST: Scheduled Tribe
TAC: Tribal Advisory Council
TDP: Telugu Desam Party
TRS: Telangana Rastra Samithi
TSP: Tribal Sub-Plan
UP: Uttar Pradesh
ZP: Zilla Parishad
ZPTC: Zilla Parishad Territorial Constituency Officer
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This page fulfils a moral obligation rather than the usual concern for
conventional politeness.
It is with profound feelings of respect that I wish to record my
indebtedness and deeply felt devotion to my research supervisor Prof. P.
Narendra Babu, Professor of Public Administration, Kakatiya University,
Warangal, for all his help, which enabled me to complete this work.
I am also grateful to my supervisor for his inexhaustible patience: he
has been the motivating force behind the completion of this thesis and I
would fail in my duty if I did not sincerely acknowledge his observations,
which illuminated many aspects of this study.
I express my since thanks to Prof. K. Seetharam Rao, Dean of the
Faculty of Social Science, Kakatiya University, for his encouragement.
I am grateful to Prof. R. Ram Reddy, Head of the Department of Public
Administration & HRM for extending his kind cooperation and help in
preparing this work.
I wish to express my sincere thanks to Prof. P. Sambaiah, Chairman of
the Board of Studies, Department of Public Administration & HRM, for
extending his cooperation and help in preparing this work.
I owe sincere thanks to Prof. G. Srinivas Reddy (Rtd.), Prof. Ch.
Balaramulu (Rtd.), Prof. V. Shobha (Rtd.), Prof. B. Prabhakar Rao, Prof.
P. Narsimha Rao, Prof. M. Vidyasagar Reddy, Prof. T. Satyanarayana,
Prof. K. Chokkaiah, Prof. T. Yadagiri Rao, Assistant Professor Dr. G.
Pani, Assistant Professor Dr. T. V. Sujatha Kumari, Assistant Professor
Dr. P. Srinivas Rao, Department of Public Administration & HRM,
Kakatiya University, for their help and encouragement in pursuing my
research.
I wish to express my sincere thanks to Prof. G. Rameshwaram,
Department of Public Administration & HRM, Kakatiya University, for
his constant support and cooperation in completing my research.
I express my sincere thanks to Dr. A. Vijay Kumar, Lecturer in the
Department of Public Administration, Government Women’s Degree &
P.G. College at Vaddepally, Hanamkonda, for his help and encouragement
in pursuing my research.
xii Acknowledgements

I am extremely grateful to K. Kishore Kumar, Assistant Professor,

Department of Computer Science, University College of Engineering,
Kakatiya University, for his moral support in pursuing my research work.
I extend my sincere thanks to the district panchayat officers and
mandal parishad development officers for providing me the information
used in this study.
I owe sincere thanks to the University Grants Commission, New Delhi,
for sanctioning funds through the Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship for
this research.
I am grateful to Md. Shahabuddin, Sri. T. Vinay Kumar, Sri. M. Gopal,
Smt. Sharadha, and the non-teaching staff of the Department of Public
Administration & HRM for their support.
I would like to give my sincere thanks to the authorities of: the
university library at Kakatiya University; the university library at the
University of Hyderabad; the National Institute of Rural Development at
Hyderabad; the university library at Osmania University, Hyderabad; the
Tribal Research Center, Hyderabad; and the university library, Andhra
University, Viskhapatnam; who readily consented to my requests for
permission to consult their records and relevant material.
It is a great pleasure to express my sincere thanks to my friends Mabbu
Satyanarayana, J. Rajashekar, D. Kumar, Dr. K. Saidi Reddy, Dr. V.
Nagaraju, D. Bala Show Reddy, Bykani Sravan Kumar, Assistant
Professor Department of Social Work, for their moral support and
encouragement in completing this academic endeavor.
Lastly, I wish to express my hearty thanks to my late parents Smt.
Manikyamma and Sri. Pentaiah, and my sisters Smt. Yadamma and Smt.
Mallamma. I am indebted to my beloved wife Smt. Jyothi for her
neverending patience, gentle encouragement, and kind technical
assistance. My hearty gratitude towards my loving son Mr. Sai Bharadwaj.

Komuraiah Palamakula
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, I address the status and position of the village

panchayat (council) in India during the ancient, medieval, British, and
modern periods. Furthermore, this chapter discusses the constitutional
provisions meant for tribal communities and the political tribal reservation
system, particularly at the grassroots levels of the panchayati raj
institution.
India has a large tribal population: second in the world after the
continent of Africa. There are 537 different tribal communities spread all
over India. According to the 2001 census, tribal people constitute roughly
8 percent of the nation’s total population, i.e. more than 84 million people.
Tribal people are particularly numerous in the Indian states of Orissa,
Bihar, and Jharkhand; and in northeastern states such as Mizoram and
Nagaland. They are officially recognized by the Indian government as
Scheduled Tribes (ST) in Schedule V of the Constitution of India. They
are often grouped together with Scheduled Castes (SC) in the category
Scheduled Castes and Tribes, which makes them eligible for certain
affirmative action measures.
Scheduled Tribes differ considerably from other Indian ethnicities in
terms of language, culture, beliefs, myths, and customs. These groups
speak about 150 different languages and 225 subsidiary languages. The
areas inhabited by tribal communities constitute a significant part of the
under-developed areas of India. Tribal people mostly live in isolated
villages or hamlets while a smaller number has now settled in permanent
villages, towns, and cities.
In India, there is a band of tribal population stretching across the
Himalayas through Jammu and Kashmir, then Himachal Pradesh and
Uttaranchal in the West of Assam, and Manipur and Nagaland in the
northeast. In the northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Mizoram, and Nagaland, about 90 percent of the population is tribal.
However, in the remaining northeastern states of Assam, Manipur, Sikkim,
and Tripura, tribal people account for between 20 to 30 percent of the
population. Another area of concentration covers the hilly areas of central
2 Chapter I

India (Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and, to a lesser extent,

Andhra Pradesh), bounded by the Narmada river to the north and the
Godavari river to the southeast. Tribal people occupy the slopes of the
region’s mountains. Other tribal peoples, including the Santals, live in
Jharkhand and West Bengal. Central Indian states have the country’s
largest tribes and taken as a whole roughly 75 per cent of India’s total
tribal population (although this accounts for only around 10 percent of the
region’s 84,326,240 inhabitants). There are smaller numbers of tribal
people in Karnataka, Tamilnadu, and Kerala in southern India; in Gujarat
and Rajasthan in western India; and in the union territories of
Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. About one percent of
the population of Kerala and Tamilnadu are members of tribes compared
to about six percent in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.1
Andhra Pradesh is the traditional home of 33 tribal groups that are
classified as Scheduled Tribes. Their total population according to the
2001 census is 5,024,104. Out of these 33 tribal groups, 30 inhabit the
forest ranges and ghats of the districts of Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, East
Godavari, West Godavari, Khammam, Warangal, Adilabad, Mahabubnagar,
and Kurnool.
The traditional location of the tribal communities of Andhra Pradesh
lies close to the tribal areas of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra
on the northeastern borders of Andhra Pradesh. Unlike the strategic tribal
areas of the Eastern Ghats, the Godavari Gorges and Nallamalai Hills are
generally peaceful areas and the tribal people living in these regions are
generally docile. However, despite their meekness there have been several
outbreaks of violence among tribal groups in Andhra Pradesh as a result of
incessant and ruthless exploitation and illegal activity.2
There are about 33 tribes, including: the Andhra Pradesh Koya;
Banjara/Lambada; Konda Reddy; Gond; Chenchu; Yerukala; Yanadi;
Savara; and Jatapu. There are exclusive tribal tracts in the northern areas
of the state and Telangana. The education level among these tribal
communities is extremely low and some tribes still live in a subsistence
economy. In agency areas, they are often subject to land theft, indebtedness,
and bonded labour. There is also a growing awareness among them of
their rights and they have organized themselves into associations to
campaign for better wages, secure constitutional guarantees, and protect
their customary rights.
Today, there are nearly 3.2 million tribal people and 5 million nomadic
people in Andhra Pradesh. They live along the coastal and mountain strip
of the Bay of Bengal from the Bhadragiri Agency in Srikakulam to the
Bhadrachalam Agency in Khammam and Godavari. From there this strip
 Introduction 3

stretches northeastwards to the Adilabad region. This tribal area is

contiguous to the tribal areas of Bastar, Dandakarnya, and Vidarbha. There
are about 33 kinds of tribal peoples in eight districts of Andhra Pradesh.
Important groups include the Khonds, Kolamis, Nayakpods, Koya,
Kondadoras, Valmikis, Bhagatas, Savaras, Jatapus, Gadabas, Yanadi, and
Chenchus.3
The panchayati raj system is often considered to be the most important
administrative system in independent India; however, it is a very ancient
institution and was already established at the time of the village republics.
This administrative system was first introduced by King Prithu when
colonizing the Doab between the Ganges and the Jamuna. In the
Manusmrithi and the Shanthi Parva of the Mahabharata, there are many
references to the existence of grama sanghas or rural committees. A
description of these rural committees is also found in the Arthasastra of
Kautilya, who lived around 400 B.C. In the Ramayana of Valmiki we read
about the Janapada, which was perhaps a federation of village republics.
An accountant of the village commonwealth during the seventeenth
century is found in Shukracharya’s Neetisara. In India, the ‘village’ has
been looked upon as the basic unit of administration since the earliest
Vedic times.4
The imperial British government and its ruthless methods of revenue
collection through the introduction of the Zamindari and Raytwari tenure
system, in opposition to the Mahalwari or village tenure system, paved the
way for the complete destruction of these ancient republics and turned out
to be a death blow to the tradtional corporate way of life they represented.
Local self-government has its origins in Lord Rippon’s famous
resolution of 1882 in which he recommended the subdistrict as the
smallest administrative unit; these Taluq or Tahisil were ordinarily placed
under the supervision of a local board. It should also be noted that from
1919, with the acceptance of the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms, until
1940, there was legislation relating to the establishment of village
panchayats covering a large part of the country, including the native
(princely) states. The British government adopted a policy of carrying out
local government and administration through officials of different
departments in the provincial governments at district level.
The dawn of independence provided a real opportunity to realize the
dream of democratic decentralization in India. These ideas were
incorporated in the ‘Directive Principles of State Policy.’ In this regard,
Article 40 of the Constitution of India confirmed a trend rather than
presaging a new initiative. During the first five year plan, these ideas
gained further impetus. By and large, the active participation and
4 Chapter I

involvement of people in the planning process, including plan formulation,

implementation and monitoring, remains a myth. This is despite the
myriad pronouncements in successive plan documents and in the policies
and programmes put forth by the central and state governments from time
to time.
At the outset, it should be pointed out that the genesis of the rural
institutions of local self-government was linked to the launching of
community development and national extension service programmes5
immediately after the enaction of planned economic development in India.
These programmes were viewed as ‘people’s programmes with
government participation.’ However, the various reviews of these programmes
have shown that popular participation was not forthcoming; this was even
less so among tribal folk in the countryside.
A number of national committees were set up with the intention of
integrating policy with community development and strengthening the
rural base for effective working of the panchayati raj system.
The launching of a nationwide community development programme
(1952) for the all round economic development of rural areas necessitated
an institutional mechanism that involved local communities in the
development process. The study team on community development and
panchayati raj, popularly known as the Balvant Ray Mehta Committee
(1957), recommended the establishment of a decentralized three-tier
panchayati raj system with the middle tier, the panchayat samiti, being the
key level in this scheme. The samiti’s jurisdiction was to be coterminous
with that of a Community Development Block, the members of which
were directly elected. This system envisaged that the panchayat samiti
together with the District Collector (responsible for revenue collection)
would constitute the zilla parishad (district council). The village panchayat
was to constitute the lowest level of this three-tier structure. Most states
enacted their legislation on the panchayati raj accordingly. While the
Balvant Ray Mehta pattern was generally followed in most states, there
was some local variation in accordance with local needs and perceptions.
For example, Maharashtra and Gujarat gave primacy to the district tier by
having strong zilla parishads with considerable administrative powers.
Nevertheless, the idea of decentralizing political and administrative
powers was promulgated by the decision makers.6
The Ashok Mehta Committee was set up to examine the entire issue
afresh. The committee’s report (1978) re-emphasized the importance of
the panchayati raj, but in a significant departure from the Balvant Ray
Mehta Committee’s suggestions, recommended a two-tier structure with
the zilla parishad at the district level and mandal parishads for groups of
 Introduction 5

villages with populations of 20,000 to 30,000, below the taluq level; the
zilla parishad remained the key level. It was also recommended that the
district should be the first point for decentralization, under popular
supervision, below state level, and favoured the official participation of
political parties at all levels of panchayati elections. Though no action
could be taken on the recommendations of the Ashok Mehta Committee at
the central level, three states, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka, took steps to revitalize the panchayati raj—keeping the zilla
parishad as the most powerful body and delegating substantial powers and
functions to panchayati raj institutions.
The committee appointed by the Planning Commission to review the
existing administrative arrangements for rural development (1985)
strongly recommended the revival of panchayati raj institutions and the
allocation of greater responsibility over the planning, implementation, and
monitoring of rural development programmes to them. It also suggested
delegating state planning functions to the decentralization planning unit at
district level.
The government of India constituted a committee (1986) under the
chairmanship of L. M. Singhvi to prepare a concept paper on the
revitalization of the panchayati raj system. The committee recommended
that the panchayati raj system should be constitutionally recognized,
protected, and preserved; and that constitutional provisions to ensure
regular, free and fair elections to panchayati raj institutions should be
made.7
The Constitution (73rd Amendment) Bill 1991 was introduced on
September 16, 1991 and subsequently referred to a joint select committee
of Parliament in December, 1991 for detailed examination. The joint select
committee presented its report to Parliament in July, 1992. The
Constitution (73rdAmendment) Bill was finally passed by the Lok Sabha
on December 22, 1992. Seventeen states ratified the act in record time.
The president of India accorded his assent on April 20, 1993 and the
Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 came into effect on April 24,
1993.8
The Andhra Pradesh Panchayati Raj Act 13 was enacted in March
1994. This is a single comprehensive act covering all three tiers of the
panchayati raj. It came into force on May 30, 1994. This new Act
contained all the relevant provisions of the 73rd Constitution Amendment
Act and brought about certain changes in the legislative framework.
Currently, there are 21,950 gram panchayats (GP—village councils) in
the state of Andhra Pradesh. Of these, only 1,332 are notified (6 percent)
GPs. The average population of each gram panchayat varies—from 1,826
6 Chapter I

in Srikakulam District to 3,460 in East Godavari District. The average

population of a gram panchayat is 2,216. The number of gram panchayats
varies from 7,065 in Rangareddy District to 1,425 in Chittoor District. A
full-time executive officer for each notified gram panchayat is posted.
Depending upon its financial status, the executive officer may have a few
secretarial and civic staff. The government of Andhra Pradesh issued the
orders GO.Ms.No.369 PR &RS dated 12-12-2001 for the creation of a full
time panchayat secretary for all 21,950 gram panchayats. This came into
effect on January 1, 2002. She/he will handle both revenue and
development work under the overall control of each gram panchayat.
Thus, revenue and development functions have been combined in the
village secretariat to better deliver services to the people.9
So far, about 232,278 panchayats at the village level; 5,905 panchayats
at the intermediate level; and 499 panchayats at the district level have been
constituted nationally. These panchayats are manned by 2.92 million
elected representatives at all levels, of which one third are women. This is
the broadest representative base of any country in the world.10
The provisions of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas)
Act 40, 1996, came into force on December 24, 1996. The act extended
the panchayat system to tribal areas in nine states: Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and Rajasthan. The Act aims to enable tribal
societies to shape their own development and to preserve their traditional
rights over natural resources.
All states, barring Jharkhand, have enacted state legislation to give
effect to the provisions contained in Act 40, 1996 as mandated under the
central act. The central act provides a definition of ‘village’ and the
powers and functions of the gram sabha (village meeting)/panchayat in
Scheduled Areas. It prohibits panchayats at higher levels assuming power
and authority over panchayats at lower levels. According to the Act, the
powers of the gram sabha/panchayat at the appropriate level can be
divided into the following categories:

i) Mandatory powers;
ii) Consultative powers;
iii) Powers to be developed by the state government among the gram
sabha/panchayats to enable them to function as self-governing
institutions.11

Article 243 B of the Constitution defines a gram sabha as consisting of

all persons registered as voters on the electoral roll within the area of the
 Introduction 7

panchayat at village level. Article 243 A states that the gram sabha may
exercise such powers and perform such functions at the village level as the
legislature of a state may, by law, give them.12
The state governments of Bihar, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Orissa, Tamilnadu, and Uttar Pradesh have made it mandatory to hold
gram sabha meetings four times a year. In Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat,
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Manipur, Punjab, Rajasthan,
Sikkim, West Bengal, and Lakshadweep, gram sabhas must meet twice a
year; in Tripura a gram sabha meeting is held only once a year. Most state
governments and UTs (Union Territories) have prescribed a quorum for
gram sabha meetings. For instance, the governments of Bihar, Goa,
Karnataka, Manipur, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, and Tamilnadu, and the
UTs of Daman & Diu and Lakshadweep have fixed the quorum at one-
tenth of the total membership.13
Andhra Pradesh is home to 33 recognized Scheduled Tribes with a
population of about 5,024,000 according to the 2001 census. Apart from
those tribes living in the plains areas, like the Yerukala, Yanadi, and
Lambada, these tribal people mainly live in the hills and forest tracts of the
costal districts and Telangana region—these areas are contiguous with the
tribal areas of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra. Some of the
major tribal groups, like the Koya, Gond, Savara, Khond, Gadaba, Porja,
Bagata, and Kondadora, are found living on either side of the state
boundary. Some of the tribes, like the Konda Reddy and Chenchu, are
confined to Andhra Pradesh.
A reserved quota for women within the panchayati raj system has
paved the way for the entry of women into the political system. However,
if this is to be of value to women, it is critical that efforts are made to
actively include them at all levels of decision making and provide them
with the required information and knowledge to make them better planners
and representatives.14
Women’s empowerment reflects a certain level of critical consciousness
about external relations and an awareness of the ideas and belief systems
that have a bearing on their wellbeing in terms of gender and social
equality. It also refers to a state of determination to use one’s physical,
intellectual, emotional, and spiritual resources to protect and sustain pro-
equlity values at political and institutional levels. This definition identifies
the transformation of values as a core attribute that is vital to social
transformation in both the personal and public sphere.15
At the national level, after 65 years of independence there are still only
47 women representatives out of a total of 543. This is in spite of the fact
that the percentage of women wining elections is going up. At the village
8 Chapter I

level, in terms of sheer numbers, there are many more women that can be
mobilized to be effective leaders and work on issues untouched by men.
For that to happen, a political culture has to be developed that views
women as individuals capable of active governance, and not just as the
wives, daughters, or daughters-in law of politically powerful men.16

Objectives of this Study

1. To examine the status of tribal sarpanches in the state of Andhra
Pradesh in general, and in the district of Warangal in particular.
2. To review the existing literature on the political participation of tribal
groups in India and in the panchayati raj system.
3. To examine the historical background of tribal people in panchayati raj
elections in Andhra Pradesh.
4. To understand the socioeconomic background of these tribal sarpanches.
5. To evaluate the performance of sarpanches and tribal sarpanches in the
panchayati raj.
6. To draw relevant conclusions based on evaluation of the above.
7. To provide suitable suggestions for improving the existing system.

Hypothesis
This study proposes to examine the following hypotheses:

1. The importance of increasing political awareness among male and

female sarpanches from Scheduled Tribes.
2. That socioeconomic conditions define the level of political and
administrative awareness and participation among both.
3. That socioeconomic factors contribute to administrative awareness
both positively and negatively.
4. The reservation policy is helpful to tribal people in ensuring access to
political leadership.

Methodology
This study draws on primary and secondary sources. The secondary
data has been collected from books, journals, dissertations, government
reports, government orders and acts, newspapers, and internet sources. For
this purpose, the researcher consulted Kakatiya University Library; the
regional library for Warangal District; Warangal Central Library; Osmania
University Library, Hyderabad; Andhra University Library, Visakhapatnam;
 Introduction 9

University of Hyderabad Library, Hyderabad; and the Tribal Research

Centre, Hyderabad.
Primary data has been collected by the researcher at field level by
engaging with the sarpanches. The researcher has made a number of field
trips to tribal areas to acquire first-hand information concerning the tribal
sarpanches and related issues.

Limitations of the Study

This study was conducted in Warangal District, which consists of 50
mandals (subdistricts) in total. Of those 50 mandals, 24 mandals were
selected for study. Warangal District has two types of mandals: agency
and non-agency. Nine agency mandals and 15 non-agency mandals were
studied. 59 agency sarpanches and 41 non-agency sarpanches were
interviewed for a total of 100.
This study is confined to Warangal District in Andhra Pradesh.

1) This study is limited to the powers and functions of tribal

sarpanches in Warangal District.
2) This study is confined to an evaluation of the performance of tribal
sarpanches.

Layout
This study has been divided into the following eight chapters.

¾ The introduction deals with the historical evolution of the

panchayati raj system, the PESA, and the political status of tribal
groups in India.
¾ The second chapter provides a review of the literature on the
political status of the tribal and reservation system in India,
particularly in relation to the workings of the panchayati raj in
Andhra Pradesh.
¾ The third chapter offers an overview of the panchayati raj and tribal
panchayats.
¾ The fourth chapter offers a profile of Warangal District.
¾ The fifth chapter analyses the socioeconomic profile of the tribal
sarpanches.
¾ The sixth chapter addresses the performance of the tribal sarpaches.
¾ The seventh chapter offers some case studies.
¾ The eighth chapter offers conclusions and suggestions.
10 Chapter I

References
1. Mahanty, P.K. (2006). Encyclopedia of Scheduled Tribes in India in
Five Volume, Isha Books, Delhi. p.13.
2. Singh, K.S. (1983). Tribal Movements in India, Vol. 2. Manohar
Publications, New Delhi, p.353.
3. Mahanty, P.K. (2006). Encyclopedia of Scheduled Tribes in India.
Isha Books, Delhi, pp.65-67.
4. Johari, J.C. (1974). Indian Government and Politics. Vishal
Publications, Delhi, p.810.
5. Uma Joshi. (1995). “Panchayati Raj Institutions Grey Areas Galore:
Need for Time-Bound Tackling.” Kurukshetra, April, p.22.
6. Dubey, A.K. 1995. “Pancyhayat Raj: The Constitution Perspective.”
Kurukshetra, April, p.108.
7. Ibid., p.109.
8. Kurukshetra, June, 1993, p.29.
9. Singh, S.K. “Panchayati Raj in Finances in Andhra Pradesh.” Centre
for World Solidarity, Secunderabad, p.7.
10. Prakash Sharma Sanjay. (2006): Panchayati Raj. Vista International
Publishing House, Delhi, p.73.
11. Ibid., Pp.83-84.
12. Ibid., p.84.
13. Ibid., p.85.
14. Ibid., p.216.
15. Ibid., p.217.
16. Ibid., pp.218-219.
 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter offers a review of the literature on the status of tribal

groups and Andhra Pradesh. It is hoped that this serves the following
purposes:

1. It will be useful for researchers, social scientists, and those who are
interested in the field of tribal politics in India; and for policy
development in relation to the panchayat system.
2. It offers relevant background information.
3. It highlights various aspects and issues relating to the panchayati
raj system and tribal groups.
4. It aims to fill the gaps in the current research and help identify
areas for future research.

In his book Panchayati Raj in UP: Its Organization and Working

(1960),1 Bramaha Prakash Vaish discusses the historical background of
village panchayats in relation to the Uttar Pradesh Nationalist Movement
and the importance of rural problems in India, including: the constitution
and organization of the panchayati raj in UP; the working of the Gaon
panchayats; Nyaya panchayati; state control over panchayats; the work of
the panchayati raj in UP; abolition of the Zamindari system and village
administration; and village panchayats and five years plans.
N. R. Inamdar in Functioning of Village Panchayats (1970)2 outlines
the evolution of the Dehu ram panchayat; this panchayat was established
July 1922. He addresses the change in traditional patterns of administration
and the reorganizations of its wards.
B. C. Muthayya in “Panchayat Taxes, Factors Influencing their
Mobilization: A Study in Three Panchayats in East Godavari, Andhra
Pradesh” (1972)3 discusses: the different taxes collected by the
panchayats; the perception of existing conditions and the development of
the self and the village; awareness of changes; agricultural aspects;
awareness of panchayat bodies and related aspects; factors of group
12 Chapter II

formation; the perceived role of the respondent and the village; awareness
of functionaries and their perceived roles and functions.
In Panchayati Raj Administration in Maharaastra: A Study of
Supervision and Control (1974),4 Iqbal Narain highlights the main
supervisory systems in force in panchayati raj institutions. He also covers:
the Maharastra panchayati raj system; the different levels of administrative
methods; technical aspects of divisional supervision; the control
mechanisms of district level supervision; and financial supervision and
control.
Shivaiah in “Panchayati Raj: An Analytical Servant” (1976)5 covers a
number of key issues, including: the village movement; community
development and national development; the functions, structure, broad
patterns, trends, office-bearers, development, personnel, coordination,
supervision, control, resources, management, political processes, and
socioeconomic aspects of panchayats.
In “Panchayati Raj in Assam” (1976),6 S. P. Jain offers a study of the
panchayati raj (rural local government) in the state of Assam. This study
highlights the internal processes of one Mahkuma parishad, two Anchalik
panchayats, and a number of Gaon panchayats. A detailed examination is
made of the important aspects of these institutions: how they conduct their
business; their financial pattern, general working, and popular
participation.
In Educational Development Among Tribes: A Study of Sub-Plan
Areas in Andhra Pradesh (1976),7 K. Sujatha highlights the educational
and socioeconomic aspects of tribal sub-plan areas, including: popular
participation; accessibility; quality of education; types of educational
institutions; finance units; aspirations and attitudes; awareness of tribes;
teachers in tribal context; and management factors.
Patnaik Nityananda in “An Integrated Tribal Development Plan for
Keonjhar Distinct Orissa” (1976)8 focuses on different programmes in
Keonjhar District. In particular, the author focuses on: life and culture in
hill areas; economic factors in Jung villages; agricultural plans; animal
husbandry; social and industrial facilities; the transport system; domestic
and industrial electricity demand; and administrative structure and
personnel policy.
R. R. S. Mehta in Rural Leadership and Panchayat (1977)9 highlights:
the conceptual framework of the panchayati raj; the village community;
the authority of the panchayat allocation process; subordinate panchayats;
political socialization, village leadership, and intellectuals; village
panchayat structure; and functional village processes.
 Literature Review 13

In Working of Nyaya Panchayats in India: A Case Study of Varanasi

District (1977),10 R. Kushawaha mainly focuses on panchayat issues,
including the long history of the judicial concept of panchayats and Nyaya
panchayats, which dates back to the ancient past civilizations of South
Asia; and how panchayats and Nyaya panchayats were institutional modes
of self-government, through not always democratic. The judicial function
of the panchayats is not a new innovation and was perhaps the primary
function of the panchayats of ‘jati,’ ‘gram,’ or ‘janpad’ from time
immemorial. The author also covers the judicial framework, organizational
framework, and the election of Nyaya panchayats. The author offers an
analysis of the workings and achievements of Nyaya panchayats.
In Panchayati Raj System and Political Parties (1979),11 B. S.
Bhargava highlights: community and environmental issues; political
parties; the structural pattern of panchayati raj systems; emerging
institutional leadership; non-interference of political parties; attitudes,
politics and administration; and the legitimacy of the system.
In Tribal and Non-Tribal Intelligence (1980),12 R. R. P. Sinha
highlights that no significant difference has been found between the
intelligence of tribal and non-tribal people according to tests using the
Alexander performance scale. A gradual rise in the mean scores for
intelligence of both tribal and non-tribal people in the age-range of 10 to
20 years has been seen; intelligence test scores for literate and non-literate
non-tribals did not differ significantly.
In Theory of Local Government (1982),13 M. A. Muttalib focuses on:
the conceptual, ecological, social, economic, geographic, legal, political,
and administrative aspects of panchayats; popular participation; the
spurring of economic social transformation; the equitable distribution of
development; decentralized development through the cooperation theory
of the distribution of power; social structure and social harmony; local
government theory and philosophy; the committee system; the theory of
local executive and finance; local bureaucracy; and the autonomy control
continuum theory.
Narayan Sachindra in “Tribal Panchayats in Bihar” (1982)14 looks at
the panchayat system in tribal areas of Bihar—the Hath panchayat and the
Parha panchayat are two important institutions in the Munda polity. He
examines the traditional Munda panchayats where social sanctions and
constraints are usually found in place of rigid rules. The Parha panchayat
is an important institution in the tribal policy of Chota Nagapur—the
traditional panchayats suffered when landlords took control of affairs in
tribal villages through the statutory panchayat.
14 Chapter II

In Birsa Munda and His Movement 1874–1901: A Study of a

Millenarian Movement in Chota Nagapur (1983),15 K.S. Singh discusses
the Birsa Movement including: the making of a prophet; the political
movement; and the religious uprising led by Birsa.
L. Rajeshwar Rao in “Village Administration: A Study of the
Relationship between Village Patwari and Sarpanch” (1984)16 offers an
extremely comprehensive historical work on perceptions and attitudes
towards sarpanches and the patwari system in Telangana.
In “Village Administration: A Case Study of a Telangana Village”
(1985),17 D. Devarath examines: the situation of villages in ancient times;
village administration; the role of politics and officials in gram
panchayats; and the functioning of education and integrated rural
development programmes.
M. Vidayasagar Reddy in “Personnel Management in Panchayati Raj:
a Case Study” (1985)18 highlights the personnel system of the panchayati
raj, including: recruitment processes at different levels; training methods;
the system of promotion; and the progression from village to zilla
parishad.
Hasan Amir’s book on Tribal Administration in India (1988)19 covers:
the definition of ‘tribe’; the different tribes of Uttar Pradesh; tribal areas in
Uttar Pradesh; their community, religious, and social setup; and tribal
economies and administration in the study area.
K. P. Singh in Tribal Development in India: Programmes and
Implementation (1988)20 focuses on development programmes for
Scheduled Tribes in India. Almost all states have seen similar scenarios
and experiences regarding the implementation of tribal development
programmes. They can be characterized by certain institutional constraints
including: inadequacy in research; overly bureaucratic implementation; the
absence of administrative integration; a lack of tribal participation; and the
absence of inter-institutional linkages. These can only be addressed
through increasing tribal participation.
R. N. Pati and B. Jena in Tribal Development in India (1989)21 focus
on the various methods used in tribal development programmes, including:
economics; communication; welfare programmes; the displacement of
people for coal mines; the utilization of forest land; the traditional, shifting
cultivation system; cultural change; prsoblems facing tribal women; crime
within tribes; population and health problems; formal, informal, and adult
education; and tribal development.
Desai Vasant in Panchayati Raj: Power to the People (1990)22
discusses: the panchayat system in ancient times; different levels and
powerful functions of the panchayats; functions of the village council and
 Literature Review 15

headmen; village administration in the Mauryan state; and village

administration in the Gupta Age.
In “Tribal Women and Development: A Study of Welfare
Administration” (1991),23 K. Shantha Kumari examines: tribal development
welfare programmes, particularly post-independence; the free-market
exploitation of natural resources; and subsequent environmental
degradation and land alienation.
G. Veeranna in “Tribal Political Leadership: A Study of Lambada
Tribes in Warangal District” (1992)24 looks at Lambada political leaders,
including sarpanches, members of the legislative assembly, mandal
parished representatives, municipal councillors, the chairpeople for
various bodies, and ex-ministers. He offers an analysis of the
socioeconomic background and political leadership status of Lambadas in
Warangal District, Andhra Pradesh.
In Case Studies in Panchayati Raj (1992),25 published by the Indian
Institute of Public Administration, the writers focus on the connections
between officials and non-officials using development case studies
covering: water supply schemes; district panchayat plans; agricultural
development; primary health centres; small irrigation tanks; and the water
level of the Khar river.
N. Rajagopal Rao in Panchayati Raj: A Study of Rural Local
Government in India (1992)26 discusses the panchayat system in different
phases of its evolution, including: the panchayati raj; the gram swaraj; and
the evaluation of finance commissions at zilla and mandal levels.
In “Emerging Perspectives on Social Forestry and Tribal Development:
A Study of Alternative Policies of Fast Regeneration” (1993),27 T.
Krishnamurthy looks at tribal communities and forest policies in India. He
analyzes the introduction of the Indian forest system, the implementation
of the social forest system, and various programme in tribal villages.
Mathew George’s book Panchayati Raj: From Legislation to
Movement (1994)28 focuses on: the historical setting; national policy;
decentralization of legislative and constitutional support; the beginning of
the panchayat elections; the Chinese experiment with local self-
government; and women in the panchayati raj system.
G. Palanithurai in Empowering People for Prosperity: A Study in New
Panchayati Raj Systems (1994)29 highlights: the dynamics of
decentralization; the new panchayati raj system and women; operational
devices and popular perception; and the new phase of federalism in India.
The new system seeks growth and development rather than the provision
of services and infrastructure, such as drinking water facilities and
sanitation. A fundamental question remains as to whether governance at
16 Chapter II

the grassroots level can bring about development. The success of the
panchayati raj system depends on understanding the new dimensions of
the system.
S. K. Singh in his paper “Self-Governance for Scheduled Areas”
(1997)30 focuses on the empowerment of people through the management
of their own affairs. The 1996 Act extended the panchayat system to
scheduled areas and has widespread ramifications.
K. D. Gangrade in “Power to Powerless: A silent Revolution through
the Panchayati Raj System” (1997)31 highlights issues relating to the active
involvement and participation of rural people in their own management
and development. The revitalization of the panchayati raj system under
Rajiv Gandhi’s regime had some inadequacies: some components were not
in conformity with the 73rd Amendment; there were some issues with the
quota system; and successful implementation of the panchayti raj system
required effective land reform.
A study by S. S. Meenakshi Sundaram, “The 73rd Constitution
Amendment: A Case for Further Amendment” (1997),32 highlights the
Singhvi Committee Report on the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, the
joint select committee of parliament, rotation in respect of reserved seats,
and the recommendations of the Central Finance Commission.
In “The Gram Sabha: Gateway to Grassroots Democracy” (1997),33 S.
P. Jain discusses: the Rajni Kothari recommendations; the workings of the
gram sabha (village parliament); a lack of awareness about rights and
duties; the membership of the grama sabha; gram sabha meetings; the
relationship between the gram sabha and the gram panchayat; the role of
the sarpanch; panchayat, mandal parishad, and zilla parishad members; the
role of MLAs, MPs, and other non-officials in the gram sabha.
In “Aspects of Panchayat Finances: An Analysis of Panchayat Acts”
(1997),34 C. P. Vithal analyzes the financial resources and different taxes
in different states.
Y. V. Rao, in his field study “Function of Gram Sabha: A Study in
Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh” (1998),35 aims to bring out the
nature of formalism in a gram sabha. He also seeks to investigate and
analyze the gram sabha and its workings to achieve the objectives of rural
development through popular participation. The opportunity of
participating in the gram sabha, which is a major activity of the panchayat
administration, is an important phase in the process of self-education and
development. Unless the members learn to act properly, the gram sabha
can not be effective and decision making will be flawed.
Madhushree Seker and Nelson Charles in their paper “Reforms in
Tamilnadu: A perspective” (1998),36 adopt a descriptive methodology to
 Literature Review 17

understand the present system of local governance in the light of its

historical background. They argue that decentralised governance in
Tamilnadu still has a long way to go before it matures. Different attempts
to strengthen the system have remained quite superficial.
B. Venkaiah in “Democratic Decentralization and Panchayati Raj
Institutions: A Study with Special Reference to the 73rd Amendment”
(1999)37 looks at the evolution of the panchayati raj and the
implementation of reforms at the grassroots level.
A. Fernandes and P. Mukhopadhyay examine the historical context of
the panchayati raj system in Goa in their paper “Re-Designing Panchayat
Finances and Attitudes: A case study of Goa” (1999).38 The Goa model of
the panchayati raj is a single tier system with only village panchayats and
no provision for panchayat samities at the zilla parishad level.
Shyam Nand Singh in “Impact of Reservation Policies for Tribals in
India” (2000)39 looks at the impact of policies of preferential employment
adopted by the governments of India and various states to address the
social inequality of Scheduled Tribes.
K. Chokkaiah in “Tribes and Development Institution: A Case Study”
(2001)40 highlights post-independence tribal development and welfare
programmes in Warangal.
M. G. Ramakant Rao and Prashant K. Mathur in Policies and Politics
in Grassroots Administration (2001)41 focus on: grassroots administration;
bureaucracy and politics; empowerment through the panchayati raj system;
administrative evaluation; development parameters of welfare administration;
and optimization and management techniques.
In Panchayati Raj in India: Emerging Trends Across the States
(2002),42 R. P. Joshi and G. S. Narwani analyze: the Panchayati Raj 73rd
Constitutional Amendment Act; the panchyati raj system in tribal areas;
and the social, legal, and economic issues in these areas.
S. Venkataiah in “Women Leadership in Panchayati Raj Institutions: A
Study” (2003)43 covers various aspects including: the role of sarpanches,
ward members, and vice-sarpanches; the status, socioeconomics, political
background, leadership style, and performance of women in the
panchayati raj system.
Ajit Kumar in “Politics in Three Villages in Nagpur District” (2004)44
focuses on village politics and how the panchayati raj system has changed
since the 1960s.
Bandyopadhyay and Mukherjee in New Issues in Panchayati Raj
(2004)45 deal with aspects related to: the 73rd Constitutional Amendment
Act; grassroots expectations and organisation; representation and
reservations in Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, and Himachal
18 Chapter II

Pradesh; and the direct election of sarpanches and upa-sarpanches.

Parallel, alternative structures, responsibilities, and emerging trends and
challenges are also covered.
The edited work “Pioneering Dalit Women Sarpanches and Decentralised
Democracy in Haryana: Malady and Remedy” (2005),46 covers issues of:
illiteracy and lack of awareness; power, functions, and development
schemes; encroachment onto common land; poverty, social inequality, and
casteism; and internal educational factors.
Roy Dipen in Finances and Accounting of Panchayati Raj Institutions
in West Bengal (2005)47 looks at the role of the panchayati raj system in
development; the importance of government in terms of accounting
practices; the degree of democracy and security; and actual resource
mobilization.
“Village Panchayat and the State MNC Negotiations” (2005)48 by
Narayana Pradeep focuses on the opposition of villagers to a Coca-Cola
plant at Plachinmada, Kerala in terms of shifting attitudes towards global
capital, and the state and the village panchayat as protector of community
rights.
Nirja Gopal Jayal in his book Local Governance in India:
Decentralization and Beyond (2006)49 focuses on: different forms of
panchayat; rural power, bureaucracy, and poverty alleviation; the
decentralization of disease control programmes; and transparency,
accountability, and governance.
Rajit Sau in his paper “Scheduled Tribes Bill: for Whom and for
What” (2006)50 focuses on the Recognition of Forestry Rights Bill, 2006.
India has the largest number of tribal group and while some groups have
forest rights, others have none.
S. B. Verma and Y. T. Pawar in their edited book Rural Empowerment
Through Self-Help Groups, Non-Government Organizations, and
Panchayati Raj Institutions (2009)51 offer perspectives on: the emerging
role of gram sabhas in village development; the genesis of the gram sabha;
transparency and accountability; awareness among members; lack of
powers of delegation; traditional tribal rights; the acquisition of land;
mineral extraction; forest ownership; and managing village markets.